GR 9 - A - Teacher - Eng

1 18
1 2
.
H Periodic Table of the Elements He
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 No 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Element B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Transition Metal 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Metal
Metalloid La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Non-metal
Noble Gas
Lanthanide 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
.
Natural Sciences
Grade 9-A
CAPS
developed by
funded by
Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Foundation in partnership with Siyavula and volunteers.
Distributed by the Department of Basic Education

COPYRIGHT NOTICE
.
Your freedom to legally copy this book
You are allowed and encouraged to freely copy this book. You can photocopy,
print and distribute it as often as you like. You can download it onto your
mobile phone, iPad, PC or flashdrive. You can burn it to CD, email it around or
upload it to your website.
The only restriction is that you cannot change this version of this book, its cover
or content in any way.
For more information about the Creative Commons

Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-ND 3.0) license, visit:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/
This book is an open educational resource and you are encouraged to take full
advantage of this.
Therefore, if you would like a version of this book that you can reuse, revise,
remix and redistribute, under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
(CC-BY) license, visit our website, www.curious.org.za
AUTHORS' LIST
. This book was written by Siyavula with the help, insight and collaboration of volunteer
educators, academics, students and a diverse group of contributors. Siyavula believes
in the power of community and collaboration by working with volunteers and
networking across the country, enabled through our use of technology and online tools.
The vision is to create and use open educational resources to transform the way we
teach and learn, especially in South Africa.
Siyavula Coordinator and Editor

Megan Beckett
Siyavula Team
Ewald Zietsman, Bridget Nash, Melanie Hay, Delita Otto, Marthélize Tredoux, Luke
Kannemeyer, Dr Mark Horner, Neels van der Westhuizen
Contributors
Dr Karen Wallace, Dr Nicola Loaring, Isabel Tarling, Sarah Niss, René Toerien, Rose
Thomas, Novosti Buta, Dr Bernard Heyns, Dr Colleen Henning, Dr Sarah Blyth, Dr
Thalassa Matthews, Brandt Botes, Daniël du Plessis, Johann Myburgh, Brice Reignier,
Marvin Reimer, Corene Myburgh, Dr Maritha le Roux, Dr Francois Toerien, Martli
Greyvenstein, Elsabe Kruger, Elizabeth Barnard, Irma van der Vyver, Nonna Weideman,
Annatjie Linnenkamp, Hendrine Krieg, Liz Smit, Evelyn Visage, Laetitia Bedeker, Wetsie
Visser, Rhoda van Schalkwyk, Suzanne Grové, Peter Moodie, Dr Sahal Yacoob, Siyalo
Qanya, Sam Faso, Miriam Makhene, Kabelo Maletsoa, Lesego Matshane, Nokuthula
Mpanza, Brenda Samuel, MTV Selogiloe, Boitumelo Sihlangu, Mbuzeli Tyawana, Dr Sello
Rapule, Andrea Motto, Dr Rufus Wesi
Volunteers
Iesrafeel Abbas, Shireen Amien, Bianca Amos Brown, Dr Eric Banda, Dr Christopher
Barnett, Prof Ilsa Basson, Mariaan Bester, Jennifer de Beyer, Mark Carolissen, Tarisai
Chanetsa, Ashley Chetty, Lizzy Chivaka, Mari Clark, Dr Marna S Costanzo, Dr Andrew
Craig, Dawn Crawford, Rosemary Dally, Ann Donald, Dr Philip Fourie, Shamin Garib,
Sanette Gildenhuys, Natelie Gower-Winter, Isabel Grinwis, Kirsten Hay, Pierre van
Heerden, Dr Fritha Hennessy, Dr Colleen Henning, Grant Hillebrand, Beryl Hook,
Cameron Hutchison, Mike Kendrick, Paul Kennedy, Dr Setshaba David Khanye, Melissa
Kistner, James Klatzow, Andrea Koch, Grove Koch, Paul van Koersveld, Dr Kevin
Lobb, Dr Erica Makings, Adriana Marais, Dowelani Mashuvhamele, Modisaemang Molusi,
Glen Morris, Talitha Mostert, Christopher Muller, Norman Muvoti, Vernusha Naidoo,
Dr Hlumani Ndlovu, Godwell Nhema, Edison Nyamayaro, Nkululeko Nyangiwe, Tony
Nzundu, Alison Page, Firoza Patel, Koebraa Peters, Seth Phatoli, Swasthi Pillay, Siyalo
Qanya, Tshimangadzo Rakhuhu, Bharati Ratanjee, Robert Reddick, Adam Reynolds,
Matthew Ridgway, William Robinson, Dr Marian Ross, Lelani Roux, Nicola Scriven, Dr
Ryman Shoko, Natalie Smith, Antonette Tonkie, Alida Venter, Christie Viljoen, Daan
Visage, Evelyn Visage, Dr Sahal Yacoob
A special thanks goes to St John's College in Johannesburg for hosting the first planning
workshop for these workbooks and to Pinelands High School in Cape Town for the use
of their school grounds for photography.
To learn more about the project and the Sasol Inzalo Foundation, visit the website at:
www.sasolinzalofoundation.org.za
Table of Contents
Teacher's guide overview 12
Teacher's Guide Overview 12

Curious? Discover the possibilities! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Natural Sciences curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
How to use this workbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Get involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Life and living 22
1 Cells as the basic units of life 24

1.1 Cell structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2 Difference between plant and animal cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3 Cells in tissues, organs and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2 Systems in the human body 64

2.1 The digestive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2 The circulatory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3 The respiratory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4 The musculoskeletal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.5 The excretory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.6 The nervous system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.7 The reproductive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3 Human reproduction 96
3.1 Purpose and puberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2 Reproductive organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.3 Stages of reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4 Circulatory and respiratory systems 124

4.1 Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2 Gaseous exchange in the lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3 Circulation and respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5 Digestive system 162

5.1 A healthy diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.2 Digestion and the alimentary canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Matter and Materials 196
1 Compounds 198
1.1 Elements and compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
1.2 The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
1.3 Names of compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
2 Chemical reactions 228

2.1 Thinking about chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
2.2 How do we represent chemical reactions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.3 Balanced equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
3 Reactions of metals with oxygen 250

3.1 The reaction of iron with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.2 The reaction of magnesium with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
3.3 The general reaction of metals with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
3.4 The formation of rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
3.5 Ways to prevent rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4 Reactions of non-metals with oxygen 272

4.1 The general reaction of non-metals with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.2 The reaction of carbon with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.3 The reaction of sulfur with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.4 Other non-metal oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5 Acids, bases and the pH value 288

5.1 What is the pH value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.2 Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6 Reactions of acids with bases 308

6.1 Neutralisation and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6.2 The general reaction of an acid with a metal oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.3 The general reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide . . . . . . . . . 328
6.4 The general reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate . . . . . . . . . 333
7 Reactions of acids with metals 346

7.1 The reaction of an acid with a metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
A Assessment rubrics 366

A.1 Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
A.2 Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
A.3 Assessment Rubric 3: Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
A.4 Assessment Rubric 4: Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
A.5 Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
A.6 Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or Project . . . . . . . . . 372
A.7 Assessment Rubric 7: Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
A.8 Assessment Rubric 8: Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
A.9 Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
A.10 Assessment Rubric 10: Group work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Image Attribution 378

Teacher's Guide Overview
. the possibilities!
Curious? Discover
.
. . ...
VISIT Asking questions and discovering our world around us has been central to
Carl Sagan was an
human nature throughout our history. Over time, this search to understand our
astronomer,
natural and physical world through observation, testing and refining ideas, has
astrophysicist,
evolved into what we loosely think of as 'science' today. Key to this, is that
cosmologist, author,
science is a continuous revision in progress, it is a mechanism rather than a
science popularizer and
product, it is a way of thinking rather than a collection of knowledge, whose
science communicator.
driving force is not certainty in a truth, but rather being comfortable with
Watch one of his most
uncertainty, thereby cultivating curiosity.
pertinent messages for
However, as Carl Sagan famously said in 1994:
humanity here
bit.ly/1bbVDqg
"We live in a society absolutely dependent on science and technology,
and yet have cleverly arranged things so that almost no one
understands science and technology. That's a clear prescription for
disaster."
We need to replace fear of the unknown and the difficult with curiosity, as Marie
Curie said:
"Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the

time to understand more, so that we may fear less."
. We would like to instill this sense of curiosity and an enquiring mind in learners.
DID YOU KNOW? Science, technology, engineering and mathematics are not subjects to be
Marie Curie was a feared, rather they are tools to unlock the potential of the world around you, to
chemist and physicist create solutions to problems, to discover the possibilities.
famous for becoming
the first person to be
But, how do we practically do this in our classrooms? We would like this
awarded two Nobel
workbook to become a tool that you can use to do this. The theme for the
Prizes.
presentation of this content in Gr 7-9 Natural Sciences is 'Curious? Discover the
possibilities.' We have shown everyday science and objects with 'doodles' over
them to show how if you are curious, intrigued and investigate the world around
you, there are many possibilities for discovery. Sometimes these doodles are
science or technology related, and sometimes they are more fantastical and fun.
Learners should be inspired to discover, but also imagine the possibilities, as
Freeman Dysan said:
"The glory of science is to imagine more than we can prove."
Learners must be encouraged to 'doodle' themselves, take notes during your

class discussions, write down their observations, reflect on what they have
learned. They must not be afraid of drawing and writing in these books. Science
is also about being creative in your thinking.
We have aimed to present the content in an investigative, questioning way. At

the beginning of each chapter, the topics are introduced by asking questions to
which you will discover the answers as you go through the chapter. In teaching
learners to ask questions, make observations, think freely and creatively, they
12
will be rewarded. Although, possibly not every time - it requires patience and .
determination. Although your learners will be exploring science and the world TAKE NOTE
around us within a classroom context where assessment is integral, keep in
Albert Einstein
mind this idea from Claude Levi-Strauss, when instilling the ethos of science in
repeatedly did poorly at
your learners:
school, dropped out at
16 and failed his first
"The scientist is not a person who gives the right answers, but one university entrance
who asks the right questions." examinations. Every
child deserves a chance
to become someone,
Science is relevant to everyone. Scientific principles, knowledge and skills can sometime in some
be applied in creative and exciting ways to solve problems and advance our place.
world. It is not just a subject restricted to our classrooms, but reaches far
beyond, and within. Ultimately, we also want learners to embark on a personal
discovery and be curious about their own potential and possibilities for the
future.
Albert Einstein certainly did this when he observed:
"The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious - the

fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true
science."
.
The Natural Sciences curriculum
As learners enter the Senior Phase in their schooling, the focus is now purely on
Natural Sciences within this subject, and Technology is a separate subject.
However, there are close links between the content in both of these subjects as
they complement each other. The Natural Sciences curriculum also links to what
learners cover in Social Sciences and Life Orientation. Whether you are a
subject specialist teacher, or a class teacher, it is worthwhile to take note of
where Natural Sciences overlaps with and integrates with some of the other
subjects that learners are covering. .
VISIT
Organisation of the curriculum If you would like to see
what learners covered in
In the Natural Sciences curriculum, the knowledge strands below are used as a
Gr 4-6 with the
tool for organising and grouping the content.
Thunderbolt Kids, visit
Natural Sciences Knowledge Strands www.thunderboltkids.co.za
Life and Living

Matter and Materials
Energy and Change
Planet Earth and Beyond
These knowledge strands follow on from Gr 4-6. The strands also link into each
other, and these have been pointed out both within the learners' workbook and
here in the teachers guide.
We have also produced concept maps which show the progression of concepts
across the grades, within a strand, and how the build upon each other. These
concept maps are useful tools for teaching to see what learners should have
covered in previous grades, and where they are going in the future.
. .
Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 13

Allocation of teaching time
The time allocation for Natural Sciences is as follows:
• 10 weeks per term with 3 hours per week

• Grades 7, 8 and 9 have been designed to be completed within 34 weeks
• Terms 1 and 3's work will cover 9 weeks each with 3 hours (1 week)
allocated to assessment within each of these terms
• Terms 2 and 4's work will cover 8 weeks each, with 2 weeks allocated to
revision and examinations at the end of each of these terms
Below is a summary of the time allocations per topic in Grade 9. This time
allocation is a guideline for how how many weeks should be spent on each topic
(chapter).
Life and Living
Chapter Time allocation

1. Cells as the basic units of life 2 weeks
2. Systems in the human body 2 weeks
3. Human reproduction 2 weeks
4. Circulatory and respiratory systems 1.5 weeks
5. Digestive system 1.5 weeks
Matter and Materials

1. Compounds 1 week
2. Chemical reactions 1 week
3. Reactions of metals with oxygen 1.5 weeks
4. Reactions of non-metals with 1 week
oxygen
5. Acids, bases and pH value 1 week
6. Reactions of acids with bases 2 weeks
7. Reactions of acids with metals 0.5 weeks
Energy and Change

1. Forces 2 weeks
2. Electric cells as energy systems 0.5 weeks
3. Resistance 1 week
4. Series and parallel circuits 2 weeks
...
14 Teacher's guide overview

5. Safety with electricity 0.5 weeks
6. Energy and the national electricity 1 week
grid
7. Cost of electrical power 2 weeks
Planet Earth and Beyond

1. The Earth as a system 1 week
2. Lithosphere 2 weeks
3. Mining of mineral resources 2 weeks
4. Atmosphere 2 weeks
5. Birth, life and death of stars 1 week
We have provided a finer breakdown of the time into the number of hours to
spend on each section within a chapter in the Chapter overviews in the
Teacher's Guide. However, again, this is a guideline or suggestion and should be
applied flexibly according to circumstances in the classroom and to
accommodate the interests of your learners.
Specific aims
There are three specific aims in Natural Sciences which are covered in these
workbooks in the range of tasks provided and in the way the content is
presented.
Specific Aim 1: 'Doing Science'
Learners should be able to complete investigations, analyse problems and use

practical processes and skills in evaluating solutions.
There are many practical tasks within this workbook that provide the
opportunity to conduct investigations to answer questions using the scientific
method, to use scientific apparatus, instruments and materials and to develop a
range of process skills, such as observing, measuring, identifying problems and
issues, predicting, hypothesizing, recording, interpreting and communicating
information. The skills associated with each task in this workbook have been
identified in the chapter overviews in this Teacher's Guide.
Learners also need to be aware of the ethical concerns and values that underpin
any science work that they do, as well as health and safety precautions. Where
appropriate, these have been pointed out in the learners workbook and in this
Teacher's Guide.
Specific Aim 2: 'Knowing the subject content and making connections'
Learners should have a grasp of scientific, technological and environmental

knowledge to be able to apply it in new contexts.
In teaching and discovering the content in Natural Sciences, the aim for learners
is not to just recall facts, but to also use the knowledge to make connections
between the ideas and concepts in their minds. Most of the activities in this
workbook have questions at the end which aim to consolidate the knowledge
and skills learned in the task, and also help learners to make connections with
what they have previously learned.
There are many opportunities for discussion when going through the content in
these workbooks. This is often highlighted in the Teacher's Guide with
suggestions for how to lead the discussion and what questions to ask your
. .

learners to stimulate their minds and create links between what they are
learning. There are often questions within the learners' workbooks which relate
what they are learning at that point to previously acquired knowledge and
experience.
Many of the links between content and also between strands and grades are
pointed out within this Teacher's Guide. We suggest also making use of the
concept maps when creating a clear picture in your own mind of the framework
of knowledge that learners should have up to that point about a particular topic.
Specific Aim 3: 'Understanding the uses of Science'
Learners should understand the uses of Natural Sciences and indigenous

knowledge in society and the environment.
There is a strong emphasis in these workbooks to show that science is relevant

to our everyday lives, and it is not restricted to what we learn within the
classroom. Rather, we are learning about the natural and physical world around
us and how it works, as well as how our own bodies function.
These workbooks aim to show learners that many of the issues in our world can
be solved through scientific discovery and pursuit. For example, improving
water quality, conserving our environment, finding renewable energy sources
and medical research into cures for diseases. Where appropriate, the history of
various scientific discoveries and inventions, as well as the scientists involved,
have been discussed.
These workbooks also aim to highlight the beauty, diversity and scientific
achievements, discoveries and possibilities in our country, South Africa. An
appreciation of local indigenous knowledge is very important. When going
through particular topics in class, encourage your learners to talk about their
own experiences so that learners are exposed to the indigenous knowledge of
different cultures, to different belief systems and worldviews.
Understanding how scientific discovery has shaped and influenced local and
. global communities will enable learners to see the connections between Science
VISIT
and Society. This will help to reinforce that Science is practical and relevant,
Learn more about Creative and it can be used as a tool together with other subjects like Mathematics and
Commons licenses and all Technology to find solutions and understand our world.
the freedoms that these
licenses grant you! .
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How to use this workbook
We would like these Curious workbooks and Teacher's Guides to become a tool
for you in your classrooms to teach, explore and discover Natural Sciences.
But first, did you notice the copyright license at the front of this book? At
Siyavula, our textbooks and workbooks are published under an open copyright
license.
An OPEN license?
An open license is fundamentally different to the traditional closed copyright
licenses. Instead of imposing restrictions on how you can use this content (for
example, all rights reserved), this open license grants you freedoms! The
Siyavula books are published under a Creative Commons license.
You are legally allowed to copy this book.
We encourage you to photocopy it, download it from our website, save it on

your mobile phone, tablet, PC or flashdrive, print it and distribute it as often as
you like.
...

But, how does that help? This is part of a larger, global movement called open .
education. These books are an example of an open educational resource VISIT
(OER). OERs are generally defined as freely accessible, usually openly licensed Watch this video to learn
documents and online resources that can be used in teaching, learning, more about why open
education, assessment and research. Open education aims to break the barriers education matters.
that many people face when wanting to get an education, namely that content, bit.ly/17yW5Lj
courses and resources are hidden behind restricting closed copyright licences
and are expensive.
By using this book, you are also part of the global open education movement,
striving to make education as accessible as possible by breaking down the
barriers that learners, student, teachers, academics and the general public
normally face.
With OERs, you are free to:
• Reuse - the right to reuse the content in its unaltered form

• Revise - the right to adapt, adjust, modify, or alter the content itself (for
example if you want to modify an activity to suit your learners' needs o
translate the content into another language)
• Remix - the right to combine the original or revised content with other
content to create something new (for example if you want to include one
of your own activities or content into this existing content)
• Redistribute - the right to share copies of the original content, your
revisions, or your remixes with others (for example if you want to give a
copy to a friend, a fellow teacher or share what you have done with your
cluster of schools)
We encourage you to modify and tweak this content to suit your learners and
your context. You just need to attribute Siyavula, as is specified in the Creative
Commons license.
You can download a soft copy of the source files for these books from our
website: www.curious.org.za
We would also love it if you told us how you are using this content as it helps us
refine our processes.
Structure of the book

There is an A and a B book for the Natural Sciences content.
The A book covers term 1 and 2:
• Life and Living

• Matter and Materials
The B book covers terms 3 and 4:
• Energy and Change

• Planet Earth and Beyond
These books are an amalgamation between workbooks and textbooks. They

have spaces for learners to write and draw whilst completing their tasks.
Learners must be encouraged to write in these books, take notes, and make
them their own. These workbooks also contain the content to support the
various tasks. This makes these books slightly longer than usual.
The beginning of each chapter starts off with KEY QUESTIONS. These introduce
the content that will be covered in the chapter, but rather phrased as questions.
This reinforces the idea of questioning, being curious and the investigative
nature of science to discover the world around us and how it works.
. .

. The content and various ACTIVITIES and INVESTIGATIONS follow:
TAKE NOTE
• Investigations are those tasks where learners will be using the scientific
A suggestion is to use method to answer a question, test a hypothesis, etc. These are science
the concept maps as a experiments.
self-study homework • Activities are all other tasks where the learner is required to do something
exercise for learners to whether it is making a model, researching a topic, discussing an idea, doing
go over what they have calculations, filling in a table, doing a play, writing a poem, etc.
learned in the chapter.
At the end of each chapter there is a SUMMARY, where the KEY CONCEPTS
highlight the main points from the chapter. Following this, there is a CONCEPT
MAP for each chapter. One of the aims for these workbooks is to also teach
various methods of studying and taking notes. Producing concept maps is one
way to consolidate information. Throughout the year, the skill of making
concept maps will be taught as the maps have more and more for the learners
to fill in themselves as the year progresses.
Lastly, there is REVISION at the end of each chapter. There are mark allocations
for these questions. These revision exercises can be used as formal or informal
assessment.
At the end of each strand there is a GLOSSARY which contains the definitions
for all the NEW WORDS which are highlighted throughout that strand.
Going through the content

These workbooks are a tool for you to use in your classroom and to assist you in
your teaching. You will still need to plan your lessons and decide which
activities you would like to do. there are sometimes more activities provided
than what is possible within the time allocation. We have specifically done this
to give teachers a choice, providing different levels of tasks.
The tasks which are suggested in CAPS have been identified here in the
teachers guide, and we have marked those that are optional or extensions.
When going through the content in class and you are using the workbook, there
are various questions within the content. These questions are aimed at
stimulating class discussions where learners can take notes, or they link back to
what learners have already done. The answers are provided in the Teacher's
Guide. Use these questions to check learners understanding and keep engaged
with the content.
The various activities and investigations often contain questions at the end. The
questions can often be used as a separate activity, even the next day in class or
as homework, to reinforce what was learned.
Teacher's notes
The way this Teacher's Guide is structured to provide the content of the
learner's book, but with all the model solutions written in italic blue text, and
with many Teacher's notes embedded within the content.
An example of a teacher's note:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is an example of what a teacher's note
. looks like. It can contain:
• chapter overviews
• suggestions on how to introduce a topic
...

• guidelines for setting up or demonstrating a practical task
• general tips for teaching the content
• extra background information on a .topic
• misconceptions which can easily be introduced to learners, or which
learners might already have
At the beginning of each chapter, there is a CHAPTER OVERVIEW. This is

crucial for your planning. This overview contains:
• the number of weeks allocated to the chapter, as suggested in CAPS

• an introduction to the chapter, highlighting any links to previous content
that learners have already covered, or anything to be aware of when going
through the content
• tables highlighting the various tasks for the chapter
The tables for each section can be used to plan your lessons. We have
suggested an hours break down to spend on each section within the chapter,
based on how much content there is to cover, and the number of tasks. This is
only a suggested guideline.
Within each table, we have listed the different Activities and Investigations and
the process skills associated with each task.
The third column contains the Recommendation for the task. These
recommendations are, in order of priority:
• CAPS suggested (a task suggested in CAPS)

• Suggested (a task we suggest doing doing, but is not suggested in CAPS)
• Optional (an additional activity which is optional if you have time or would
rather do this than the other suggested tasks)
• Extension (an additional activity which is optional and also an extension)
An example of one of these tables is given below:
1.1 Cell structure (2.5 hours)
Tasks Skills Recommendation

Activity: Brainstorm the Recalling information Optional (Revision)
Seven Functions of Life
Activity: Summarise what Recalling information, Suggested
you have learnt identifying, writing
Activity: Cell 3D model Planning, identifying, CAPS suggested
describing
You will need to look at how many hours you have for each section, and then
decide which tasks you would like to do with your learners. These tables
provide a useful overview and will also help you choose tasks so that you cover
a range of process skills and specific aims.
Assessment
The assessment guidelines for Gr 7-9 Natural Sciences are outlined in CAPS on
page 85.
There are many opportunities for informal assessment within these workbooks.
Any of the tasks can be chosen to continuously monitor your learners' progress
as well as checking the short answers they provide to questions interspersed in
the content.
. .

At the end of each strand in the CAPS document, there is a section on
assessment guidelines. There is a column entitled 'Check the learner's
knowledge and that they can:' and there is a list. These items are included
within the content for that strand and can be used for assessment.
The questions in the revision exercises at the end of each term can be used as
formal assessment and you can use these questions, as well as your own, to
make class tests and examinations.
At the end of the Teacher’s Guide, there is an appendix with Assessment

Rubrics. These rubrics are a guideline for assessment for the different tasks
which you would like to assess, either informally (to assess learners’ progress)
or formally (to record marks to contribute to the final year mark).
. The various rubrics provided are:
NEW WORDS
• Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity
• cell
• atom • Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
• energy • Assessment Rubric 3: Graph
• telescope
• Assessment Rubric 4: Table
• Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing
• Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or project
• Assessment Rubric 7: Model
• Assessment Rubric 8: Poster
• Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation
• Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
Margin boxes
You may have already noticed some of the margin boxes in this Teacher's Guide
overview so far. These boxes contain additional information and enrichment.
The NEW WORDS highlight not only the new words used, but also the key
words for the chapter or section. The definitions for all these new words are
listed in the glossary at the back of the strand.
DID YOU KNOW has some fun, interesting facts relating to the content.
TAKE NOTE points out useful tips, with a special focus on language usage and
the origins of words. This may be useful to second language learners.
The VISIT boxes contain links to interesting websites, videos relating to the
content or simulations. This enrichment is also aimed to encourage learners to
be curious about their subject in their own time by discovering more online. We
feel it is important for learners to be aware that science is a rapidly advancing
field and there are many exciting, innovative and useful discoveries being made
all the time in science, mathematics and technology research.
To access the links in the VISIT boxes, you will see there is a bit.ly link. This is a
shortened link that we created, as sometimes the website links to Youtube
videos can be very long! You simply need to type this whole link into the
address bar in your internet browser, either on your PC, tablet or mobile phone,
and it will direct you to the website or video.
For example, in this Teacher's Guide overview, there is the link to a video about
why open education matters. It is bit.ly/17yW5Lj Simply type this into your
address bar as shown below and press enter.
...

This will either direct you to a website page, or to our website where you can
watch the video online.
Discover more online at www.curious.org.za
.
Get involved
When we first embarked on this journey to create these books, our first step
was to hold a workshop with volunteer teachers to get their perspective,
suggestions and experience. Just turn to the front cover of this book to see how
many people contributed in some way to these books! At Siyavula, we believe
in openness and transparency and we would love your input in the next phase.
These books are not perfect and we will be continuously improving them. We
would find your input and experience as a teacher crucial and highly beneficial
in this process.
• Do you have any feedback about the books?

• Do you have suggestions?
• Would you like to share how you use these books in your classroom?
• Have you found any errors you would like to point out so we can fix them?
• Have you tried an activity and found a better way of doing it?
• What more would you like to see in these workbooks?
Get involved and let us know!
Find out more about our Siyavula Community at

projects.siyavula.com/community
And sign up by following this link bit.ly/15eiA6u. Specify Gr 7-9 Natural

Sciences to stay informed about this process going forward in the future.
. .

SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider L&L DBE A4.indd 1 2013/12/11 4:03 PM
SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider L&L DBE A4.indd 2 2013/12/11 4:03 PM
1 Cells as the basic units of life
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
2 weeks
This chapter introduces learners to the cell. They may have encountered the cell
before, but here we will look at the structure of cells, including the organelles
common to most eukaryotic cells. We will also look at the differences between
plant and animal cells. Later we look at the hierarchical organisation of cells into
tissues then into organs then into systems and then into an organism. Some
information has been included on specialised cells. This was thought to be
important to introduce the idea of a biological structure being adapted to its
function to ensure functional efficiency. To be able to describe and explain how
a structure is adapted to its perform its functions is an important skill in Life
Sciences, especially if learners carry on with the subject in Gr. 10-12. This is an
ideal opportunity to start practicing and also to realise that there is huge variety
in the types, sizes, and shapes of cells depending on their function.
Learners also have to make a 3D model of a cell in this chapter. This activity
may be treated as a project. A suggestion is to turn to this activity at the start
so that learners are aware of this and can start thinking about their models at
home and what they could use to make them as you are going through the
content and learning about the cell. You could then set a deadline for the
model, for example one week after you finish this chapter (ie. three weeks then
.
from when you start the chapter), for them to have completed their models.
IMPORTANT NOTE
1.1 Cell structure (2.5 hours)

Activity: Brainstorm
Recalling information,
the Seven Functions Optional
listing
of Life
Activity: Summarise Recalling information,
Suggested
what you have learnt identifying, writing
1.2 Differences between plant and animal cells (2 hours)

Activity: Identify
Comparing,
differences between
identifying, describing, CAPS suggested
plant and animal
writing
cells
Activity: Comparing
plant and animal Comparing, describing CAPS suggested
cells
Activity: Cell 3D Planning, constructing,
CAPS suggested
model identifying, describing
24
1.3 Cells in tissues, organs and systems (1.5 hours)

Activity: Evaluating Examining, observing,
CAPs suggested
microscopic images comparing
Activity: Making a Preparing and
wet mount with .
examining specimens,
CAPS suggested
onion and cheek observing, recording,
cells writing
Activity: Research
the discovery of
Researching, writing CAPS suggested
light and electron
microscopes
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What are cells?
• Why are cells so small?
• What does it mean to be microscopic?
• Are there different types of cells?
• What is inside a cell and why is it there?
• Are plant and animal cells the same?
In this chapter we will learn about the basic units of life which enable all of
functions within living organisms - cells.
.
1.1 Cell structure
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This website has many interesting articles about science and science-related
jobs. They have been classified according . to topics and also provide tips on
how to incorporate the articles into your classroom and what questions to ask.
If you are interested in incorporating real world science into your classroom, this
is one website to start looking at: 1 bit.ly/13ZkfNQ
What are cells?

All living organisms, including plants, animals, bacteria and fungi, are made up
of cells. Cells are the smallest parts of all living organisms.
If we look at all the living organisms in the world we see that there are two main
types of organisms based on the structures of their cells. The most important
difference in structure is the presence of a nucleus. Cells that contain a nucleus
are classified as eukaryotic cells, while those without a nucleus are prokaryotic
cells. In this chapter we will specifically look at eukaryotic cells that make up
organisms such as plants and animals. Examples of organisms with prokaryotic
cells are bacteria.
. .
Chapter 1. Cells as the basic units of life 25

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In Gr. 7 CAPS, learners would have learnt
. about the classification system of
organisms into the 5 kingdoms, namely; Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants and
Animals. This is a good opportunity to remind learners of this and ask them if
they remember what the 5 kingdoms are.
We can say that cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living
organisms. You cannot see individual cells with the naked eye, because they are
too small - you need to use a microscope to be able to see cells. We say cells
are microscopic because they can only be seen under a microscope.
Robert Hooke was the first cytologist to

identify cells under his microscope in 1665.
He decided to call the microscopic shapes
that he saw in a slice of cork "cells" because
the shapes reminded him of the cells
(rooms) that the monks in the nearby
monastery lived in.
Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703)
ACTIVITY: Brainstorm the Seven Functions of Life

.
Do you remember the test you learnt about in previous grades to decide
whether an organism is living or non-living? Perhaps you had an mnemonic to
remember the seven processes, such as "MRS GREN".
1. Work in your group and see how many of the seven functions of life you
can remember. Write them down below.
Movement .
Respiration
Sense
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
Nutrition
2. Do you think that an individual cell is living? Explain your answer.
Cells are the smallest unit of life and are therefore living.
...
26 Life and living

TAKE NOTE
.
In this section you'll often
TEACHER'S NOTE
read the prefixcyto- as in
This is a chance for learners to express their opinion. As we have not yet learned cytoplasm,.cytosol or
about cells in any great detail, they might .. not yet agree with the fact that an cytoskeleton. Cyto- means
individual cell is living. Allow learners to express their opinions and justify them. 'cell' so if you read
You can also come back to this question at the end of the chapter and reflect on cytoskeleton it actually says:
the answers to see if the learners might have changed their minds. 'cell-skeleton'.
.
.
TAKE NOTE
The Visit boxes in the
margins contain links to
Robert Hooke was the first to use the term .
interesting websites and
'cell' when he studied thin slices of cork videos. Simply type the link
with a microscope. exactly as it is into the
Robert Hooke's microscope that he used to
address bar in your browser.
first view cells.
Different types of cells
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As an entry point to this section, you may. want to use these types of questions
to ask at the start of the lesson: Do you think all cells are the same? If they are
not the same, can you think of reasons why they differ or how they might differ?
Discuss your thoughts with the class.
Your body is made up of many different kinds of cells. We say your cells are
specialised to perform a specific function. Depending on the function of the
cell, it can be specialised by having a different shape or size or may have some
components which other cells do not have. Have a look at the differences
between nerve cells and red blood cells in the images.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask your learners to describe the differences
. in shape between the nerve cells
and the red blood cells in the images. Take note however, that the images have
been coloured in afterwards - these are not the real colours of the cells, so
learner must not say that nerve cells are green, etc.
. .

As an extension ask them how they think the shape helps with the function of
the cells. Describing how the structure of a particular biological component is
suited to (adapted to) its function (ie. functional efficiency) is a very important
skill in Life Sciences and should be developed from early on. You can give brief
descriptions of the function of the cells:
• Nerve cells transmit (send) messages . throughout the body from the brain
to perform functions. So the fact that nerve cells are elongated (like long
thin wires) and branched, helps them to send these messages over long
distances and make connection with many other cells.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. Their
shape is adapted to carry oxygen and pass easily through very narrow
capillaries to get to the individual cells. Red blood cells also do not have a
nucleus so that there is more space for oxygen to be transported.
These nerve cells appear green under a Red blood cells have a round, biconcave
fluorescence microscope. shape.
Even though there are many different types of cells, there are components of
the cell structure which are common to all cells. There are also some structures
which most, but not all, cells have. Let us take a look at this in the next section.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As an introduction to the cell organelles .teachers might want to show learners
one or two of the YouTube songs included in the margin. They offer a fun
entry-point into this topic.
Cell Structure
As we have mentioned before, all cells have some common structures. These
are:
• a cell membrane
• cytoplasm; and
• in most eukaryotic cells, a nucleus
Let's now have a look at the structure of these components of the cell, and
some of the other organelles common to cells. An organelle is a specialised
structure within the cell that performs a function for the cell. Examples of
organelles in cells are vacuoles and mitochondria. Look at the diagram which
identifies the different components in a simple animal cell.
...
28 Life and living

VISIT
Videos about the cell and
.
cell organelles.
bit.ly/14k3Q5S and
bit.ly/19bsCKt
TAKE NOTE
If something is 'permeable',
. that
then it means
substances, such as gases
and liquids, can pass
through it freely.
A drawing of a typical animal cell
Cell membranes
TAKE NOTE
All cells have a cell membrane around them. The cell membrane is a thin layer
that encloses the cell's contents and separates the cell from its environment. In Natural Sciences we speak
of a medium when we talk
Many different substances have to pass in and out of a cell in order for it to about a solution in which
function. The cell membrane controls which substances are allowed to enter .
organelles, cells or organs
and leave the cell. We say the cell membrane is selectively permeable. The are grown or suspended.
organelles are also surrounded by membranes. Can you think of other
meanings for the word
. medium?
TEACHER'S NOTE
In order to explain the idea of 'selective permeability', you could use the
analogy of a gate and security wall around someone's home - explain that only
certain people get access to a private home. and the gate serves to deny access
to undesirable people. Also waste products in the form of garbage bags are put
outside the perimeter fencing to be removed and food and water is allowed to
enter. As with viruses and diseases, thieves and criminals can however still
penetrate the home's defences and will then attack the owners/cell organelles.
Cytoplasm
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The cytoplasm is often referred to as the. jelly-like substance within cells. This is
only partly true as the cytoplasm actually consists of the jelly-like substance
(called cytosol) and all the cell organelles (except the nucleus). The term for
the combined cytoplasm (cytosol + organelles) and the nucleus (containing
. .

nucleoplasm) is protoplasm. You should be aware of this when introducing the
.
cytoplasm to learners so that this misconception can be avoided later on in their
school career.
The cytoplasm includes all living parts of the cell within the cell membrane, but
excluding the nucleus. The cytoplasm is made up of the cytosol and the cell
organelles. The cytosol is a watery, jelly-like medium made of 70%-90% water,
and is usually colourless.
The cytosol is a mixture of different substances dissolved in water. Do you

remember what a mixture is from Matter and Materials? These substances
within the cytosol include salts, various elements, such as sodium and
potassium, and more complex molecules, such as proteins.
The cytosol is also where many chemical reactions take place. Next term, in
Matter and Materials, we will learn more about chemical reactions.
The cell organelles making up the cytoplasm include mitochondria, chloroplasts

and vacuoles. Vacuoles are organelles enclosed by a membrane and contain
mostly water with other molecules in solution. The size and number of vacuoles
within a cell varies greatly and depends on the type and function of the cell.
This is a micrograph of a plant cell. Can you see the clear, white organelles, which are the
vacuoles? The cytoplasm appears very granular in this image.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In this image of a plant cell, there are several vacuoles present, as is the case in
many plant cells. The nucleus, with its dark nucleolus is also very clear. You can
come back to this image a bit later to look at the nucleus again. If learners ask
what the grey-white structure in the top left hand side is, this is a starch grain.
.
Plants store starch grains within the cytoplasm. You can get your learners to
provide labels for the vacuoles and cytoplasm in this image. Also visible is the
cell wall of the plant cell - the cell membrane is the inner, more folded boundary,
whereas the cell wall is the light grey, more rigid structure on the outside.
Faintly visible are several mitochondria, for example the grey oval structures at
the bottom left. Come back to this image once you have done these structures
to add these labels in.
...
30 Life and living

.
A labelled micrograph of a single-celled plant

TAKE NOTE
The difference between
eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells is that eukaryotic cells
Nucleus . which
have a nucleus
contains the genetic
material surrounded by a
Plant and animal cells have a nucleus inside the cytoplasm. It controls all the
membrane. Prokaryotic DNA
processes and chemical reactions that take place inside the cell. The nucleus
floats in the cytoplasm
also contains the cell's genetic material which is organised into long DNA
without a membrane.
molecules.
The nucleus is structured as follows:
• A double membrane called the nuclear membrane encloses the DNA. This
nuclear membrane contains pores (holes) for substances to pass through.
• There is a nucleolus inside the nucleus. This is often seen as a darker area
within the nucleus.
• The DNA contains information about inherited characteristics (hereditary),
such as whether the person will have blue, brown or green eyes.
Have a look at the micrograph of a nucleus and the diagram of the nucleus.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Studying micrographs is a very important skill to develop for later in Life
Sciences. Learners are often only exposed to schematic diagrams of cells which
present an idealised view of the cell. They
. then find it very difficult to identify
these structures within a micrograph of an actual cell. Encourage your learners
to take note of how the diagram below was drawn and how it differs to the
micrograph of the nucleus. Remind your learners that a micrograph is a
photograph taken through a microscope, and in this case, a transmission
electron microscope.
. .

Left) A Diagram of a nucleus. Right) A micrograph of a cell nucleus.
DNA is a very important part of all cells and therefore of all life. DNA contains
information that encodes all our inherited traits or characteristics. This refers to
characteristics which are passed down in families, such as your skin and eye
colour, whether you have allergies and also the likelihood of contracting
different types of illnesses.
Every organism has unique DNA. The difference in DNA that occurs between
individuals is called variation. Even the slightest difference in DNA might cause
significant variations within species and between species. Within species DNA
differences or variations can lead to albino animals or the transference of similar
illnesses, like sickle cell anemia.
VISIT
.
Learn more about genes An albino (white) lion lacks pigment due to an alteration in the lion's DNA.
bit.ly/1bmf0wO
Mitochondria
Do you remember that we spoke about food as the energy source for our
bodies? Just as wood is burned to use the stored potential energy to make a
fire to heat some water, the food that we eat needs to be broken down in order
to release the energy so that our bodies can function. Mitochondria are
responsible for doing this.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
You can use this opportunity to revise what is meant by stored potential energy
and the fact that food is seen as a fuel for our bodies.
...
32 Life and living

TAKE NOTE
Singular or Plural?
.
mitochondrion is the
Diagram of a mitochondrion singular and mitochondria is
the plural form of the word.
Mitochondria are organelles enclosed by a double membrane. Cells that are

very active would typically have more mitochondria than cells that are less
active. Which type of cell, do you think, will have more mitochondria: a muscle
cell or a bone cell?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A muscle cell will contain more mitochondria as muscle cells need a huge supply
of energy for movement. You can point .this out in the following image of mouse
heart muscle tissue. Cardiac muscle tissue is very active and therefore needs a
big energy supply, hence the frequency of mitochondria present in the tissue, as
seen below.
A micrograph of muscle tissue in a mouse. Can you see all the darker grey circles? These
are mitochondria.
Once food molecules enter the cells and pass into the mitochondria, they are
used by the mitochondria in a process called cellular respiration. During
respiration the mitochondrion can combine molecules from food with oxygen to
release energy that the cell can use. Carbon dioxide, water and waste materials
are by-products of this process.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
With reference to the did you know fact in the margin about mitochondrial
DNA, learners might ask what we can deduce . from the fact that there is such a
thing. One theory is that mitochondria originated from bacteria that invaded
ancient eukaryotic cells and started living in a symbiotic relationship with the
host, eventually losing its ability to live independently. This idea is still very
controversial and not universally accepted. MtDNA seems to have an influence
. .

in gene expression and can be used to trace
. maternal lineage, since we inherit
all of it from our mothers, not fathers.
Micrograph of a mitochondrion within a cell.
VISIT Look at the micrograph of the mitochondrion in the image. What differences
can you see between this mitochondrion and the diagram shown previously? In
If you would like to find out
the diagram, it was very clear that the inner membrane folds, whereas in the
how mitochondrial DNA
. micrograph it is not as easy to see this. This is because of the way that the cell
(mtDNA) is responsible for
was sectioned (cut) before it was viewed on the transmission electron
'old age', read this article by
microscope. In a diagram, we show an ideal representation of the organelle.
Dr Barry Starr from Stanford
But, when we view an actual organelle under a microscope, it may look quite
University bit.ly/164z730
different depending on how it was cut into a very thin section to view.
ACTIVITY: Summarise what you have learnt

. ow that you've studied the internal structure of a cell, let us summarise what
N
we have learnt so far. Complete this table filling in the main function of each of
the cell structures.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Cell Structure Function(s)

regulates / controls
Cell membrane . passage of substances in
and out of cell
where many of the
. chemical reactions and
Cytoplasm
processes in the cell takes
place
contains DNA (hereditary
Nucleus material) of cell and
controls the cell's activity
releases energy from food
Mitochondrion
for the cell
stores substances, water,
Vacuole
nutrients
.
...
34 Life and living

1.2 Difference between. plant and animal cells
Now that we know what the main similarities are between all plant and animal
cells, let's see how they are different.
Plant cells differ from animal cells
Why do plant and animal cells have differences? Plant and animal cells differ
because they have to perform different functions.
ACTIVITY: Identify differences between plant and

animal cells
.
1. Study the pictures below. On the left is a picture of plant cells and on the
right is a picture of some animal cells, which have been stained blue.
2. Write differences that you observe in the table below the pictures of the
cells.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Plant cells Animal cells
• Plant cells have a regular

shape and structure and keep • Animal cells have an irregular
their shape easily shape and structure and bend
• A thick outer layer (two and fold easily
'layers' enclose the cell • Thin outer layer (only a cell
although this is not very membrane encloses the cell.)
evident in the image) • No green chloroplasts can be
• Green chloroplasts for seen.
photosynthesis.
. .

Cell wall
All animal and plant cells are enclosed or surrounded by a cell membrane as we
learned before. However, as you probably noticed in the previous activity,
animal cells often have an irregular shape, whereas plant cells have a much
more regular, rigid shape.
Plant cells have an additional layer surrounding the cell on the outside of the cell
VISIT membrane. This is called the cell wall. This wall provides a protective
Article and video on the
framework for support and stability for the plant cell.
.
solar powered sea
The cell wall is formed from various compounds, the main one being c ellulose.
slug,Elysia chlorotica.
Cellulose helps maintain the shape of the plant cell. This allows the plant to
bit.ly/17GrwmS
remain rigid and upright even if it grows to great heights.
Vacuoles
Does a plant have a skeleton? Turn to a friend and discuss what could possibly
be used in a plant cell as a skeleton. Think for example of a blade of grass or a
long stemmed rose.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Plants have cell walls to provide support and some learners might remember
the vacuoles.
Vacuoles in plant cells are usually quite large organelles that can occupy as
much as 90% of the cell's volume. The liquid in the vacuole, called cell sap, helps
to support the plant. The full vacuoles push out against the cell wall and make
the cells, and therefore the plant, rigid. We say the cells are turgid in this
condition. The opposite to turgid is flaccid.
You can easily see when a plant's vacuoles are full and when they are not. When
the vacuoles are full the plant's stem and leaves will be held upright and firm.
However, if the leaves and stem are drooping, the vacuoles might have lost a lot
of water because the soil is too dry and the cell was forced to use up this water
to survive.
Left: A plant with turgid vacuoles is rigid and stands upright. Right: A plant with flaccid
vacuoles droops (called wilting).
...
36 Life and living

Vacuoles are only present in some animal cells and they are typically very small
and have a short life-span.
ACTIVITY: Comparing plant and animal cells

.
Study the two diagrams of plant and animal cells below.
1. Draw a table of differences between the two cell types in the space
provided. Give your table a suitable heading.
2. Also provide labels for the different cell structures and organelles.
Here are the labels for the animal and plant cell diagrams.
.
A typical animal cell.
A typical plant cell.
An example of the type of table that learners might produce is given below.
Learners might present the information in a slightly different layout, which
should be encouraged, if it is logical and legible. For example, they might not
have the first column with the characteristic.
Table summarizing the differences between plant and animal cells
. .

Characteristic Animal cells Plant cells
Have an irregular Have a rigid, regular
Shape
shape shape
Do not have a cell Have both a cell
Cell wall wall, only
. a cell membrane and a cell
membrane wall.
Have small vacuoles,
Vacuoles which are often Have large vacuoles
temporary or absent
Do not have Have chloroplasts to
Chloroplasts
chloroplasts photosynthesise
.
ACTIVITY: 3D model of a cell

.
In a 3D cell model, we will be making built models out of materials where we will
use other objects to represent the actual parts of the cell.
INSTRUCTIONS :
1. You must create a 3D model of a cell.

2. You may use whatever materials or. 'media' you choose to create your cell.
3. Your model must clearly show the following:
• cell membrane
• nucleus with nuclear membrane
• cytoplasm
• mitochondria
• vacuoles
• chloroplasts
• Any other organelles that you might have learnt about
...
38 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This activity can be used as a project. Encourage learners to be creative when
doing this task. They could make cell pizzas (with different toppings
representing the organelles), cell jellies (with different fruits representing the
organelles), or they may wish to use recycled items to represent the different
functions of the organelles (such as batteries to represent mitochondria). The
possibilities are endless.
Learners could create cell models out of playdough as an alternative option.

Different colours can be created using different food colouring. The recipe for
playdough is as follows:
• 1 cup plain flour .

• 1/2 cup of salt
• 2 tablespoons of cream of tartar (optional)
• 1 tablespoons of cooking oil
• food colouring
• 1 cup of boiling water
1. Add all the ingredients in a large bowl and mix together until it starts to
bond together and becomes hard to mix.
2. Take it out of the bowl and throw it on a board (or other surface for this
purpose). (It will be hot when you take it out of the bowl so be careful.)
3. Knead the dough until it takes on the look and consistency of play dough.
.
4. Add the food colouring to get the colour you want.
5. Keep the playdough in an airtight container in the fridge before use.
Requirements for your cell model:
• Your model and the examples of the organelles need to show some
resemblance to the real organelle that we have learnt about so far.
• Your model needs to be clearly marked with a heading and your name.
• Each organelle needs to be clearly labelled and with each label you need to
add a description of the function of that particular organelle.
• You also need to make an accompanying drawing (at least the size of an
A4 page) including the labels of the structure of a basic plant and animal
cell.
• Your teacher will assess your model according to a rubric.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Although there is a general assessment rubric for models supplied in the
Appendix of the Teacher's Guide, here is a more detailed rubric that you can use
.
to assess your learners' models out of 40 marks. You can photocopy this rubric
if you wish to provide it to your learners so that they know how they will be
assessed.
TOTAL [40 marks]

.
.
. .

Aspect 4 3 2 1
Appropriate Inappropriate
Materials Materials were materials materials
carefully well chosen chosen and chosen, model
Model chosen and and tried to organelles and did not
construction modified to modify some their functions represent
resemble to resemble were fairly structure or
organelle organelle accurately function of the
represented organelles
Model
rpesented in Cell model is
creative, Cell model is fairly correctly Cell model is
carefully almost presented but missing more
planned way; complete and not complete than 5
Model
headings and mostly and missing organelles; it is
presentation
labels added; correctly more than 3 not 3D and is
clearly and presented; it is organelles; poorly
correctly mostly 3D more than half presented
presented and is 3D
in 3D
1 or 2
3-6 organelles
Organelles are organelles are Representation
are not
the appropriate not seems careless
appropriately
size in appropriately and rushed;
proportioned
Represen- proportion to proportioned many
and incorrect
tation of the rest of the or do not have organelles
size/shape
organelles cell structures. correct size or missing or
used; 3-6
All 7 minimum shape; Not all 7 incorrectly
organelles
organelles are minimum included; lacks
missing from
present organelles planning
list
present
Organelle flags
1-2 flags are 3-6 flags are If flags are
or a key is used
missing or missing or included they
Labelling of successfully
incorrectly incorrectly are incorrectly
organelles and all
placed; few placed; many placed; many
organelles are
spelling errors spelling errors spelling errors
clearly labelled
Displays a clear Displays a
Displays a fair Displays very
understanding good
understanding little
Under- of all 7 understanding
of at least 3 of understanding
standing of organelles and of at least 5
the organelles of organelles
organelles their cell organelles
and their and their
function(s) in and their
function(s) function(s)
the cell function(s)
...
40 Life and living

Aspect 4 3 2 1
Presentation is
at times Unclear or
Presentation is Presentation is
unclear or unprepared
well planned mostly clear
unprepared; presentation;
Class and confidently displaying
learner is learner mostly
presentation given; learner confidence;
unsure of most unsure of
is an expert on Not sure of 1-2
of the organelles and
the cell things
organelles and cell structure
cell structure
Very basic cell
Cell drawing is drawing
Cell drawing is
good and clear showing very
Cell is drawn fairly good but
though missing few organelles
Drawing of accurately and missing 3-5
1-2 organelles; and many
cell neatly; organelles and
fairly neat. inaccuracies;
excellent detail includes 3-5
Includes 1-2 untidy and
inaccuracies
inaccuracies poorly
presented
Label lines are Label lines
neatly drawn neatly drawn
Label lines
with a ruled; though not
either drawn
they do not always with
by hand or
cross and ruler; 1-2 cross;
Scientific missing; if
labels are heading No lines
method included they
groupsed supplied but included and
used to cross; labels
neatly on one 1-2 spelling no labels
label are placed all
side of the errors. Label included
drawing over the
drawing; lines not
drawing, not
heading grouped on
neatly on on
supplied; no one side but
side
spelling errors placed around
in labels the drawing
Rubric handed
Rubric Rubric handed Rubric handed Learner
in with some
handed in in; very good in with fairly handed in the
self-assessment
with cell self-assessment good rubric with the
done but it is
model and and accurate self-assessment cell model but
unrealistic and
self- grasp of their completed. did not assess
a poor
assessment abilities and Fairly accurate themselves on
portrayal of
completed challenges assessment it
their model
Handed in
Handed in one Handed in two
Handed in Handed in on three or more
day after due days after due
on time due date days after due
date date
date
. .

.
1.3 Cells in tissues, organs and systems
Now that you have learnt all about different cells, are you ready to see them for
yourself?
Observing cells under a microscope
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This section on microscopy is meant as an introduction as learners will need to
.
be able to use microscopes later in this chapter, as well as if they carry on with
Life Sciences in Gr. 10. Learning how to use an instrument is a very good skill. In
Gr. 10 Life Sciences, learners will look at the different types of microscopes in
more detail. Here, only light and electron microscopes are mentioned briefly.
Have you ever used a microscope

before? Microscopes are instruments
that are used to look at and study
objects that are too small to be seen
with the naked eye. Since the days of
Hooke's observations, the
development of microscopes has come
a long way. Today we have incredibly
powerful microscopes called electron
microscopes which use electrons
instead of light to observe very fine
detail - even as small as a single
column of atoms!
A modern electron microscope
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners would have been introduced to the atom in Gr. 8 Matter and Materials
.
and perhaps before. The atom is the building block of all matter. The ability to
visualise columns of atoms under a transmission electron microscope indicates
how extremely powerful and high resolution these instruments are. A useful site
VISIT for information about microscopy:2 bit.ly/13ZkGaV
. Help out in
Citizen science:
cancer research from your
own home! bit.ly/16DCU45 .
TEACHER'S NOTE
If microscopes are not available in your school, try building one with the
learners' help! If Robert Hooke could do it without the wonderful technological
.
marvels we have in our lives today, so can we!3 bit.ly/19bsOcQ or
4
bit.ly/16IIkfZ
Alternatively, organise to visit a school where microscopes are available and

work alongside the learners at that school, or organise times when your school's
...
42 Life and living

. laboratory is not being used.
learners can use the equipment when the
Before we start working with

microscopes, let's have a look at the
different parts of a basic light
microscope and the safety precautions
we need to follow when using these
pieces of equipment.
A basic light microscope
A microscope allows you to see detail in specimens that you cannot see with
the naked eye. The image you see needs to be:
• well lit with enough light provided to see the specimen

• well focused
• contrasted with its surroundings to clearly see details
The next image explains the different parts of a light microscope and what they
are used for.
When you use a microscope, make sure to follow these safety precautions:
1. There is a special way to carry the microscope: one hand supports the
base and the other holds the frame of the microscope.
2. Put it down on a stable, horizontal, clear counter.
. .

3. Before using the microscope, clean the lenses with proper lens paper. Do
not touch the lenses with your fingers! Make sure the stage and slides are
clean.
4. When handling the slides, do not use broken or cracked slides and handle
cover slips by the edges.
5. When focusing with the objectives:
• Focus smoothly and slowly
• Be careful with the objectives and do not scratch them
6. When you are done:
• Always turn the lowest magnification objective into place before
storing the microscope.
• Make sure that the stage and slides are clean before putting
everything away.
• Always store the microscope in a box or covered with a dust jacket to
avoid dust from settling on the lenses.
To view cells under a microscope, we need to make and prepare something

called a specimen on a slide.
A specimen is a small part or slice, or an example of an organism that we want

to examine. When we view a specimen under a microscope it needs to let light
pass through the specimen so we can see it. Therefore we need to prepare the
specimen and cut extremely thin slices of less than 0.5 mm. Specimens are then
placed on a glass slide.
We can prepare samples or specimens on a slide using these different

techniques:
• wet mount - good for observing living organisms and is especially used for
aquatic samples
• dry mount - good for observing hair, feathers, pollen grains or dust
• smears are often made of blood or slime that is smeared over the slide and
VISIT
allowed to dry before observing them.
. a wet
Video on making • stains are added to wet or dry mounts by dropping colouring chemicals
mount slide. bit.ly/14znPS5 onto the specimens, like iodine solution, methylene blue or crystal violet.
We use staining to improve the colour contrasts on the slide.
ACTIVITY: Evaluating microscopic images

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is an extension activity. It is optional
. and does not need to be done.
However, if you do not have microscopes . to work with at Gr. 9 level, this does
provide an opportunity to get some experience with working with microscopes
and troubleshooting problems, without actually using a real one.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Carefully study this image of onion cells that have been stained blue.
Evaluate this image in terms of the focus, light and contrast visible in the
photo.
...
44 Life and living

Learners need to explain that the image is sharp and in focus, that there is
enough light shone on the specimen and that the contrast is clearly well
achieved to show the structures of the cells.
2. These same onion cells were viewed under a microscope which had not
been adjusted properly and the following photos were taken. Identify what
is wrong with the photograph compared to the one above.
How could the image

have been adjusted
What is wrong with the
Image and corrected, using
image?
what part of the
microscope?
This image could have

. been focused using
The image is fuzzy. the fine and coarse
adjustment screws.
The brightness of the

image could have been
adjusted by changing
the brightness of the
lamp or moving the
mirror to reflect more
The image is very dark. light onto the slide.
The brightness can
also be adjusted using
the diaphragm and
condenser apertures.
The contrast of the

image can also be
adjusted by changing
This image has poor the intensity of the light
contrast. and the diaphragm
aperture.
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners might battle with the last image about contrast as this is quite tricky to
understand, so you might have to explain .. the answer to them. The difference
between brightness and darkness is that brightness refers to how light or dark
an image is, whereas contrast refers to the difference in lighting between
different areas of the specimen.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Before starting this activity, you could ask your learners why they think you are
going to be making wet mounts, and not another type of mount, and what
advantages using a liquid has. Have this as a class discussion and encourage
your learners to take notes, either in a separate notebook or in the margin
spaces within the workbook. We use liquid because:
• The liquid helps to support the specimen

. - remember, in our case it will
only be a few cells so would be quite easily damaged.
• The slide will have a special glass coverslip on top of the specimen. When
we use the liquid it fills the space between the specimen on the slide and
the coverslip.
• The liquid allows light to pass through the glass slide and coverslip.
• The liquid prevents the specimens from drying out or blowing off the side.
• If we are using a stain instead of water, the stain lets the cell structures and
organelles (the cell membranes and nuclei) stand out prominently allowing
us to see it easily.
ACTIVITY: Making a wet mount with onion and

cheek cells
.
There is a very specific way to prepare slides for viewing under a microscope.
You will use this technique very often in Life Sciences to study specimens.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This activity will show learners how to prepare onion cells in a step-by-step
manner, and will then challenge them to prepare their own cheek cells (using an
ice cream stick or your own nail for collection) in order to study it under a
microscope. .
Very important: Make sure learners use clean, sterile sticks and that they do not
re-use them and swop them.
If your class does not have access to a microscope, learners may still practice
preparing a wet mount, and then examine the images at the end of the exercise.
...
46 Life and living

MATERIALS:
• onion
• scalpel or knife
• dissecting needle
• forceps
• microscope slides
• coverslips
• dropper
• tissue paper or filter paper
• distilled water
• iodine solution
• light microscope
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Risk assessment: Some people are allergic . to iodine and/or shellfish. If any
learners are allergic to iodine or shellfish DO NOT use the iodine solution to
stain your specimens. Methylene blue and crystal violet are harmful and can be
irritants. Avoid contact with the skin.
INSTRUCTIONS:
TAKE NOTE
You will need .to work quite
quickly as the onion cells will
Step 1: Prepare your dry out!
microscope and slides as
discussed in the safety methods .
above.
Step 2: Cut the onion into
blocks of about 1 cm square
with a sharp knife or scalpel. Cutting the onion to expose the
layers.
Step 3: Use forceps to pull or

peel a small piece of the very
thin membrane-like epidermis
lining off one of the inner layers
of the onion.
Carefully pulling the lining off the

onion layer.
Step 4: Place a drop of iodine

solution onto the slide.
..
Adding iodine solution to the slide.
. .

Step 5: Place the membrane
directly in the drop on the slide.
Lowering the coverslip onto the

specimen.
Step 6: Gently lower a coverslip at an angle onto the onion cells. Hold the
coverslip up with a dissection needle and gently lower the slip. This prevents air
bubbles from getting trapped under the cover slip.
TAKE NOTE
If you accidentally trapped Step 7: Wipe off excess fluid
an air bubble, gently press around the edge of the
on the middle of the coverslip with tissue paper or
.
coverslip to get rid of any filter paper.
trapped air using the Step 8: Make sure the lowest
dissecting needle or drop power objective lens (this is the
some extra fluid right next to shortest lens) is in line with the
the edge of the coverslip. eyepiece. Switch on the lamp
or use the mirror to reflect the
light onto your stage. Place the
prepared slide onto the stage The slide secured on the
and secure it with the stage microscope stage.
clips. .
Step 9: While on the low

power, look from the side and
lower the objective lens to just
above the coverslip. Then look
through the eyepiece and use
the fine focus to focus your
image.
Step 10: Magnify your cells by
swapping the objective lens to
a higher powered lens. Only
use the fine focus adjustment to
focus clearly.
Step 11: Make careful drawings
of your observations in the Onion cells.
space below and remember to
label what you see. Add a
heading including the
specimen, the stain used and
the magnification.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Learner-dependent answer
...
48 Life and living

Now that you have prepared slides of onion cell specimens, use a toothpick to
gently scrape the inside of your cheek to collect cheek cells using the side of the
toothpick or ice cream stick. Follow the same instructions as above to prepare
the cheek cell specimen and to view it under the microscope. Draw and label
the cheek cells that you viewed under the microscope in the space below.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners must gently scratch the inside of their cheeks to collect some cheek
cells and then wipe the toothpick on the slide and cover with a drop of water.
(Please ensure that learners scrape with the broad side of the toothpick, slowly
and gently, so that they do not injure themselves!)
. Alternatively, learners can
use old wooden ice cream sticks. The water droplet will most likely contain
several cheek cells. It is going to be near impossible to see the cheek cells in
water. You should use a stain to colour contrast the cells, namely methylene
blue or iodine solution. These cells are MUCH smaller than onion cells and the
learners may battle to find them - look for tiny blue/yellow 'flakes' that are not
lying on top of each other and magnify a small group of 3-4 cells.
Did you see something like this?

.
Some cheek cells stained with methylene blue
1. What are some of the differences and similarities you noted between the
animal and cheek cells?
Learners should be able to identify some of the following main differences
and similarities between onion and cheek cells as:
• The onion cells have a thick cell wall and a cell membrane. The animal
cells only have a cell membrane.
• The onion cells have a regular shape whereas the cheek cells have a
irregular shape and seem more flimsy.
• In the onion cells they might notice a large vacuole which might not be
as visible in the cheek cells. Cheek cells do not have vacuoles.
• Both onion and cheek cells have a nucleus and nuclear membrane.
• Both cells also have a cytoplasm and some might say that they see
organelles inside this. .
.
. .

ACTIVITY: Research the discovery of light and
electron microscopes
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This is an optional activity which learners can do outside of class if you have
time.
The invention and improvement of microscopes has lead to incredible cellular

.
discoveries (among others) in the last 400 years. Without microscopes, many of
the microscopic organisms we know of today would never have been identified!
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. You can work individually or in groups for this task.

2. Research the history and discovery of the light and electron microscopes
and how they are used today.
3. Design a brochure for the local Science museum where you tell visitors
about the history of the development of microscopes.
4. Remember that a brochure must be informative, but not contain too much
text.
5. Include some photographs or drawings.
Cells differ in shape and size

We looked at the basic differences between plant and animal cells. However,
not all plant cells and not all animal cells are the same. Cells within an organism
need to have different shapes and sizes because they fulfill different functions.
Look at the photo of the rose. Do you think the cells in the roots, stem, leaves,
and petals of the rose all look the same?
The cells in the different parts of the rose all have to perform very specific
functions and therefore have different sizes and shapes.
...
50 Life and living

The rose's petals are red due to pigments in Cells in the leaves are full of chloroplasts
the vacuoles of the petal cells which are for photosynthesis. They are long and
round. rectangular in shape.
Your body contains a great number of specialised cells, meaning they have
different functions. They have differences in their structures allowing them to
have different functions. We say they have differentiated.
Do you remember we spoke about nerve cells and red blood cells briefly in the
beginning of the chapter? Some of them are summarised in the following table.
Specialised cell Structure Function
They cover the surface

Epithelial cells - they of the body for
are mostly flat protection.
Muscle cells can

Muscle cells - some contract and relax
are long and spindle allowing for movement
shaped within your body
Nerve cells are

specialised to carry
Nerve cells - the
messages that
are very long and have
coordinate the
branched ends
functions of the body.
Red blood cells

Red blood cells - carry carry oxygen
Round and biconcave and carbon dioxide
shape throughout the body.
. .

Stem Cells
Stem cells are unspecialised cells which can divide and develop into many
different types of specialised cells. Stem cells are quite amazing as they can
divide and multiply while at the same time keeping their ability to develop into
any other type of cell. Embryonic stem cells are the little ball of 50 -150 cells
that forms 4-5 days after conception. Embryonic stem cells are very special as
they can become absolutely any cell in the body, for example, blood cells, nerve
cells, muscle cells or brain cells.
For this reason, scientists are using stem cells to conduct research. There are
many benefits in doing this, but there are also many controversial and ethical
issues surrounding stem cell research.
Are you curious about stem cell research? Find out more and discover the
possibilities!
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The syllabus does not require great detail on stem cells, but this is an exciting
field of science that is growing rapidly. The potential uses of stem cell
technology may capture the imagination and inspire learners. As a possible
extension activity, get learners to do some reading about the topic of stem cell
research. Then they can write down some of the main points and also write
about their own opinions and feelings about the topic. The last step is to have a
class discussion. Encourage each learner to give their opinion. You could do this
as a class debate and break learners up into groups, or else just go around the
class and ask each learner for their opinion and why.
Alternatively, you may wish to share the following exciting possibilities with
learners. In the future stem cell therapy may be able to treat many different
.
diseases, such as:
• certain cancers (like leukemia, a cancer of the blood)

• diabetes mellitus (where cells that produce the hormone (insulin) that
controls our blood sugar are destroyed and no longer work)
• spinal injuries and paralysis
• organ damage that requires organ transplants
• genetic diseases
• degenerative diseases (such as Parkinsons disease, where neurons in
voluntary movement area of the brain die)
Alternatively, if resources cannot be found or if the terminology of stem cell

research is too complex, this video on stem cells explains what the different
stem cells are, what their normal role is in the normal body, and also explains
some potential uses of stem cell technology 5 bit.ly/15qjJHX .
Microscopic and Macroscopic organisms
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Please ensure that learners understand the
. difference between microscopic and
macroscopic and unicellular (single-celled) and multicellular (many-celled)
organisms. Microscopic organisms are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Macroscopic organisms can be seen with the naked eye. Unicellular organisms
...
52 Life and living

consist of one cell, multicellular organisms are made up of many cells. Learners
can easily become confused and think that . all microscopic organisms are
unicellular, but this is not the case! There are many multicellular organisms that
are too small to be seen.
TAKE NOTE
Microscopic and
We have just looked at specialised cells within organisms. The organisms that
macroscopic describe
we discussed, plants and animals, consist of many, many cells. Your body has
whether an organism can be
millions of cells! Did you know that there are some organisms which consist of .
seen with the naked eye,
only a single cell? We have many different specialised cells to perform the
while unicellular and
different functions within our body whereas in a single-celled organism, all the
multicellular refer to the
functions it performs are done in this one cell. We can make a distinction
number of cells an organism
between organisms that are made of one cell (unicellular) and those that are
has.
made of many cells (multicellular).
Microscopic organisms
VISIT
We call one cell organisms that can only be seen with the help of a microscope .
Take a virtual tour of the
microscopic organisms. There are many single-celled microscopic organisms.
human body bit.ly/14Fc3Zj
Have a look at the images.
VISIT
Fresh water. amoebae
bit.ly/1cpzNnj and
bit.ly/1bmfxyZ
A group of Escherichia coli bacteria which An amoebae which is a single cell organism
are found in the intestines of many animals. that lives in water.
Red blood cells showing some which have A single-celled algae called a desmid.
been infected with malaria (purple dots).
. .

Macroscopic organisms
In contrast to microscopic single-celled organisms, macroscopic organisms are

visible to the naked eye and consist of many cells. Macroscopic organisms can
have a few cells working together or trillions of cells that form larger organisms.
Organisation of cells in macroscopic organisms
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In teaching this section, you may consider the example of the school as a 'living
organism' in which:
• Each learner represents a single cell. working on their own within a team.
• The classes are formed from groups of learners = tissues
• The grades are formed from groups of classes = organs
• The Gr. 7 - 9 and Gr. 10 - 12 are seen as the GET and FET phases, thus a
phase = organ system
• All the phases working together in school = organism
In microscopic single-celled organisms, the individual cell has to perform all the
life processes for that microscopic organism.
So what about the cells in macroscopic organisms that consist of many cells?
We have already learnt about specialised cells in macroscopic organisms, so we
know that not all cells perform all the processes - they are specialised to
perform a specific function.
Specialised cells that perform a specific function, group together to form a

tissue. For example, muscle cells will group together to form muscle tissue,
epithelial cells will group together to form the skin, and nerve cells will group
together to form the brain and nerves.
VISIT
Groups of tissues that work together form organs. Think of the stomach for
. your body
Learn more about
example - it is made of many different specialised cells that form muscle tissue
at this interactive website
to make it contract and epithelial tissue (made from specialised epithelial cells)
bit.ly/14k53tH
which lines the inside of the stomach and produces mucus.
When organs work together we say they form systems or organ systems. There
are many different systems in your body where specific organs work closely
together to make your body function. Have a look at the following diagram
which shows how cells are organised into tissues in the stomach which form
part of the digestive system in a human (the organism).
...
54 Life and living

VISIT
Learn more. about the
different systems in your
All the systems work together to form an organism. We will be looking at some
body bit.ly/164zURJ
of these systems later on in the term.
Have you noticed the VISIT boxes in the margins which contain links? You
simply need to type this whole link into the address bar in your internet
browser, either on your PC, tablet or mobile phone, and press enter, like this:
It will direct you to our website where you can watch the video or visit the
webpage online. Be curious and discover more online on our website!
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Throughout this year, we are going to develop the skill of designing and
makingconcept maps in Natural Sciences. The "Key concepts" listed above is a
summary written out in full sentences. A concept map provides another way of
representing information (ideas and concepts) in a more visual way. The
benefits of a concept map are that it allows one to show the linkages between
different concepts. Often a concept map has a "focus question" around which
the other concepts radiate. In these books the focus question will be the main
topic for the chapter. The relationships between different concepts are shown
using arrows with linking phrases, such as "results in", "includes", "can be", "used
to", "depends on", etc.
As this year progresses, learners will have to start filling in more parts of the
concept maps themselves, and then hopefully draw their own ones by the end
of the year. This teacher's guide contains the full version of each concept map.
.
Encourage your learners to study the concept maps and make sense of them at
the end of each chapter before doing the revision questions. Help your learners
to understand and "read" the concept maps by constructing sentences from
them. For example in this case you could read: "Cells in plants have some
differences as only plants have chloroplasts for photosynthesis".
Learners need to learn how to learn! This is one skill which might help them
later in their school career where they have a lot more information to learn and
make sense of. Concept mapping is one tool to use to summarise information
and understand how different concepts link together. Real understanding and
knowledge comes from grappling with the subject matter, and not just
memorising facts.
To learn more about concept maps and how they encourage learner
understanding, visit this site: 6 bit.ly/17e2g7V
"Knowledge is real knowledge only when it is acquired by the efforts of your

intellect, not by memory." - Henry David Thoreau
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.
• Cells are microscopic and can only be seen under a microscope.
• Plant and animal cells have cell membranes, cytoplasm, a nucleus and
organelles such as mitochondria and sometimes vacuoles.
• The cell membrane encloses the contents of the cell and separates it
from its environment.
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable, which means they only allow
certain substances to pass into and out of the cell.
• The cytoplasm includes the organelles and the cytosol. The cytosol is
the jelly-like medium in which many chemical reactions take place in
the cell. Everything inside the cell membrane, except the nucleus, is
considered the cytoplasm.
• The nucleus in eukaryotic cells is enclosed by a nuclear membrane and
contains the DNA.
• DNA contains inherited characteristics of an organism and controls the
cell's activities. It is unique to each organism, resulting in variation within
...
56 Life and living

a species.
• Mitochondria are responsible for cellular respiration, which is the release
of energy from food.
• Plant cells have a cell wall around the cell membrane that is rigid and
provides support and protection of the cell's content.
• Plants have chloroplasts with the pigment chlorophyll to
photosynthesise and produce glucose.
• Plant cells also have large vacuoles to store water and glucose, and to
provide support for the plant.
• Vacuoles in animal cells are temporary (or absent) and much smaller.
• Cells come in many different shapes and sizes.
• Stem cells are cells that have the ability to divide and develop into many
different cell types.
• Microscopic organisms can only be seen under a microscope. All
single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, are microscopic. However,
some multicellular organisms such as dust mites are also too small to
see with the naked eye.
• Macroscopic organisms consist of many cells and can be seen with the
naked eye.
• Specialised cells perform special functions. Specialised cells that work
together to perform a specific function form a tissue.
• A group of different tissues makes up an organ.
• Organs working together in groups form systems or organ systems.
• Organ systems make up an organism, such as a human.
. Map
Concept
This year in Natural Sciences, we are going to learn more about how to make
our own concept maps.
In the summary, we first have the "Key concepts" for this chapter. This is a
written summary and the information from this chapter is summarised using
words. We can also create a concept map of this chapter which is a map
of how all the concepts (ideas and topics) in this chapter fit together and
are linked to each other. A concept map gives us a more visual way of
summarizing information.
Different people like to learn and study in different ways; some people like to
make written summaries, whilst others like to draw their own concept maps
when studying and learning. These are useful skills to have, especially for
later in high school and after school!
Have a look at the concept map which shows what we have learned about the
cell in this chapter and how these concepts link together. Can you see how
the arrows show the direction in which you must "read" the concept map?
There are some empty spaces in the concept map that you need to fill in.
For example, some of the common structures in cells have been left out. You
need to look at the concepts linking from these bubbles to work out which
structure goes where. For example, what structure in a cell encloses the cell
contents? Write the answer in the correct space. On the left hand side of the
concept map there are also empty spaces - can you see that this describes
the hierarchy of how cells are organised into tissues, which are organised into
organs, and so on? Fill in each level of organisation into the spaces.
. .

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Teachers version
Below is the complete concept map with the answers filled in. Make sure your
learners understand what a concept map is and that they have filled in the
correct concepts into the empty spaces.
Remember that concept maps are different. to mind maps in that concept maps
have a hierarchical structure and show how concepts link together using arrows
and linking words. Whereas mindmaps generally contain a central topic and
individual branches coming out which do not necessarily link together.
Mindmaps can also be a useful way of summarising information and studying,
however, we are using concept maps as they help to show linkages, which is
very important in science. Help your learners to "read" the concept map by
showing them that the arrows show the direction in which concepts progress
and are linked to each other.
. .

.
.
REVISION: Revision Questions

.
1. Why would you say cells are considered to be the smallest unit of life? [2
marks]
Learner-dependent answer. They should mention that cells are the smallest
things that can live independently and are the most simple functional and
structural unit that makes up all organisms.
2. Explain what selectively permeable means when referring to the cell
membrane. [1 mark]
Selectively permeable means the membrane only allows certain substances
to pass into and out of the cell.
3. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells differ. What is the main difference
between these two types of cells? [2 marks]
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus or membranes around the
organelles, whereas eukaryotes have a nucleus and membrane bound
organelles. May also refer to DNA being loose or enclosed in a membrane.
4. What is the main function of the nucleus and what is the function of the
DNA? [2 marks]
The nucleus controls all the processes inside the cell and the DNA carries
the inherited characteristics of the organism.
5. When a Gr. 9 learner labelled one of the cell organelles 'Powerhouse', their
teacher marked it wrong. What should the learner rather have written? [1
mark]
mitochondrion
6. A plant and an animal cell are similar in some ways yet very different in
others. Compare the two types of cells
. in a paragraph. [10 marks]
• Both cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus.
• Plant cells have an additional cell wall that provides shape and rigidity
to the cell.
• Plant cells have large vacuoles and contain chloroplasts.
• Animal cells do not have cell walls and have a more irregular shape.
• Animal cells do not always have vacuoles and when these are present
they are short-lived and much smaller than those in plant cells.
7. Make two drawings to show the differences between plant and animal cells
using the examples of plant and animal cells you studied under the
microscope. Follow the drawing guidelines for making scientific drawings.
[10 marks]
Learners should receive marks for following these drawing guidelines:
• The drawing should be made with pencil and the labels should be
added in pen.
• The size of the drawing should be proportional
• The title of the drawing should be clear and descriptive.
• Lines used for labelling should end at or be just inside the feature
being identified and should not use arrows.
• Label lines should be drawn with a ruler and pen and should never
cross.
• Lines used for labelling should be parallel to the bottom of the page /
horizontally and neatly spaced at the same vertical margin to the one
side of the drawing.
• The magnification, title and labels should be neatly written in print not
cursive.
• There should be no noticeable erasure marks left.
• The drawings should be accurate and correctly labelled.
. .

8. There are different types of specialised cells and tissues in plants and
animals that perform different functions. Match each function to the
corresponding tissue. [3 marks]
Smooth muscle tissue receives and sends messages

and helps the body respond
to stimuli
Nerve cell carry oxygen around the

body in mammals
Red blood cells contracts and enables

movement
• smooth muscle tissue: contract and enables movement
• nerve cell: receives and helps the body respond to stimuli
• red blood cells: carry oxygen around the body in mammals
9. Use words from this box to complete the sentences below. Write the
sentences out in full. [4 marks] .
• organs
• tissues
• organ systems
• specialised cells
Macroscopic organisms consist of many different that are

made of individual that work together in a very particular
way. These are formed from that are in turned created
when groups of function together in a specific way.
Macroscopic organisms consist of many different organ systems that are
made of individual organs that work together in a very particular way.
These are formed from tissues that are in turned created when groups of
specialised cells function together in a specific way.
Total [35 marks]
...
62 Life and living

2 Systems in the human body
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
2 weeks.
This chapter is intended to give an overview of the main systems in the human
body, and the basic structure and function of the associated organs. The focus
in each system will be to look at the main processes, the main components, and
then some of the potential health issues associated with the system.
2.1 Body systems (Introduction)

CAPS suggested
Researching,
Activity: Research and
summarising,
writing about health
describing, suggesting,
issues
writing, presenting
2.2 The digestive system (1 hour)

. Optional
Activity: Flow diagram Summarising,
of the digestive system describing, writing
2.3 The circulatory system (0.5 hours)

Optional
Activity: Chart the Summarising,
circulatory system describing, writing
2.4 The respiratory system (0.5 hours)

Suggested
Summarising,
Summary Diagram
describing, writing
64
2.5 The musculoskeletal system ( 1 hour)

Suggested
Summarising,
Summary Diagram
describing, writing
2.6 The excretory system (1 hour)
Activity: Differentiating
Comparing, identifying, Optional
between excretion and
describing
egestion
Suggested
Summarising,
Summary Diagram
describing, writing
2.7 The nervous system (1 hour)
Tasks Skills . Recommendation

Suggested
Summarising,
Summary Diagram
describing, writing
2.8 The reproductive system (1 hour)

Optional
Activity: Defining the
main processes
Identifying, writing
involved in
reproduction
CAPS suggests that you make a large outline of the human body for this section
and draw each system on to it as it is dealt with. You can do this by getting large
sheets of recycled paper and tracing around one of the learners. A suggestion is
to rather do one for each system and stick these up around the class.
Alternatively, provided here is a page which you can photocopy and each
learner can do their own summary after each system. You can hand these out
after each system and learners can do the following:
• Give the diagram a heading.

• Add a short description of the main purpose of the system.
. .
Chapter 2. Systems in the human body 65

• List the main processes that take place in the system.
• Make basic sketches in the correct places to show where the different
organs and structures of the system are situated in the body.
• Add labels for each of the different structures in the system.
• Next to each structure's label write short bullet points to describe the
function of that particular structure.
• Below the diagram list some of the health issues that relate to the system.
As this chapter is meant as an overview of the different body systems, we

suggest doing this for the systems which will not be discussed in detail later,
namely do it for:
• musculoskeletal system
• excretory system
• nervous system
The respiratory system also lacks an activity, so you may also wish to do a
summary diagram for this section. You can also get learners to complete a
summary diagram for each system as a homework exercise. But there is limited
.
time for this chapter, and many systems to cover!
The activities and summary diagrams you choose is your choice.
Following is the page to photocopy for learners to summarise a system:
...
66 Life and living

.
. .

..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• How does the body do the things it does, such as breathe, move and
think?
• What happens when one of the systems in our bodies does not work
properly and has a 'system error'?
• Is it possible to prevent ourselves from getting sick?
• How can you best look after your body?
The human body has been studied by artists and scientists, mechanical
engineers and medical practitioners throughout history. The mechanical beauty
and operation of each and every part in the human body has fascinated human
beings throughout history. Be curious and get ready to be fascinated!
TAKE NOTE
If you want to check the
.
definitions of a New word, Leonardo da Vinci did many drawings and studies of the human body in the 1400's, such
check the glossary at the as this one called the 'Vitruvian Man.'
back of this strand.
Body systems
The human body consists of several integrated systems that must work
together for the body to function as a whole.
In the following pages we'll study seven of the main organ systems in our
bodies. At the end of each organ system you will need to make a summary of
that organ system to show:
• the main purpose or function of the system in the body;

• the main processes that take place in the system;
• the main components (organs) that make up the system; and
• the main health issues that relate to that particular system.
Therefore pay close attention and make notes as you study each organ system
to help you with your summary.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You could use the above criteria to draw. up a large table to summarise all the
organ systems as you work through them, perhaps on the one side of the board
or on a large poster.
...
68 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Research and writing about health

issues
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A suggestion is to assign different issues to different learners in your class so
that you get a range of research posters. to stick up. This can be done at the end
of this section, but has been included here so that learners are aware of it. You
may choose to use this poster and presentation for an informal assessment
mark.
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. You are going to learn about many of the health issues related to each of
the different systems. Choose one of these health issues to research.
2. You will need to:
a) Consult at least 3 different resources to find out more about that
particular health issue.
b) Suggest ways that this health issue may be prevented (if this is
possible).
c) Suggest treatment for the health issue in question.
3. Present your findings on an A3 poster as part of an oral presentation (of 3 -
4 minutes) to the class.
.
2.1 The digestive system
Our cells need protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals to function.
Yet we eat large pieces of food that are too big to pass through the selectively
permeable cell membranes. So how does the food we eat eventually get to our
cells in a small enough form to be absorbed?
Purpose of the digestive system
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
After learners have done this initial thought exercise, a fun suggestion to
introduce the digestive system is to bring out a tube (either a hosepipe, or even
a piece of rope, but a tube is ideal), that is 9m long to represent the digestive
.
system. Explain to learners that the digestive system is like one long tube of
different organs and this is all coiled up inside of you. Along this tube different
processes occur to digest the food we eat (namely ingestion, digestion,
absorption and egestion). Then explain to learners that we will be looking at
what happens along this tube. You can even drape the tube up over the board
in the front of the classroom for the rest of this section.
. .

Our digestive system is responsible for breaking down the food that we eat into
small particles that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. They are then
transported to the cells throughout our body.
The digestive system is made up of the different parts of the alimentary canal.
This canal is a long, twisting pipe-like structure (about 9 meters in total) that
starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. Along the way the food is broken
down from chunks into molecules small enough to pass through cell membranes
and supply energy to cells.
Main processes in the digestive system

There are four main processes that occur in the digestive system at different
parts along the alimentary canal. They are:
• Ingestion: This occurs when you take food into your body through your
mouth by eating or drinking it.
• Digestion: This is the process of breaking down large food pieces into
particles that are small enough to be absorbed and pass through cell
membranes.
• Absorption: This is when the digested particles move into the cells of the
digestive tract (they are absorbed) and move to the bloodstream from
where they are carried to all the cells in the body.
• Egestion: Any undigested or unwanted particles that travel through the
digestive tract are later passed out as faeces. This process is known as
egestion.
Components of the digestive system

Have a look at the following diagram which gives an overview of the different
parts making up the digestive system.
...
70 Life and living

1. The mouth and oesophagus
Digestion starts in the mouth as food is chewed and mixed with saliva. It then
travels down the oesophagus when you swallow.
2. Stomach
The chewed food enters the stomach and is further digested. The stomach has
substances called enzymes to help digest the food. The stomach also contracts TAKE NOTE
to break the food down further into a liquid.
There is a difference
3. Small intestine between egestion and

excretion. Egestion is when
Most of the digestion takes place in the small intestine. Absorption of the food undigested particles are
particles also takes place in the small intestine. .
passed out as faeces.
Excretion is when the body
4. Large intestine (or colon) gets rid of metabolic waste
formed from chemical
By the time the food reaches the large intestine, most of the nutrients have
reactions taking place in the
been absorbed. What is left is water, salts and indigestible fibre. The water that
body.
is left is absorbed in the large intestine.
5. Rectum and Anus
The remaining substances (called faeces) are passed into the rectum and then
out through the anus. This is called egestion.
ACTIVITY: Flow diagram of the digestive system

.
Flow diagrams are diagrams that show how the different sets of a process fit
together in a sequence. They show the direction (flow) by using arrows. These
are important tools to help you think about processes in Science.
INSTRUCTIONS:
.
1. Draw a flow diagram to represent the passage of food from the time it is
taken into the body to the time it is egested from the body.
1. The blocks must show the main components involved in digestion, listed in
order with arrows in between. Under each component include the main
processes that occur at each of these stages.
The learners' flow diagrams could look something like this one below. An
idea is to draw this up on the board and get learners to swap books with
each other to check if they produced something similar and logical.
. .

.
Health issues involving the digestive system

Common diseases of the digestive system include :
Ulcers: Sometimes open sores or ulcers develop on the lining of the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach or upper portions of the small intestine. Ulcers can be
very painful. They are generally caused by bacterial infections and some
medications.
Anorexia nervosa: This is one of many eating disorders. People who suffer from
this eating disorder have an abnormal fear of gaining weight and therefore
starve themselves on purpose. This can lead to many health issues such as bone
thinning, kidney damage, heart problems and even death.
Diarrhoea: Someone who passes very frequent, loose, watery stools has
diarrhoea. Many diseases cause undigested food to pass through the large
intestines too quickly for water to be absorbed and cause diarrhoea.
Do not forget to wash your hands with lots of soap and water!
TAKE NOTE
Liver cirrhosis: This disease slowly replaces healthy liver tissue with scar tissue
It is good to. know the
dangers and health and eventually prevents the liver from functioning properly. Alcohol abuse and
consequences of an fatty liver caused by obesity and diabetes are the most common causes of liver
unhealthy lifestyle.
cirrhosis.
...
72 Life and living

.
2.2 The circulatory system
Did you know that the blood moving throughout your body forms a system? To
"circulate" means to move around, and so we have the circulatory system within
the human body which transports blood.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The circulatory system includes blood as well as lymph, however at this level,
only the blood circulatory system will be dealt with.
Purpose of the circulatory system

The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood with oxygen (O2 )
from the lungs to cells and then transporting blood with carbon dioxide (CO2 )
back to the lungs. It also has to distribute nutrients from the digestive system to
the cells in the body and remove waste products to be excreted.
Components of the circulatory system:

The circulatory system is composed of the heart and a system of blood vessels,
including arteries, veins and capillaries.
The circulatory system is composed of the heart and blood vessels
. .

1. Heart
The heart is a very strong muscle and pumps blood throughout the body. There
are four chambers in the heart that receive and send blood to all parts of the
body. The top two chambers are called atria (singular= atrium) and the bottom
two chambers are called ventricles.
2. Blood vessels
There are various blood vessels which carry the blood throughout the body.
These are:
• arteries
• capillaries
• veins
3. Blood
The blood is transported throughout your body and carries various substances.
The substances can be dissolved in the blood liquid (plasma), such as carbon
dioxide, nutrients and waste products, or else within red blood cells, such as
oxygen.
VISIT
Main processes in the circulatory system
Watch a video that shows
the direction of blood flow Our circulatory system is actually made up of two systems that function
through the four chambers together:
.
of the heart. bit.ly/14Fccfa
• a short system that circulates blood between the lungs and the heart; and
Watch a video on the
• a much longer system that circulates blood from the heart throughout the
circulatory system.
body and back again.
bit.ly/19Wf2Od
This process occurs as follows:
• Blood is circulated from the heart to the lungs. At the lungs, carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) leaves the blood and oxygen (O2 ) enters the blood. This
process is known as gaseous exchange. Since the blood now contains
more oxygen than carbon dioxide, we say it is oxygenated .This
oxygenated blood returns back to the heart again.
• Once in the heart the oxygenated blood is then circulated to deliver the
oxygen to all the cells in the body before returning back to the heart. At
the same times as it delivers oxygen, the blood also collects carbon dioxide
from the cells. This blood has more CO2 than O2 , so it is deoxygenated
blood. The carbon dioxide is excreted when it next returns to the lungs.
This process occurs over and over again throughout your life, thousands of
times a day!
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Why not play one of the videos in class like this one bit.ly/16IIBPU while the
learners are working on their activities in order to help them remember
important terminology.
...
74 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Chart the circulatory system

.
INSTRUCTIONS :
• Study the diagram below that explains the circulatory process.
TAKE NOTE
In diagrams we generally
use red to indicate blood
.
vessels that contain
oxygenated blood and blue
to show blood vessels with
deoxygenated blood.
• Use the diagram above to draw a circular diagram in the space provided to
show how blood travels through the circulatory system (composed of two
systems).
• Your circular diagram will form a complete circle.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
There is a difference between a flow chart
. and a circular diagram: a flow chart
shows a process from beginning to end and arrows start at one point and end at
another. A circular diagram shows a process that occurs over and over again,
which forms a cycle.
• Add arrows to show the direction the process occurs in.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A flow chart could look like the one below. Perhaps let your learners try it
themselves first and then draw one on the board. Do not just draw it on the
board for them to copy - they must first try it themselves.
.
TAKE NOTE
You can find out lots more
. the links
online by visiting
provided in the Visit boxes.
.
Be curious and discover the
possibilities!
Health issues involving the circulatory system
Common diseases of the circulatory system include:
High Blood Pressure: This occurs when the force with which the blood pushes
against the walls of the blood vessels is too high and can cause damage to the
capillaries and several organs.
Heart Attacks: Occur when a narrowing or blood clot develops in one of the
blood vessels that supplies the heart muscle with blood. If the narrowing or
blood clot is big enough it can stop the blood flow to the heart muscle and can
stop the heart from pumping which is called a heart attack. The person can die.
Strokes: Occur when cells in your brain are deprived of oxygen. This often
occurs as a result of a blockage in the blood vessels leading to the brain, or
when one of these vessels rupture (break or burst open).
...
76 Life and living

.
2.3 The respiratory system
Closely linked to the circulatory system is the respiratory system. The
circulatory system maintains the circulation of blood in the body while the
respiratory system deals with the exchange of gases in your body.
Purpose of the respiratory system

The respiratory system is responsible for supplying the body's cells with oxygen
and for removing carbon dioxide.
Components of the respiratory system:

Various organs play a vital role in the respiratory system.
A diagram of the structures that make up the respiratory system
1. Mouth and nose
Oxygen rich air enters the body through the mouth and nose where it is warmed.
2. Trachea (also called the windpipe)
The trachea is a tube that enters the chest and allows air to flow from the mouth
into the bronchi and from there into the lungs. It is kept open by cartilage rings.
When dust particles and germs in the air enter the trachea during inhalation, the
mucus lining the trachea traps these particles and the cilia work together to
move them out of the body. When you sneeze or cough you expel the mucus
and foreign particles from your body.
3. Bronchi
The trachea splits into two air tubes, called bronchi that connect to each of the
lungs. These tubes divide even further into smaller and smaller tubes that
connect with the tiny air bags (alveoli) of the lungs.
. .

4. Lungs
The main organs of the respiratory system are the lungs. The tiny alveoli or air
bags in the lung are surrounded by small capillaries where gaseous exchange
takes place.
VISIT
Visit this animation and
5. Diaphragm
watch how .the ribcage
This dome shaped muscle below the lungs enables you to breathe. When it
changes shape and size
contracts, it moves downwards and your lungs fill with air. When it relaxes
during inhalation and
again it moves upwards and forces the air out of your lungs. This is the main
exhalation bit.ly/11WaP8h
muscle used for breathing.
This diagram helps us to understand how breathing occurs showing how the diaphragm
contracts and relaxes.
Main processes in the respiratory system

Three distinct processes occur in the respiratory system:
• Breathing occurs when we take oxygen into the body (lungs) and push
carbon dioxide out of the body. Breathing therefore occurs in two phases:
TAKE NOTE – Inhalation - drawing air in
– Exhalation - pushing air out
People often confuse
respiration with breathing.
• Gaseous exchange takes place at two locations by a process called
Breathing is taking air into
diffusion:
the body through the lungs.
. – in the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into the blood from the lungs and
Respiration or cellular
carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood back into the lungs
respiration takes place inside
– at the body tissues oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells and
the cells to release energy
carbon dioxide from the cells diffuses into the blood
when oxygen is combined
with glucose and other • Cellular respiration occurs within the mitochondria of cells to release the
nutrients. chemical energy in food.
...
78 Life and living

Health issues involving the respiratory system
Some common health issues of the respiratory system are:
• Asthma: caused by allergies that inflame and narrow the airways

• Lung cancer: a disease that mostly results from smoking or severe air
pollution
• Bronchitis: swelling of the lining of the bronchi due to infection which VISIT
causes coughing and makes it difficult to get air into their lungs
To learn more about lung
• Pneumonia: an infection in the lungs where the alveoli fill with fluid .
cancer, watch this video on
• TB (Tuberculosis): an infectious disease caused by the bacteria, how this disease affects your
Mycobacterium body bit.ly/17gAxnF
.
2.4 The musculoskeletal system
All the movements that your body performs rely on a system of muscles,
tendons, ligaments, bones and joints that work together. These are the
components of your musculoskeletal system.
Purpose of the musculoskeletal system

Muscle tissue is responsible for producing movement in the body, however
muscles need to be attached to a frame structure to produce movement.
The bones of the skeleton provide a frame for muscles to attach to, so that
movement is possible. The skeleton also protects the body, especially the soft,
fragile organs like the heart, lungs and brain.
Components of the musculoskeletal system
The components of the musculoskeletal system help bring about movement.
. .

VISIT The components of the musculoskeletal system include the following:
. muscle
A video on
1. Muscles
contraction and relaxation in
the arm. bit.ly/13ZlIUd Muscles allow us to move because they are able to contract (become shorter)
and relax (become longer).
2. Bones
Bones provide support and help to form the shape of the body. The place
where bones meet is called a joint - think of your knee or elbow joint, or your
finger and toe joints.
3. Cartilage
Cartilage is stiff yet flexible and is found between bones in joints and between
the ribs and breastbone (as indicated in the diagram). It also forms the ears,
nose and bronchial tubes, and forms discs between the bones of the spinal
column.
4. Tendons
Your muscles attach to the bone with strong cords called tendons. You can feel
some of the tendons in your body, for example behind your ankle (called the
Achilles tendon).
5. Ligaments
Ligaments occur between bones at joints and hold bones together within the
joint. Ligaments are extremely strong.
Main processes in the musculoskeletal system

We can move our entire bodies from one place to another through
self-propulsion. This is called locomotion. Locomotion is different to
movement. Movement is the change in shape, direction, position or size of a
part of the body. Animals show movement and locomotion. What about plants?
Do you think plants show movement and locomotion?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask your learners this question to get their answers. The answer is that plants
only have movement as they are able to. change shape and grow, and even
change direction in response to a light or water source, but they are rooted to
one place - they cannot locomote (move from place to place). Encourage
learners to take notes on this discussion either in a separate notebook or in the
margins of the workbook.
VISIT
An innovative use of 3D Locomotion and movement are made possible through the contraction and
.
printers to help repair relaxation of muscles. Muscles are stimulated by nerves to contract.
fractures in bones!
bit.ly/13Q6hBw Health issues involving the musculoskeletal system
Common disorders of the musculoskeletal system include:
Rickets: This disorder is caused by a lack of vitamin D, calcium or phosphate

which results in soft, weak bones. A typical symptom in children who have
rickets is a bowing (bending outwards) of the bones of the legs.
...
80 Life and living

Can you see how the shape of the bones changes when a person has rickets?
Arthritis: This is a condition where the joints in the body become inflamed,
painful and swollen. The cartilage between the joints breaks down causing the
bones to rub against each other which is very painful.
Osteoporosis: This occurs when the bone tissue becomes brittle, thin and
spongy. These fragile bones can break easily, and they start to crumble and
collapse. Although osteoporosis is common in older people (especially older
women), teenagers and young adults may also develop it.
As this woman got older, she developed osteoporosis causing her vertebral column to
crumble and collapse and so she now stoops over.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An alternative to doing the summary diagram with the human body outline at
the end of this system, is to get learners to produce a mind map. It is important
that learners are exposed to and get experience with different techniques to
summarise information and help them study or learn. This is crucial for later
grades. Below is an example of a mind map that a learner may construct:
.
2.5 The excretory system
We will now be looking at the excretory system. This is often confused with
egestion, which we previously learned about.
ACTIVITY: Differentiating between excretion and

egestion
.
Do you remember learning about the difference between excretion and

egestion? Explain what you understand the difference between these terms are.
.
1. Egestion is...
Egestion is the removal of undigested material (solid waste) from the
digestive tract via the anus.
2. Excretion is ...
Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from the metabolism
which takes place in cells in the form of urine and sweat and exhalation
...
82 Life and living

Purpose of the excretory system
Our cells use oxygen and nutrients to function and in the process also produce
various metabolic waste products including:
• urea: a substance that is formed when protein is broken down in the liver
• carbon dioxide: a by-product of cellular respiration
The organs of the excretory system are responsible for removing these harmful
metabolic waste products from the blood so that they do not build up to high
concentrations. But, in the process, they have to retain the nutrients and water
for the body to function. One of the main functions of the excretory system is to
prevent too much or too little water in the body.
Components of the excretory system
The excretory system is responsible for removing metabolic waste products from the
blood
We already know that the lungs excrete carbon dioxide (CO2 ) when you exhale.
Another organ that excretes waste is the skin. When you sweat, your skin
excretes excess water, salts and a small percentage of urea. In this section,
however, we will focus on the excretory system to remove metabolic waste
from our blood in the form of urine.
To do this, the body uses the urinary system that consists of four main parts.
1. Kidneys
The kidneys filter all the blood in your body to remove urea from the blood. You
have two kidneys, each about the size of your fist and bean-shaped. Your
kidneys produce urine which is a combination of excess water and waste
products.
2. Ureters
There are two ureters (thin tubes) which connect each kidney with the bladder
and carry the urine from the kidney to the bladder.
. .

3. Bladder
The bladder is a balloon-like organ that collects the urine before excreting it
during urination.
4. Urethra
The urethra is a tube that connects the bladder to the outside of the human
body through which the urine is excreted.
Main processes in the excretory system

There are four main processes discussed below.
1. Filtration: All the blood in the body passes through the kidneys as part of the
circulatory system. The kidneys filter the blood to remove unwanted minerals
and urea, and also excess water. Some water is removed so that the metabolic
waste products can be excreted in solution in the liquid urine.
2. Absorption: Once the blood is filtered by the kidneys, the substances that
the body needs are re-absorbed back into the blood so that they are not lost in
the urine.
3. Diffusion: The substances are transported into and out of the specialised
cells of the kidney through the process of diffusion.
4. Excretion: The kidneys funnel the liquid urine through the ureters to the
bladder where it is stored. When the bladder has filled up, it uses muscles to
force the urine out of the body through the urethra. This is called excretion.
Health issues involving the excretory system

Common diseases of the excretory system include:
Kidney Failure: When this happens the

kidney loses its ability to properly filter
and remove metabolic waste which
allows this waste to build up in the
body. This is very harmful and may be
fatal. In such cases the patient needs
to undergo very regular kidney
dialysis. Dialysis involves using a
VISIT
machine which filters the blood for the
A summary .video of the A patient receiving dialysis to filter his patient to remove waste products.
excretory system.
blood because the kidneys are not working
as they should.
bit.ly/160u9lA
Kidney Stones: Kidney stones form

when fluid intake is too low, resulting
in the concentration of solutes (salts
and minerals) in the kidney becoming
too high. This can result in a small
crystal (stone) forming. The kidney
stone may stay in the kidney or move
down the ureter to be excreted in the
urine. A larger stone may however
cause severe pain along the urinary
tract and may even get stuck, blocking A kidney stone which is about 4.5 mm in
the flow of urine and causing severe diameter.
pain or bleeding.
...
84 Life and living

Bladder infection: This is one of the most common infections in women but is
quite rare in men. Bacteria can enter the bladder and cause an infection. This
causes swelling and pain when urinating.
.
2.6 The nervous system
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
A fun idea is to play the song of the nervous system in the visit box as learners VISIT
come into the class and sit down. .
A song about the nervous
system. bit.ly/13ZsGIR
Purpose of the nervous system

Our nervous system is a complex network that transmits nerve impulses TAKE NOTE
between different parts of the body. The nerves in our body receive stimuli from .
Stimuli is the plural form of
inside the body or from the environment (from the ears, eyes, skin or tongue for
the word stimulus.
instance). These are turned into impulses to the brain and spinal cord.
Components of the nervous system

The nervous system consists of various parts.
1. Nerves
Nerves are the long fibres which transmit messages from the brain and spinal
cord to the rest of the body and back. Each nerve is actually an enclosed bundle
of nerve cells, called neurons. The nerves work together to carry messages
throughout the body. They make up the nerve tissue in the nervous system.
. .

2. Brain
Your brain is located inside your skull. The brain is part of your central nervous
system and sends messages to the rest of your body. There are different areas
in the brain that have different functions. All these different areas also
communicate with each other.
VISIT
Citizen science: Play a game
to help MIT map the brain!
bit.ly/160udlh
.
Learn more about the brain
and participate in the
interactive activities to
stimulate the brain
bit.ly/13stpSU
TAKE NOTE This fluorescent image shows nerve cells A MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan
from a rat brain which were grown in the of a person's head showing the position of
"Peripheral" means on the
laboratory. the brain within the skull.
. peripheral
outside. So the
nervous system is on the
3. Spinal cord
outside of the central
nervous system. The spinal cord runs from the brain through your spine, protected by your
vertebral column. The spinal cord is a bundle of nervous tissue and other
support cells. Together with the brain, the spinal cord also forms part of your
central nervous system.
4. Sensory organs
We have mentioned that there is a central nervous system (made up of the

brain and spinal cord). The second part of the nervous system within our bodies
is the peripheral nervous system.
The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the
muscles and organs. Various sensory organs are responsible for collecting
information and sending it via sensory nerves to the central nervous system.
Our sensory organs are our:
• ears
• nose
• eyes
• skin
• tongue
Main processes in the nervous system

The nervous system is responsible for key processes in the body. These are
discussed next.
Sending and receiving impulses: Nerve cells in the brain send and receive
multiple messages from multiple sources at any given moment. These are
transmitted as electrical impulses.
The central nervous system interprets these signals and this is how we sense the
world around us. These processes are:
...
86 Life and living

• Hearing: In the ear, sound waves are transformed into electrical signals
that travel along the auditory nerve to the brain. This allows us to
understand what we are hearing.
• Seeing: Seeing and understanding what you see are complex processes.
Light enters your eye and stimulates specialised cells within your eye.
These cells transmit signals to the brain along the optic nerve, where they
are interpreted as sight.
• Feeling: The skin allows us to feel and experience the world around us
through touch. Millions of nerve endings in the skin, called receptors, cover
the skin, muscles, bones and joints, as well as internal organs and the
circulatory system. These receptors respond to pressure, pain,
temperature and movement.
• Tasting: Taste buds in your tongue and parts of your mouth can distinguish
between the different flavours: sweet, sour, bitter, salty. These receptors
work very closely with the receptors in the nose. Together the taste and VISIT
odour of food is sent to the brain where it is processed and interpreted.
• Smelling: Nerve cells in the lining of your nose respond to molecules in the Want to learn. more about
air. They send messages to the brain which interprets the smell the eye and sight?
accordingly and recognises any one of about 10 000 different smells! bit.ly/16IIRhU
Regulating: An important part of the nervous system is to maintain a balance

within the human body. This includes regulating our body temperature. Our
bodies need to be kept at about 37o C to work effectively. If the body is too hot
the brain might try and cool the body through increased sweating. If you are
very cold, your body will start to shiver to generate heat energy. These
responses to changes in body temperature are controlled by your nervous
system.
Health issues involving the nervous system

Trauma and injuries to brain and spinal cord: Any damage to the brain or
spinal cord can have devastating effects on the human body. For example,
people who break their necks in an accident, often damage their spinal cord.
This prevents the brain from sending and receiving messages to the body and
the person can become paralysed.
Stroke: If blood flow to the brain is stopped, brain cells begin to die, even after
just a few minutes without blood or oxygen. This can lead to a stroke where a
part of the brain function is lost.
When the brain is deprived of blood and oxygen due to a blood clot, the person may
suffer from a stroke.
. .

Degenerative disorders: There are several problems associated with the
nervous system that cause a gradual loss of function over time (degenerative).
These conditions include Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease and Multiple
Sclerosis.
Mental health problems: Examples include depression, anxiety disorder and

personality disorders.
Sensory organ problems: We have discussed the various sensory organs that
are associated with the nervous system. These organs can also have problems,
such as:
• Deafness
• Blindness
• Short sightedness
Effects of drug and alcohol on the brain: Different types of drugs target
different areas in the brain and it is mostly the brain's reaction(s) that make
people want to take drugs and/or alcohol.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Teachers may want to use this opportunity to discuss the topic of drug abuse. If
you would like to explain some of the effects of drugs and alcohol on the brain
to your learners, here are some:
• Drugs like methamphetamines (tik) and cocaine make the user feel a huge
sense of reward causing these drugs to become addictive.
• People also use drugs as a stimulant - using caffeine, cocaine and
amphetamines to speed up their reactions.
.
• Alcohol and marijuana (dagga) have the opposite effect on the brain and
slow it down - these are called sedatives and hypnotics.
• Hallucinogens like LSD and Ecstasy, and also more recently the drugs
Woonga and Nyaope, make you see things that are not real.
• Morphine and heroin are used to relieve severe pain and when misused
slow down the user's reactions.
It may be useful to explain to learners that the same drug may be useful and
beneficial when used properly and at the correct dosage, or abused when it is
used inappropriately, or in excessive amounts.
VISIT
. drug and
The effects of
Alcohol and drug abuse can cause irreversible brain damage, a loss of memory,
alcohol on the adolescent
decreased learning capability, an increased risk of strokes and heart attacks,
brain bit.ly/14k6icr
and a variety of emotional and mental health problems.
.
2.7 The reproductive system
Purpose of the reproductive system

In humans, as in other eukaryotic organisms, the main purpose of the
reproductive system is to produce sex cells to ensure the continuation of the
species.
Components of the reproductive system

We will be looking at the reproductive organs in more detail in the next chapter.
For now, let's get an overview of the main components in the reproductive
system.
...
88 Life and living

The female (left) and male (right) reproductive organs differ:
1. Ovaries
The ovaries are located inside the female's body in the lower abdomen and
produce mature egg cells (ova).
2. Uterus
The uterus (also known as the womb) is present in females. It has a thick lining
and muscular wall. This is where a fertilised egg will implant and develop during
pregnancy.
3. Testes
The sex organs in males are located in the scrotum, a pouch of skin that hangs
between the legs. During puberty the testes start to produce sperm cells.
Main processes in the reproductive system

During sexual reproduction, the egg and sperm have to combine to form a new
individual. Let's do an activity to find out about the main processes in the
reproductive system.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
As this will be dealt with in the next chapter, a simple activity can be done now
for learners to look up these new terms and write down definitions.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Defining the main processes involved in

reproduction
.
INSTRUCTIONS :
• Below is a list of the main processes involved in the reproductive system.

• Look up each term, either in your dictionary or on the internet and write a
brief description on the lines provided.
• The first three have been done for you.
• Growth
Growth is the increase in size and mass of an organism as it develops over time.
• Cell division
Cell division is the process when a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. In
the reproductive system, cell division occurs within the ovaries and testes to
produce gametes (sperm and egg cells)
• Maturation
Maturation is the process of becoming mature. In humans, this refers to puberty

where sexual organs mature so that they are able to reproduce.
. .
TEACHER'S NOTE
. strongest in the human body. This is
The muscles in the uterus are some of the
because they need to be able to grow and contract to contain a growing foetus
and to push the foetus out during labour.
1. Copulation
Copulation is the act of sexual intercourse (procreation) when a man
inserts his penis into a woman's vagina.
2. Ejaculation
This is the release of the sperm into the woman's cervix during sexual
intercourse.
3. Ovulation
This is when a mature ovum (female egg cell) is released from the ovary
once a month.
4. Menstruation
If the ovum is not fertilised, the lining of the uterus is shed during
menstruation.
5. Fertilisation
When a male (sperm cell) and female (egg cell) gamete fuse (come
together) during copulation.
6. Implantation
In the reproductive system, this refers to the process when the fertilised
egg implants (attaches firmly into) the uterus lining.
...
90 Life and living

Health issues involving the reproductive system
Infertility: About 10% of heterosexual couples have problems falling pregnant
and may even be completely unable to sexually reproduce. This is infertility and
it affects both men and women.
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome: When a pregnant mother drinks alcohol during her
pregnancy, the alcohol may cause serious birth defects in the unborn baby. This
will affect the child throughout their entire life and in most cases cannot be
reversed.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Additional information on foetal alcohol syndrome can be viewed at this link:
bit.ly/14k6k4f
VISIT
. STDs and
Learn more about
sexual health: bit.ly/1cEtUlc
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): Many life-threatening diseases such as
HIV/AIDS, syphilis and gonorrhoea can be transferred during sexual intercourse.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• There are many complex systems functioning in our bodies.
• Each system has very specific organs and tissues that are key
components in making the system function optimally.
• Different processes take place that are dependent on the key
components in each system.
• There are various health issues that affect the systems of the body and
that can often be prevented with a healthy lifestyle and wise (informed)
life choices.
. Map
Concept
. .

.
.
REVISION:
.
1. What does digestion mean? [4 marks]

Breaking food into small soluble parts that can be transported in the blood
and absorbed by the cells.
2. List the four main processes involved in the digestive system. [4 marks]
Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption and Egestion.
3. Describe the different components of the digestive system and their
function. [15 marks]
• Mouth and oesophagus: food is chewed in the mouth and passed
through the oesophagus to the stomach
• Stomach: bolus enters the stomach where it is mechanically digested
through churning and chemically digested by gastric juices in the
stomach.
• Small intestine: most of the chemical digestion and absorption takes
place in the small intestine where food is chemically broken into tiny
pieces to be absorbed by the walls of the small intestine and
transported in the blood to the cells.
• Large intestine: water that is left after digestion in the small intestines
are absorbed in the large intestine and indigestible fibre is left to pass
through and faeces are formed.
• Rectum and anus: undigested fibre and substances (faeces) passes
from the large intestine to the rectum and anus from where it is
egested.
4. Diarrhoea is can be very dangerous in babies. Why do you think this is so?
How it can be prevented? [3 marks] .
Babies who have diarrhoea lose large quantities of undigested nutrients
and water in this way. Their bodies quickly dehydrate and they become too
listless to feed or drink, dehydrating their bodies even further. If they do
not get medical attention they may die. This can be prevented by sterilising
their bottles and feeding equipment to prevent the transfer of the bacteria
that cause diarrhoea.
5. Distinguish between inhalation and exhalation. [2 marks]
Inhalation: breathing in; exhalation: breathing out.
6. Is carbon dioxide in your body excreted or egested? Explain why you say
so. [3 marks]
Egestion is the removal of undigested substances and fibre from the body;
Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism, including
cellular respiration. Since carbon dioxide is a waste product of cellular
respiration it is excreted.
7. Draw a simple diagram to show how blood is circulated around the body in
a closed system. [10 marks]
8. What is the difference between breathing and respiration? [5 marks]
Breathing: taking air into and out of the body through the mouth, trachea,
bronchi and lungs.
Respiration: occurs at the cellular level when oxygen is taken into the cells
where it is used to release energy from food; carbon dioxide is a by-product
of this and it is returned to the blood and sent to the lungs to be exhaled.
9. Give two parts of your musculoskeletal system you use when you have to
climb stairs. [3 marks]
Muscles contract and relax to move the bones at the joints and allow for
locomotion. Tendons and ligaments are also used.
. .

10. What are the functions of the bones in the skeleton? [2 marks]
Bones are an attachment place for muscles and provide protection and
support.
11. Drugs and alcohol have various negative effects on the body. List at least
3. [3 marks]
Learners were exposed to various negative effects and should refer to
these in this answer. These may include any of the following among others:
• Dependence on the drug / alcohol make it almost impossible to
withstand cravings and the addict will do almost anything to get
money to buy more.
• Organ damage and ultimately organ failure and death.
• Reduced brain activity and harm to brain cells, leading to seizures,
impaired vision and motor coordination, blackouts, etc.
• If using intravenously the user stands a big chance of infection by HIV
and other infectious diseases. .
• Stimulant drugs like nicotine and cocaine affect the respiratory system.
• Smoking also affect almost every other system in the body - vascular,
skin, etc
• etc
12. Explain why it is so dangerous for a pregnant woman to drink alcohol
during pregnancy. [2 marks]
If a pregnant woman used alcohol during the pregnancy, this may cause
deficiencies, Foetal Alcohol Syndrome and physical and central nervous
system abnormalities in the baby. These effects are permanent and
irreversible.
Total [56 marks]
...
94 Life and living

3 Human reproduction
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
2 weeks
After looking at several of the organ systems within the human body in
overview in Chapter 2, the next three chapters will now look at some of these
systems in more detail.
This chapter on "Human reproduction" starts off by looking at the purpose of

reproduction and how humans mature during puberty in order to be able to
reproduce. This will be very relevant to your learners as they are in this stage in
their lives at the moment.
Be aware that learners might not feel comfortable discussing reproduction in

the classroom, and older teens might laugh or make inappropriate jokes to
conceal their own discomfort.
Some tips for when teaching human reproduction:
1. Respect your learners' questions and concerns. Some of them may not
have had an opportunity before to ask questions about reproduction,
especially if their parents did not feel comfortable discussing this with
them. This is a sensitive topic, and learners might be embarrassed to ask
questions. Encourage your learners to ask questions and not be
embarrassed. Learners must be told . to phrase their questions carefully and
to use scientific words, with no vulgar expressions. You yourself, as the
teacher, must only use scientific terms.
2. Discuss processes openly so that learners are comfortable within the
classroom environment to talk and learn about reproduction and how it
influences their lives. Discourage and discipline any laughing or
disrespectful behaviour from other students.
3. Possibly bring in a guest speaker. Learners might feel more comfortable
asking a stranger questions. Also, if you bring in an expert, such as a
gynaecologist or midwife, learners might take the subject more seriously.
item If necessary, you can separate boys and girls. For example, if you are
showing a graphic video about the female reproductive organs, it might be
useful to have the boys watch a similar video in another room that explains
the male reproductive organs.
4. Avoid portraying the reproductive system in a negative light or as
"forbidden" as this will only add to some of the discomfort that learners
might already feel. At this stage in their lives, learners are already very
interested in reproduction and the changes that their bodies are going
through. This is natural and should be embraced so that they are educated
and can make informed choices about their sexual health going forward.
5. Here is a website to do some further reading: bit.ly/1cfWcTS
96
3.1 Purpose and puberty (2 hours)

Optional
Activity: Reflecting on Identifying, predicting,
population growth writing
3.2 Reproductive organs (1 hour)

Activity: Identify the
role of the male and Suggested
Identifying, writing
female bodies in
reproduction
Activity: Identify Identifying, describing, CAPS suggested

structure and function explaining, writing
Suggested
Activity: Comparing the Comparing,
reproductive organs summarising, writing
.
3.3 Stages of reproduction (3 hours)
Activity: Flow diagram

Summarising, CAPS suggested
of the pathway of
describing
sperm
Activity: Comparing
Comparing, Suggested
fertilisation and
summarising, drawing
menstruation
Working in groups,
Activity: Debate CAPS suggested
discussing, debating,
Surrogacy
presenting, writing
Activity: Describing Optional

Identifying, describing
different contraceptives
Optional
Working in groups,
Activity: Forum
discussing, debating,
discussion
presenting, writing
. .
Chapter 3. Human reproduction 97

..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is puberty and what does it mean when we "reach puberty"?
• Why do we all go through puberty at different times and rates?
• What changes take place inside our bodies during puberty?
• What do our reproductive organs look like when they are mature?
• How does reproduction occur?
• What is menstruation and why does it occur once a month?
• How does a baby grow inside a woman's uterus?
• Are there ways to prevent pregnancy and the transmission of STDs?
At this stage in your life, your body is probably going through all sorts of
changes as it grows, develops and matures. In this chapter we will learn more
about these changes and why they occur.
3.1 Purpose .and puberty
The purpose of reproduction

You have previously learnt that reproduction is one of the seven life processes,
and like all organisms, humans need to reproduce to ensure the survival of the
species.
ACTIVITY: Reflecting on population growth

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You can use this section to open up discussion
. about population growth and
population control. At the end of the chapter there is a debate regarding
contraceptives but teachers may choose. to include a discussion on the different
ethical points of view regarding contraceptives at this point already.
Have a look at the website link provided in the visit box about our "Breathing
Earth". This will give you an idea about how our population is growing.
In 2011 the world's population grew to 7 billion people, one billion more since
1999. Medical advances and increases in agricultural production (food) allow
more and more people to live longer lives.
...
98 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An interesting suggestion if you have an internet connection and a projector or
smartboard to display a website, is to open up the link provided here in the visit
box on our "Breathing Earth". This simulation very clearly shows how our
population is growing. You can open up the link at the start of the lesson and
leave it running for the duration. Then at the end of the lesson, you can see how
much the population of the world has grown . during your one lesson.
Alternatively, if you do not have an internet connection in your classroom, ask
some of your learners to take out their mobile phones and go to the site. Even if
you only have a few mobile phones within the classroom, you can get learners
to each take a look at the site at the start and end of the lesson. Do not be
afraid to embrace the technology that your learners are using on a daily basis!
They most likely have their cellphones in their pockets in class anyway, unless
they have been banned during school hours.
In ancient times, countries such as India, Rome and Greece, saw a large
population as a source of power. The Romans even made laws about how many
babies a couple could have and punished those who did not follow the rules.
Yet Confucius (551-478 BC) thought that too many people was a problem, as
there wouldn't be enough food to feed everyone, leading to war and famine and
various other problems. Today in China this philosophy still applies and couples
are only allowed one baby and are heavily taxed if they have more than one.
South Africa's population grew by 15,5%, or almost 7-million people, in the

space of 10 years to reach a total of 51.7-million in 2011. This is according to the
country's latest national census which took place in 2011. The last census took
place 10 years previously in 2001. .
QUESTIONS:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
These questions are meant to stimulate discussion within your class. You can go
through these as a class or learners can then do them individually and then
discuss their answers.
1. List any possible reasons why you think South Africa would want to have a
large population. VISIT
Learner-dependent answer. Might include: more people so more
Video on our world
manpower and more taxes; might include religious or cultural bias; etc.
population growth.
2. What are some advantages and disadvantages to the country in which the .
bit.ly/16DDIpB
number of children per couple is limited so that the population growth is
limited? A simulation to show
Advantages: lower population growth; lower pressure on the country's population growth
resources; lower drain on resources, particularly on the education bit.ly/19kSnvE
resources; higher standard of living for families
Disadvantages: fewer people to pay taxes; religious or cultural
non-compliance might lead to revolt
3. Predict what possible long-term problems might arise if the population in
South Africa continues to grow at the fast rate at which it is currently
growing.
..
. .

With fewer resources to go around many might starve and since they might
not have work or social grants to support them. Unemployment would
increase even more. This might also lead to increased crime as people try
to provide for themselves and their children, as well as drug and alcohol
abuse as a coping mechanism.
4. Have a look at the following diagram which shows the percentage growth
a country's population in a year. The different colours give an indication of
the growth rate, as shown in the key. For example, countries which are
colour coded yellow, have an annual growth rate of 3%. This means their
population increase by 3% each year. Answer the questions which follow.
Percentage growth rate of each country.
1. Which continent would you say has the largest percentage growth rate
VISIT each year? Justify your answer.
Africa has the largest population growth rate. This can be seen as it has the
. of
The science
largest number of countries which are coloured green and yellow which
overpopulation (video).
shows the highest annual percentage growth rate.
bit.ly/13Q6VPn
2. Many countries in Europe are coloured light purple in the diagram. What
does this mean?
Learners need to look at the legend to see that light purple means a growth
rate of "< 3%". This means the growth rate is negative which means the
population size is decreasing each year.
3. Various population control methods are put in place around the world -
contraceptives to stop women from falling pregnant, abortion clinics, large
tax incentives to convince people not to want more children, and others.
What is your opinion about population control methods and do you think
they should be allowed in modern society?
Learner-dependent answer.
.
What is the purpose of puberty?

The human body is geared towards reproduction to ensure the survival of the
species. Men have to produce sperm and ensure that they come into contact
with a female egg cell. Women have to produce (and store) egg cells that can
be fertilised by a male sperm cell.
Children's bodies and sexual organs are not mature and cannot yet perform the
reproductive function. Puberty is therefore the time when a child's body
develops and changes. The sexual organs mature to enable the body to
produce sex cells. These sex cells are called gametes.
...
100 Life and living

How does puberty just "start"?
Puberty is the stage in the life cycle of humans when we become capable of
sexual reproduction. Girls and boys do not, generally, go through puberty at
exactly the same time. So how does puberty "start"?
Many of the complex actions that take place in our bodies are controlled by
chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones are produced by different
glands in our bodies. The pituitary gland is an important gland which controls
most of the body's hormones and hormonal activities. It is about the size of a
pea and located at the base of the brain.
Puberty is brought on when the pituitary gland releases specific hormones into
the bloodstream. These hormones then travel to the immature sex organs and
signal the hormones in these to be released.
In girls, the ovaries are stimulated by hormones released by the pituitary gland
to release the hormone oestrogen. In males, the testes are stimulated to release
the hormone testosterone. These hormones initiate all the bodily changes that
you experience during puberty.
What changes during puberty? VISIT

Visit this interactive site to
The main purpose of puberty is for the sexual organs to mature. However, the .
explore the changes that
hormones which are released from the reproductive organs also start a number
occur during puberty
of other changes in the human body. We call these secondary sexual
bit.ly/1cpBnFI
characteristics.
VISIT
Puberty brings about the following secondary changes in females:
This animation shows the
• Breasts start to develop that may be used for breastfeeding a baby after .
position of the pituitary
childbirth. gland (the pink gland)
• Pubic hair starts to grow at the onset of puberty. Underarm hair also starts bit.ly/15qfVXa
to grow.
• Menstruation occurs in girls in a monthly cycle once they reach puberty.
• Body shape also changes due to the rising levels of oestrogen in the body.
• Body odour and acne develop as more oil is secreted and the smell of
sweat in the body changes.
. .

TAKE NOTE At the start of puberty boys are, on average, 2 cm shorter than girls, yet adult
.
Testes is plural and testis is
men are approximately 13 cm taller than adult women. Puberty brings about the
singular.
following secondary changes in males' bodies:
• Testicle and penis size increases.

• Hair starts to grow on the pubic areas, the limbs, chest and the face.
• Voice becomes deeper as the larynx (voice box in your throat) grows.
• Body shape changes occur as the skeletal muscle and bones increase in
size and shape.
• Body odour and acne start to develop, as with females.
Let's take a look at the reproductive organs.
.
3.2 Reproductive organs
Let's take a closer look at the male and female reproductive organs to see how
they are structured and what functions they perform.
ACTIVITY: Identify the role of the male and female

bodies in reproduction
.
In the space below, explain what you think the role of the male and female
bodies are in reproduction.
1. The male body has to ... .

The male body has to produce sperm and deliver this sperm to the female
body in order for it to come into contact with the female egg (ovum).
2. The female body has to...
The female body has to produce ova (egg cells). Once a month, one egg
cell is released and if a sperm cell penetrates the outer layer of the egg cell,
fertilisation can take place. This may then lead to pregnancy and the
female body adapts to provide for all the needs of the unborn baby before
giving birth.
...
102 Life and living

TAKE NOTE
Male reproductive organs As you learn about the
reproductive organs,think
The male reproductive organs include: .
carefully about
theirstructure and how their
structure is adapted to their
function.
1. Testes and scrotum
Males are born with their two testes hanging outside their bodies. The testes in
young boys do not produce sperm. During puberty the two testes release
testosterone which then triggers the production of sperm.
The two testes are each contained in a pouch of skin called the scrotum. The
scrotum ensures that the testes are kept at a constant temperature of 35°C
which is the temperature at which sperm is produced.
2. Sperm duct (vas deferens)
Different tubes (ducts) carry the semen from the testes to the penis. The sperm
duct carries the sperm from the testes to the urethra in the penis. TAKE NOTE
Some cultures have the
3. The penis . called
foreskin removed,
circumcision. This is done
The penis is the external sex organ. The head is often covered by a loose fold of
when the boy is a baby or at
skin called the foreskin. The penis needs to be erect (stiff and hard) to be able
puberty.
to go into the vagina to deliver the sperm to the cervix during ejaculation.
4. Urethra
The semen moves through the urethra to the outside during ejaculation. The
urine passes through the urethra during urination, but the semen and urine do
not move through the urethra at the same time.
ACTIVITY: Identify structure and function

.
1. Study the diagram of the male reproductive system. Label each part using
its correct scientific name. .
2. In the table, identify the function(s) of the male reproductive organs
mentioned.
3. In the last column, suggest how you think the structure of the organ is
adapted to perform the function most effectively.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This question starts to delve into the relationship
. of structures that are adapted
to function. Learners need to LINK structure to function when examining any
organ. This is an extension activity and requires learners to apply the
knowledge they have just learnt.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Reproductive Function Adaptation
Organ
Penis During sexual . The penis is on the outside of
intercourse, the penis the male body, and it is
becomes erect and elongated so that it can insert
delivers the sperm into into the vagina and deliver the
the cervix of the vagina. sperm into cervix. The penis
contains the urethra and
becomes erect so that it can
insert into the vagina.
.
Testes and The testes produce the The testes need to be at 35 o C,
scrotum sperm and the scrotum which is lower than body
hold the testes outside temperature, in order to
of the body. produce sperm. The testes are
therefore outside of the male
body and hang in the scrotum,
which can adjust the
temperature of the testes so
that the right temperature is
maintained in order to produce
sperm.
.
...
104 Life and living

Female reproductive organs
The female reproductive organs include:
1. Vagina
The vagina is a tube that connects the uterus with the outside of the body.
During intercourse the vagina acts as a canal for the penis to fit into to deliver
sperm. Once a month, during menstruation, the menstrual blood leaves the
body through the vagina. It is also the birth canal during childbirth when it
stretches to allow the baby to pass through.
2. Uterus
The uterus is hollow with extremely strong muscular walls that can carry and
protect a baby. Two oviducts (Fallopian tubes) at the top of the uterus, connect
it to the ovaries. The bottom neck of the uterus is called the cervix, which is
tightly closed to protect the inside of the uterus.
3. Ovaries
There are two ovaries on either side of the uterus. They produce oestrogen and TAKE NOTE
contain the ova. Each month the ovaries take turns to produce a mature ovum. .
The plural of ovum is ova.
This is called ovulation.
4. Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)
The uterus and ovaries are connected through a pair of muscular tubes called
the oviducts or Fallopian tubes. The mature ovum travels into these tubes to
the uterus. Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct.
ACTIVITY: Comparing the reproductive organs

.
1. Explain how the structures of the vagina, cervix and uterus are specially
adapted to fulfil their functions.
The vagina is elastic and muscular so . it can contain the penis during
intercourse to prevent the sperm from running out. The cervix is situated at
the top of the vagina approximately where the penis' ejaculated sperm will
be. It is tightly closed to protect the uterus. It carries the sperm into the
uterus which has a thick, blood-rich lining, ready for the implantation of the
fertilised egg.
. .

2. Provide at least 2 reasons why the uterus needs to have strong muscular
VISIT walls.
The uterus needs to protect and carry the unborn child during pregnancy
. the female
Learn more about
and it needs to contract and push out the baby during childbirth.
reproductive system at this
3. Compare the position and functions of the ovaries with that of the testes.
site: bit.ly/1cWaGpM
Create a table to show these differences.
A possible table that learners might produce:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Differences between the female ovaries and the male testes
Characteristic Ovaries Testes

Position Inside the body Outside the body
Hormones produced Oestrogen. Testosterone
When gametes are Females are born Males only start to

produced with ova in. their produce sperm once
ovaries which they reach puberty
mature once puberty
is reached
Number of gametes Release one ovum Produce thousands
released/produced per month of sperm daily
Hormone influence Hormones in the Only start to

ovaries stimulate the produce sperm
ovum which are under the influence
already present so of the hormones
that they mature
3.3 Stages of . reproduction

We have already mentioned most of the processes that take place during
reproduction. These processes occur in stages. Let's first have a look at the
female reproductive cycle.
The reproductive cycle

The female reproductive cycle repeats every 28-30 days to release an egg cell
to be fertilised if sperm are present. This cycle will repeat for many years from
puberty to menopause (when the reproductive cycle comes to an end).
The processes that occur will differ depending on whether the ovum is fertilised
or not. After ovulation, if fertilisation does not occur, the reproductive organs
'reset' through menstruation to start the process again.
...
106 Life and living

Ovulation VISIT
Learn how to create an
Once a month, one of the ovaries releases one mature ovum into the oviduct.. ovulation calendar to keep
track of a menstrual cycle.
This process is called ovulation. At the same time the uterus wall thickens and .
bit.ly/19WfMCU
develops extra blood vessels. This is in preparation for the possible implantation
of a fertilised egg. Learn more about the
menstrual cycle:
Menstruation bit.ly/14k7tc2
When there is no fertilised egg cell (zygote) to implant in the uterus, the thick
layer of blood and tissue is no longer needed. It is passed out through the
vagina during menstruation. The entire process is called the menstrual cycle
and it normally repeats every 28-30 days.
Fertilisation
During sexual intercourse the erect male penis enters the female vagina. This is
called copulation. TAKE NOTE
There are times in the
The male penis deposits sperm into the female vagina through ejaculation. menstruation cycle near to
There can be millions of sperm cells in one ejaculation, but only one will be able ovulation when there is a
to penetrate the outer membrane of the ovum. .
high chance of becoming
pregnant. All girls need to
After ejaculation into the vagina, the sperm swim into the cervix and through
be aware of where they are
the uterus to the oviducts. Once inside the oviducts, the sperm swim to meet
in their own menstrual cycle
the mature egg that was released from the ovaries and is now travelling
as each cycle differs slightly.
towards the uterus.
One sperm cell burrows into the surface of the ovum. Only the sperm's head
enters, the tail stays outside. As soon as one has penetrated the outer layer, the
surface of the ovum changes and no more sperm will be allowed to enter.
This process is called fertilisation and it takes place in the outer part of the
oviduct, and not in the uterus or vagina.
Once the sperm on the right has entered the outer layer of the ovum, no more sperm will
be able to penetrate.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Comparing fertilisation and

menstruation
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Use the following diagram to compare what happens when an egg is

fertilised compared to when it is not fertilised. You can even use coloured
pens if you have.
2. Use labels and arrows to illustrate on the left hand side what happens to
the ovum if it is fertilised by a sperm cell.
3. Use arrows and labels to illustrate on the right hand side what happens if
the ovum is not fertilised and the woman subsequently menstruates.
VISIT
.
Video on fertilisation and
early development.
bit.ly/11WbMNR
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The following diagram shows an example of something that the learners might
produce. Learners might battle to do this.
. A suggestion is to produce a sketch
on the board and go through it with them, filling in the annotations. Do not
simply draw it up and get learners to copy down the answers. Ask for their
input and possibly get different learners to come up to the board to draw in
different stages.
...
108 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
..
.
.
ACTIVITY: Flow diagram of the pathway of sperm

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Use a flow chart to track the progress of a sperm cell from the testes in the
male body to the ovum in the female body.
2. Use the space below to draw your flow diagram. Remember to draw
arrows.
3. Use the following terms in your flow
. chart, in the correct order.
a) Cervix
b) Uterus
c) Urethra
d) Penis
e) Testes
f) Sperm duct
g) Oviduct/Fallopian Tube
h) Vagina
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The following flow chart can be used as a reference for learners' flow charts:
..
Pregnancy and birth

Pregnancy begins the moment the female egg cell is fertilised by the male
sperm cell. This is then called a zygote.
The zygote will then start to divide and

grow as it moves down the oviduct. It
will then implant in the uterus lining,
where it will continue to grow. The
fertilised egg is now called an embryo
and undergoes cell division over and
over again. This forms a cluster of cells
VISIT with the different cells differentiating
This video shows the
to become the specialised cells, tissues
.
development of a baby from
and organs that make up the human
fertilisation to birth
body. An 8-cell human embryo on day 3 after
fertilisation.
bit.ly/14Fd57z
Where the embryo implants into the spongy, blood-vessel rich lining of the
uterus, some of the cluster of cells that formed after fertilisation form the
placenta. The placenta is partly formed by the mother and partly by the
embryo. The embryo develops an umbilical cord to attach itself to the placenta.
The embryo can receive food and oxygen and remove its wastes through the
umbilical cord and placenta.
...
110 Life and living

VISIT
.
Video on fertilisation and
The foetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord. early pregnancy.
bit.ly/19WfV9m
In humans, pregnancy is about 40

weeks (9 months). We call this the
gestation period. Towards the end
of the pregnancy, the uterus starts
to contract. This pushes the head of
the foetus into the vagina (birth
canal). After the head has appeared
the rest of the body comes out
quite quickly. The last to come out
A newborn baby. is the placenta.
ACTIVITY: Debate Surrogacy

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an optional activity, depending on your class.
Many couples, for various reasons, are unable to fall pregnant. A surrogate
mother can be impregnated with the couple's fertilised embryos and can
therefore carry the couple's baby to full .term. South African law only allows
certain individuals to do this, it is not just available to anybody.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work in groups of 6.
2. Debate the issue of surrogacy in your group. Base your debate on the
ethical concerns below or any others you may think of.
3. Appoint a spokesperson for the group.
4. Each of the groups' spokesperson must then share their groups points of
view with the class.
5. Debate these issues in the class.
There are many ethical issues concerning surrogacy:
. .

• In many cases, the surrogate mother is paid to grow the baby inside her
body. Often it is women who are poor that agree to be surrogate mothers
and it is suggested that people who pay them to carry their babies are
exploiting them. Should women be paid to be pregnant and deliver babies?
• In certain religions, surrogacy (including the donation of sperm and ova) is
seen as "highly immoral" because it. involves the intrusion of a third person
on a couple's relationship. Should religious institutions be allowed to
prevent surrogacy in this way?
1. Use the following lines to write down some notes on any other points your
group discusses:
.
Influences on the unborn baby

During pregnancy, what the mother eats, drinks and takes into her body has
been shown to directly affect the unborn child. Other substances like smoking,
alcohol and drugs have a negative influence on an unborn baby.
The placenta transports nutrients and oxygen to the foetus, and removes
metabolic waste products and carbon dioxide. However, it cannot differentiate
between nutrients and harmful products, such as nicotine, alcohol or drugs. If
VISIT the mother uses these substances during pregnancy, they will most likely pass
. of
The University
through the placenta to the foetus causing great harm to the unborn child.
Stellenbosch has a website
Pregnant mothers who drink alcohol during pregnancy may cause irreversible
on FAS bit.ly/16DEdQk
birth defects in their unborn babies. This is called Foetal Alcohol Syndrome.
Prevention of pregnancy and contraceptives

Anyone who is sexually active and who wants to prevent an unwanted or
unplanned pregnancy can take certain precautions.
There are a range of different contraceptives that can be used to prevent

pregnancy. There are four different types of contraceptives:
1. barrier - physically prevent sperm from reaching uterus
2. hormonal -prevent ovulation and fertilisation in the female using hormones
3. intra-uterine devices- prevent the embryo implanting
4. sterilisation - by surgery in men and women which is permanent and not

reversible
...
112 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Describing different contraceptives

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It may be possible to get examples of these
. different types of contraceptives
for the learners to have a look at. Many clinics will have samples that can be
used for educational purposes. They are normally very willing to hand out stock
that has passed its expiry date and is only to be used for educational purposes.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. In the following table, several different types of contraceptives have been

listed, along with a picture and description.
2. You need to read the information, look at the images and classify the types
of contraceptive as one of the following:
a) barrier
b) hormonal
c) intra-uterine device
d) sterilisation
TAKE NOTE
. against, so
'Contra-' means
. 'contra-ception' means
.
against conception.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Contraceptive Description Classification
These thin sheaths of rubber Barrier
Male condoms are placed over the erect penis
before inserting it into the
vagina. When the male
ejaculates the sperm and
seminal fluid is caught in the
condom and cannot enter the
cervix.
.
The diaphragm is a small rubber Barrier
Diaphragm cap that is placed at the
entrance to the uterus before
sexual intercourse to create a
seal and prevent sperm from
entering the uterus.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Contraceptive Description Classification
A surgical procedure in women Sterilisation
Tubal ligation in in which the the oviducts are
women cut and tied which prevents
mature eggs from reaching the
uterus for fertilisation.
Often referred to as "the Pill", it Hormonal

Oral contraceptive is taken every day by mouth. It
pill contains a combination of
female hormones which
prevents ovulation each month.
.
A small 'T'-shaped device is Intra-uterine
Female intra-uterine inserted into the
. uterus and device
device (IUD) prevent fertilisation. It is a
long-acting, reversible
contraception as the device
may be removed again. It is not
suitable for women who have
not yet had a baby and must be
inserted by a doctor.
A surgical procedure in males in Sterilisation

Vasectomy which the vas deferens is cut
and tied. Sperm are therefore
prevented from becoming part
of the ejaculate.
...
114 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some intra-uterine devices can also be classified as hormonal as they contain
..
progesterone. The progesterone also prevents fertilisation, by increasing the
cervical mucous, suppressing the endometrium and sometimes also inhibiting
ovulation. The IUDs with copper are non-hormonal and also prevent fertilisation
as the copper acts as a natural spermicide within the uterus.
.
.
Sexual intercourse with many different partners is very risky behaviour as there
are many diseases that are transmitted through the fluids involved in the sexual
act. We call these Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs). There are many
different STDs, for example; HIV/AIDS, Herpes virus, Syphilis, Gonorrhoea and
genital warts.
Being faithful to one partner limits your chances of contracting STDs. If you
know that your partner has an STD he or she can either get medical treatment VISIT
for this and/or you can take the necessary precautions to prevent contracting
Need to know. more about
the disease. One of the most popular precautions to prevent the transmission of
STDs? bit.ly/19kSRSg or
STDs is for the male partner to wear a condom. However, condoms can break
bit.ly/14Fd9Ex
and this can expose you to an STD, so you still have to be careful.
Choices regarding unwanted pregnancies

Many women who become pregnant might feel that they do not want or cannot
care sufficiently for their unborn baby. Some may feel that they do not have the
money to support another baby if they already have other children. When
teenage girls become pregnant, many might feel that they would still like to
complete their schooling and could not also raise a child. Other women might
not want the baby as it might possibly be a result of rape or incest. Many
women have many different reasons why they do not want to be pregnant or
raise a child.
There are of course various choices that they can make in such a situation.
• Adoption - where the baby is given to another family who want to adopt
him or her.
• Leaving the baby in a place of safety while remaining anonymous. The
baby will then be put forward for adoption.
• Parenting - keeping the baby with the support of the extended family.
• Abortion - terminating the pregnancy by removing the embryo from the
mother's uterus.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The following activity will require learners to do some research and interviews
and then come back into class to hold a forum discussion. A suggestion is to
get learners to start doing some research . and thinking about the topics in the
days leading up to this lesson. Below is some more information on each of the
types of choices a woman is faced with when she experiences an unwanted
pregnancy. Read through this first so that you are familiar with the choices
before the lesson so that you can help learners with their forum discussions.
. .

• Adoption: Many couples in South Africa cannot have children of their own
for different reasons and therefore choose to adopt children as their own.
There are different organisations that help pregnant mothers who want to
give their unborn children up for adoption. The Department of Social
Services also helps pregnant mothers in the process of adoption. Adoptive
parents typically have to go through a very strict screening process to
make sure that they will be fit to raise a young child. When a mother (and
where possible the father) signs that their baby will be given up for
adoption, they have 60 days in which to change their minds before the
adoption goes through. During this time, the baby will be placed in special
foster care facilities or with foster families who will care for him or her until
they can go to their adoptive parents.
• Leaving the baby in a place of safety: Sometimes the parents of a

newborn baby, for various reasons, want to get rid of the baby. As a result,
many babies are found abandoned. Many organisations in South Africa are
trying to provide a safe haven for unwanted babies. One way they
approach this, is to provide a baby-safe drop off site where the mother
and/or father can place their unwanted baby in a special window with a
safety flap on the outside. However, this option has many legal
complications. Legally, the babies cannot easily be adopted because they
do not often have birth certificates. Since the parents usually cannot be
found, they cannot sign adoption papers. Although social workers will try
and find the parents to get them to sign the adoption papers, after a few
months they may put the baby forward for adoption without the parents'
signatures. The best option is therefore to go to a social worker and ask
them to help organise the adoption. This also protects the rights of the
child. .
• Parenting: Often when a woman (or teenage girl) realises that she is
pregnant, many thoughts rush through her head. If it is an unwanted or
unplanned pregnancy she is often filled with feelings of panic, anxiety and
fear for the future - for her and her unborn child. She may fear that her
parents or partner will abandon her and that she will then be on her own
and will have to care for the baby on her own. However, if she is able to
talk to her parents and partner, they may be able to find a solution to the
situation that will enable her to keep her baby. She may be able to raise
her child with the help of her or her partner's extended family. The most
important thing is to face her fear and discuss the situ ation to reach a
suitable decision.
• Abortion: Some women choose to have an abortion to end their

pregnancies. During an abortion, the developing embryo is removed from
the mother's womb. Chemical or physical processes can be used,
depending on the age of the embryo. Abortions can be risky, especially if
they are performed by untrained, unqualified abortionists. During an
abortion the mother may lose a lot of blood. Her cervix may also be
damaged or torn, or the uterus itself may be damaged during the
procedure. These complications are not common when the abortion is
performed by properly trained and qualified doctors and nurses in a clean,
sterile medical facility. However, sometimes pregnant woman go to places
where unqualified or untrained people perform the abortions. They are
typically performed in unclean, unhygienic conditions by people without
the proper medical training to know what to do in case of an emergency.
...
116 Life and living

Complications are very common here, with many of the woman
experiencing infections due to the dirty, unsterilised equipment. If
someone is considering an abortion, it is therefore very important that they
go to a professional abortion clinic .that meets very high medical standards
of cleanliness and well-trained staff. They should also speak to a caring
professional first, as aborting a child may have long term effects, like
feelings of guilt.
ACTIVITY: Forum discussion

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This activity relates to Life Orientation. This activity was specifically included at
the end of the section to allow for research to occur before the forum
discussion. Break the class up into groups of 6 and allow them to move into
different areas of the classroom, or perhaps even move outside if space permits.
Each group must then conduct their forum . discussion according to the
instructions and guidelines below.
You, the teacher, can spend a little time with each group to make sure they are
on track and discussing the topic. Use the notes provided on the different
options for an unwanted pregnancy if you need to provide a group with some
background information or some guidelines about what to discuss. Encourage
learners to express their points of view and why they believe something.
. .
TEACHER'S NOTE
An alternative is to have one discussion forum in the front of the class and give
different learners the chance to sit up front
. on the panel, and you can be the
moderator.
This activity does not need to be assessed and is more for personal education,
and a chance for learners to practise debating.
Hold a forum discussion regarding the choices women have when they do not
want to be pregnant or raise a child. Before the discussion, do research and
interviews with your parents or caregivers, with health professionals or ask your
Life Orientation teacher.
How to hold a forum discussion:
In a forum discussion, experts are asked to sit on a panel and give their opinion
about a particular topic. There are specific roles in a forum discussion:
• Moderator: This person keeps the discussion focused and on track.

• Participants: The experts. This will be you, the learners, after you have
conducted your research.
. .

1. Work in groups of 6.
2. Choose a moderator.
3. Discuss the different choices that women have regarding unwanted
pregnancies using the information you obtained from the interviews you
conducted.
Rules for a forum discussion:
1. The speakers need to take turns to give their opinions.

2. Treat everyone with dignity and respect. Speak politely.
3. Use the correct scientific terminology.
.
Record your findings:
Use the space below to record the findings from the forum discussion
explaining what choices women have when faced with an unwanted pregnancy.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
...
118 Life and living

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• The main aim of human reproduction is to produce babies to continue
the species.
• In human reproduction, two gametes (the sperm and egg cell) fuse
during conception to form a zygote, that will eventually become a new
baby.
• Puberty is the stage in the human life cycle when the sexual organs
mature and prepare for reproduction.
• The pituitary gland below the brain releases hormones that stimulate the
testes and ovaries to release hormones that will start the production of
sperm in the male and the maturation of ova (egg cells) in the female.
– In males, the hormone testosterone stimulates the testes to
produce sperm.
– In females, the hormone oestrogen stimulates the ovaries to
produce mature ova.
• Testosterone and oestrogen cause different secondary changes in the
body.
– Females begin to menstruate, grow breasts and grow pubic and
underarm hair, and may experience acne.
– Males grow hair on the pubic area, on the face, chest and
underarms, develop a deep voice and may develop acne.
• The male reproductive organs are: penis, sperm duct (vas deferens),
testes, scrotum and urethra. Sperm is produced in the testes.
• The female reproductive organs are: vagina, cervix, uterus, oviducts
(Fallopian tubes) and the ovaries. Ova are produced in the ovaries.
• Stages in the reproductive cycle include: ovulation→ copulation→
fertilisation → embryo implants in uterus → results in pregnancy →
gestation lasts 40 weeks → childbirth
• Pregnancy can be prevented by using contraceptives. Condoms
prevent the sperm from reaching the ovum and also prevent the spread
of STDs.
• Pregnant women have various options if they do not want to keep their
babies. Very early in the pregnancy they can undergo an abortion. They
may also give the baby up for adoption.
. Map
Concept
This concept map shows all that we have learned about reproduction in
humans. Complete it by filling in the blank spaces. You might find this
quite tricky, but you need to learn to "read" a concept map by constructing
sentences. For example, "Human reproduction can take place once sexual
organs are mature. They mature during puberty which is initiated by …..............
The …............ releases hormones which stimulate the ovaries and testes."
What is this gland which initiates puberty and releases hormones, and which
hormones do the ovaries and testes release? Fill this in below.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Explain the changes that occur to the male and female body during
puberty. [10 marks]
For females, these include: breasts develop, pubic hair starts to grow,
underarm hair grows, body shape changes, ovaries mature, acne develops
in some individuals. For males, these include: penis grows and becomes
larger, testes mature, pubic hair starts to grow, facial hair grows, underarm,
chest and back hair grows, voice deepens, acne develops in some
individuals.
2. Describe the hormonal control of the start of puberty. Name the organs
involved and the hormones. [5 marks]
At the onset of puberty, hormones are released into the blood (these
hormones were not specifically named at this level). These hormones travel
in the blood and stimulate the reproductive organs. In females, the ovaries
are stimulated to produce oestrogen and in males, the testes are stimulated
to produce testosterone.
3. At what stage of the reproductive cycle can one say that a woman is
pregnant? [1 mark]
When the egg has been fertilised by a sperm (ie fertilisation), the woman is
now pregnant.
4. There is a urban legend or myth that says that a girl cannot fall pregnant
the first time she has sexual intercourse. Think carefully about everything
you have learnt about conception and fertilisation, and discuss whether
this myth is true or false. [2 marks]
It can be true if the girl has sex before
. her reproductive organs have
matured and therefore before she is able to ovulate. In this instance she will
not be able to fall pregnant. If the woman's reproductive organs have
matured and she has started to menstruate and ovulate, then she can fall
pregnant after sexual intercourse, even if it is the first time. Thus in this
instance the myth is not true.
5. Explain why you think it is important for someone who considers becoming
sexually active to know how reproduction occurs in humans. [1 mark]
Learners need to indicate that once someone knows the facts about
conception they will be able to take (realistic) precautions to avoid
unwanted pregnancies and disease. The will also not believe all the myths
and make sensible decisions.
6. Imagine someone who has many sexual partners asks you for advice on
which contraceptive to use. What advice would you give them? [3 marks]
Someone who has many sexual partners stands a high risk of contracting
an STD. To prevent this and to prevent an unwanted pregnancy learners
should be able to say that they should use a condom during intercourse.
They could also possibly suggest that the person limits the number of
sexual partners that they have, and if they are in a relationship, then both of
them should remain faithful to one partner. Alternatively, if they do
continue with many partners, the person should try establish the status of
these partners before intercourse, and still use a condom. The person
should also be advised to have regular check ups to know their status.
7. Some people have religious reasons for not using contraceptives. Decide
whether you agree with them or not and why. Write a short letter to the
editor of local newspaper expressing your concerns about contraceptives
from this specific point of view. [6 marks]
...
122 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should be able to see the different points of view regarding this
issue and reference the debate on this topic that was held earlier in this
.
chapter. There is no right answer, rather the focus should be on the fact
that learners can justify their opinions and express themselves. They
should draw on this and write their letter in this frame of reference. NB:
Learners are not criticising anyone's religion or culture in this activity.
8. Do you think schools should teach learners about different contraceptives?

Why do you say so? [3 marks]
Learner-dependent answer. Check that learners are able to justify their
answer and provide a reason for what they think.
9. During pregnancy the pregnant mother needs to take care of herself in
order to provide a healthy and safe environment for the unborn child. Your
local clinic has asked you to produce a brochure that they can display in
their waiting room for first-time mothers. Write a detailed list of
instructions for a pregnant woman explaining what she needs to do to
keep herself and her unborn baby healthy.
. You can chose how you want to
do this - perhaps a list of "Do's" and "Dont's", or else provide some
headings under which you can list some instructions such as "Diet" ,
"Lifestyle", etc. [6 marks]
Learners should refer to the diet and lifestyle choices of the pregnant
mother, specifically noting that pregnant mothers who consume drugs and
alcohol, also pass these on to the unborn baby through the placenta,
resulting in irreversible damage to the unborn child. The mother should
therefore avoid these during pregnancy.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
this last question does not need to be assessed.
Total [37 marks]
.
.
. .

4 Circulatory and respiratory systems
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
1.5 weeks
Learners would have already had an overview of the circulatory and respiratory
systems in chapter 2. However, the overview introduced them in isolation,
whereas these two systems are very tightly integrated. This chapter will look at
these processes and associated organs in more detail and how the two systems
are linked.
4.1 Breathing (1 hour)

Activity: Main
components in the . CAPS suggested
Identifying
circulatory and
respiratory systems
Activity: Summarise Suggested
Summarising,
breathing using a flow
explaining
chart
4.2 Gaseous exchange (1.5 hours)

Dissecting, observing, CAPS suggested
Activity: Lung
describing, interpreting,
dissection
explaining
Activity: Drawing Suggested
gaseous exchange in Drawing, summarising
the alveoli
124
4.3 Circulation and Respiration (2 hours)

Dissecting, observing, CAPS suggested
Activity: Heart
describing, interpreting,
dissection
explaining
Activity: Feel your Suggested
blood rushing through Measuring, calculating
your body!
Activity: Tabulating Comparing, describing, CAPS suggested
differences between summarising,
the blood vessels interpreting,.
Activity: A circulation Optional
Working in groups
simulation!
Activity: Homework Suggested
activity to measure Measuring, calculating
your resting heart rate
Planning, investigating,
Investigation:
predicting, measuring,
Measuring and CAPS suggested
comparing, tabulating,
comparing heart rates
constructing graphs,
before and after
summarising,
exercise
interpreting, writing
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• Why do we have to breathe?
• Are our lungs like big balloons in our chest, or what do they look like?
• How does the oxygen in the air that we breathe in pass from our lungs
into our blood?
• How does blood move around our bodies and get to each cell to deliver
oxygen?
• We know that carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product in cellular
respiration, so how is it removed from our bodies?
• How are the circulatory and respiratory systems linked?
If we do not get oxygen for a few minutes, humans get permanent brain
damage and may die. Cell respiration needs a constant oxygen supply to
provide us with enough energy, so we constantly need to breath and keep
blood circulation going to deliver this oxygen and remove the carbon dioxide.
The respiratory and circulatory systems need to work together. Let's briefly
revise the main components involved.
. .
Chapter 4. Circulatory and respiratory systems 125

.
ACTIVITY: Main components in the circulatory and

respiratory systems
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the diagrams below.

2. Label the different components that form part of the respiratory and
circulatory system.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The labels for the diagrams should be as follows:
-We will now look at these two systems under the following processes:
• breathing
• gaseous exchange
• circulation and respiration
.
4.1 Breathing
We already learnt in Chapter 2 that breathing consists of two processes:
1. inhalation
2. exhalation
When we inhale we take in air with a high concentration of oxygen and when we
exhale we breathe out air that has more carbon dioxide in it. These processes
...
126 Life and living

take place in a continuous cycle.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Teachers should try and make sure the learners understand the concept that the
volume of the chest cavity changes the air pressure in the lungs and results in
inhalation and exhalation. During inhalation, the chest cavity expands (gets
bigger). When this happens the air pressure inside the lung decreases (because
there is the same amount of air in a bigger space). In order to equalise with the
air outside, air rushes in to the lungs. Similarly, when the chest cavity contracts
.
(becomes smaller) during exhalation, the air pressure inside increases, and the
air is pushed out to equalise with the atmosphere.
In order to explain this concept to learners you can use the example of a syringe.
(NB: Remove the needles from the syringes beforehand.) Air acts like the liquid
in this case. If you pull back on a syringe you increase the volume in the syringe,
and liquid moves into the syringe. If you push back on the syringe to decrease
the volume, you will push the liquid out. The syringe example may help learners
to understand that air is "sucked in" and "pushed out" by the changes in volume.
During inhalation the following takes place:
• The rib cage moves upwards and outwards.

• The diaphragm contracts and flattens causing it to move downwards.
• This causes the chest volume to increase and the pressure decreases.
• As a result the lungs are also pulled to become bigger.
• This allows the air to be pulled into the extra space inside the lungs.
During exhalation the following takes place:
• The rib cage moves downwards and inwards.

• The diaphragm also relaxes, causing it to become more dome-shaped
• This causes the chest volume to decrease and the pressure increases.
• As a result the lungs are squeezed smaller
• This forces the air out of the lungs.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Summarise breathing using a flow chart

.
A flow chart allows us to write short summaries of processes that take place.
When you study for a test or exam you can picture the flow chart in your head,
which often helps to trigger memories of what you learnt.
Use a flowchart to show how breathing (inhalation and exhalation) takes place.
You may chose your own design for the flow chart but it needs to show that
inhalation and exhalation occur in a cycle.
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should show the following in a cycle: Rib muscles contract → rib cage
moves up and out → diaphragm contracts . → diaphragm moves downwards
(flattens) → rib cage volume increases → lungs expand → take in more oxygen
→ rib muscles relax → rib cage moves downwards and inwards → diaphragm
relaxes → rib cage volume decreases → this pushes out the air from the lungs.
TAKE NOTE
The two tubes that branch
. are called
from the trachea During inhalation, air travels to the two bronchi - tubes that lead to each lung.
bronchi (plural) or a The bronchi are themselves branched (divided) into thousands of tiny
bronchus (singular). bronchioles. During exhalation, the reverse takes place as air leaves the lungs
and body.
This image shows how the larynx joins the trachea which branches into the bronchi within
the lungs.
What happens to the air within the lungs?

...
128 Life and living

.
4.2 Gaseous exchange in the lungs
VISIT
.
A video on gaseous
Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and in the cells of the body. The
exchange. bit.ly/13Znipl
structure of the lung is adapted to fulfil the function of gaseous exchange.
TAKE NOTE
Structure of the lung
The colours of the different
.
Although the lungs inflate during inhalation and deflate during exhalation, they bronchioles in the diagram
are not hollow. The lungs in a healthy individual are soft, pink and spongy. indicate air travelling to
different parts of the lungs.
External structure of the lungs Internal structure of the lungs
The alveoli look like small grape-like structures made up of many individual air
sacs. An big network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus. Have a look at the
following image showing this.
VISIT
Watch a video that shows
.
how gases are exchanged at
the alveoli bit.ly/14FdiI2
and bit.ly/11WcfzA
An alveolus is one air sac but a group together (plural) is called alveoli.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Lung dissection

.
If you are not able to do this in class, you can watch some of the videos showing
a lung dissection.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It is possible to learn about the function of lungs from the diagrams and pictures
.
supplied in the workbook. However, dissecting the real organ is hugely
beneficial to the learners and will help them to understand the structure of the
lungs and how this relates to their function. If however, you are not able to do
the dissection, you can watch some of the videos supplied.
MATERIALS:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This will depend on how many lungs you are able to obtain and how many
learners are willing to do the dissecting. .A suggestion is to break learners up
into groups, or else do the dissection as a demonstration in front of the class,
especially if you have a big class or many Gr. 8 classes. The following materials
are required for each dissection, whether in a group or to be done as a
demonstration.
.
• lung
• tray
• scalpel
• dissecting scissors
• rubber tubing (for example the Bunsen burner tubing) or hose pipe
• ruler
• beaker of water
• water and soap for washing hands
• disinfectant
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Sometimes the main sections of lung tissue are cut into at the abattoir (as part
.
of the inspection process). You can approach the butcher well in advance and
discuss what you need so that they can limit damage to the material and
provide lungs as whole as possible. Butchers often refer to it as 'pluck' which
contains the lungs and part of the heart.
VISIT
Health and safety tips:
. that shows
Watch this video
the structure of the lungs 1. The lungs may carry some bacteria. It is not necessary to wear gloves, as
bit.ly/17gByw6 we do not wear gloves when preparing meat in a kitchen, but you must
wash your hands thoroughly.
2. Clean all equipment and your work surface with disinfectant after the
dissection.
...
130 Life and living

3. Be careful when handling sharp equipment, such as the scalpel.
4. Decide how you are going to dispose of the lungs.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ethical issues
Before starting this lesson, find out if any. learners are sensitive to the use of
animal products in this way, or even to the fact that animals are farmed for
human consumption. Some learners may also have religious or cultural
objections to the dissection and handling of animal parts, especially cows and
pigs. You need to be aware of these issues and be sensitive to them.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Part 1: Preparation:
1. Place the lung on the tray on your workbench.

2. Make sure all your dissecting instruments have been disinfected and are
sharp. Lay them out next to your tray.
3. Make sure you have access to a first aid kit if necessary.
Part 2: External structure
1. Take note of the external structure of the lung. Look at the general shape,
colour and texture.
2. If you have access to a scale, measure the mass of the lung.
3. Use your ruler to measure the length of the lung.
4. Identify the following parts of the lung
.
a) The trachea (wind pipe) which is the main tube bringing air into and
out of the lungs
b) The hard rings in the trachea. What do you think these rings are for?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. and keep the trachea open so air can
These hard rings are are made of cartilage
move freely. Encourage learners to make notes of their observations
throughout the dissection.
5. The bronchi. There are two bronchi that branch off from the trachea - one
to each lung.
6. See if you can identify the first bronchioles branching off from the bronchi.
7. Are there any blood vessels visible that are attached to your lung? If so,
feel these vessels and describe what you feel.
8. Use the rubber tubing or straw or hose pipe and insert this into the tube
leading into the lung and hold the trachea tightly closed around the pipe.
Blow on the end of this tube to see if you can inflate the lung. Do not
breathe the air back into your own lungs!
Part 3: Internal structure VISIT
1. Using the scalpel and dissecting scissors, cut down into the lung. Visit this animation that
2. Observe the inner tissue of the lung and think how you would describe it. shows how air. is taken into
Discuss this with your group. the lungs and then gases are
3. Cut out a piece of the lung tissue and feel for tiny bronchioles (they feel like exchanged at the alveoli
little hard lumps in the soft lung tissue). Place this piece of lung tissue into bit.ly/14Fdeb8
a beaker of water. Observe the piece of lung tissue. Does it float or sink? ..
. .

QUESTIONS:
1. Write a description of the look, feel and colour of the lung you observed. If
you were able to measure the mass, write it down, and include the length
of the lung in centimeters.
2. What structures made the trachea stay open, but still able to bend?
The semicircular rings of cartilage.
3. When you cut the lung open, was it like a hollow balloon or bag, or was it
spongy inside? What else did you observe when you cut the lung open and
observed the inside?
The lung tissue is spongy. Learners might also observe other blood vessels
within the lung tissue and notice some of the bigger tubes running through
the tissue.
4. When you placed a piece of the lung tissue into water, why do you think it
floated? .
Learners should see that the piece of tissue floats. This is because the lung
tissue, even after an animal has died, contains a large amount of air within
all the alveoli, which makes it float in water.
5. When you blew air into the lung, what did it look and feel like? Did you
have to squeeze the lung to force the air out again?
When learners blew into the lungs, they should note that they expand, but
they are still soft to touch. Once inflated and left to lie on the table, some
of the air will escape as the tissue relaxes down, but not completely, and
learners might have to squeeze the lung to deflate it. Inflated lungs are
paler/more cream coloured (as blood vessels on the surface are squashed
flat and blood moves further into the lungs).
6. In a human, what is responsible for pushing the air out of the lungs?
In humans, the diaphragm relaxes and therefore moves upwards and the rib
cage also moves down and in. This reduces the volume of the chest cavity,
increasing the pressure on the lungs and therefore forces the air out of the
lungs.
.
The process by which gaseous exchange occurs is called diffusion.
How does diffusion work?

The movement of particles from an area where there is a high concentration to
where there is a low concentration is called diffusion.
In the lung, each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries. The two

VISIT gases which diffuse between the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries are
Watch an interesting clip
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
. molecule
about the amazing
• oxygen diffuses into the cells of the alveolus and then into the blood in
haemoglobin which
capillaries
transports oxygen around
• carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the cells of the alveolus,
the body! bit.ly/160vSHr
then into the air
...
132 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Drawing gaseous exchange in the

alveoli
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Draw a diagram to show alveoli surrounded by a capillary.

2. On this diagram, name the gases and indicate the direction in which the
gases diffuse.
3. Indicate whether the blood is oxygenated or deoxygenated in the
capillaries that travel towards and away from the alveolus.
1. Give your diagram a heading.

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The following diagram gives an example of something the learners might
produce. You can also draw this up on the board when describing oxygen and
carbon dioxide diffusion.
Possible headings that learners might write are:
• Gaseous exchange within the lungs

• Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen
. within the lungs
• Diffusion of CO2 and O2 between the alveolus and capillary
• etc
. .

4.3 Circulation .and respiration
Blood is continually circulated to support cell respiration. Let's have a look at
how this takes place.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The video link in the visit box on respiration is quite long (about 25 minutes),
but it could be a very good summary lesson.
Blood circulation from the lungs to the heart
The heart pumps the

blood around your body
by rhythmic, repeated
contractions. This is felt
as your heart beat.
The oxygenated blood

flows from the lungs to
the left side of the heart.
The left side then
contracts to pump the
blood out of the heart and
into the aorta. The aorta
is the main artery leaving
the heart.
Have a look at the

adjacent diagram which
shows how the blood
flows from the lungs to
the heart and then to the
rest of the body.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In the video in the visit box showing how. blood is circulated through the heart,
learners do not need to know about the heart valves and electrical control at
this stage - this is for interest only.
Let's take a closer look at the structure of this vital organ in the circulatory
system.
...
134 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Heart dissection

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners will look at the heart in much more detail in Gr. 10 Life Sciences where
the detailed structure of the heart will be. studied, including the the valves. This
activity is meant as an introduction to the structure of the heart and for learners
to experience a dissection. We suggest doing this as a demonstration as
learners will do this practical in Gr. 10 Life Sciences again.
MATERIALS:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It is important to be tolerant of learners religious, cultural or personal beliefs
which may prevent them from participating in this dissection, particularly if pig
is used. A suggestion is to break learners up into groups, or else do the
dissection as a demonstration in front of. the class. The following materials are
required for each dissection, whether in a group or when done as a
demonstration. The number of groups will depend on how many hearts you are
able to obtain and how many learners are willing to do the dissecting. For
learners who are unwilling to handle the. hearts, but still want to be involved,
they could take photographs of the heart at different stages of the dissection
using a digital camera or their mobile phone cameras.
• heart (sheep or pig)

• tray
• scalpel
• dissecting scissors
• rubber tubing (for example the Bunsen burner tubing) or straw
• ruler
• beaker of water
• water and soap for washing hands
• disinfectant
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Sometimes butchers will cut the blood vessels off the top of the heart, and may
also remove the atria and cut into the ventricles at the abattoir. Discuss your
needs with the butcher beforehand so that they can preserve the heart as much
as possible. You can sometimes even obtain . the heart and lungs together
(usually referred to as a 'pluck'), which is useful to see how the blood vessels
connect the organs. If you obtain hearts with long blood vessels, attached, cut
off some of these sections to keep for studies of veins and arteries. As with the
lung dissection, be sensitive to ethical issues and learners' concerns around the
use of animal products in this way.
. .

Health and safety tips
As with the lung dissection, the same health and safety tips apply to the heart
dissection.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Part 1: Preparation:
1. Place the heart on the tray on your workbench.

2. Make sure all your dissecting instruments have been disinfected and are
sharp. Lay them out next to your tray.
3. Make sure you have access to a first aid kit if necessary.
VISIT Part 2: External structure

Watch a video. showing the 1. Take note of the external structure of the heart. Look at the general shape,
structure of the heart colour and texture.
bit.ly/160w3T4
.
Two animal hearts on a tray.
2. If you have access to a scale, measure the mass of the heart.

3. Use your ruler to measure the length of the heart.
4. Identify the following parts of the heart:
a) There are blood vessels entering and leaving the heart (arteries and
veins). Arteries have much thicker, more rubbery walls than veins
which have thin walls. See if you can identify the difference.
b) Place your fingers inside the blood vessels to feel their texture and
strength. Look inside the main arteries and veins as well and describe
what you see to your group. Place your one finger down the aorta and
see if you can feel any structures. The following photo shows the aorta
opening.
Can you see the large opening of the aorta?
...
136 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners should be able to feel the valves at the base of the aorta. These will
become visible later when viewing the internal structure of the heart.
5. Examine the surface of the heart for blood vessels. Why do you think the
surface of the heart also has blood vessels attached to it?
Take note of the surface of the heart and the blood vessels attached to it.
VISIT
. Watch this video to see how
TEACHER'S NOTE .
blood is pumped through
the four chambers of the
The heart muscle also needs a supply of. blood and oxygen in order to function.
heart bit.ly/16DEtyM
This is supplied by the coronary arteries. Learners should be encouraged to take
notes in their workbooks or a separate notebook throughout the dissection.
6. Locate the atria and ventricles.

7. Locate which is the right and which is the left hand side of the heart.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
To locate which side is which in the heart,. learners must hold the heart so that
the coronary artery runs diagonally across the heart - this will be the the front.
Then the left / right ventricles are on either side of the coronary arteries.
Part 3: Internal structure
1. We are now going to cut into the heart to view the internal structure. Use
the following diagrams to help you orientate the heart before cutting.
2. Make a cut down the aorta and then through the left ventricle to the tip of
the heart. A tip is to first cut through the aorta using scissors, and then to
cut through the left ventricle using the scalpel. ..
. .

3. Once you have made the cut, pull the ventricle walls apart so that you can
view the inside. Can you see the structures at the base of the aorta that
you felt in Part 1 (step b)? What do you think these structures do?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The aortic valve prevents the backflow of blood into the heart once it has been
pumped out and into the aorta to travel to the rest of the body.
4. Look at the following diagram to make the second cut upwards into the
left atrium.
5. Using your ruler, measure the thickness of the left atrium wall and the left
ventricle wall. Write these measurements down.
6. You can now cut open the right side of the heart in the same way. Measure
the thickness of the right ventricle wall. The following diagram provides a
detailed overview of the internal structure of the heart. We have not
discussed all of these structures and you are not required to know all of
these. However, for this dissection, use this diagram to see how many of
these parts you can identify in your dissected heart. If you are able to
locate them in the actual heart, draw a ring around the label in the
following diagram.
...
138 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
At this stage, you can also point out some of the other valves to the learners.
This detail is not necessary to know, but it is very interesting when thinking
about how the heart functions as a very .efficient pump. Look at the areas where
the atria and ventricles join to locate the bicuspid valve between the left atrium
and ventricle, and the tricuspid valve between the right atrium and ventricle.
They should be visible as thin flaps of tissue with tough "threads" or cords
attached to the base of the flaps. The tricuspid valve on the right should have 3
flaps and the bicuspid valve on the left should have 2.
Diagram of the internal structure of the heart.
QUESTIONS:
1. Write a description of the look, feel and colour of the heart you observed.
If you were able to measure the mass, write this down, and include the
length of the heart in centimeters.
2. Write down the thickness that you measured for the left ventricle and
atrium walls. Why do you think there is a difference in the thickness of
these walls? Hint: Think back to where the atria have to pump the blood
and where the ventricles have to pump blood.
The ventricles have much thicker walls than the atria. This is because the
ventricles need to pump the blood much further and with more force to the
rest of the body, compared to the atria, which only pump blood into the
ventricles.
..
. .

3. Write down the thickness that you measured for the right ventricle wall.
Mention possible reasons for the difference in thickness between the left
and right ventricle walls. Once again, think about where each ventricle is
pumping blood to. .
The left ventricle should be thicker than the right ventricle. The left
ventricle has to pump blood to the whole body (systemic circuit), while the
right ventricle only has to pump blood to the lungs (pulmonary circuit).
.
Once the blood is pumped out of the heart, it enters the circulatory system in
TAKE NOTE the body.
Remember that arteries
.
carry blood AWAY from the
Blood circulation from the heart to the rest of the body
heart and veins carry blood
Once blood leaves the heart in the aorta, this main artery branches into smaller
towards the heart.
arteries which form a network throughout the body.
ACTIVITY: Feel your blood rushing through your

body!
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Later in this chapter learners are going do an investigation into their heart rate
at rest and after exercise and they will then need to be quite skilled in taking
.
their pulse and determining their heart rate. This activity is therefore included in
preparation for this. You can get learners to all find their pulse in the way they
find easiest. Once they have done this, get them to count their heart rate while
you time for 30 seconds, indicating "Stop" and "Start". To obtain their heart
rate at beats per minute, learners then multiply by 2.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Put your index (pointer) and middle. fingers against your neck in the hollow
between your trachea (windpipe) and the large neck muscles. Use your
finger tips as these are more sensitive. You should feel the throbbing of
your blood.
TAKE NOTE
A rate always measures
something over time. In this
activity we are calculating
heart rate as beats per
minute, as this
. is the most
standard measurement used
for heart rate. Can you think
of some other units of
measurements which
indicate a rate?
Measuring heart rate in the wrist.
...
140 Life and living

2. Can you find your pulse in your wrist? Place your middle and index fingers
just below the creases in the skin of your wrist - on the side of your thumb.
Press lightly until you feel the pulse which means the blood is pushing
under your skin.
3. You can also try and find your pulse behind your knee, on the inside of
your elbow or near the ankle joint.
4. Each throb of your pulse is when your heart pumps the blood from the left
side of your heart into the arteries of your body, causing the pressure in
the arteries to rise.
QUESTIONS
1. Count how many times your heart beats in one minute. Alternatively, count
your heart beats for 30 seconds while a friend or your teacher times you,
.
and write the number on the line below.
2. Now, calculate your heart rate in beats per minute and write your answer
on the line below.
Learner-dependent answer. Learners have to multiply the number of heart
beats in 30 seconds by two to calculate beats per minute.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Other units of measurement which indicate a rate are for example: km/h
(kilometers per hour), m/s (meters per second), flow rate of a river in l/s (litres
per second), etc.
.
.
Arteries then subdivide to form capillaries. Capillaries are in close contact with
the body cells. Capillaries are much smaller than arteries. They form a fine
network throughout the body's cells to make sure that all cells get a supply of
blood and oxygen.
The capillaries leaving the cells with deoxygenated blood then combine to form
form veins. Veins from the body carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
. .

TAKE NOTE Arteries
An exception to the rule of
arteries carrying oxygenated • Arteries transport blood away from the heart.
blood, are the pulmonary • Arteries transport oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary arteries).
.
arteries which carry • Arteries need to have strong muscular walls because they carry blood
deoxygenated blood away away from the heart under high pressure.
from the heart to the lungs
to become oxygenated.
Veins
• Veins transport blood towards the heart.

• Veins transport deoxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary veins).
• The blood is flowing back to the heart and therefore the blood pressure in
the veins is much lower.
Capillaries
• Capillaries form webs or networks around each cell to ensure that all cells
receive nutrients and oxygen.
• Capillaries are much smaller than veins and arteries.
This transmission electron micrograph shows a cross section through a capillary. The
semicircular black structure within the capillary is a red blood cell. This shows how small
capillaries are. They are only just wider than a red blood cell.
...
142 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Tabulating differences between the

blood vessels
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Compare arteries, veins and capillaries.

2. Use the following table in which to do this comparison.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Blood vessel Artery Vein Capillary
type
Image
Function Transport blood Transport blood Transport blood

to the rest of the from the body to from arteries to
body the lungs veins
Type of blood Oxygenated Deoxygenated Mixed

transported
Exceptions Pulmonary Pulmonary veins NA

arteries transport transport
deoxygenated oxygenated
blood blood
TAKE NOTE
. Page back to Chapter 1 of
.
Life and Living to refresh
your memory about the
Respiration within the cells structure of mitochondria.
Within the cells, the mitochondria use oxygen to respire. This is called cellular VISIT
respiration. .
An amazing summary video
on respiration.
• The mitochondria combine oxygen with food particles, such as glucose.
bit.ly/1bmhKdF
• Energy from the food particles is released and can be used by the cell to
perform various processes.
• During cellular respiration, carbon dioxide is released as a by-product.
The carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells back into the blood in the capillaries.
This blood therefore becomes deoxygenated as oxygen has been removed and
carbon dioxide is added.
. .

Blood circulation from the body back to the heart and lungs
The deoxygenated blood in the body then returns to the right side of the heart
through the veins in the circulatory system.
The right side of the heart pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lungs through
the pulmonary arteries.
ACTIVITY: A circulation simulation!

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Where possible teachers should set up the following activity in advance of the
class arriving. It is aimed specifically at 'kinetic' learners to make them 'walk the
circulatory system' in order to remember how it works.
Materials needed:
• 3 hula hoops, or something similar

• white A4 sheets
• coloured paper
• red and blue string
• prestik
Preparation for the lesson:
1. Cut up coloured paper into blocks - you will need two different colours
2. there should be enough blocks for .each learner in the class to have at least
one of each colour. .
3. one colour will represent oxygen and the other colour will represent
carbon dioxide.
1. Make the following signs on the back of recycled A4 pages - write in a

clear, neat font so everyone can see it.
2. Left side of heart
3. Right side of heart
4. Lungs
5. Arms and hands
6. Legs and feet
7. Brain
8. Stomach
9. Kidneys
10. Face
[There are many other body parts that could be included and teachers are
welcome to add to this list. For the purposes of this activity though time
constraints were considered and it was decided to add only those listed here.]
...
144 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
1. Obtain the use of a large, open space, either in your classroom, a hall, or
outside on the grass. Imagine a huge person is lying out on the space.
2. Lay out 2 hula hoops to represent the left and right side of the heart.
3. Place one more hula hoop above this to represent the lungs.
4. Lay out the signs on the A4 pages to illustrate where each of the body
parts will be in relation to the heart and lungs.
5. Stick red wool (for oxygen carrying vessels) and blue wool (for carbon
dioxide carrying vessels) with prestik or sellotape to the A4 posters (and
between them) forming a large circulatory system as in the diagram in the
activity. .
6. Leave a pile of red and blue blocks of paper at each body part - it works
well if you put these in ice-cream or yoghurt tubs
7. Learners start off in the lungs and will walk along the red lines to their
different body parts as if they are traveling in the blood vessel to deliver
oxygen. When they have delivered their oxygen (by dropping off the red
blocks and picking up blue blocks) they will then travel along the blue lines
to deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs and to get more oxygen.
8. As one learner leaves the lungs, send another one off so that you have
several learners walking through the system at any one point.
9. If you have a large class, let a couple of learners walk through at a time. If
you make the layout really big, then the whole class can form a long line of
individual blood cells and move through in a line.
We are going to create a simulation of our circulation!

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Imagine that you are a red blood cell and you will be carrying oxygen
around the body.
2. Your teacher will help your class to lay out the huge body in an open space
using A4 sheets with labels and hula hoops as in the following diagram.
3. There are two colours of paper blocks at each organ or body part and in
the lungs. One colour will represent oxygen (preferably red) and the other
colour will represent carbon dioxide (preferably blue).
4. Start off by standing in the lungs and pick up oxygen. You now represent
oxygenated blood.
5. Walk to the left side of the heart.
6. The heart now pumps you out to the body in the circulatory system. Leave
the left heart hula hoop and walk to the organ or body part you are going
to supply with oxygen.
7. When you reach the body part, drop off your oxygen block into the
container and now pick up a coloured block representing carbon dioxide.
You now represent deoxygenated blood.
8. Walk to the right side of the heart.
9. From here, the heart pumps you to the lungs. Walk to the lungs.
10. At the lungs, gaseous exchange takes place and you drop off the carbon
dioxide you were carrying and pick up oxygen again.
11. You can now repeat the cycle and walk to a different body part.
..
. .

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Make sure learners are able to visualise that they are forming a complete cycle
.
or system which repeats. If they are battling, you can walk through it with them
first to explain. The first time you could even demonstrate the activity by
starting in the lungs and getting learners to instruct you on where to walk to
next.
...
146 Life and living

Heart rate
Your resting heart rate is often used as an indicator of how fit you are or
whether there are possible health concerns that you should pay attention to.
ACTIVITY: Homework activity to measure your

resting heart rate
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Get learners to do this activity in the 3 days leading up to the lesson where you
will investigate the effect of exercise on heart rate.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Take your resting heart rate first thing when you wake up in the morning.
Record how many times per minute your heart beats.
2. Repeat this over 3 days to get an average - this is more reliable than a
.
once-off reading.
3. Record your resting heart rates in the table.
Heart rate (beats per minute)
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Average
We have now had a look at our heart rate when we are resting. But what
happens when we do some kind of physical activity? Will your heart rate
increase or decrease? Do you think you could use your heart rate as a measure
of how fit you are? Let's investigate!
. .

.
INVESTIGATION: Measuring and comparing heart

rates before and after exercise
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
For this investigation, the basic instructions are given below, and then learners
will have to design the investigation themselves. A suggestion is to break your
class up into big groups of at least 10 learners. They can then discuss how they
are going to do the investigation. Each learner must write down their own
method and design after they have discussed how they are going to do the
recordings within their group. The only materials that learners will need are
timing devices - you can either provide some stopwatches, or learners can use
the stopwatch on their mobile phones. If learners opt to run for example,
suggest running on the spot, as it will be difficult otherwise to control how far or
fast individual learners will run in 2 minutes. In general, fitter people have a
slower resting heart rate and return to their resting heart rate faster than unfit
people after a bout of exercise, but the focus
. for this activity should be that
learners take objective measurements and analyse the data that they collect
appropriately. Therefore if the findings of the investigation do not agree with
the expected results, full credit should still be given for an accurate
interpretation.
. will be conducting in Gr. 9. An

This is the first investigation that learners
interesting video to watch beforehand about the scientific method is given in
the visit box and titled "The times and troubles of the Scientific Method". It
could be an interesting class exercise to watch this video first and then have a
class discussion about learners' understanding of the scientific method. At
school level, the scientific method is taught in specific steps, but it is very
important for learners to also understand how science discoveries often take
place at university level and that they often happen by chance or as a side result
of another experiment.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Measure the heart rate of at least 10 learners in your class after they have done
2 minutes of skipping or running on the spot. Discuss in your group how you are
going to do this and write down your method. Record your measurements and
use a graph to display your findings. Make deductions about your class' fitness
levels based on their heart rates after completing the graphs and discuss the
benefits of exercise for the circulatory and respiratory system (also known as
the cardiovascular system).
AIM:
1. What is the aim of your investigation?

...
148 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The aim could vary slightly from one group to the next, but in general the aim is
to see what the effect is of exercise on heart rate and to make deductions about
class fitness.
A possible extension:
Investigate how quickly a learner's heart. rate returns to resting heart rate after
physical activity. This will indicate how much their heart rate increased during
the exercise as you will measure before and after activity. But then you can also
measure the heart rate at 1 minute intervals after the exercise to see how
quickly the heart rate decreases to resting rate again. This gives a more
rounded measure of fitness level as the faster a person is able to recover, the
more fit they are. This should only be done as an extension if you feel your
learners are capable and have time to do it within the lesson. This graph would
be a line graph.
HYPOTHESIS: VISIT
1. What is your hypothesis for your investigation? .
A video on the scientific
Learner-dependent answer method bit.ly/15qh1SY
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
A possible hypothesis which learners might propose is: "Heart rate increases
after exercise."
.
VARIABLES:
In any scientific investigation, it is crucial to identify the variables at the start.
• When you do an investigation you are going to change or vary one factor
to answer your question. This is called the independent variable.
• The factor that you are measuring or observing is the dependent variable.
• Normally, you will have a third variable, the control variable. These are the
factors that you want to keep the same (unvaried) during your test so they
cannot affect your results.
1. What are the variables involved in this investigation?

The independent variable is the type of activity - exercise or resting.
The dependent variable is the heart rate as this will depend on whether the
learner is at rest or has done physical activity (and how vigorous the
physical activity was).
There are several controlled variables: Learners of the same age, about the
same mass, all girls / boys, all about the same fitness level, all doing the
same type of exercise, all doing it for 2 minutes.
MATERIALS:
Write a list of the materials you will need for this investigation. Possible
materials to be listed are:
• stopwatch
• skipping rope (if learners are to skip, otherwise they may just run on the
spot)
• recording sheet and pen
..
. .

METHOD:
1. Write down the method below. The steps must be numbered.

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Make sure learners discuss all aspects of the investigation. You can help learners
with this part of their discussion in their groups by pointing out questions that
they should answer when writing their method. For example, how will we do the
recording? This will depend on how many skipping ropes are available if they
are to be used. Will one learner skip at a time while the others watch and record
the time? Or if the learners are to jog on. the spot for 2 minutes, then perhaps 5
learners can jog at once while the other 5 do the recordings. Learners must
specify how they will record heart rate and where. Will it be on the wrist or the
neck? Is it best to record heart rate for 10 (or 15) seconds and multiply 6 (or 4)
to get the beats per minute? This is because if they record the heart rate for a
whole minute after exercise, the rate might have started to slow down already
by the end of the minute and therefore not be an accurate reflection of the
heart rate immediately after exercise.
RESULTS:
1. Design a table that will record the heart rate of the 10 learners when at rest
and after 2 minutes of physical activity (skipping or jogging on the spot).
.
Remember to give your table a heading.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A possible table that learners might produce could look as follows:
Table showing the heart rate of 10 learners before and after 2 minutes of
skipping
Learner name Heart rate before Heart rate after

(beats/min) (beats/min)
Megan
.
Thembile
etc
Learners may also come up with additional columns, for example they may add
a column to calculate the change in heart rate from before exercise to
immediately after exercise.
...
150 Life and living

ANALYSIS:
In order to analyse your results, it is helpful to plot a graph as this helps you to
see the relationship between the dependent and independent variables and to
make comparisons. Below is a description of different types of graphs and
when they are used.
• Line graph: A line graph is used if the data you have is numerical and
changes continuously, often over time. A line graph is useful for visualising
a trend in the data over time.
• Bar graph: A bar graph is used to compare different categories or groups,

normally when the categories are words. There are spaces between the
bars in a bar graph.
• A double bar graph can compare two sets of data. In a double bar graph,
two of the bars touch and are shown in different colours, and are
separated by a space from the next two bars.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners may not understand how a double bar graph is different from a bar
graph, and may not understand what is meant by two sets of data. An example
of a double bar graph would be the minimum and maximum temperatures on
different days of the week. In this example, the day of the week is the
independent variable, and we are looking . at two dependent variables (two sets
of data) - namely the maximum and minimum temperatures. For a graph like
this, one would indicate "days of the week" on the x-axis, and you would have
two bars next to each other for each day.
. One would show the minimum
temperature and one would show the maximum temperature. The bars showing
the two temperatures would touch, and the days of the week would be
separated by a space.
• Histogram: A histogram is used when the data for the independent

variable is numerical and can be grouped into categories which are
continuous. The bars in a histogram touch each other.
• Pie graphs: Pie graphs (or sector diagrams) are used to show the relative
proportions or percentages of the categories when they make up a whole.
1. Which type of graph will you use to represent the data in this
investigation? Give a reason for your answer.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners might find this difficult to answer, but it is crucial that they understand
the types of graphs and when each one should be used. In this investigation, we
want to show the data for each learner along
. the independent axis (x-axis). The
learners are not related in any way, nor are they numerical values - they are
discrete categories described by words (ie. the name of the learner). We will
therefore use a bar graph. In this investigation we will actually be using a double
bar graph. There will be two bars for each learner - the first bar being the heart
rate before exercise and the second bar being the heart rate after exercise.
2. How will you differentiate on your graph between the two sets of
measurements for each learner (ie. heart rate before and after exercise)? ..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners can distinguish between the before and after readings by creating a
key where the one set of data is in one colour or pattern and the other set is in
another colour or pattern.
Tips for drawing your graph:
• Start by giving your graph a title, something that shows which dependent
and independent variables you were studying.
• Use the appropriate axes for each variable: x-axis = independent variable
(along the bottom of the graph) and y-axis = dependent variable (along
the side).
• Label your x-axis and y-axis.
• Use an appropriate scale and use the space that you have been given to
draw the graph wisely.
Draw your graph on the graph paper provided.
...
152 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
When looking at learners' graphs or helping them to draw them, make sure they
have the heart rate in beats/min on the dependent y-axis and the learners
names on the independent x-axis. Each learner will have two bars, one for heart
rate before exercise and one for heart rate after exercise. For each learner,
.
these two bars should be touching, but there should be a space between the
sets of bars for each learner. As a suggestion, if using the graph paper provided
here, in order to fit 10 learners along the x-axis it is best to make each bar 2
blocks wide (the smallest blocks), with 1 or 2 blocks in between each learner. If
you have graph paper available, perhaps provide learners with a sheet to
practice on and once they know how to draw their graph, they can copy it into
the workbook here.
1. Which learner in your group had the smallest increase in heart rate from
before to after physical activity?
2. Which learner in your group had the largest increase in heart rate from
before to after physical activity?
3. Rank the learners in your group from the smallest increase to the largest
increase.
4. What deductions can you make about the fitness level of the learners in
your group based on their heart rates before and after the physical
activity? When you make deductions, ask yourself these questions:
a) What do you see is happening?
.
b) What do you notice that is different?
c) What does this imply?
Learners should deduce that the fitter an individual is, the smaller the
increase in the heart rate from before to after physical activity. Learners
that are unfit will sometimes show a bigger increase in heart rate after the
physical activity (provided that the activity was carried out to the same
level of effort).
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It is vitally important that learners report their actual findings. If they do not
come up with results that agree with what they are expecting to find, it is FAR
better that they report what they found than that they "tweak" their results or
try to alter their discussion or hypothesis. to fit in with what is expected. Full
credit and praise should be given to an investigation that was carried out well
and truthfully reported, rather than one in which certain information or findings
are made up or changed. If students know what they were expecting, and think
that there is something wrong with their results they should be encouraged to
make suggestions about why they didn't see what they were expecting to see in
the discussion section that follows.
DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION:
An important part of an investigation is to discuss your results and observations

and evaluate them. At this point you get to talk about your results and explain
them.
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The learners may also notice a trend in the
. resting heart rates of the members
of their group that were recorded in the three days prior to this activity, and
they are welcome to hypothesise and make observations. They are likely to
notice for example, that the fittest members had the lowest resting heart rates.
You also point out any shortcomings of the investigation. What could you have
done to improve the investigation? You can also point out any unexpected
results in your investigation and try to explain these using your science
background. You should do some background research into the benefits of
exercise for the cardiovascular system and write some points in your discussion.
VISIT
Watch this video that
.
summarises the respiratory .
and circulatory systems TEACHER'S NOTE
bit.ly/16IJFU6
Assess whether learners have adequately discussed their results. As previously
mentioned, their actual results may not agree with what they should find. In this
case they still deserve full credit for their observations. However they also need
to show that they know what should have happened, based on their research
around the topic. They should point out that fitter individuals have a stronger
heart compared to unfit individuals. Like. all muscles, the heart becomes
.
stronger as a result of exercise, therefore, it can pump more blood through the
body with every beat. As a result, during exercise, a fit heart does not need to
pump as fast to deliver the same amount of blood that an unfit heart would, and
it does so with less strain. Assess whether learners have pointed out any
shortcomings in their investigation and if they have made suggestions. Learners
should also discuss some of the benefits of exercise for the cardiovascular
system, such as decreasing the risk of heart attack and other heart diseases.
CONCLUSION:
1. Write a conclusion for your investigation. In a conclusion, you need to refer

back to your hypothesis to see whether your results support or reject the
hypothesis.
REFERENCES:
TAKE NOTE
If you researched any additional information to support your discussion, you
Simply listing Google or need to reference these sources in the following way:
.
Wikipedia as your source is
not recognised as a • Books: Surname of author, Name of book, Year published, Name of
reference for your work. publisher, Page numbers you used.
• Internet: Give the full URL for the website.
• Person: Personal communication with "Name, Surname, Occupation."
1. Learner-dependent answer
.
...
154 Life and living

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• Oxygen is inhaled in a process called breathing.
• In the lungs, gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion.
• Oxygenated blood is transported in pulmonary veins from the lungs to
the left side of the heart.
• The oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta and arteries to the
different parts of the body.
• Arteries divide into capillary networks between the cells, where oxygen
and food diffuse from blood to cells.
• The cells carry out cell respiration, forming carbon dioxide, which
diffuses back to the capillaries.
• Capillaries flow into veins that carry the deoxygenated blood to the right
side of the heart.
• At the heart the deoxygenated blood is transported to the lungs by the
pulmonary artery where gaseous exchange takes place once more.
• The carbon dioxide from cellular respiration diffuses out of the blood
into the lungs and is exhaled.
. Map
Concept
From what we have learnt in this chapter, we can say that the circulatory
and respiratory systems consist of 4 processes which occur in a cycle. Two
of these processes are named in the concept map, and there are spaces to
write the other two. During breathing, what is the gas which is inhaled for
respiration, and which is the gas which is exhaled from respiration? Fill these
in too. What is the name for the process by which these gases move across
the cell membranes?
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Draw a flow diagram to show how the different components of the

respiratory and circulatory systems function in a cycle. [6 marks]
learner-dependent
2. Complete these sentences. Write just the word on the line below. [13
marks]
a) Oxygen diffuses into the blood from the air in the .
b) The blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart are called
.
c) Tiny blood vessels called come into close contact with
.
d) Carbon dioxide out of the cells into the .
e) carry the blood to the heart from where it is sent
to the to be oxygenated.
f) The chemical reaction that takes place in the of the cell
when oxygen and glucose combine to release is called
.
a) alveoli
b) arteries
c) capillaries, cells .
d) diffuses, capillaries/bloodstream
e) Veins, deoxygenated, lungs
f) mitochondria, energy, respiration
Complete this table to describe what happens in the chest during

breathing. [6 marks]
Inhaling Exhaling
Becomes smaller
Chest volume Expands
Increases
Pressure on lungs Decreases
Moves out of lungs

Air movement Moves into lungs
3. Match the word on the left to its correct meaning on the right. Write only
the letter next to the word to indicate the correct meaning. Use each letter
only once. [13 marks]
...
158 Life and living

l breathing a arteries, veins and
capillaries
n diaphragm b the type of tissue that

keeps keeps the trachea
open
i alveoli c tubes leading from the

trachea into the lungs
e trachea d the movement of particles

from a high to a low
concentration through a
semi-permeable
membrane
k heart e the tube that carries air to

and from the mouth to the
bronchi
h veins f blood vessels that

transport blood away from
the heart
j respiration h blood vessels that carry

blood towards the heart
b cartilage . i small grape-like bunches at

the ends of the bronchiole
c bronchi j the process takes place in

mitochondria to release
energy for cells to use
m capillaries k the organ responsible for

pumping blood throughout
the body
a types of blood vessels l inhaling and exhaling
d diffusion m blood vessels surround

cells to allow for diffusion
f arteries n a large dome shaped

muscle across the bottom
of the rib cage
..
. .

4. The following image is an artist's drawing of one of the structures you
learnt about in this chapter. What does it represent? Give three reasons for
your answer. [3 marks]
This is showing a bronchiole and alveoli. This is evident as there is one main
tube which is the bronchiole. There are several alveoli present, which are
the sac-like structures within the lungs. You can also see that these are tiny
sacs as in the bottom left, the sacs have been shown as open. You can also
see the network of capillaries which surround the alveoli bringing
deoxygenated blood to the lungs to become oxygenated.
5. Describe how capillaries are suited to their function of allowing gaseous
exchange within the lungs and at the cellular level in the body. [3 marks]
The capillaries are very small and thin-walled so that they can branch
between the cells of the tissues and come into close contact with the cells
to allow for diffusion. This also allows the capillaries to reach all the cells
within the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste
products.
Total [44 marks]
...
160 Life and living

5 Digestive system
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
1.5 weeks
Learners have already been introduced to the digestive system in Chapter 2.

This chapter focuses more on a healthy diet and the different components
making up a healthy diet. Learners will be required to conduct some food tests
to investigate which foods contain which components, such as starch and fats.
The chapter will also look at the alimentary canal and digestion in more detail to
see how the food we eat becomes a form which can be absorbed into our
bodies. In Gr 6 CAPS, learners do an introduction to nutrition and learn about
the basic food groups.
5.1 Healthy diet (3 hours)

Activity: Comparing Working in pairs,
healthy and comparing, describing, Suggested
unhealthy foods categorising
Activity: Comparing Comparing,.
Suggested
meals describing, explaining
Investigating,
Investigation: Which observing,
foods contain starch interpreting, CAPS suggested
and fats and oils? describing, writing,
explaining
Activity: How does
Researching,
your diet affect your
interpreting, CAPS suggested
health in the short
predicting, explaining
and long term?
5.2 The alimentary canal and digestion (1.5 hours)

Activity: The
different organs in Identifying Suggested
the digestive system
Working in groups,
Activity: A digestion observing, describing,
Suggested
simulation interpreting,
comparing, writing
162
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• Why do we need to follow a healthy diet? What does a healthy diet
consist of?
• What makes one type of food healthy and another type of food
unhealthy?
• Is it possible to prevent things like diarrhoea or constipation? What
about ulcers?
• Why do we need to digest food?
• How is food digested in our bodies?
• Where does the digested food go?
In this chapter we are going to look more closely at the food we eat to see why
certain foods are considered healthy and others unhealthy. We will then
investigate how the food from our plates gets to our cells and why our digestive
system is so well adapted for its job.
.
5.1 A healthy diet
Our human bodies are very active. Our bodies need a huge variety of different
nutrients and substances in order to perform all these processes. We obtain
these nutrients from the food we eat. The human body needs a balanced,
healthy diet to keep functioning property.
ACTIVITY: Comparing healthy and unhealthy

foods
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work with a partner.
2. We often know if a food is healthy or unhealthy. List at least 10 healthy and

10 unhealthy foods in the following table.
.
Healthy food Unhealthy food
When you are done share your food list with the class and record the class'
ideas of healthy and unhealthy foods on a large sheet of paper or on the board.
Display this in the class.
Study the list of healthy and unhealthy food.
1. What common characteristics can you identify in the food that the class
. .
Chapter 5. Digestive system 163

listed as healthy?
.
2. What common characteristics can you identify in the food that the class
listed as unhealthy?
.
Let's take a closer look at what makes up a healthy diet.
The seven building blocks of a healthy diet

The foods that we eat can be divided into different groups:
• proteins
• carbohydrates
• fats and oils
• vitamins
• minerals
• fibre (non-digestible carbohydrates)
• water
A healthy diet consists of foods from all of these groups.
Proteins
Proteins are our bodies' building blocks. They build and repair body cells and
tissues. Foods rich in protein are: fish, meat, poultry, eggs, cheese and other
food from animal sources. There are also many sources of protein from plants.
For example: products made from soya beans, peas and beans, nuts and seeds.
Meat. Eggs.
VISIT
A simulation .about eating
and exercise bit.ly/19buenM
Almond nuts. Cheese.
...
164 Life and living

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the main supply of energy for our bodies. They break down
in our digestive system to form glucose (which is a sugar). Examples of foods
that contain carbohydrates are: whole grain bread, potatoes, pasta, rice, fruit,
vegetables, maize and legumes.
Unfortunately many people eat too many carbohydrates, especially processed

carbohydrates like sweets and biscuits, chips, pastries, soft drinks and
sweetened fruit juices.
Whole wheat bread. Potatoes.
Rice. Mealies (corn) contain a lot of

carbohydrates.
Fats and oils
Fats and oils are important for many body processes:
• Fat protects and insulates your organs

• They help maintaining healthy hair and nails.
• Some vitamins can only be absorbed and transported when attached to fat
molecules.
• Fats and oils also provide the body with energy.
However, some fats are better than others and having too much of any type is
not a good idea.
. .

Olive oil and canola oil are both Sardines are high in healthy fats.
healthy oils.
Vitamins
Our sources of vitamins are from ...and vegetables.

TAKE NOTE fruit...
Many people take large
amounts of supplements to Vitamins help with the different
ensure they get enough chemical reactions in our
vitamins and minerals. bodies:
However it is rather
. wasteful • vitamin A helps
as the body excretes any strengthen our immune
excess vitamins and system and is good for
minerals and only stores a eyesight in the dark
few vitamins like Vitamin A, • B vitamins help us process
D, E and K. energy from food
• vitamin C helps to keep
your skin and gums
healthy and improves the
immune system
• vitamin D helps to build
strong bones and teeth
Our main sources of vitamins
are from fruit and vegetables. Food sources of different vitamins.
The following diagram
summarises some of these
sources for various vitamins.
Minerals
Our bodies cannot produce minerals and we therefore need to include these in
our diets. Some of the minerals we should include in our diets are:
• calcium which is essential for strong bones and teeth.

• iron which is needed for healthy blood.
• magnesium which is used for building strong bones, teeth and muscles.
...
166 Life and living

• sodium which is also needed for muscle and nerve function, and more VISIT
importantly it helps regulate the amount of water in the blood. Find out more and get a
.
special dietary plan worked
There are a variety of sources of minerals. For example, high levels of calcium
out just for you
are found in dairy products, meat is a high source of iron, and magnesium is
bit.ly/18lY5J2
found in lots of foods such as bananas, nuts, green leafy vegetables and milk.
The most common source of sodium is in sodium chloride, which is table salt.
Fibre
Fibre found in the skins of fruit and vegetables, and in wholegrain cereals,
cannot be digested. It therefore travels through the alimentary canal. We need
fibre in our diet as it helps us to have regular bowel movements and avoid
constipation. .
Beans are a good source of fibre. High fibre breakfast cereal.
Water
Our bodies are made up of

more than 50 percent water.
Water is necessary to help our
blood carry nutrients and waste
around the body and to help
the chemical reactions that
occur in our cells. Water forms
most of sweat, saliva and tears.
You need to drink water daily.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Comparing meals

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This is an optional activity, and can also be done as a class discussion if you do
not have time in class.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Below are photographs of different meals for breakfast, lunch and dinner.
2. One of the meals is healthier than the other.
3. Choose which is the healthier option and explain why.
1. Breakfast:
Option 1: Fruit loops Option 2: Fruit salad
The fruit salad is healthier as it contains a variety of fresh fruits which are
high in fibre and packed with healthy vitamins. Fruit salad will satisfy some
of your requirement of fruit and vegetables for the day. The fruit loops are
unhealthy as they contain a lot of sugars and artificial colourants and
flavourants. They have limited nutritional value in terms of vitamins and
minerals.
2. Lunch:
Option 1: Hamburger Option 2: Omelette with salad
...
168 Life and living

The omelette is the healthier option. As with the egg salad, this meal
contains fresh salad and the eggs are a source of protein. The omelette
possibly has meat or mushrooms and cheese which also adds to the
nutritional content. The hamburger is unhealthy as although it contains
meat, starch and cheese, the way it was probably prepared is unhealthy as
the meat is fried in oil. There is also no fresh fruit or vegetables.
3. Supper:
Option 1: Chicken pieces Option 2: Beef, peas and rice
The beef, peas and rice is the healthier option for supper as the meal
contains starch (rice), meat for protein (beef) as well as vegetables (peas).
The other meal is less healthy as it only contains one food group, namely
protein from the chicken pieces. .
.
Different cultures and religions follow different diets. Some cultures will only eat
certain types of food and will avoid other combinations. Some religions might
restrict their followers to only certain foods while others have no real dietary
laws. Within South Africa, we have a very diverse population with people from
many cultures, backgrounds and religions. This makes our country a truly
unique, diverse and interesting place in which to live!
Testing food
There are various chemical tests which are used to easily identify the type of
food molecules present in different foods.
Once such test is the starch test. We can also test for the presences of fats and
oils using the emulsion test.
. .

.
INVESTIGATION: Which foods contain starch and

fats and oils?
.
In this investigation, learners will be provided with the background information

and basic instructions. They will have to design the investigation themselves
and then write up their findings in an experimental report.
Before the lesson starts, set up each workbench with the materials and
apparatus the learners will require to do the food tests.
The materials required are (per learner or group):
• various food items to test for starch: for example, pieces of bread, apple,
tomato, boiled egg, cheese, cucumber, potato, yoghurt, ham (some
substances must contain starch and some not)
• various food items to test for fats and oil: for example, the above food
items can be used, and in addition, you could also provide peanut butter
and butter
TAKE NOTE • petri dish per group or learner for the starch test
In lower grades you might • bottle of iodine solution and dropper
. starch test
recall doing the • several test tubes for the fat emulsion test
on plants to see which leaves • water
store starch from the glucose • glass rod (or any other suitable round hard item) for crushing food
produced in photosynthesis. substances for fat emulsion test
• bottle of ethanol
• forceps
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. You need to conduct an investigation to test whether the food substances

you have been provided with contain starch or fats and oils or both.
2. A summary of each test is given below. You will need to design your
investigation and conduct it.
3. Before starting, think about how you will record your results and write out
your proposed method.
Starch iodine test:
Iodine solution is an orange-brown colour. When iodine is added to a substance

which has starch in it, the iodine reacts with the starch to produce a blue-black
colour. The blue-black colour indicates the presence of starch.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners will need to use the dropper to. add a couple drops of the iodine
solution to the food substance to be tested in a petri dish. Let them practise on
a small piece of white paper, so they see the colour change before trying it on
the food. Starch hold the fibres in paper together.
Fat emulsion test:
To conduct the test, crush a piece of the food (or liquid) in a small amount of
ethanol. Pour some of the mixture onto paper. Once the ethanol has
...
170 Life and living

evaporated, oil stains on the paper will indicate the presence of fats or oils in
the food.
TAKE NOTE
AIM:
If you are allergic to iodine
1. What is the aim of your investigation? .
rather observe this
To find out whether starch or fats and oils, or both are present in certain experiment and do not
foods. participate.
HYPOTHESIS:
1. What is your hypothesis for this investigation?

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This will vary depending on what food substances you provide to learners. An
.
example of a hypothesis for this investigation is: "The iodine solution will turn
blue-black when added to the potato, bread and apple, indicating these foods
contain starch. The emulsion from the cheese, yoghurt, butter and peanut
butter will turn milky white, indicating the presence of fats".
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:
1. List the materials and apparatus you used in this investigation.

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An example that learners could provide:
• samples (small) of the following foods - learners identify which foods they
are testing for starch and fats. .
• iodine solution with dropper
• petri dish
• forceps
• test tubes
• paper
• ethanol
METHOD:
1. Write down the method which you followed in this investigation.

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners need to write the method in a list of numbered steps. Learners need to
indicate that they collected the food samples and placed them in different petri
dishes (bowls if these were not available).
. They then dropped iodine solution in
turn on each of these samples observing and recording the results. They must
then indicate how they did the fat emulsion test, by placing small pieces of the
food substances in a test tube, adding ethanol and crushing and stirring with
the rod or another rounded, hard object. They should then pour the mixture
onto paper and allowed the ethanol to evaporate and record the results.
..
. .

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:
1. Use the following space to record your results and observations from this
investigation.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners could draw a table to record their results and observations, or just list
the foods which tested positive or negative for each substance. An example of
the layout for a learners table could be:
Table to indicate the presence of starch or fats and oils in various food
substances
Food Result of Contains Result of Contains

substance iodine test starch?. emulsion test fats?
Turned No murky,
Bread Yes No
blue-black white colour
Parts of apple
No murky,
Apple turned Yes No
white colour
blue-black
Remained
Emulsion
orange-brown/
Cheese No turned murky, Yes
did not turn
white colour
blue-black
etc
.
DISCUSSION:
1. Discuss and evaluate your results and findings and the importance of food
tests.
. Learner-dependent answer
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should discuss which types of foods contained starch and fats and
which did not. They could note that plant material in particular contains starch
because the plants photosynthesize specifically to produce glucose that are the
. products (such as the ham and boiled
building blocks for carbohydrates. Animal
egg) do not contain starch. Learners should also discuss any unusual findings
which they did not expect and whether this could be a result of inaccuracy or
contamination. Learners should also evaluate their results and whether they
could have done anything to improve the investigation, such as possibly
repeating the tests.
CONCLUSION:
1. What do you conclude from this investigation?

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners must refer back to their hypothesis in the conclusion and either reject
or accept it.
.
...
172 Life and living

Health problems relating to diet
In Chapter 2 this term, we looked at some of the health issues relating to the
digestive system, such as ulcers, diarrhoea and eating disorders. There are also
health issues which arise directly due to your diet. The following activity will
introduce you to some of these health concerns.
ACTIVITY: How does your diet affect your health

in the short and long term?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners could do this as a quick class discussion as you go through the
different conditions.
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Below is a table with descriptions of several health issues relating to a poor

diet.
2. You need to read the descriptions and use your knowledge of the food
groups to then classify what the diet of the person is deficient in, or else
has a surplus of in their diet.
3. For some conditions, there may be a variety of causes, but this activity is
focusing on the causes related to diet.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
What does this person

Name of health
Description have a deficiency or
issue
surplus of in their diet?
Osteoporosis is a
disease, most common The main contributing
in older women, where factor is not enough
the bones become calcium or Vitamin D in
Osteoporosis
fragile and are more the diet. This can also
likely to break. Usually be a genetic, inherited
the bones lose density trait.
and become porous.
Anemia is a condition
Too little iron in the
of the blood when
diet. Iron is needed for
there are not enough
healthy red blood cells
healthy red blood cells.
to deliver oxygen to
Anemia A patient feels .tired
.
the tissues. Blood loss
and weak as the tissues
can also result in
and organs in the body
anemia, but this does
are not able to get
not refer to diet.
enough oxygen.
This is a severe form of
A severe deficiency of
malnutrition due to
nearly all nutrients,
Marasmus starvation. The person
especially protein and
becomes extremely
carbohydrates.
thin (emaciated).
A person has
constipation when they A diet lacking fibre.
have a bowel Fibre helps to produce
movement less than 3 stools and stimulate
Constipation times per week. The the digestive system.
person may have hard Not drinking enough
stools and difficulty fluids (water) can also
and pain when passing cause constipation.
stools.
.
5.2 Digestion and the alimentary canal
What is digestion?
Digestion involves a variety of complex processes that turn the food that you
eat into tiny molecules that can then be absorbed and transported to the cells
of the body.
There are two types of digestion:
1. Mechanical digestion occurs when food is physically broken down through

chewing, churning and mashing. Mechanical digestion takes place in your
mouth and in your stomach.
...
174 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Mechanical digestion does not change the . chemical properties of the food.
Rather, it changes the physical properties by breaking large pieces up into small
pieces, therefore it can also be called physical digestion.
2. Chemical digestion takes place when different digestive enzyme sbreak

down the bits of food into smaller molecules. Enzymes are special proteins
that speed up certain chemical reactions in the body. Chemical digestion
starts in the mouth where enzymes in your saliva start to break down
starch. Chemical digestion also takes place in the stomach and small
intestine.
The alimentary canal

We already studied the alimentary canal in Chapter 2 so we'll start by reviewing
what we learnt there.
ACTIVITY: The different organs in the digestive

system
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Label the following diagram.

2. The labels have been provided for you. There are some which you might
not have come across yet, as they are not the main components in the
digestive system, but still play important roles.
Labels to .include:
• large intestine
• anus
• oesophagus
• rectum
• stomach
• mouth
• small intestine
• liver
• gallbladder
• pancreas
. .

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners must draw straight, parallel label lines with a ruler and labels should be
written one underneath the other. In this image, the liver is the large red organ
next to the stomach, and the gallbladder is the small green part in front of it.
The liver produces bile which it then secretes into the gallbladder to be stored
before it enters the digestive tract. Bile helps with fat digestion. The pancreas,
the yellow organ below the stomach in the . diagram, is another organ which
plays an important role in digestion as it produces the enzymes for chemical
digestion which are secreted into the small intestine. The liver, pancreas and
gallbladder are accessory organs to the digestive system. However, they are
not part of the alimentary canal. Make learners aware that there is a difference
in discussing the digestive system (including these accessory organs) and the
alimentary canal (which only focuses on the organs and structures through
which food passes and not the liver, pancreas and gallbladder).
...
176 Life and living

Let us make a model of the alimentary canal that can demonstrate mechanical
and chemical digestion in the different parts, and also learn about how the
different parts are structurally adapted to suit their function.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Although CAPS states that no detail of how the different parts of the alimentary
canal are structurally adapted to suit their function, some of this information has
been included in the following activity. It. was felt that it is necessary to start
developing this skill as learners will often have to describe structural
adaptations for function in Life Sciences Gr. 10-12. This skill is often poorly
developed in learners and so it is beneficial to start introducing learner to this
kind of reasoning and explanations of biological structures from early on. This is
an optional activity.
ACTIVITY: A digestion simulation

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Objectives for this activity:
• Learn about how the different parts are structurally adapted to their
function.
• Describe the parts of the alimentary canal and what each part's functions
are.
TAKE NOTE
• Understand physical and chemical digestion.
• Discuss how food travels from ingestion to digestion to absorption and Learning how to link the
egestion. .
structural adaptations of an
• Make observations regarding the process of digestion. organ, tissue or cell to its
function is a very important
A suggestion is to make learners work in. groups and produce one model per skill to start developing.
.
group. This way they will be able to discuss the model with each other as they
are going along and there might also be less mess. Set up a workstation for
each group prior to the lesson with the required materials laid out. The
materials below are suggestions to be used to create a model of each part.
However, you can also use other materials if you have more appropriate ideas
or access to other materials in your classroom.
Alternatively, you could also do this activity as a demonstration in the front of

the class, discussing the model and structures as you go along.
If you are not able to physically produce the model of digestion with your
learners in class, you can still read through the activity and learners can still
answer the questions and you can discuss the structural adaptations.
MATERIALS:
Each group will need the following:
• large dish to work over, or black bags and newspaper

• crackers, white bread or viennas
. .

• mixing bowl
• scissors, pestle and potato masher
• water bottle that can squirt water through a small hole
• the inner tube of a kitchen paper towel roll or toilet paper roll
• a clear plastic Ziplock bag
• 30 - 40 ml of lemon juice, vinegar or a fizzy drink
• full length stocking with the toe section cut open - it helps if one leg is put
VISIT inside the other to form a double layer
Take a virtual.tour through • bicarbonate of soda dissolved in water in syringes (10ml)
the alimentary canal • large bowl
bit.ly/15qh8Oh
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work in groups and construct a model to demonstrate the different

processes that food goes through in the different parts of the alimentary
canal.
2. Make careful observations and describe in detail what happens at each
stage.
3. Work over a large bowl or tray or sheets of newspaper and black bag to
contain the mess which might be produced during this activity.
Stage 1 - The mouth

The function of the mouth is to ingest food and to start to
digest the food. The mouth is specifically adapted for its
function as follows:
• The lips keep the food in the mouth while chewing.
• Food is bitten off with the
. front teeth.
• Food is cut, torn and mashed into smaller parts by the
different teeth in the mouth - this is mechanical
digestion.
• The tongue moves the food around the mouth while it
is being chewed. It also prepares the food for
swallowing.
• Salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva coats the food in
the mouth making it easier to swallow. Saliva also
contains enzymes which start to chemically digest.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners need to cut up the food with the . scissors, break it up with the pestle
and mash it with the potato masher. They then squirt water all over it and use
their hands to make the food into a ball.
1. Using the mixing bowl to represent the mouth and the scissors, pestle and
potato masher to represent and simulate the digestion of your food type
that occurs in the mouth.
2. Squirt some water onto the mixture as you are 'digesting' the food.
3. Describe what is happening to the food at this point.
The scissors, pestle and potato masher is mechanically breaking down the
food into smaller particles (mechanical digestion). The water (saliva)
sprayed on the food is covering it and starting to digest some of it
(chemical digestion).
...
178 Life and living

4. Compare the model to the actual process in your mouth and what each
part and action you are performing in the simulation represents.
The scissors are like the incisors that cut the food, the pestle is the
pre-molars and the potato masher represents the molars. The water
sprayed on the food is the saliva that starts chemical digestion. The hands
making the ball with the food represents the action of the tongue and soft
palate in making the bolus.
VISIT
Stage 2 - The oesophagus
An interactive animation
.
showing how different foods
The pharynx (the throat) moves food from the mouth to the
oesophagus. The oesophagus transports food from the are digested and absorbed
pharynx to the stomach. bit.ly/1cWbzyC
• A flap in the pharynx covers the trachea (windpipe) to

prevent food from accidentally going into the trachea
and causing the person to choke.
• The oesophagus is a muscular tube that moves the
food by contracting in sections and relaxing in other
sections. This is called peristalsis.
• A special circular muscle shuts the entrance of the
stomach. It prevents the contents of the stomach from
pushing back into the oesophagus which may lead to
vomiting.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
..
One learner should hold the cardboard roll/tube with the one end in the bag
while another learner tips the mixing bowl so that the food bolus rolls down the
tube and into the bag.
1. Roll the ball of food you created in the mouth down the cardboard tube
and into the clear Ziplock bag.
The ball of food is being transported from the mouth to the stomach.
3. Compare the model to the actual process in your oesophagus. Can you
think of a better way of simulating the action of moving the food from the
mouth to the stomach?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In the human body, the oesophagus transports the food (bolus) from the mouth
to the stomach just like the cardboard tube allows the ball of food to travel from
the mixing bowl representing the mouth to the Ziplock bag representing the
stomach. Learners should note the downfall
. of this part of the model as food
does not 'roll' down the oesophagus as they have done here in the simulation.
Rather, the food is moved down by the peristaltic actions of the muscles
surrounding the oesophagus. Learners should think up alternative ways to
simulate or represent this action, such as using a plastic tube which is not hard
and using your hands to squeeze the food down the tube and out the other side
into the bag.
..
. .

Stage 3 - The stomach
The stomach is specifically adapted for its function as

follows:
• The stomach has strong muscles which help churn the
food to break it up further. This also mixes the pieces
of food with the digestive gastric juices.
• Since the stomach has to store food and liquid, it has
many folds and ridges in the wall that help to expand
the stomach further.
• The lining of the stomach is replaced to prevent the
stomach from digesting itself.
• The stomach secretes gastric juices when food is
present. This helps the functioning of the enzymes in
the chemical digestion of proteins.
• Cells in the stomach lining are adapted to absorb
water.
• The lower end of the stomach has muscles which can
control the emptying of the stomach contents.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners need to pour the digestive juices
. onto the food and then seal the
stomach / Ziplock bag. They then simulate the stomach churning by shaking
and churning the Ziplock bag with the food inside. This should go on for quite a
while as the food often remains in the stomach for long periods.
.
1. The Ziplock bag represents the stomach. After the food has entered the
stomach, pour one of the digestive juices (lemon juice, vinegar or Coca
Cola) into the bag over the ball of food.
2. In your body, a special circular muscle closes and seals the stomach and
digestive juices from the oesophagus. Seal the Ziplock as if you were
sealing the actual upper end of the stomach.
3. Squeeze the bag to show the churning of food in the stomach.
The churning and shaking is physically breaking up the food through
mechanical digestion. The coke, vinegar or lemon juice aids chemical
digestion.
5. Compare the model to the actual process in your stomach.
The stomach muscles churn and move the food around to break it up
through mechanical digestion just like your hands when they are churning
and moving the food to break it up in the bag. The coke, vinegar or lemon
juice added to the stomach represent the gastric juices which the stomach
secretes from its walls to cause chemical digestion.
...
180 Life and living

Stage 4 - The small intestine
In the small intestine, the digestion of proteins,

carbohydrates and fats is completed and the end-products
of these digestion processes are absorbed. The small
intestine is specifically adapted for its function as follows:
• Since most of the digestion and absorption process
takes place in the small intestines, it is especially long
and folded to create an even bigger absorption area.
• The inner layer of the small intestine is lined with small
finger like structures called villi which aid absorption
and increases the area for absorption.
• The small intestine has a large network of capillaries
surrounding it to transport the absorbed food away.
• The muscles of the small intestine control the direction
in which the food flows through peristalsis.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners need to let the food mixed with the digestive juices, run from the
Ziplock into the stocking. It shouldn't be excessively runny but make sure they
are working over a large dish to catch the excess liquid. They should be
squirting small amounts of bicarbonate dissolved in water into the syringe to
.
simulate the digestive enzymes being added to the small intestine.
You may want to explain how peristalsis works by showing how the muscles
around the small intestine squeeze rhythmically to push the food from the
stomach through the entire intestine. Let . learners use their hands to simulate
peristalsis - if one hand is squeezing tightly around the small intestine the other
releases and relaxes around the small intestine.
1. The stocking that you have been provided with represents the small
intestine. Cut a small corner off the bottom of the Ziplock bag and insert
this end into the stocking.
2. Work over a large dish or black plastic bags for this part. While one learner
is holding the stocking, the other learner should squeeze the food mixture
into the stocking.
3. Use the syringes with the dissolved bicarbonate of soda and squirt the
bicarbonate of soda into the food as it enters the stocking.
4. Simulate the action that takes place in the small intestine to move the food
mixture through.
The food is mixing with the bicarbonate of soda dissolved in water and
moving through the small intestine. The food takes a very long time to
move through the small intestine and the liquid is running through the
stockings and into the large dish or onto the table. ..
. .

6. Compare the model to the actual process in your small intestine.
When food arrives in the small intestine digestive enzymes are secreted
from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. This is represented by the
bicarbonate of soda mixture which is squirted into the stocking. These
enzymes digest the food particles that are then able to be absorbed by the
cells in the walls of the small intestine. The molecules move into the
capillaries and blood stream that surrounds the small intestine. As learners
squeeze the food along, some of the liquid runs out of the stocking and this
represents the molecules being absorbed into the bloodstream. Learners
could also compare the length of the small intestine to the long stocking
being used. At the end of the process the food that is left is dryer and can
move out of the small intestine as undigested waste that gets egested. In
the same way the food that is left in the stocking is moved to the open end
of the stocking and released.
Stage 5 - The large intestine
The large intestine absorbs water and mineral salts, to make

some vitamins, and to decay the. undigested food materials
to form faeces. The large intestine is specifically adapted
for its function as follows:
• Undigested waste remains in the large intestine for up
to 24 hours in order to maximise the absorption of
water from this region.
• The muscles in the large intestine are able to turn the
waste material into faeces preparing it for egestion.
• When it is time to egest waste, the muscles in the large
intestine create strong peristaltic movements to force
the faeces out of the body via the rectum and anus.
• Circular muscles in the anus control the emptying of
VISIT the waste materials.
Watch a video with some
.
fascinating facts about the
1. Was this a worthwhile activity for you? Explain what you learnt from this
digestive system
activity and whether you think it was a worthwhile activity or not, giving
bit.ly/1cWbA5D
reasons for your opinion.
Learner generated answer.
.
In exams and tests you will be asked how a specific structure is adapted to its
function. Remember when you see such a question to break it down into four
separate steps:
1. Outline: Give a brief explanation of the the main point you will discuss, i.e.
structure, function and specific adaption(s).
2. Structure: Here you need to specify what the structure looks like.
3. Function: What does it need to do? What role does it play or purpose
does it fulfil?
4. Adaptation: This is where you put together structure and function - it has
X, so it can do Y. For example, it is thin, so gases diffuse through it quickly.
...
182 Life and living

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• There are seven buildings blocks in a healthy diet: proteins,
carbohydrates, fats and oils, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water.
• A healthy diet includes the correct proportions of the seven building
blocks.
• Problems in our digestive system can be related to an inappropriate diet
that does not give our bodies the correct nutrients.
• Our alimentary canal is composed of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.
• Digestion is the breaking down of food into usable, dissolvable forms
that can be absorbed.
• There are two types of digestion: mechanical (or physical) and chemical
digestion.
• Each structure in the alimentary canal is specifically adapted to suit its
purpose.
. Map
Concept
The alimentary canal is made of several parts linked together - two of these
parts are missing in the concept map. We also looked at two types of
digestion in this chapter. What are these? When filling them in on the
concept map, you need to decide which space to put them in by looking
at the concepts which come after to describe each type.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Describe what you understand the term 'healthy diet' means. [2 marks]
A healthy diet provides all the nutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, minerals and fibre that are needed for well-being, and
contains them in correct amounts/ proportions.
2. For each of the following food items, classify what nutrients you can get
from them (i.e. protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, etc). Some food items
provide more than one class of nutrient. [10 marks]
Food item Nutrients Food item Nutrients
Vitamins (especially
Carbohydrates vitamin C) and
(starch), oil from minerals,
frying. carbohydrates
(sugar), water.
Fried chips. Strawberries.
Protein and fats. . Carbohydrates, fibre.
Chicken pieces. Digestive biscuits.
Vitamins and Minerals (calcium),

minerals, starch. protein, fats, water.
Butternut. Yoghurt.
Fats and oils, protein, Protein, fibre, starch,

vitamins and vitamins and
minerals. minerals.
Assorted nuts. Split peas and lentils.
Vitamins and
minerals, protein, Fats and oils.
carbohydrates, fibre
Green beans. Margarine.
...
186 Life and living

3. Which of the foods in Question 2 contain starch? How can you test if they
contain starch? [9 marks]
The starch test will indicate whether a food contains starch - if you drop
iodine solution on the food and the iodine turns from brownish-orange to
blue-black then the food contains starch. Food that will possibly test
positive for starch in the above examples are: green beans, split peas and
lentils, butternut, digestive biscuits, fried chips.
4. Why is it important to limit your intake of take-aways? [3 marks]
Take-away food is usually cooked in large quantities of oil and contain
many additives and fats to make it last longer and taste stronger which
might not be good for the body.
5. Give at least 2 reasons why we should eat raw fruit and vegetables. [2
marks] .
Heat can break down some vitamins and boiling dissolves them and
minerals out of the food, so it's better to eat them raw.
6. Some food may take up to 24 to 36 hours to digest and be fully absorbed.
Why do you think this process takes so long and why is this a good thing?
[2 marks]
Food that is digested over a long period of time has all the beneficial
nutrients removed from it rather than travelling through the digestive
system really fast and having only a part of the nutritional value of the food
absorbed from it.
Total [28 marks]
.
.
. .

.
.
GLOSSARY
absorption: food molecules pass into the bloodstream

alimentary canal: the tube that runs from your mouth to your anus
where food is digested, nutrients are absorbed and
solid waste is egested
alveoli: clusters of tiny air sacs in the lung that together
provide a very large surface area
antibiotic: a medicine that kills bacteria
anus: the opening at the lower alimentary canal through
which waste is eliminated from the body
arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
atrium: the upper left and right chambers of the heart
auditory: of or relating to the sense of hearing
balanced diet: a way of eating that includes adequate amounts of
the necessary nutrients required for healthy growth
and activity in their correct proportions
birth control: the limitation or control of the number of children
that a couple or a woman want to conceive by the
planned use of contraceptive techniques
bladder: the membranous, balloon-like sac in our bodies in
which urine is collected for excretion
blood pressure: the pressure of the blood in the circulatory system
.
against the walls of the blood vessels
blood: the red liquid in the blood vessels of the body that
transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and
removes waste and carbon dioxide from the cells
blood vessels: tube-like structures that carry blood to and from
tissues and organs
bowing: bending
brain: the organ in the skull made of soft nervous tissue
that coordinates activities, senses and intelligence
breathing: taking air into the body through the mouth,
trachea, bronchi and lungs and releasing carbon
dioxide-rich air from the lungs, trachea and mouth
brittle: hard but easily broken or shattered
bronchioles: smaller, branched air passages in the lungs
bronchi: the two large air tubes going into each lung from
the trachea
capillary: the smallest branching blood vessels that that form
a network between cells and join arteries to veins;
diffusion between blood and cells occurs here
carbohydrates: nutrients from plants, such as sugar and starch, that
serve as a major source of energy in animals' diets
carbon dioxide: a colourless, odourless gas that is released from the
chemical breakdown of food during cellular
respiration
...
188 Life and living

cartilage: firm, whitish, flexible connective tissue found in
joints, outer ear, larynx, nose and in rings around
the trachea
cell membrane: the selectively permeable membrane that
surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell
cell: the structural and functional unit of all living
organisms; the smallest living part of plants and
animals
cellular respiration: process whereby organic substances (from food)
combine with oxygen in order to release energy;
carbon dioxide and water are by-products
cellulose: a special type of carbohydrate made up of many
glucose molecules that that are packed very tightly
together, so it doesn't dissolve in water; provides
support in plants
cell wall: tough, usually flexible layer that surrounds a plant's
cell membrane; supports and protects the plant cell
cervix: the neck of the uterus
chemical digestion: breaking food into molecules that can dissolve in
the blood and be transported to the cells using
chemical agents (enzymes)
chloroplast: a cell organelle found in plants that contains
chlorophyll and can therefore photosynthesise
cilia: small hair-like extensions in specialised cells in the
lining of the nose and all breathing tubes that trap
and remove dust. and germs from the body
closed blood system: blood never leaves blood vessels
collagen: a strong, flexible protein in connective tissue that
cannot stretch
conception: moment of fertilization when the male sperm and
the female ovum fuse together and a new
individual is formed
conduct: to carry impulses from one neuron the next
contraception: any method that prevents pregnancy
contraction: the shortening (tensing) of a muscle; term used to
refer to the forceful tensing of the uterus muscles
during childbirth
contract: to get smaller or shorter
cover slip: a small glass square which is placed over the
specimen on a slide to view under a microscope
cytoplasm: the gel-like material found within a plant or animal
cell that is enclosed by the cell membrane but
excluding the cell nucleus
degenerative: a worsening in function over time
dehydration: when the body loses too much water
deoxygenate: to remove oxygen
deprived: not given enough of something
diaphragm: the dome-shaped muscle that separates the thorax
from the abdomen; it plays a major role in
breathing
. .

diet: what a person (or an animal) regularly eats or
drinks
differentiation: process by which a less specialised cell type
becomes more structurally specialised to perform
certain functions
diffuse: move from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration through a permeable
membrane
diffusion: the movement of a substance from an area of high
concentration to a region of low concentration
digest: break into pieces that are small enough to dissolve
in the bloodstream and be absorbed into the
cytoplasm
digestion: breaking up food into small soluble parts that can
be absorbed
dissolve: when a solid breaks down into smaller and smaller
particles until it mixes completely with a liquid
(goes into solution)
DNA: DeoxyriboNucleic Acid; molecule that stores
information on how to make proteins and what
characteristics the organism inherited from its
parents
egestion: passing out solid, undigested waste
ejaculation/ ejaculate: the release of sperm from the penis
embryo: a very young, developing baby
.
emulsion: a mixture of two liquids that normally do not mix
together, such as oil and water
enzymes: special proteins that help reactions to take place in
the body of the organism
erection: the enlarged state or condition of tissues around
the penis
eukaryote: an organism that has genetic material inside a
nucleus
excrete: to remove metabolic waste products and carbon
dioxide from the body
excretion: removing harmful wastes that were made in the
body and need to be removed from the body
exhale: letting air rich in carbon dioxide out of the body
through the mouth or nose, breathing out
faeces: the waste from your body formed from undigested
food in the intestines and passed out through the
anus
Fallopian tube a tube extending from the ovary to the uterus to
(oviduct): transport a mature ovum
fats: a nutrient that is very high in energy and doesn't
mix with water and is found in oils and greasy foods
fertilization: when a sperm fuses with an egg
fibre: the cell walls of plant material that we eat that
cannot be digested by humans
flaccid: soft and hanging loosely
...
190 Life and living

foreskin: a layer of skin that covers and protects the head of
the penis
fracture: crack or break
frame structure: a structure made by connecting beams and
columns
gamete cells: another name for 'sex cells' that fuse during
fertilization
gaseous exchange: the process in the lungs when oxygen enters the
bloodstream and carbon dioxide is removed; at
cellular level when oxygen is removed from the
bloodstream and enters the cells and carbon
dioxide is removed from cells and enters the
bloodstream
gastric: of or relating to the stomach
gestation the period (9 months) of development in the uterus
(pregnancy): from conception to birth
glucose: a simple sugar molecule that is produced during
photosynthesis and is the main source of energy
for living organisms
haemoglobin: a red iron-rich protein responsible for transporting
oxygen in the blood
heart chamber: any of the four spaces of the mammalian heart
heart: the organ responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body
hereditary: characteristics that are transmitted from the parent
.
to the offspring
hormone: the body's chemical messengers that travel in the
bloodstream to tissues and organs to affect many
different reactions in the body
implantation: the attachment of the fertilized egg into the wall of
the uterus of the mother
impulse: an electrical signal travelling along a nerve cell
infection: when bacteria or viruses invade and multiply in the
body's tissues and cells causing disease and illness
ingestion: taking food into the mouth and body
inhale: taking air rich in oxygen into the body through the
mouth or nose, breathing in
inherited: genetic characteristics received from the parent
integrate: to make into a whole by bringing all the parts
together; unify
iodine solution: a brownish-orangy liquid that is used as an
antiseptic and dye; it changes colour in the
presence of starch
jaundice: yellowing of the eyes and skins common in liver
conditions
joint: the place where two or more bones meet
kidney: organ in the abdomen that filters the blood and
produces urine
labour: the process or effort of childbirth; the time during
which this takes place
. .

ligament: a short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective
tissue that connects two bones or cartilage, or
holds together a joint
locomotion: movement or the ability to move from one place to
another
lungs: the organs used for breathing and gaseous
exchange
medium: a solution in which cells or organelles are
suspended and in which reactions take place
membrane: a thin flexible sheet or skin that acts as a boundary
around a cell or cell organelle
menopause: the changes that occur in an an older female
(around age 50) body when she is no longer able
to reproduce
menstrual cycle: a recurring series of bodily changes in women that
occurs roughly every 28 days in which the lining of
the uterus thickens in preparation for the possible
implantation of a fertilized egg; when that doesn't
happen the lining of the uterus breaks down and is
discharged as menstrual blood
metabolic: relating to the chemical processes and changes
that happen within the cells of plants and animals
metabolic waste any unwanted substance produced by the various
products: body processes
metabolize: any build-up or break-down process in the body
microscope: .
an optical instrument used for viewing very small
objects not often visible to the naked eye
microscopic: so small that it can only be seen under a
microscope
mineral salts: chemical elements in food needed for growth and
development, like, sodium, potassium, calcium,
iron, phosphorous etc.
minerals: the elements (like iron, sulfur and clacium) that are
essential to animals and plants
mitochondria: a cell organelle that uses oxygen and food
molecules to release energy for the cell
mucus: a slimy substance secreted by the mucous
membranes and glands (in the nose for instance)
for lubrication and protection
multicellular organisms that have many cells
organisms:
muscle: a type of tissue in the body that can contract to
produce movement
nerve: a whitish bundle of neuron fibres that transmits
impulses between the nerve centres in the brain
and spinal cord and various parts of the body
network: a structure that interconnects many different parts
neuron: a specialized nerve cell that transmits nerve
impulses
nuclear membrane: a double-layered membrane that separates the
content of the nucleus from the cytoplasm
...
192 Life and living

nucleolus: small dense round structure in the nucleus of a cell
nucleus: structure with a membrane around it that contains
the cell's hereditary information and controls the
cell's growth and reproduction
nutrients: components of food that provide the body with
energy or supply the building blocks for growth
and repair
oestrogen: the female sex hormone that causes the
development of many of the female secondary sex
characteristics
optic: of or relating to the eye or vision
organelle(s): specialised structures inside the cytoplasm of the
cell that perform functions for the cell
organism: an individual animal, plant or single-celled life form
ovary: the organ that produces the female ova (egg cells),
as well as the female hormones oestrogen and
progesterone
ovulation: the process whereby a mature ovum or egg cell
gets released from the ovaries
ovum: the female egg cell produced in the ovaries of a
woman
oxygen: a colourless, odourless reactive gas is used in cell
respiration of all organisms
oxygenate: to supply with oxygen
penis: one of the male
. sex organs
peristalsis: the wave-like contraction and relaxation of the
walls of the alimentary canal that helps move food
forward
pharynx: throat
population growth growth of a population over time seen as the
rate: change in the number of individuals (of any
species) in a population per unit of time
prokaryote: a type of organism that does not have a separate
nucleus but has its hereditary material in the
cytoplasm
protein: group of biological molecules that provide
structure and enable chemical reactions
puberty: the time between childhood and adulthood when
the sex organs mature with accompanying changes
in the body that prepare the person's body for
reproduction
pulse: the rhythmical throbbing of the arteries as blood is
pumped through them by the heart
red blood cells: specialised cells in the bloodstream that contain
haemoglobin and therefore can carry oxygen
reproduction: any process by which organisms produce offspring
respiration: the chemical process in cells that releases energy
from food molecules by using oxygen and forming
carbon dioxide as a waste product
rupture: break or burst open
. .

saliva: the watery substance in the mouth that covers
chewed food, moistens the mouth
scrotum: the external sac of skin that encloses the testes in
males
selectively a feature and a function of the cell membrane that
permeable: allows it to regulate the substances that enter and
leave the cell
self-propulsion: having the ability to move itself
semen: the fluid that is produced in the male reproductive
organs, containing sperm and other chemicals
suspended in a liquid medium
sexual intercourse: how the male sperm is introduced into a woman's
body when the penis is placed inside the vagina
slide: a small glass plate on which we mount specimens
to examine under a microscope
small intestine: the part of the alimentary canal between the
stomach and large intestine where most of the
digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place
specialised: able to perform a particular function
species: the most basic biological classification of
organisms; organisms that are capable of mating
with one another to produce FERTILE offspring
specimen: a sample or small part of a larger organism that we
want to examine or analyse; it can also mean an
object or organism that was selected and
presented as part
. of a collection or series
sperm duct (vas the tube that connects the testes to the ejaculation
deferens): duct
sperm: the male sex cell produced by the testes
starch: a large storage molecule in plants that is made
from many glucose molecules joined together
stem cell: a special undifferentiated cell that can become
any of the other cell types
stimulus: any change that is detected inside or outside the
body, to which we need to react
stomach: the wider part after the oesophagus where food is
stored for a short while; proteins are digested here
sugars: group of sweet-tasting simple carbohydrates that
are made by plants during photosynthesis
surrogacy: when a person or animal acts as a substitute for
another third person; when a woman carries and
delivers a child for another couple or person
synthesis: the process by which organic molecules are made
inside organisms
temperature: how much heat is present in an object, substance
or body; the degree of internal heat of someone's
body
tendons: an inelastic cord of strong fibres made of collagen
tissue that attaches a muscle to a bone
testes: male glands that produce sperm cells and male
hormones
...
194 Life and living

testosterone: the male sex hormone that causes physical
changes during puberty and controls the
production of sperm
toxic: poisonous
trachea: (windpipe) the tube that carries air from the mouth
and nose to the bronchial tubes in the lungs
transmit: send out a message
transport: move from one part of the body to another
turgid: swollen or bulging outwards
ulcer: an open sore in the alimentary canal
umbilical cord: the cord or tube-like structure that connects the
foetus at the abdomen with the placenta of the
mother and transports nourishment and oxygen to
the foetus and removes waste
unicellular: consisting of a single cell
urea: a metabolic waste product that is formed when
protein is broken down in the liver
ureter: the duct (tube) that joins the kidney and bladder
and allows urine to pass from the kidney to the
bladder
urethra: the thin tube that allows urine to flow from the
bladder to the. outside
urinate: to excrete or pass urine out of the body
uterus: the hollow muscular organ in the pelvic area of
female mammals in which the fertilized egg
implants and develops (also known as thewomb)
vacuoles: a fluid-filled bag in the cytoplasm of most plant
cells
vagina: an elastic muscular tube or canal that connects the
neck of the uterus (cervix) with the external
opening
variation: a change or slight difference
veins: blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart
ventricles: the lower left and right chambers of the heart
vision: the ability to see
vitamins: organic substances essential to normal growth and
development in the body and found naturally in
plant and animal products
wet mount: when you mount a specimen on a slide using a
drop of liquid
womb: another non-technical term for uterus
zygote: the result of two gametes that fuse; a fertilised
ovum
. .

SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider M&M DBE A4.indd 1 2013/12/11 3:59 PM
SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider M&M DBE A4.indd 2 2013/12/11 4:00 PM
1 Compounds
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
1 week
1. This chapter starts with a review of the main concepts surrounding

Compounds, covered in Gr. 8 Matter and Materials.
2. This is followed by a section on the Periodic Table, first introduced in Gr. 7
Matter and Materials.
a) New information includes the terms Group and Period and the
observation that elements from the same group exhibit similar
chemical behaviour. You could discuss the Periodic Table being a
classification table of the elements; an organising framework which
helps us understand their properties, and their similarities and
differences. Learners will be exposed to different formats of the
Periodic Table. The idea is that learners should realise that information
on the table can be added or taken away, depending on the purpose
for which it will be used. This does not, however, alter the positions of
the elements on the table, which are fixed.
b) It is an expectation of CAPS that learners should know the names and
formulae of the first 20 elements on the table (as well as Fe, Cu and
Zn). CAPS does not require that learners memorise the atomic number
of each element, which would imply that the exact position of each of
the 20 elements on the table is not examinable.
c) An important issue to note is that, according to CAPS: "each element
.
on the Periodic Table (in its own block) has an atomic number (smaller
number), mass number (larger number), name and symbol". This
statement is not entirely correct. The larger number usually indicated
on the table is NOT the mass number (defined as the sum of the
number of protons and the number of neutrons), but rather the
average atomic mass (this number is usually rounded to the nearest
whole number, or to one decimal place). To understand the subtle but
significant difference between mass number and average atomic
mass, we need to provide some background: At this point the learners
are under the impression that all atoms of a given element are
identical. This is not strictly true. All elements exist as two or more
isotopes. Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element: while
all isotopes of a given element share the same number of protons and
electrons, each isotope differs from the others in its number of
neutrons. Hence, it would not make sense to indicate the mass number
on the table, as the mass number is different for each different isotope
of a chemical element. The average atomic mass is a number that
takes into account the masses of all the different isotopes of a given
element AND the proportion in which each is found in the natural state
of that element. The reason why it is important not to conflate the two
concepts, mass number and average atomic mass, is because this
manifests as a misconception at the higher levels, when it becomes
important for learners to know the difference between them. In the
text below, we will be using the term 'atomic mass' instead of 'mass
number', because it is a more correct description of the 'larger
number' that usually appears on the Periodic Table.
198
3. In the final section of the chapter we return to chemical formulae, which
received perfunctory treatment in Gr. 8 Matter and Materials (Atoms).
4. We have once again included many 'sub-microscopic' diagrams to help
learners imagine the small entities dealt with in this chapter. Learners will
almost certainly need help switching between the symbolic (formulae) and
sub-microscopic (molecular diagrams) representations. This is a very
important skill that should receive careful attention at this point, as it will
improve learners' chances of mastering the complexities of the subject at
the higher levels. We have once again included activities where learners
have to construct molecules using plasticine or play dough, to reinforce
this skill.
The Play dough recipe provided in Gr. 8 Matter and Materials, is included here
for easy reference.
Play dough recipe
INGREDIENTS:
• 2 cups flour
• 2 cups warm water
• 1 cup salt
• 2 tablespoons vegetable oil
• 1 tablespoon cream of tartar (optional for improved elasticity)
• food colouring in different colours
METHOD:
1. Mix all of the ingredients together, and stir over low heat. The dough will
begin to thicken until it resembles mashed potatoes.
.
2. When the dough pulls away from the sides and clumps in the centre,
remove the pan from the heat and allow the dough to cool enough to
handle. Note: If the dough is still sticky, it simply needs to be cooked for
longer.
3. Turn the dough out onto a clean surface and knead until smooth. Divide
the dough into balls for colouring.
4. Make a small depression in the centre of the ball, and pour some food
colouring into it. Work the colour through the dough, adding more if you
want a more intense colour.
1.1 Elements and compounds (0.5 hours)

Writing Optional (Revision)
Activity: Writing
symbols/formulae,
formulae and revision
interpreting diagram
1.2 The Periodic Table (1 hour)

Memorising names and CAPS suggested
Activity: Elements on
symbols of the first 20
the Periodic Table
elements
. .
Chapter 1. Compounds 199

1.3 Names of compounds (1.5 hours)

Activity: Naming CAPS suggested
Interpreting, writing
compounds of metals .
names
and non-metals
Activity: Writing names Interpreting, naming CAPS suggested
from the formulae of compounds, building
compounds models, drawing
Activity: Writing Interpreting, writing CAPS suggested
formulae from the formulae, building
names of compounds models, drawing
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is a compound?
• How is a compound different from an element?
• How is a mixture of elements different from a compound?
• What does the position of an element on the Periodic Table tell us about
its properties?
• Where do we find metals, non-metals and semi-metals on the Periodic
Table?
• What are the vertical columns of the Periodic Table called?
• What are the horizontal rows of the Periodic Table called?
• What do elements belonging to the same 'group' of the Periodic Table
have in common?
• What additional information about an element can we find on the
Periodic Table?
• What does the formula of a compound tell us about it?
.
1.1 Elements and compounds
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This first section is a revision of what learners should have covered in previous
.
grades. It spans several pages, but it is mostly revision and has been included as
a reference for learners. You will need to decide, based on your class, about
how much time you need to dedicate revising these topics, or whether you get
your learners to read over the content and complete the activity at the end.
Can you remember learning about compounds in Gr. 8 Matter and Materials?
We will start this chapter by summarising and revising some of the main ideas
about elements and compounds from Gr. 7 and 8. This should help us to link
the new ideas in this chapter to what we already know.
...
200 Matter and Materials

The particles that make up compounds
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners need to be made aware that compounds may occur as two types of
structures, namely molecules and lattices:
1. When a compound is made up entirely of non-metals (CO2 , H2 O, or NH3 ,

for example), the smallest unit of that compound will be a molecule.
2. However, when a compound is made up of a metal and a non-metal (NaCl,
or CuO, for instance), the type of bonding in the compound is different.
.
During bonding, the metal and non-metal atoms exchange electrons to
form ions. Due to opposite charges attracting, these ions pack together in
vast three-dimensional crystals or lattices, rather than forming simple
molecules.
In this section we have included a brief mention of crystal lattices to avoid the
misconception later that NaCl and other ionic compounds consist of molecules.
Learners should know that NaCl, for instance, consists of a regular arrangement
of sodium and chloride atoms combined in a 1:1 ratio, packed to form a crystal
structure.
The particles of a compound always

consist of two or more atoms. In
Physical Sciences Gr. 10 you will learn
that these atoms combine in different
ways. In some cases they can form
molecules. You may remember that
'molecule' is the word scientists use for
a cluster of atoms that stick together in
a specific way. Other compounds
consist of atoms which are arranged in
a regular pattern called a crystal lattice.
Water molecules.
The molecules of a compound always consist of two or more different kinds of

atoms, like the molecules of water in the following diagram.
Compounds that form crystal lattices

consist of many atoms, but they always
combine in a fixed ratio. For example,
in sodium chloride (table salt), there is
one chlorine atom for every sodium
atom in the crystal. The smallest 'unit'
that is repeated in the crystal consists
of one Na and one Cl. The formula NaCl
represents one 'formula unit' of NaCl.
A sodium chloride crystal lattice

consisting of sodium (purple) and
chloride (green) atoms in a fixed ratio.
. .

From the diagram of the water molecules and the sodium chloride lattice above,
we can see that a compound is not simply a mixture of elements. A mixture of
the elements hydrogen and oxygen would look like this:
A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen molecules.
Why are the hydrogen and oxygen atoms paired in the diagram above? Before
we answer that question, here is an important reminder: Elements are made up
of just one kind of atom.
Some elements exist as diatomic molecules, like the ones in the diagram on the
right below and the hydrogen and oxygen molecules in the 'mixture' diagram
above. The most important examples of diatomic molecules are H2 , N2 , O2 , F2 ,
Cl2 , Br2 , and I2 . Diatomic means 'consisting of two atoms'.
Some elements exist as diatomic molecules.
Can you see that the water molecules in the diagram above are all identical?
That brings us to the next point about compounds.
The atoms in molecules and lattices are combined in a fixed ratio

In water, for example, one oxygen atom (O) has combined with two hydrogen
atoms (H). All water molecules are exactly the same in this respect.
All water molecules consist of one O

atom and two H atoms and this gives
water its specific properties.
Any other combination of hydrogen and oxygen atoms would NOT be water.
For example, hydrogen peroxide consists of the same elements as water
...

(hydrogen and oxygen) but the ratio is different: two oxygen atoms have
combined with two hydrogen atoms.
The hydrogen peroxide molecule consists

In the crystal lattice of black iron oxide,
of two O atoms and two H atoms. This
there is one iron (Fe) atom for every
gives hydrogen peroxide different
oxygen (O) atom.
properties to water.
The next important point about compounds is the following.
Each compound has a unique name and formula

Water can be represented by the formula H2 O. The formula tells us that two
hydrogen atoms (H) are combined with one oxygen atom (O) in a molecule of
water.
What is the formula of hydrogen peroxide? Can you remember the name of the
compound with the formula CO2 ? Remember to take notes as you discuss
things in class!
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The formula of hydrogen peroxide is H2 O2 . The formula CO2 is carbon dioxide.
What formula represents one 'formula unit' of the type of iron oxide in the
previous diagram?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
FeO
The atoms in a compound are held together by chemical bonds

What holds the clusters of atoms that we call molecules together? When atoms
combine to form molecules, they do so because they experience an attractive
force between them. The forces that hold atoms together are called chemical
bonds.
Next, we need to be reminded where compounds come from.
. .

Compounds form during chemical reactions
In all chemical reactions, the atoms in molecules rearrange themselves to form
new molecules. This is how compounds form: the atoms in one set of
compounds separate as bonds break between them, and they get rearranged
into new groups as new bonds form. When this happens, we say a chemical
reaction has occurred. Look at the following illustration.
In the example above, the elements to the left of the arrow are called the
reactants. They have rearranged to form a new compound. This is called the
product and it is shown to the right of the arrow.
Can you describe what happened to the atoms and the bonds in this reaction?
Discuss which bond broke, which ones formed, and how the atoms were
rearranged during the reaction.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Discuss this with your class. Encourage them to take notes during your
discussions.
.
• The bond between the two red atoms broke.
• The black atom moved in between the two red atoms.
• Two new bonds formed: between the black atom and each of the two red
atoms.
The final aspect of compounds that we learnt in Gr. 8 is that each compound
can be represented by a unique chemical formula:
A compound has a chemical formula

Compare the formula for water with the diagram of the water molecule you saw
earlier. Can you make the connection?
The chemical formula of a compound is the same for all the molecules of that
compound. When we read the formula, the subscripts tell us how many atoms
of a particular element is in one molecule of that compound:
When we write H2 O, we actually mean H2 O1 . According to convention, we do

not use 1 as subscript in formulae and so the first formula is the correct one.
What it means is that there are 2 hydrogens to every 1 oxygen. This is also a
ratio and can be written as 2:1. We will practise writing formulae in the next
activity.
...

.
ACTIVITY: Writing formulae and revision

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. In the following table, the names of some pure substances are given in the
left-hand column. The middle column tells us what one molecule of each
compound is made of.
2. You must use this information to write the formula of each compound in
the final column, on the right.
3. The first row has been filled in for you, so that you have an example:
4. Column 1 contains the name: water
5. Column 2: one molecule of water contains two H atoms and one O atom.
6. Column 3: From the information in column two we can write the formula:
H2 O
Name of substance What it is made of? Chemical formula
water 2 H atoms and 1 O atom H2 O
carbon dioxide 1 C atom and 2 O atoms CO2
ammonia 1 N atom and 3 H atoms NH3
methane 1 C atom and 4 H atoms CH4

.
QUESTIONS:
1. What holds the atoms together in a compound?

A chemical bond holds the atoms together.
2. The following diagram shows how carbon and oxygen react to form
carbon dioxide.
What are the reactants and what is the product in this reaction? Write
these names onto the diagram.
the reactants are carbon (grey circle) and oxygen (red circles) and the
product is carbon dioxide.
3. Why is oxygen represented as two circles together?
The two circles each represent an oxygen atom as oxygen is a diatomic
molecule meaning it exists as two oxygen atoms bonded together in
diatomic molecules.
4. Magnesium oxide has the formula MgO. what does this ratio tell us about
the atoms in the compound?
It means that for every 1 magnesium atom, there is 1 oxygen atom joined to
it in a chemical bond.
. .

Now that we have refreshed our memories, we are going to return to the table
that scientists use to organise their knowledge about the elements. Can you
remember what it is called?
.
1.2 The Periodic Table
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The first part of this section is a revision of what learners should have covered in
previous grades.
We first encountered the Periodic Table in Gr. 7. Here is a summary of what we

already know:
1. All the elements that are known, can be arranged on a table called the
Periodic Table.
2. The discoveries of many scientists over many years contributed to the
information in the Periodic Table, but the version of the table that we use
today was originally proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1800s.
3. Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, with the lightest element
(hydrogen: H) in the top left hand corner.
4. An element's position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal, a
non-metal or a semi-metal.
a) metals are found on the left hand side of the table;
b) non-metals are found on the far right hand side of the table; and
c) semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and
non-metals.
5. An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
a) each element has a unique name;
b) each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
c) each element has a unique atomic number.
6. Metals are usually shiny, ductile, and malleable. Most are solids at room
temperature and have high melting and boiling points.
7. Non-metals can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature. They have
a great variety of properties that usually depend on the state they are in.
8. The semi-metals are all solids at room temperature. They usually have a
combination of metallic and non-metallic properties.
We learnt about the origins of the Periodic Table in Gr. 7. Let's also revise what
we learnt then, so that we have a firm foundation for our new learning.
The Periodic Table is basically a chart that scientists use to list the known
elements. The table consists of individual tiles for each of the elements. What
information can we find on the Periodic Table? That is what the next section is
all about.
...

What information can we find on the Periodic Table?
The information that most commonly appears on each tile of the Periodic Table
is the following:
• The chemical symbol; and

• The atomic number
The diagram alongside shows an

example of one of the tiles on the
Periodic Table. Can you identify the
element it represents? How many
protons does it have in its atoms? An example of one of the tiles on the
Periodic Table
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
C is carbon. It has 6 protons (indicated by the atomic number).
.
TAKE NOTE
TEACHER'S NOTE
There is a large version of
The atomic number (Z) is usually written. at the top of each tile for an element in . printed on
the Periodic Table
the Periodic Table, and the larger atomic mass number (A) is written at the the inside cover of your
bottom of each tile. workbooks for you to easily
refer to.
There are different versions of the Periodic Table, which can each contain
different information about the elements. Can you identify what information is
provided about the elements in the following table?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The table contains only the chemical symbol and atomic number of each
element.
. .

The following Periodic Table only shows the symbols for the elements.
Other versions of the Periodic Table may contain additional information, such as:
• The element name; and/or

• The atomic mass, usually indicted at the bottom of each tile for an element.
The diagrams below show examples of how this information is sometimes

presented.
VISIT
An interactive site on the
Periodic Table.. Click on each
element to view lots of
interesting information
about it bit.ly/14nnga0
This tile shows information about the This tile also shows information about the
element copper element copper. Instead of the element
name, the atomic mass of copper is given.
How are the elements arranged on the Periodic Table?

We have learnt that the elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in a very
specific way.
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The element
with the smallest atomic number is hydrogen (H: atomic number = 1) is in the
top lefthand corner of the table. The elements with the largest atomic number
are found at the bottom of the table.
The elements are also arranged in regions and these regions are often
presented in different colours. The following Periodic Table shows us where the
metals, non-metals and semi-metals can be found.
...

We can summarise:
• The metals are found on the left of the Periodic Table, reaching across
almost the entire table, except the top right hand corner. In the table
above, the metals are blue.
• The non-metals are found in a relatively small, triangular region at the top
right hand side of the table. In the table above, the non-metals are red.
TAKE NOTE
• A few elements that have metallic and non-metallic properties (called the
semi-metals) separate the metals from the non-metals. They occur in a . are also
The semi-metals
diagonal strip on the right hand side of the table. In the table above, the sometimes referred to as the
semi-metals are yellow. metalloids.
Now that we have revised what we already learnt in previous grades, let's learn
some new characteristics of the Periodic Table.
All tables have rows and columns. Can you remember the difference between
vertical and horizontal? Draw short lines to show the difference between
'vertical' and 'horizontal' in the following table.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should draw the following:
Vertical Horizontal
.
Vertical runs 'up and down', and horizontal runs 'from side to side'. In a
conventional table the columns run vertically, and the rows run horizontally.
. .

There are special words to describe the columns and rows of the Periodic Table.
The following diagram shows what the column and rows are called.
Groups: The vertical columns of the Periodic Table are called groups. The
groups on the Periodic Table are numbered in such a way that Group 1 is on the
left. How many groups are there?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
There are 18 groups.
The groups are numbered from 1 to 18. On older tables, the groups are
numbered in a more complicated way. The colourful Periodic Table from Gr. 7
(shown earlier) is an example of the numbering style that you may find in older
textbooks and other science resources.
Periods: The horizontal rows of the Periodic Table are called periods. The first
period is at the top of the table. What is the first element in the third period?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
It is sodium (Na).
Which element is in Group 14 and in the second period? Write its symbol and its
name.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
It is C, carbon.
...

Names and chemical symbols
In Gr. 7 we learnt that each element has a unique name. We also learnt that
each element has a unique symbol. There is a list of simple rules to remember
when using chemical symbols:
1. Every element has its own, unique symbol.

2. The symbol is usually (but not always) the first one or two letters of the
name of the element.
3. The first letter of the symbol is always a capital letter.
4. If the symbol has two letters, the second letter is always a small letter.
5. Some elements have symbols that come from their Latin names.
As scientists, we are expected to know the names and symbols of all the most
important elements. You will not be expected to learn all of them off by heart VISIT
just yet, but at the end of this chapter you must know the names and chemical .
The Periodic Table song!
symbols of the first 20 elements on the table. To make them a little easier to
bit.ly/18olBoT
remember, they have been placed in a table below.
ACTIVITY: Elements on the Periodic Table

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Use your Periodic Table to complete the following table.

2. Write the chemical symbol and element name for each of the first 20
elements, identified by their atomic numbers.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Atomic number Chemical symbol Element name

1 H Hydrogen
2 He Helium
3 Li Lithium
4 Be . Beryllium
5 B Boron
6 C Carbon
7 N Nitrogen
8 O . Oxygen
9 F Fluorine
10 Ne Neon
11 Na Sodium
12 Mg Magnesium
13 Al Aluminium
14 Si Silicon
15 P Phosphorus TAKE NOTE
16 S Sulfur
You need to know the names
17 Cl Chlorine
18 Ar Argon . the first 20
and symbols of
elements on the Periodic
19 K Potassium
Table, as well as iron, copper
20 Ca Calcium
and zinc.
. .

3. There are three important industrial metals of which you need to know the
names and formulae of. Their atomic numbers have been written in the
table below. Complete the table by filling in the chemical symbols and
element names.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Atomic number Chemical symbol Element name
26 Fe . Iron
29 Cu Copper
30 Zn Zinc
QUESTIONS:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This also serves as a revision of what learners covered in Gr. 8 about the atom.
1. What does the atomic number tell us about the atoms of an element?
It tells us how many protons are in the atoms.
2. How many protons are there in oxygen. atoms?
There are 8 protons (atomic number is 8).
3. In most oxygen atoms, how many neutrons are there?
There are also 8 neutrons.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners will only learn about isotopes in later grades, for now it is enough
to know that the atomic mass gives. an indication of the number of
nucleons (protons and neutrons), so for oxygen, the atomic mass is 15.999
(rounded to the nearest integer it is 16), so the number of neutrons = 16 - 8,
which is 8.
4. In a neutral oxygen atom, how many electrons will there be?

There will be 8 electrons.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
At this stage, learners have not yet .learned about ions, and so we only
consider neutral atoms in which the number of electrons equals the
number of protons.
5. What is the charge on protons and electrons?

Electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged.
...

6. How are the protons, neutrons and electrons (the sub-atomic particles)
arranged in an atom?
The protons and neutrons are clustered together in the centre, forming the
nucleus, and the electrons occupy a much large space/cloud/area around
the nucleus.
7. Draw a model of an oxygen atom in the space provided. Label your

diagram.
Learners must draw a central nucleus with 8 protons and 8 neutrons, with 8
electrons forming a cloud around the nucleus. An example model of a
nitrogen atom is given below as a reference:
.
.
You may wonder why the Periodic Table has exactly 18 groups and not 14 or 10
or any other number. That is a very good question! The actual explanation is
quite complex, and has to do with how the electrons inside the atom are
distributed. You will learn about this in greater detail if you take Physical
Sciences in Gr. 10.
Properties of elements in the same group

Elements from the same group often have similar physical and chemical
properties. For now, it is enough to know that the electrons in the atoms of an
element determine the chemical properties of that element. And since the
'electron patterns' repeat after every 18th element, there are 18 groups. Since
the elements in a group have similar 'electron patterns', they will behave
similarly in chemical reactions.
The metals of Group 1 are called the alkali metals. Can you write the name and
chemical symbol of the lightest member of the group? You can disregard
hydrogen, which is really a non-metal, but is placed with the alkali metals on the
Periodic Table because it has a similar electron pattern.
.
VISIT
TEACHER'S NOTE .
. of metal
Watch this video
It is Lithium (Li). reacting with water!
bit.ly/1cH6ADx
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Here is a video to assist teachers in demonstrating the properties of alkali
metals, including burning in air, and reaction with water. It is a long video but
worth a watch. bit.ly/11YFtOe
Lithium, and all the other alkali metals, are soft

dull-grey metals. The look very similar and have
similar physical properties. These elements all react
in a very peculiar way with water.
For example, when a small piece of lithium is

dropped in water, it will immediately start to react
with the water. Here is the chemical equation for
the reaction:
2 Li + 2 H2 O → 2 LiOH + H2
Lithium metal is stored in oil
and floats in the bottle. Why
do you think this is?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask learners firstly why they think it might be stored in oil and not water, for
example. This is because it reacts very well with water and it also reacts slowly
.
over time with oxygen in the air, so it is best to store it in oil. Next, ask learners
why they think the piece of lithium metal floats in the bottle of oil. This is
because lithium is the lightest metal in the universe and it is lighter and less
dense than oil, so it floats. This links back to the particle model of matter and
what learners covered in Gr. 8 on density of different materials.
The piece of lithium metal will dance around on the surface of the water,
because the reaction produces hydrogen gas (H2 ), which causes tiny bubbles to
stream from under the lithium. Heat is also given off and sometimes the
hydrogen gas will start to burn on top of the water. The other product that
forms is lithium hydroxide. Can you find its formula in the chemical equation
above?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
It is LiOH.
Write the word equation underneath the chemical equation above.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners should write the following word equation: lithium + water → lithium
oxide + hydrogen gas.
...

What are the reactants and the products in the above chemical reactions?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The reactants are lithium and water and the products are lithium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Now, the interesting thing is that all

the other alkali metals behave in a
similar way. Sodium is more
reactive than lithium, so it not only
bobs around on the surface of the
water, but immediately bursts into
flame. The chemical reaction is
almost identical, though:
2 Na + 2 H2 O → 2 NaOH + H2
When large amounts of sodium come into

contact with water, there is an explosion,
such as in this photo where water was
poured on 1,5 kg of sodium.
Can you see how similar it is to the reaction between lithium and water?
Potassium is even more reactive

than sodium, so it explodes when it
hits the surface of the water:
2 K + 2 H2 O → 2 KOH + H2
What you should notice is that

these elements, all from the same
group, react in the same way when
they come into contact with water.
That is what is meant when we say
that elements from the same group
have similar chemical properties.
A small piece of potassium metal explodes
as it reacts with water.
1.3 Names of. compounds
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
CAPS require that learners make models. (using beads, beans, plasticine or
playdough) of several elements and compounds. We have intentionally steered
away from including activities in which 'molecules' of ionic compounds such as
NaCl and CuO are required to be built or drawn. The reason for omissions of this
. .

kind ties in with the earlier note in which it was explained that ionic compounds
form lattices rather than molecules. Their . fundamental units are not called
molecules, but 'formula units'.
Perhaps there are two or more people in your class with the same name? Then
you will know how confusing it can be when two people have the same name!
We have learnt that each element has a unique name. This is important, so that
we do not end up confusing elements with each other.
Each compound has a unique name

It is just as important for each compound to have a unique name. The following
example will help you see why:
The two compounds CO and CO2 consist of the same two elements, carbon and
oxygen. If we named them both 'carbon oxide' (since they are both made of
carbon and oxygen), we could easily confuse them. Under certain
circumstances that could create problems, because CO is much more poisonous
to humans and animals than CO2 . So it is easy to see why each compound
needs a unique name.
When we write the chemical formulae for compounds, they are always a
combination of the symbols of the elements in the compound. For example,
when we see the formula NaCl, we know that this compound consists of Na and
Cl.
When we name compounds, the names of the elements in the compound are
combined and sometimes changed slightly, to make a name for the compound.
When we hear the name sodium chloride, for instance, it is quite obvious that
the compound being described must consist of sodium and chlorine. But, why is
it chloride and not chlorine? Well, as you will see shortly, when we join up the
names of the elements, the one that is named last is changed.
All the above may sound very complicated and for this reason a system has
been developed for naming compounds. The system was developed by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The system is
designed in such a way that the name of a compound describes the elements it
contains and how they are combined.
The IUPAC system for naming compounds is very complex, but we do not need
to learn all its rules. At this point we only need to learn how to name
compounds consisting of two elements.
At this level we have to distinguish between two types of compounds, because

the type of compound determines how it should be named.
...

Type 1: Compounds that contain a metal and a non-metal
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
These compounds are called ionic compounds because of the type of bonding
involved. CAPS do not make a distinction between covalent and ionic
compounds at this level. On the one hand this is understandable. Learners have
not yet learnt about ionic and covalent bonding in compounds and would
therefore not be able to understand the distinction between ionic and covalent
compounds. On the other hand, without some distinction being made explicit,
learners will fail to understand why MgO. is named magnesium oxide when CO is
named carbon monoxide, or MgCl2 is called magnesium chloride, but SCl2 is
called sulfur dichloride. For this reason, we have decided to make a distinction
between compounds that contain a metal and a non-metal (ionic compounds)
and compounds that contain only non-metals (covalent compounds).
These are not the only possible combinations of elements possible - a

semi-metal could combine with a non-metal, for instance in silicon dioxide
(SiO2 ) - but the two types of compounds discussed here represent the two
most common types of combinations of elements. TAKE NOTE
A 'suffix' is something placed
.
at the end of a word. A
For compounds of this type, the rule is simple. The metal comes first and the
'prefix' is something placed
non-metal second. The name of the non-metal changes slightly: the suffix -ide
at the beginning of a word.
replaces the ending of the name.
All compounds of this type form crystal lattices rather than molecules. What do
we call the repeating 'units' in a crystal lattice?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Formula unit
Picture of one formula

Formula Consists of Name
unit of the compound
Sodium
NaCl Sodium and chlorine
chloride
FeS Iron and sulfur Iron sulfide
Magnesium
MgO Magnesium and oxygen
oxide
LiF Lithium and fluorine Lithium fluoride
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Naming compounds of metals and

non-metals
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Refer to the Periodic Table and complete the following table.
2. You need to identify the elements which make up the compound and give
the name of the compound.
.
Formula Which elements does it consist of? Name
Li2 O 2 Lithium and 1 oxygen Lithium oxide
KCl 1 Potassium and 1 chlorine Potassium chloride
CuO 1 Copper and 1 oxygen Copper oxide
NaBr 1 Sodium and 1 bromine Sodium bromide
Type 2: Compounds that contain only non-metals

This type of compound is slightly more complicated to name. There are three
rules that you have to follow. They are as follows:
Rule 1:
The name of the element further to the left on the Periodic Table comes first,
followed by the name of the element further to the right on the table. The name
of the second element changes slightly: the suffix -ide replaces the ending of
the name.
For example:
• oxygen becomes oxide

• fluorine becomes fluoride
• chlorine become chloride
• nitrogen becomes nitride
Rule 2:
When two or more compounds have different numbers of the same elements
(like CO and CO2 in our example above), we must add prefixes to avoid
confusion.
...

The first four prefixes are listed in the table below:
TAKE NOTE
The prefix mono- is usually
Number of atoms Prefix
left out from the beginning
.
of the first word of the
1 mono-
name. For instance CO is
carbon monoxide,
2 di-
notmonocarbon monoxide.
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
Here are some examples of how this rule should be applied:
Compounds of carbon and oxygen:
• CO - carbon monoxide (notice that it is not mono-oxide, but monoxide)

• CO2 - carbon dioxide
Compounds of nitrogen and oxygen:
• NO2 - nitrogen dioxide

• N2 O4 - dinitrogen tetroxide (did you notice how tetraoxide becomes
tetroxide?)
Compounds of sulfur and oxygen:
• SO2 - sulfur dioxide

• SO3 - sulfur trioxide
We are going to practice what we have learnt so far in the next two short
activities. First, we will write names from formulae.
ACTIVITY: Writing names from the formulae of

compounds
.
MATERIALS:
• play dough, beans or beads
INSTRUCTIONS:
.
1. How would you name the following compounds? Write the name next to
each formula in the table below.
2. Build one molecule of each compound with play dough, beans or beads. If
you are not sure how to arrange the atoms, here is an important tip: the
atom that comes first in the name (it will usually also be the first atom in
the formula) must be placed at the centre of the molecule. All the other
atoms must be placed around it. They will be bonded to the atom at the
centre, but not to each other.
3. Draw a picture of your molecule in the final column of the table.
. .

Formula of the Picture of one molecule of the
Name of the compound
compound compound
CO2 carbon dioxide
hydrogen dioxide
H2 O
(water)
PF3 phosphorous trifluoride
.
SF4 sulfur tetrafluoride
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The colours of the atoms are not important, as long as atoms of the same
element are the same colour. The sizes are not critical, but you may want to
.
suggest to learners that the elements higher up on the Periodic Table will tend
to be smaller than those lower down. If learners are unsure how to place the
atoms, draw their attention to the tip given earlier: The atom that comes first in
the name (or formula) must be placed at the centre of the molecule. All the
other atoms must be bonded to the central atom.
.
...

Next, we will write formulae from the names of some compounds.
ACTIVITY: Writing formulae from the names of

compounds
.
MATERIALS:
• play dough
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. What formulae would you give the following compounds? Write the
formula next to each name in the table below.
2. Build a model of each compound with play dough.
3. Draw a picture of one molecule of each compound in the final column of
the table.
Formula of the Picture of one molecule of the VISIT

compound compound Build some .compound
molecules with this
simulation! bit.ly/14CQ4PO
HF hydrogen fluoride
H-2 S dihydrogen sulfide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
CO carbon monoxide
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The colours of the atoms are not important, as long as atoms of the same
..
element are the same colour. The sizes are not critical, but you may want to
suggest to learners that the elements higher up on the Periodic Table will tend
to be smaller than those lower down.
There is one additional rule - an easy one to remember!
Rule 3:
Many compounds are not usually referred to by their systematic names. Instead,
TAKE NOTE they have common names that are more widely known. For example, we use
Now we have learnt an the name water for H2 O, ammonia for NH3 , and methane for CH4 .
important new. skill, namely
In this chapter we reviewed all the information about compounds and about the
to write and interpret the
Periodic Table, that we have learnt in previous years. We added some new
names and formulae of
information to both of these topics.
compounds.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Here are some tips for teachers about the 'Build a molecule' simulation.
bit.ly/17iXzKG
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
Elements
• All the atoms in an element are of the same kind. This means that
an element cannot be changed into other elements by any physical or
chemical process.
• Elements can be built up of individual atoms, or as bonded pairs of
atoms called diatomic molecules.
• When elements combine, they form compounds.
Compounds
• In a compound, atoms of two or more different kinds are chemically

bonded in some fixed ratio.
• The atoms that make up a molecule are held together by special
attractions called chemical bonds.
• Compounds can be formed and broken down in chemical reactions.
• A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler
compounds and even elements is called a decomposition reaction.
• Compounds cannot be separated by physical processes, but they can
be separated into their elements (or simpler compounds) by chemical
processes.
...

The Periodic Table
• Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements
are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, with the lightest
element (hydrogen: H) in the top left hand corner.
• An element's position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal,
a non-metal or a semi-metal.
– metals are found on the left hand side of the table;
– non-metals are found on the far right hand side of the table; and
– semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and
non-metals.
• An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
– each element has a unique name;
– each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
– each element has a unique atomic number.
• The vertical columns of the Periodic Table are called groups. The
Periodic Table has 18 groups.
• The horizontal rows of the Periodic Table are called periods. There are
7 periods.
• Elements belonging to the same 'group' of the Periodic Table exhibit
the same chemical behaviour, and will often have similar properties.
• Many different versions of the Periodic Table exist. Typically, the
element symbol, the atomic number and the atomic mass of each
element are given on the table.
Names and formulae
• Each compound has a unique name and formula.

• The formula of a compound tells us which elements are in the compound
and how many atoms of each element have combined to form one
molecule of that compound.
• There are rules for naming compounds that take into account how many
atoms of each type are in one molecule of the compound.
. Map
Concept
Study the concept map below summarising what we learnt in this chapter
about compounds.
. .

.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Each of the four blocks below (labelled A to E) contain some matter. You
must answer the following questions using the diagrams in the blocks.
Each question may have more than one answer! [12 marks]
.
a) Which block represents the particles of an element?
C and D
b) Which block represents the particles in a compound?
A
c) Which block represents the particles in a mixture?
B
d) Which block represents diatomic particles?
B and D
e) If the blue atoms are N and the white atoms are H, write the formula
for the molecules in block A.
NH3
f) If the blue atoms are N and the white atoms are H, write the formula
for the molecules in block B.
N2 and H2
g) Which blocks contain molecules?
A, B and D
h) Which block contains single atoms?
C
2. How would you name the following compounds?
a) Write the name next to each formula in the table below.
b) Build a model of each compound with play dough.
c) Draw a picture of one molecule of each compound in the final column
of the table.
[12 marks]
. .

Formula of the Picture of one molecule of the
compound compound
NH3 ammonia
CO2 carbon dioxide
CuCl2 copper(II) chloride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
3. What are the formulae of the following compounds? [4 marks]
Formula of the compound Name of the compound
NaCl sodium chloride
N2 O dinitrogen monoxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
CO carbon monoxide
4. Here is a balanced chemical equation. Answer the four questions below

that relate to this equation: [8 marks]
CO + H2 O → CO 2 + H2
a) Write the formulae of the reactants of this reaction.

CO and H2 O
b) Write the names of the reactants of this reaction.
carbon monoxide and water
c) Write the formulae of the products of this reaction.
CO2 and H2
d) Write the names of the products of this reaction.
carbon dioxide and hydrogen
...

5. The table below contains the chemical formulae of a few compounds. You
have to write the number of atoms of each element(s) combined in one
molecule of each compound. The first row has been filled in for you as an
example. [8 marks]
Chemical formula What it is made of?
H2 O 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom
SF4 1 sulfur atom

. and 4 fluorine atoms
NO2 1 nitrogen atom and 2 oxygen atoms
Fe2 O3 2 iron atoms and 3 oxygen atoms
Na2 O 2 sodium atoms 1 oxygen atom
Total [44 marks]
.
.
. .

2 Chemical reactions
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
1 week
This chapter builds on the introduction to chemical equations given in Chapter 1

and 3 of Gr. 8 Matter and Materials.
By this stage, learners should know that atoms are rearranged during a chemical
reaction. The atoms do not change; only their arrangement in relation to each
other changes.
Learners were introduced to particle diagrams in Gr. 8 and this skill will be
further reinforced in this chapter. We have tried to introduce learners to the
idea that chemical reactions can be thought of in different ways. Ultimately,
they have to be able to write chemical equations, but this is a very complex skill.
By starting with word equations and progressing to submicroscopic
representations (picture equations) before translating the latter to the symbolic
format (chemical equations), we hope to. build/scaffold the learning of chemical
equations as well as develop learners' ability to imagine events on the
submicroscopic scale.
2.1 Thinking about chemical equations (0.5 hours)
Activity: Drawing water Drawing Optional (Suggested)
2.2 How do we represent chemical equations? (1 hour)

Activity: Identifying the Optional (Suggested)
Identifying, sorting and
different types of
classifying, interpreting
equations
228
2.3 Balanced equations (1.5 hours)

Interpreting, writing Optional (Suggested)
Activity: When is a
formulae, balancing
reaction balanced?
equations
Interpreting,. writing CAPS suggested
Activity: Magnesium
formulae, balancing
burning in oxygen
equations
Interpreting, writing CAPS suggested
Activity: Iron reacts
formulae, balancing
with oxygen
equations, comparing
Interpreting, writing
Activity:Copper reacts formulae, balancing CAPS suggested
with oxygen equations, comparing,
drawing
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is a chemical reaction?
• How can we represent what happens in a chemical reaction?
• What do the different symbols in a chemical reaction equation mean?
• What do the numbers in a chemical reaction mean?
• What does it mean to balance a chemical equation?
• How can we tell if a reaction is balanced?
• How do we translate between word equations, picture equations and
chemical equations?
In Gr. 8 Matter and Materials we learnt about chemical reactions for the first
time. Can you remember the main ideas about chemical reactions? Here they
are again:
• During chemical reactions, materials are changed into new materials with
new chemical and physical properties.
• The materials we start with are called reactants, and the new materials that
form are called products.
• During a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged. This requires that bonds
are broken in the reactants and new bonds are formed in the products.
In this chapter we are going to build on these ideas. We will focus on two things:
1. how to write chemical reaction equations; and

2. how to balance chemical reaction equations.
This will prepare us for the chapters that follow this one, in which we will be
looking at different types of chemical reactions.
Before we get to chemical reactions, however, it is important that we remind

ourselves of the different ways that we have been thinking about chemical
compounds up to now. The next section will show how they all fit together.
. .
Chapter 2. Chemical reactions 229

2.1 Thinking about .chemical reactions
Scientists learn to think about compounds on three different levels:
• macroscopic
• microscopic
• submicroscopic
As a young scientist, you have already been introduced to this kind of thinking.
The three levels can also be thought of as three different ways to represent
compounds. The next activity will help you understand what this means.
ACTIVITY: Drawing water

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
The instruction for this activity is really simple: Draw a picture of water. You
may use the space below for your drawing.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Do not give any further instructions, but allow the learners to interpret the
question in any way they want to. Ask the . learners to show their work. Some
may draw a landscape with water (a dam or river) and others may draw a glass
or similar container with clear colourless liquid inside it. Perhaps one or two will
draw a water molecule or the chemical formula for water. Get some of the
learners to redraw their pictures on the board.
Your drawing may look like one of the diagrams below. They all represent
water. But which one is correct? .
They are all correct!
The three diagrams above all represent water, but they are very different from
each other. We say that they are three different representations of the same
thing, namely water.
...

The following diagram shows how the three representations fit together.
TAKE NOTE
Submicroscopic means
'smaller than microscopic',
or 'too small to see through
a microscope'..Sometimes it
helps to think that this is
what we would see if we had
The water molecule in the top right shows what a particle of water would look
special 'submicroscopic
like (i). We cannot see water particles with our eyes, therefore we have to
goggles' on to 'see' at the
imagine them. This is why the water molecule is inside a thought bubble. We
atomic level!
call this a submicroscopic representation.
VISIT
The beaker of water shows what water looks like to our eyes (ii). We call this a
macroscopic representation, because it is observable. That means it can be Find out about special
.
observed by using our senses such as seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting or microscopes which enable
touching. people to 'see' atoms
bit.ly/19YlOCU
The chemical formula on the left uses chemical symbols to represent water (iii).
We have learnt that chemical formulae are made up of element symbols. We
can think of chemical symbols and formulae as a chemical 'language', because
they tell a story. The 'story' told by the formula H2 O is that a water molecule
consists of two atoms of H and one atom of O. The formula 'H2 O' is a symbolic
representation.
Experienced scientists can move easily between these three levels. They can
translate the symbolic language of chemical formulae to submicroscopic
pictures in their mind. This is what we will practice in this chapter.
Before moving on, try another example where you draw the 3 different levels of
carbon dioxide in the space below. Label each level.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners could draw a closed container with
. a clear gas in it for the
macroscopic representation. They should write the formula CO2 for the
symbolic representation.They should draw a carbon dioxide molecule for the
submicroscopic representation as follows:
. .

VISIT
The world's smallest movie .
. atoms
made with
bit.ly/168BHFa and how
the scientists made it
bit.ly/1cYU80s
.
2.2 How do we represent chemical reactions?
How would you define a chemical reaction? Write down some of your ideas.
The following words may help you formulate your sentences.
reactants, products, bonds, rearranged, atoms, molecules, new compounds
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Get learners to first take some notes and describe what they think a chemical
reaction is. You can even just ask them the question and get their definitions.
A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms in which one or more

compounds are changed into new compounds.
All chemical reactions can be represented by equations and models. To some

people, chemical equations may seem very hard to understand. Since atoms
and molecules can not be seen they have to be imagined and that can be quite
difficult! Luckily, we have had some preparation because we have been drawing
molecules since Gr. 7.
Anytime that atoms separate from each other and recombine into different
combinations of atoms, we say a chemical reaction has occurred. No atoms are
lost or gained, they are simply rearranged.
1. Word equations
TAKE NOTE When we represent a chemical reaction in terms of words, we write a word
In mathematic equations we equation. For example, when hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form
use an equal sign (=) for water, we can write a word equation for the reaction as follows:
example 2 + .2 = 4, but in
scientific chemical hydrogen + oxygen → water
equations, we use an arrow
To the left of the arrow, we have the 'before' situation. This side represents the
(→), for example C + O2 →
substances we have before the reaction takes place. They are called the
CO2 .
reactants. What are the reactants of this reaction?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The reactants are hydrogen and oxygen.
...

To the right of the arrow we have the 'after' situation. This sides represents the
substances that we have after the reaction has taken place. They are called the
products. What is the product of this reaction?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The product is water.
2. Picture equations
The same reaction of hydrogen reacting with oxygen, can also be represented
in pictures called submicroscopic diagrams. The diagram below shows that the
atoms in two hydrogen molecules (H2 ) and one oxygen molecule (O2 ) on the
left rearrange to form the two water molecules (H2 O) on the right of the arrow.
Hydrogen atoms are white circles and oxygen atoms are red circles.
What kind of representation is this: macroscopic, submicroscopic, or symbolic?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Submicroscopic, because it shows the particles.
Now we are going to convert our submicroscopic picture to a symbolic one:
What is the product of the above reaction? What are the reactants of the above
reaction? Write their formulae.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The product is H2 O. The reactants are H2 and O2 .
3. Chemical equations
When we represent a chemical reaction in terms of chemical formulae
(symbols), it is called a chemical equation. The chemical equation for the above
reaction would be as follows:
2 H2 + O2 →2 H2 O
What kind of representation is this: macroscopic, submicroscopic, or symbolic?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Symbolic, because it uses formulae (symbols).
We still have reactants on the left and products on the right.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Identifying the different types of

equations
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Complete the following table by identifying the different types of equations

which have been shown, namely word, picture or chemical equations.
Equation Type of equation
Picture equation
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen Word equation
Symbolic/chemical
Fe + O2 → Fe2 O3 . equation
Picture equation
Symbolic/chemical
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O
equation
QUESTIONS:
1. What process does the equation, carbon dioxide + water → glucose +

oxygen, represent?
Photosynthesis.
2. What process does the equation, C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O,
represent?
Cellular respiration.
When you look at the reaction equation above you will notice two kinds of
numbers:
• Numbers in front of chemical formulae in the equation. They are called

coefficients.
• Smaller numbers used inside and below the chemical formulae. These are
called subscripts.
Coefficients and subscripts mean different things, as you will see in the next
section.
...

Coefficients and subscripts in chemical equations
Why is there a '2' in front of the formula for water (H2 O) in the chemical
equation for water? This is because two molecules of H2 O can be made from
two molecules of H2 and one molecule of O2 in our reaction.
The numbers in front of the formulae in the chemical equation are called
coefficients. They represent the numbers of individual molecules that are in the
chemical reaction.
You will notice that O2 does not have a coefficient in the reaction above. When
there is no coefficient, it means that just one molecule of that substance takes
part in the reaction.
In the previous chapter, we learnt how to interpret chemical formulae. When we

read the formula, the subscripts tell us how many atoms of a particular element
are in one molecule of that compound.
. equations
2.3 Balanced
Now we are going to learn what it means when a reaction is balanced. Here is
our submicroscopic picture again.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
When learners draw a diatomic molecule, the two atoms must be touching to
show that they are chemically bonded, otherwise it is wrong.
Count how many H atoms are on the left side of the reaction. How many on the
right?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Four H atoms on the left and four H atoms on the right.
Count how many O atoms are on the left side of the reaction. How many on the
right?
. .

.
VISIT
TEACHER'S NOTE .
. balancing
Simulation on
chemical equations Two O atoms on the left and two O atoms on the right.
bit.ly/17ImOVN
Did you notice that the numbers and types of atoms are the same on the left
and on the right of the reaction? The reactants have four H atoms and two O
atoms. The products have four H atoms and two O atoms.
When this is true of a reaction equation, we say the equation is balanced.
ACTIVITY: When is a reaction balanced?

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the equation below. The black atoms are carbon (C), and the red
atoms are oxygen (O). They will not always necessarily be this colour - this
is just a representation.
2. Answer the questions that follow.
QUESTIONS:
1. What kind of representation is this: macroscopic, submicroscopic or

.
symbolic?
Submicroscopic, because it shows the particles.
2. Write a symbolic representation (a chemical equation) for the above
reaction.
C + O2 → CO2
3. Write the formulae for the reactants of this reaction.
C and O2
4. Write the formula for the product of the reaction.
CO2
5. Count how many C atoms are on the left side of the reaction. How many
on the right?
One C atom on the left and one C atom on the right.
6. Count how many O atoms are on the left side of the reaction. How many
on the right?
Two O atoms on the left and two O atoms on the right.
7. Is the reaction balanced? Why do you say so?
Yes, the reaction is balanced because equal numbers of the same kinds of
atoms are on both sides of the reaction equation.
Now that we know how to recognise a balanced equation, we are going to learn
how to balance them!
What is a balanced equation? Write down your own definition.
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Either get learners to write down their own definitions and then read them out
.
to the class, or they can just volunteer answers. You can get learners to start
with: We say an equation is balanced when... A potential answer is: "We say a
reaction is balanced when the total numbers and types of atoms in the
reactants are equal to those in the products".
We are going to use a few examples of real reactions to learn how to balance
equations. In the chapters following this one, we are going to see what these
reactions look like in real life, but for now, we will just focus on how to balance
equations.
ACTIVITY: Magnesium burning in oxygen

.
When magnesium metal burns in oxygen, we can write the following word
equation for the reaction that occurs between these two elements:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Magnesium flakes burning in oxygen in a sparkler.
QUESTIONS:
1. What are the reactants of the reaction?

The reactants are magnesium and oxygen.
2. What is the product?

The product is magnesium oxide.
We can change the word equation into a chemical equation:
Mg + O2 → MgO
3. What kind of representation is this: macroscopic, submicroscopic, or

symbolic?
Symbolic, because it uses formulae (symbols).
. .

4. Is the equation balanced? If you are not sure, count the number of each
type of atom on the left, and on the right. Perhaps it will help to look at a
submicroscopic representation (a particle diagram) of the reaction:
You can write your results in the table below:

.
Number of atoms Reactants Products
1
Mg 1
1
O 2
5. What is your conclusion: Is the equation balanced? Explain your answer.

No, the equation is not balanced because the numbers of the atoms are not
the same in the reactants and products.
So how could we balance the equation to describe magnesium burning in

oxygen? When balancing reactions, there is one simple rule:
You may only add compounds that are already in the equation. This means only
coefficients may be changed, not subscripts!
Let's try a few alternative solutions. Would it help to add an O atom on the
right, like this?
Now the O atoms are balanced on both sides of the equation, but we don't have
MgO on the right anymore. We have changed the formula on the right to MgO2 .
That means we have changed a subscript in the formula. You cannot change the
formula of a compound when balancing chemical equations.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask learners why it is not allowed. Is MgO the same as MgO2 ? Remind them of
the earlier example of H2 O and H2 O2 , which
. were not the same compound. MgO
and MgO2 can not be the same compound because they do not have the same
chemical formula. The ratio of Mg and O atoms are different in the two
compounds. (The compound MgO2 does not even exist, but you do not have to
go into this.)
Adding single atoms to any side of the equation is also not allowed. That means
the following equation is also not correct:
...

Remember that we may only use the chemical formulae that are already in the
equation. We need two MgO's on the right to balance the two O's in O2 . We
also need two Mg's on the left to balance the two MgO's on the right.
Can you build this equation with play dough balls or beads? When you convert
the play dough 'reactants' to 'products', are there any unused 'atoms' left
behind afterwards?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
No, there are not. Get learners to actually do this activity and practice making
the equation using balanced numbers of atoms.
Now, let us take this a step further. We are going to convert our balanced
submicroscopic equation to a symbolic chemical equation. Write down a
balanced equation for magnesium burning in oxygen to produce magnesium
oxide.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Write this up on the board and explain again how the equation is balanced:
2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
Here are a few important rules for balancing chemical equations:
• When we balance reaction equations we may ONLY add coefficients to the

chemical formulae that are already in the equation.
• We may NOT change the chemical formulae of any of the reactants or
products by changing the subscripts in a formula.
• We may NOT add other reactants or products. This includes adding single
atoms of any of the elements already in the reaction equation.
• We may NOT remove reactants or products.
We are now ready to practice balancing other reaction equations.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Iron reacts with oxygen

.
When iron rusts, it is because the iron metal reacts with oxygen in the air to
form iron oxide.
An old car with rust on the bonnet. A closeup photo of a rusted barrel.
The word equation is the following:
iron + oxygen → iron oxide

.
The chemical equation is the following:
Fe + O2 →Fe2 O3
Is the equation balanced? Draw a submicroscopic picture to help you decide.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner's diagram should look like this. They may find it difficult to convert the
equations into diagrams. Help them to interpret the formulae in the following
way: Fe on its own means there is just one atom of iron (Fe). O2 means there
must be two atoms of O, linked up to form a molecule. Fe2 O3 means two Fe
atoms and three O atoms are clustered together.
.
The colours are not important, as long as all the atoms of the same element are
the same colour.
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The arrangement of the atoms in the Fe2 O3 'cluster' is also not important. Since
Fe2 O3 is an ionic compound, we would not ordinarily speak of a 'molecule' of
Fe2 O3 . Like all other ionic compounds, it consists of large clusters of Fe3+ and
O2- ions in a regular crystalline packing that extends in three dimensions, much
like the ionic lattice of NaCl in the picture below (shown in Chapter 1 also).
It is not recommended that you mention this information here, as it more likely
to confuse learners at this point than add to their understanding of balancing
equations.
You could also use a table like the one below:
. .
TEACHER'S NOTE
Number of atoms Reactants Products

.
Fe 1
O 2
What is your verdict: Is the equation balanced? Explain your answer.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
No, the equation is not balanced because the numbers of the atoms are not the
same in the reactants and products.
How could we balance the reaction? Three possibilities (Plans A, B and C) are
given below. You must evaluate each plan, and say if it is allowed or not.
Plan A
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Is this change allowed?
Changes made Reason
Yes/no?
Add one Fe atom on . The Fe atom is already
Yes
the reactant side. a reactant.
Change O2 to O3 on the
Changes to formulae
reactant side of the No
are not allowed.
equation.
1. Convert the picture equation above to a chemical equation.

2 Fe + O3 → Fe2 O3
2. Did any coefficients change? Remember that this is allowed.
Yes.
3. Did any formulae change, or were any new formulae added? Remember
that this is NOT allowed.
Yes.
4. What do you think: Can this plan work? Explain your answer.
No, because a formula was changed.
Plan B
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Changes made Reason
Yes/no?
Add one Fe atom on The Fe atom is already
Yes .
the reactant side. a reactant.
Adding single atoms is
not allowed, unless they
Add one O atom on the
No are already in the
reactant side.
reaction AS SINGLE
ATOMS.
1. Convert the picture equation to a chemical equation.

Two Fe + O + O2 → Fe2 O3
Yes.
Yes.
4. What do you think: Can this plan work? Explain why or why not.
No, because adding formulae is not allowed.
...

Plan C
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Changes made Reason
Yes/no?
The Fe atom is already
Add three Fe atoms on a reactant.
Yes
the reactant side.
.
The O2 molecule is
Add two O2 molecule .
Yes already a reactant.
on the reactant side.
Fe2 O3 is already a
Add one Fe2 O3 on the product.
Yes
product side.
1. Convert the picture equation to a chemical equation.

4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3
Yes.
No.
4. What do you think: Can this plan work? Explain why or why not.
Yes, because none of the rules for balancing equations were broken.
5. Which of the three plans (A, B or C) helped us to balance the equation
using only moves that are allowed?
Plan C
6. Are there any other plans that you can think of to balance this equation?
Learners should be encouraged to try out other possibilities. They should
come to the conclusion that the reaction proposed in Plan C is the only
correct one. .
.
In the next activity we will balance an equation that is much simpler, but we are
not going to include all the explanations of the previous activity.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Copper reacts with oxygen

.
Have you ever noticed how

copper items tarnish over time?
This dark layer of tarnish is the

result of a slow reaction
between copper and oxygen, to
form copper oxide.
One of these copper coins is tarnished as it has

become coated in a black substance.
QUESTIONS:
1. Write the word equation for this reaction. The words are all in the sentence
above, they just need to be placed in the correct positions.
Learners should fill in the answers as follows:
2. Convert the word equation into a chemical equation. You do not have to
balance it yet.
.
3. Convert the chemical equation to a picture equation. It does not have to

be balanced.
Learner's drawing should look similar to the following. Colours do not have
to be the same as shown here, but they must show a difference between
the different elements. If learners do not have different coloured pencils,
they can also use different patterns to distinguish the different atoms.
4. Now, redraw the picture equation so that it is balanced. Remember that no

'new' compounds may be added; we are only allowed to draw more of the
molecules that are already there.
...

5. Convert the balanced picture equation to a balanced chemical equation.
.
.
.
In the chapters that follow, there will be more opportunities to write and
balance chemical equations.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• There are a number of different ways to represent chemical equations:
– With models and pictures (in submicroscopic representations);
– with symbols and formulae (in chemical equations); and
– with words (in word equations).
• Numbers are used in two different ways in chemical equations:
– Coefficients in front of chemical formulae indicate the numbers of
atoms or molecules of a specific type that take part in the reaction;
and
– Subscripts inside chemical formulae indicate the number of atoms
of a specific type in that particular compound.
• Chemical reactions happen when atoms in compounds rearrange; no
atoms are lost or gained during a chemical reaction.
• In a balanced equation equal numbers of the same kinds of atoms are
on opposite sides of the reaction equation.
. Map
Concept
The following concept map is incomplete. You need to describe when you
get reactants and when you get products in a chemical reaction.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Why can we not change the subscripts in the formulae of reactants and
products when we want to balance an equation? [2 marks]
This is because it will change the formula of the compound which then
represents a different compound, and not the one involved in the reaction.
2. Write the balanced chemical equation between carbon and oxygen to form
carbon dioxide. [1 mark]
C + O2 →CO2
3. Write the balanced chemical equation between hydrogen and oxygen to
form water. [1 mark]
2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O.
4. Here is a balanced chemical equation:
C + H2 O → CO + H2
Answer the four questions below that relate to this equation: [8 marks]
a) Write the formulae of the reactants of this reaction.

b) Write the names of the reactants of this reaction.
c) Write the formulae of the products of this reaction.
d) Write the names of the products of this reaction.
a) C and H2 O.
NOTE: Learners do not need to know this equation, it is just to practice
balancing equations.
b) carbon and water
c) CO and H2 .
d) carbon monoxide and hydrogen
5. The balanced equation below represents the reaction between nitrogen
monoxide (NO) and bromine (Br2 ):
2 NO + Br2 → 2 NOBr
Complete the table by counting how much of each atom is on each side of
the reaction equation. [6 marks]
NOTE: Learners do not need to know this equation, it is just to practice

balancing equations.
Number of atoms In the reactants In the product
Nitrogen (N) 2 2
Oxygen (O) 2 2
Bromine (Br) 2 2
6. Turn the following chemical equations into word equations:

[2 x 3 = 6 marks]
a) 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
b) 2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
a) carbon monoxide + oxygen → carbon dioxide
b) magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
...

7. Turn the following word equations into chemical equations:
[2 x 3 = 6 marks]
a) sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
b) carbon monoxide + water → carbon dioxide + hydrogen
a) S + O2 → SO2
b) CO + H2 O → CO2 + H2
8. Turn the following picture equations into chemical equations.
[2 x 3 = 6 marks]
• The red circles represent oxygen (O) atoms.
• The white circles represent hydrogen (H) atoms.
• The grey circles represent carbon (C) atoms.
• The yellow circles represent sulfur (S) atoms.
a) 2 H2 O → 2 H2 + O2
b) 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
.
9. Write the following chemical equations as word equations:
[4 x 1 = 4 marks]
a) 4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3
b) What does this product look like?
c) 2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
d) What does the product look like?
a) iron + oxygen → iron oxide
b) It is a brown rusty coating (rust).
c) magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
d) It is a white powder.
10. Turn the following chemical equations into picture equations:

[2 x 4 = 8 marks]
a) CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2 O
b) CS2 + 3 O2 → CO2 + 2 SO2
Total [48 marks]

.
.
. .

3 Reactions of metals with oxygen
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
1.5 weeks
In this chapter learners will again encounter the reactions of selected metals
with oxygen that were used as examples in the previous chapter. In this
chapter, however, there will be a greater focus on the actual reactions - these
should be demonstrated to the class - and the commonalities between them.
Once again, the writing of chemical equations will be scaffolded by the process
of starting with a word equation (macroscopic representation) and progressing
through a picture equation (submicroscopic representation) to end at the
chemical equation (symbolic representation).
The content has also been presented in a slightly different order to CAPS in that
the example reactions are first explored, and then the general reaction of metals
with oxygen is explained, once learners have already seen example chemical
equations.
3.1 The reaction of iron with oxygen (1 hour)
Tasks Skills . Recommendation

Activity: Three different Optional (Revision)
Sorting and classifying,
levels of interpretation
interpreting, identifying
in science
Demonstration of steel
wool burning, CAPS suggested
Activity: The reaction
observing, recording,
of iron with oxygen
communicating,
describing
3.2 The reaction with magnesium and oxygen (1 hour)

Demonstration of
Activity: The reaction magnesium burning, CAPS suggested
of magnesium with observing, recording,
oxygen communicating,
describing
3.3 The general reaction of metals with oxygen (0.5 hours)
(Questions within the text)
250
3.4 The formation of rust (1.5 hour)

Activity: The reaction Demonstrating, Optional (Suggested)
between iron and observing, recording,
.
oxygen in air describing,
Activity: Why is rust a Identifying problems Optional (Suggested)
problem? and issues
3.5 Ways to prevent rust (0.5 hours)
(Questions within the text)
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What happens when a metal reacts with oxygen?
• What is the product called?
• How can we represent the general reaction between a metal and
oxygen?
• What is a combustion reaction?
• What is rust and how does it form?
• How can iron be made more rust-resistant?
In the previous chapter, we learnt how to write and balance equations. The
three examples we learnt about were:
• magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

• iron + oxygen → iron oxide
• copper + oxygen → copper oxide
Which groups do magnesium, iron and copper come from?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Magnesium is group 2, iron is group 8 and copper is group 11. This is important
as elements in the same group will react similarly.
In these reactions, the elements that react with oxygen are all metals. If you are
not convinced of this, find them on the Periodic Table below in the front of your
book. Can you see that they are all found in the region occupied by the metals?
Where are metals located on the Periodic Table?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
On the left.
. .
Chapter 3. Reactions of metals with oxygen 251

The names of the products of the three reactions above have something in
common. Write down the names. Can you see what they have in common?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The products are: magnesium oxide, iron oxide, copper oxide. They all have
'oxide' in their name.
TAKE NOTE
The metals will react
. The products are all metal oxides. What exactly are metal oxides? As we will
similarly with the other
see later when we draw diagrams and write formulae to represent these
elements in the same group
reactions, they are compounds in which a metal is combined with oxygen, in
as oxygen (group 16).
some fixed ratio.
We are going to look at two of the reactions shown previously in greater detail
in this chapter. Remember that they are not the only reactions of metals with
oxygen; they are just the ones that have been chosen as examples.
First, we will observe the actual reactions. Your teacher will demonstrate, while
you make observations. Afterwards we will write about these reactions using
'scientific language' as we write reaction equations for each one. Before we
start, here is a reminder of something we discussed in Chapter 1.
ACTIVITY: Three different levels of interpretation

in science
.
In the first chapter of Gr. 9 Matter and Materials, we learnt that scientists
interpret chemical reactions on three different levels. Those three levels are:
• the macroscopic level;

• the submicroscopic level; and
• the symbolic level.
Check whether you still remember what each level refers to, by completing the
following table.
.
We are operating on this level:

When we do the following:
Macroscopic/submicroscopic/symbolic
Observe actual reactions (see, Macroscopic
hear, smell, touch, taste).
Describe what we see in words.
Imagine the behaviour of
particles during reactions. Submicroscopic
Draw pictures of particles in
substances.
Write chemical formulae. Symbolic
Write reaction equations.
...

Soon your teacher will demonstrate two reactions, while you will be making
observations. Which of the three levels will you be operating at?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The macroscopic level.
.
.
The purpose of these demonstrations is to give you a chance to make

macroscopic observations of the chemical changes that take place during the
reactions. This chapter will also help you to link those macroscopic observations
with pictures and equations that you learnt to write in the previous chapter.
3.1 The reaction of. iron with oxygen

We will be looking at how iron reacts with oxygen. In some cases, you might
use steel wool for these experiments. Do you know what steel wool is? It is wire
wool made of very fine steel threads. Steel is an alloy made mostly of iron. So,
when we look at how steel wool burns in oxygen, we are actually looking at how
iron reacts with oxygen.
TAKE NOTE
A metal alloy is a solid
. or more
mixture of two
different metal elements.
Examples are steel and
brass.
Steel wool spinning creates interesting photos as the iron Iron shavings look like sparks
burns in oxygen and creates orange sparks. when they burn in the blue
flame of a Bunsen burner.
Your teacher will perform a demonstration in which iron is burned in air. When a
substance burns in air, the reaction is called a combustion reaction. When a
substance combusts in air, it is really reacting with oxygen.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: The reaction of iron with oxygen

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It is recommended that you demonstrate this reaction to the learners, because
of the hazards involved when burning metals.
Safety precautions to observe during the demonstrations:

.
1. Wear safety goggles and a protective coat.
2. Exercise caution when burning the steel wool, as sparks may be produced.
Learners should be cautioned against standing too close during the
demonstration.
3. Place a clean beaker or watch glass underneath to catch any metal oxide
that forms during the reaction. Students can examine the reaction product
afterwards to formulate their observations.
MATERIALS:
• Bunsen burner or spirit burner

• matches
• safety goggles
• steel wool
• tongs
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Your teacher will demonstrate the combustion of iron in oxygen (which is

present in air).
2. You should make careful observations during the demonstration and write
VISIT these down in the spaces provided below. To guide you, some questions
You can see a .video of steel have been provided.
wool burning here:
bit.ly/1cYPyz7
QUESTIONS:
1. We used steel wool in this demonstration, but what is steel wool mostly
made of?
Steel wool is an alloy made mostly of iron.
Note: The other elements in steel include carbon, manganese, phosphorus,
sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen and aluminum. Learners do
not need to know the names of the other elements in steel wool.
2. Look at the metal before it is burned. Describe what it looks like.
Learners' observations may include any of the following: The steel wool
consists of thin threads of iron. It looks like hair made of metal. Depending
on the state of the steel wool, learners may describe it as shiny, or dull grey,
metallic, or even rusty. Encourage creative descriptions.
3. Can you see the oxygen that the metal will react with? Can you describe it?
Oxygen gas can not be seen or directly observed and so it cannot be
described.
4. What do you observe during the reaction? Describe anything you see,
hear, or smell.
• Learners may see the steel wool burning and bright orange sparks
falling. They may even notice some smoke.
...

• Learners may hear the crackling sound of the steel wool burning.
• Learners may notice a metallic smell in the air.
• Learners may experience the heat from the combustion reaction.
.
5. What does the product of the reaction look like? Describe it in as much
detail as possible.
The product is a reddish-brown, crumbly solid.
.
.
If you think the reaction when iron burns in oxygen is spectacular, the next
demonstration will amaze you!
.
3.2 The reaction of magnesium with oxygen
Your teacher will perform a demonstration in which magnesium is burned in air.
VISIT
.
A video showing
Magnesium burns with a bright white flame. magnesium burning in
oxygen bit.ly/14nA93I
ACTIVITY: The reaction of magnesium with

oxygen
.
MATERIALS:
• Bunsen burner or spirit burner .

• matches
• safety goggles
• magnesium ribbon
• tongs
• watch glass or beaker
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It is recommended that you demonstrate the reaction to the learners, because
of the hazards involved with burning metals.
Instructions:
1. Wear safety goggles and a protective coat.

2. Caution learners not to look directly at the intense white flame produced
.
by the burning magnesium.
3. Place a clean beaker or watch glass underneath to catch any metal oxide
that forms during each reaction. Students can examine the reaction
product afterwards to formulate their observations.
4. You may want to retain the product of the magnesium combustion
reaction for a follow-up experiment in the chapter Reactions of acids with
metal oxides.
5. You can also mix the product in water at this stage and test if it is an acid
or base.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Your teacher will demonstrate the combustion of magnesium in oxygen.

2. You should make careful observations during the demonstration and write
these down in the spaces provided below.
VISIT
QUESTIONS:
. calcium
Video showing
reacting with oxygen 1. Describe the physical form (shape) of the metal in this experiment.
.
bit.ly/19n3u7c The magnesium is in the form of magnesium 'ribbon'.
2. What do we call reactions where a substance burns in air?
Combustion reactions.
3. How would you describe the physical appearance or colour of the metal
before it is burned?
Learners' observations may include any of the following: The magnesium
ribbon looks like a thin strip of metal. It looks like metal tape. Depending
on the state of the ribbon, learners may describe it as shiny, or dark grey,
black, metallic, or even tarnished. Encourage creative descriptions.
4. Can you see the oxygen that the metal will react with? Can you describe it?
Oxygen gas can not be seen or directly observed and so it cannot be
described.
5. What do you observe during the reaction? Describe anything you see,
hear, or smell.
• Learners may see the magnesium burning with a blinding white light.
They may notice some smoke.
• Learners may hear crackling or hissing as the magnesium burns.
• Learners may notice a hot, metallic smell in the air.
• Learners may experience the heat from the combustion reaction.
6. What does the product of the reaction look like? Describe it in as much
detail as possible.
The product is a soft, white, powdery solid.
Magnesium is in group 2 in the Periodic Table. Do you remember that we said

that elements in the same group will behave similarly. This means that they will
react in a similar way. We have studied how magnesium reacts with oxygen, but
calcium, for example, will behave in a similar way. You can watch the video in
the visit link to confirm this.
...

The following diagram combines the macroscopic, submicroscopic and
symbolic representations of the reaction that you have just observed.
A photographer using an antique

camera and flash that works with
magnesium powder.
Now that we have made our

macroscopic observations of the two
reactions, we are ready to write about
these reactions in scientific language.
. of metals with oxygen

3.3 The general reaction
Let us start by writing word equations for the two reactions that we have just
performed. Word equations are often easier to write than picture equations or
chemical equations and so they are a good starting point when we want to
write reactions.
Write the word equation for the reaction between iron and oxygen and for the
reaction between magnesium and oxygen.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The word equations are:
.
• magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
You can write these on the board.
The word equation

We can write a general word equation for reactions in which a metal reacts with
oxygen:
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
When we use words to describe a reaction, we are still operating on the

macroscopic level. Next, we are going to translate our word equation to a
picture equation.
The picture equation

When we represent a chemical reaction as a particle diagram, such as in the
picture equation below, we are operating on the submicroscopic level.
Can you identify the reactants in the above equation? The purple atoms are
magnesium and the oxygen atoms are red. Write down the name and chemical
formula of the product of the reaction.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The product is magnesium oxide (MgO)
The picture is not the same for all reactions of metals with oxygen.
The chemical equation

We can go further and translate the picture equation for the reaction between
magnesium and oxygen to a chemical equation:
2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
Since the chemical equation consists of symbols, we can think of this as a

symbolic representation.
Can you remember what the numbers in front of the formulae in the chemical
equation are called? Can you remember what the numbers inside a chemical
formula are called?
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Coefficients and subscripts, respectively.
As we have said, the metals in the same group will react in the same way as
each other with oxygen. So, calcium reacts with oxygen in the same way as
magnesium reacts with oxygen. The chemical equations also show similarities.
The chemical equation for the reaction between calcium and oxygen is:
2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO
What is the product called in this reaction?

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Calcium oxide.
What group are calcium and magnesium from?

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Group 2.
A metal oxide has the the general formula MO or M2 O. In the formula, M TAKE NOTE
represents a metal atom and O represents oxygen. We can therefore say that Metal oxides of the types M
metals from Group 2 will react with oxygen and have the following general .
2 O3 and MO2 also occur, but
equation, where M represent a Group 2 metal: we will limit our discussion
to the first two types.
2M + O2 → 2MO
To know whether MO or M2 O will be the correct formula, here are two simple
rules for you to remember:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is a suggested way to assist learners. to write the formulae. Once learners
have learnt about valencies in Gr. 10-12, they will be able to use this information
to write the formulae of compounds. for now though, this is sufficient.
1. Metal oxides from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the formula
M2 O.
Can you write two examples? Look at the Periodic Table at the front of the
book, pick any two metals from group 1 and write their formulae using this rule.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: Li2 O, Na2 O, K2 O, Rb2 O, Cs2 O
2. Metal oxides from group 2 will have the formula MO.
Can you write 2 examples?
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: BeO, MgO, CaO, SeO, BaO
Iron is from Group 8. Here is the picture equation of the reaction between iron
and oxygen (iron is green and oxygen is red).
Write the chemical equation and word equation for this reaction underneath the
picture equation.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should write the following in line with the respective pictures in the
.
above diagram:

• 4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3
In the next section, we are going to return to the macroscopic world to see
another example of the reaction between iron and oxygen that you should be
very familiar with - the formation of rust.
.
3.4 The formation of rust
Do you know what rust is? The pictures below will provide some clues.
Different objects which rust.
...

.
ACTIVITY: The reaction between iron and oxygen

in air
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Here is a suggested activity for you to show how rust forms. This is not required
by CAPS. It can be set up as a demonstration. You can then compare this
reaction with the one that you did previously where iron was burned in oxygen
.
in a combustion reaction.
This experiment will require a place where it can remain undisturbed for two or
three days. It may be worth setting up this experiment at the start of this
section. Take note: The test tube may be difficult to clean at the end of this
experiment.
MATERIALS:
• test tube
• clamp
• retort stand
• dish
• iron filings
• water .
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Rinse a test tube with water to wet the inside.

2. Carefully sprinkle a spatula of iron filings around the sides of the test tube.
3. Invert the test tube in a dish of water. Use a clamp attached to a retort
stand to hold the test tube in place.
4. Over the three days the water must remain above the lip of the test tube.
Here is a simple diagram showing the

experimental setup with the clamp
holding the test tube upright.
QUESTIONS:
1. What do the iron filings look like at the start of the experiment?
They are a silvery colour.
2. What are the reactants in this experiment?
Iron and oxygen (and water).
3. Is there something present that is aiding or speeding up the reaction?
The water.
4. What does the product look like at the end of the reaction?
It is a browny, red colour.
. .

Rust is a word to describe the flaky,
crusty, reddish-brown product that
forms on iron when it reacts with
oxygen in the air.
When your teacher burned the iron

earlier, it reacted quickly with oxygen
to form iron oxide. Here is a picture of
iron oxide to remind you what it
looked like. A sample of iron oxide.
Rust is a form of iron oxide

When iron is exposed to oxygen in the air, a similar reaction occurs, but much
more slowly. The iron is gradually 'eaten away' as it reacts slowly with the
oxygen. Under wet conditions iron will rust more quickly.
Rust is actually a mixture of different oxides of iron, but the Fe2 O3 of our earlier
example is an important part of that. The rusting of iron is actually a good
example of the process of corrosion.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Remind learners of where else they have. heard the term 'corrosive' used before
in Matter and Materials. It is used to describe strong acids and bases which
learners were first introduced to in Gr. 7 Matter and Materials and will look at
again later in this term.
Rusting tends to happen much faster near the ocean. Not only are there water
droplets, but these droplets have salt in them and this makes them even more
corrosive. Rusting also happens more quickly in the presence of acids. Inside
laboratories, or factories where acids are used or stored, the air is also very
corrosive. When the air in a specific area contains moisture mixed with acid or
salt, we refer to the area as having a corrosive climate.
If you live in a corrosive climate, for

example near the ocean, it is often
better to make the window frames
and doors of your house from wood
instead of iron and steel, because wood
does not rust. Many people also use
aluminium as this metal does not rust.
An abandoned car quickly rusts and

corrodes near the sea.
...

The problem with rust
Rust is a natural process and its effects

can be quite beautiful.
However, iron and rust (iron oxide) are

completely different materials and
therefore have different properties.
A garden sculpture that was intended to

rust to give it more texture.
ACTIVITY: Why is rust a problem?

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This links to what learners have done in previous grades about the properties of
materials.
1. Let's imagine we have manufactured something out of iron. What

properties of iron do we want to take advantage of?
Iron is a metal, so it is hard, strong and flexible.
2. What objects do you think we make out of iron where these properties are
desirable?
Tools, locks, hinges, screws and nails, garage doors... the list of items is
almost endless!
.
A rusted chain. A rusted door hinge.
3. When an item is made of iron, we might want to protect it from rust, to

prevent it from losing those desired properties. Do you think the rusty
chain and door handle in the following photos will be as strong and flexible
as when they were new? Why not?
No, they will not be as strong. Rust is a different compound to the element
iron and so it has different properties. It starts to weaken the objects.
. .

You might have learnt in previous grades that iron can be strengthened, and
made more resistant to rust, by mixing it with other elements to turn it into steel.
Steel is used in the construction of buildings, because it is very strong. Steel is

not completely rust-resistant, however, and needs to be protected against rust,
especially in moist and corrosive climates.
A building under construction. You can see Steel reinforcement to support a building.
the framework made of steel. As you can see, steel can also rust.
In the next section, we will learn about the different ways in which iron and steel
can be protected against rust.
3.5 Ways to .prevent rust

Rust forms on the surface of an iron or steel object, when that surface comes
into contact with oxygen. The oxygen molecules collide with the iron atoms on
the surface of the object, and they react to form iron oxide. If we wanted to
prevent that from happening, what would we have to do?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
We would need to put something between the oxygen and iron so they cannot
make contact.
Paint provides a barrier to rust

If we wanted to prevent the iron atoms and oxygen molecules from making
contact, we would need to place a barrier between them. That is what we are
doing when we paint an iron surface to protect it from rust.
...

VISIT
.
Corrosion and rust (video)
Paint is not the ultimate barrier, though. If the paint surface is scratched, or it
bit.ly/168tsJx
starts to peel off, the metal will be exposed and rust can still form.
Other metals as barriers to rust

Rust is a porous material. This means that air and water can penetrate through VISIT
the rust on the surface of the object to reach the iron underneath. The iron will
continue to corrode even if it has a thick layer of rust covering it. So even . and how to
Rust formation
prevent it (video)
though the iron surface is covered, it is not protected, because the oxygen
bit.ly/19YitDO
molecules can still reach the iron to react with it.
There are a number of other

ways to stop or slow down rust.
One way to protect the iron
surface is to cover it with a
metal that does not corrode,
like chromium, for instance.
Taps and bathroom fittings are
often made of iron that has
been 'chromed'. They have
been covered with a layer of
chromium to protect the iron
surface from contact with the
air.
Chromed taps in a basin.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. important for taps in bathrooms and
Ask learners why they think it is especially
basin to be protected from rust. This is because they are in a moist, humid
environment and water makes iron more prone to rust.
Zinc also reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide:
2 Zn + O2 → 2 ZnO
What group is zinc in?

TAKE NOTE
. Zinc is in a different group to
TEACHER'S NOTE . .
iron on the Periodic Table.
This tells us that it does not
Group 12. react the same way as iron
does with oxygen.
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is not a porous oxide, but forms a dense protective layer that
cannot be penetrated by oxygen or water. Iron can be coated with a thin layer
of zinc in a process called galvanising. The zinc layer quickly reacts with
. .

oxygen to become zinc oxide. This layer protects the zinc underneath it from
being further oxidised. It also protects the iron underneath the zinc from
contact with oxygen.
The following diagram shows a segment of galvanised steel, with a scratch in

the protective coating. What do you think will happen to the steel that is
exposed to the air by the scratch in the coating?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The exposed steel will rust over time.
A segment of galvanised steel, showing damage to the zinc coating.
VISIT
. Iron that is galvanised is used for many different purposes. You would most
Why do apples turn brown?
probably have seen it being used as galvanised roof panels or other galvanised
(video) bit.ly/17iQvh2
building materials, such as screws, nails, pipes, or floors.
Galvanised panels used for walls or roofs. A galvanised watering can.
Galvanised nuts and bolts. Galvanised flooring.
...

In this chapter we learnt how metal oxides form. We saw two demonstrations of
reactions in which metals oxides formed as products. Finally, we learnt about a
metal oxide (iron oxide or rust) from our everyday experience as well as ways
to prevent objects from rusting, especially those used in buildings and industry.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
If you would like to read more about why apples turn brown to explain this to
your learners in more detail, visit this website: bit.ly/13unyg1
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• When a metal reacts with oxygen, a metal oxide forms.
• The general equation for this reaction is: metal + oxygen → metal oxide.
• Some metals will react with oxygen when they burn. These reactions are
called combustion reactions. Two examples of combustion reactions
are:
– Iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide:
4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3
– Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide:
2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
• Rust is a form of iron oxide and it forms slowly when iron is exposed to
air.
• Iron can be transformed to steel (an alloy), which is more resistant to
rust.
• Rust can be prevented by coating iron surfaces with paint, or with
rust-resistant metals such as chromium or zinc.
. Map
Concept
What is the proper name for 'burning'? Fill this into the concept map. Fill in
the examples of the metals that you studied in this chapter. You will have to
look at the products formed to know where to put which one. Lastly, give
two examples of metals that you learnt about in this chapter which do not
rust.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Read the sentences and fill in the missing words. Write the missing word
on the line below. [9 marks]
a) A chemical reaction where a compound and oxygen react during
burning to form a new product is called a reaction.
b) Magnesium + → magnesium oxide
c) + oxygen → iron oxide
d) copper + oxygen →
e) Another word for iron oxide is .
f) Metal that is covered by a thin layers of zinc and zinc oxide is called
metal.
g) The gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical
reaction with the environment is called .
h) When the air in a specific area contains moisture mixed with acid or
salt, we refer to the area as having a climate.
i) The product of the reaction between a metal and oxygen is called a
.
a) combustion
b) oxygen
c) Iron
d) copper oxide
e) rust
f) galvanised
g) corrosion
h) corrosive .
i) metal oxide
2. List three materials that can be used to protect iron or steel from
corrosion. [3 marks]
• paint
• chromium
• zinc
3. Complete the table by providing the missing equations for the reaction
between iron and oxygen [4 marks]
Word equation iron + oxygen → iron oxide
Chemical equation 4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3
Picture equation
between magnesium and oxygen [4 marks]
Word equation magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Chemical equation 2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
Picture equation
...

between copper and oxygen [4 marks]
Word equation copper + oxygen → copper oxide
Chemical equation 2 Cu + O2 → 2 CuO
Picture equation
. missing equations for the reaction

6. Complete the table by providing the
between zinc and oxygen [6 marks]
Word equation zinc + oxygen → zinc oxide
Chemical equation 2 Zn + O2 → 2 ZnO
Picture equation
Total [30 marks]

.
.
. .

4 Reactions of non-metals with oxygen
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
1 week
In this chapter learners encounter the reactions of the non-metals, carbon and
sulfur [Note: the internationally accepted spelling is now 'sulfur', not 'sulphur',]
with oxygen. Once again, the translation between word equation, picture
equation and chemical equation is reinforced with exercises and examples.
There are no demonstrations prescribed by CAPS for this chapter, but we have
included colourful photographs to provide learners with some experience of the
splendour of these reactions. Since chemical reactions can seem quite abstract
to learners and learning about them in isolation may seem to them as if it lacks
relevance, we have also attempted to provide some real-world context to the
examples in this chapter.
At the end of the chapter a few additional non-metals and their reactions with
oxygen have been included as enrichment. You may choose to omit these, but
they do highlight an important point, namely that not all non-metals form
non-metal dioxides when they react with oxygen. Since both central examples
of this chapter result in non-metal dioxides (viz. CO2 and SO2 ), one should be
mindful of the possible introduction of a. misconception in this regard.
4.1 The general reaction of non-metals with oxygen (0.5 hours)
4.2 The reaction of carbon with oxygen (1 hour)
Activity: Coal burning Drawing, balancing Optional (Suggested)

in air chemical equations
4.3 The reaction of sulfur with oxygen (1 hour)

Activity: The reaction Analysing, balancing CAPS suggested
between sulfur and chemical equations,
oxygen drawing, modeling
4.4 Other non-metal oxides (0.5 hours)
This is an optional, extension section.
272
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What happens when a non-metal and oxygen react?
• What is the product called?
• How should we write equations for the reactions of carbon and sulfur
with oxygen?
• Do all non-metals form dioxides with oxygen?
Oxygen is all around us in the air we breathe. It is a very reactive element.

When an element is reactive, it means that it will readily react with many other
substances. We saw evidence of the reactive nature of oxygen when we
observed how it reacted with iron and magnesium to form metal oxides.
In this chapter we look at a few reactions of non-metals with oxygen. Where do

we find non-metals on the Periodic Table?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
On the right.
. non-metals with oxygen

4.1 The general reaction of
When a non-metal burns in oxygen, a non-metal oxide forms as product. Here
is the word equation for the general reaction:
non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide
Can you see that it looks similar to the word equation for the reaction between
a metal and oxygen? The only difference is that the word 'metal' has been
replaced with 'non-metal' on both sides of the equation. Non-metal oxides have
different chemical properties to metal oxides. We will learn more about this
later on in the term.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An important chemical difference between. metal and non-metal oxides is that
when metal oxides dissolve in water, they form basic solutions and when
non-metal oxides dissolve in water, they form acidic solution.
Let's look at a few specific examples of reactions in which non-metals react with
oxygen. The first one is one that you are already familiar with, namely the
reaction of carbon and oxygen.
. .
Chapter 4. Reactions of non-metals with oxygen 273

4.2 The reaction of .carbon with oxygen
Have you ever seen coal burning in
air?
TAKE NOTE
Substances .that are not Coal is a form of carbon that is used
reactive are called as fuel for many different purposes.
unreactive or inert. It is one of the primary fossil fuels
that humans use to generate
electricity for powering our
industries, our activities and our
living spaces. We will look at this in
more detail next term in Energy and Coals burning in a fire.
Change.
A coal-powered power station.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should have encountered the topics
. coal, fossil fuels, renewable and
non-renewable energy sources and electricity generation in previous grades
(specifically in Gr 6 and 7 Energy and Change) and they will also look at it again
next term.
ACTIVITY: Coal burning in air

.
The energy in coal comes from the energy . stored in plants and other organisms
that lived hundreds of millions of years ago. Over the millennia, layers of dead
plants and other biological waste were covered by layers of water and soil. The
heat and pressure from the top layers caused the plant remains to turn into
energy-rich coal.
...

The energy released by burning coal is used to generate electrical energy in
coal-powered power stations.
Coal is a form of carbon and when it burns in oxygen we can represent the
reaction with the following word equation:
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
Draw a picture equation for this reaction in the space below.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In the picture equation here, the black atoms are carbon (C) and the red atoms
are oxygen (O). If learners do not have coloured pens or pencils, they can use
patterns and shading to differentiate between
. different atoms.
Convert the picture equation into a chemical equation. Is it balanced?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The chemical equation is C + O2 → CO2 . This equation is already balanced.
What group is carbon in on the Periodic Table?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Group 14.
The other elements in the same group as carbon will react in the same way as
carbon with oxygen.
Since coal is a non-renewable energy source as well as one that causes

pollution and other environmental problems, scientists and engineers continue
to look for alternative fuels and energy sources to eventually replace coal as an
energy source. Can you think of the names of some alternative, renewable
energy sources?
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Wind energy, solar energy, biofuels, nuclear energy (the latter is not strictly
renewable). This content is not included in CAPS (as part of the Grade 9 Matter
.. has been included in an attempt to
and Materials requirements). The question
create some relevance. The topic of chemical reactions is an abstract one and it
often helps to provide some real-world applications to link it to other, less
abstract including learners' own experience. This will also link to what learners
will cover next term in Energy and Change.
In the next section, we are going to look at the formation of another, less
well-known, non-metal oxide named sulfur dioxide. Which non-metal do you
think reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide? See if you can write down the
formula for sulfur dioxide before we carry on. Here is a hint: What does the di-
in dioxide mean?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The non-metal is Sulfur (S). To write the formula, you may need to guide learners
to realise there are 2 oxygen atoms in one molecule of sulfur dioxide: SO2
4.3 The reaction of. sulfur with oxygen

What is the name of the product of the reaction between sulfur and oxygen?
Use the name of the product and the general equation given at the start of the
chapter to complete the following word equation:
sulfur + oxygen →
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
VISIT
.
A video on sulfur burning in The equation should read: sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
oxygen bit.ly/15tuqd1
Sulfur burns in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide. Your teacher will not demonstrate
this reaction, because the sulfur dioxide that forms is a poisonous gas that you
and your classmates should not be exposed to.
...

VISIT
A video bit.ly/14CAGmJ
.
and a photo essay
bit.ly/1bofGSi on sulfur
mining.
Sulfur is a yellow substance and it burns Sulfur mining is very dangerous to the
with a blue flame in oxygen. miners who inhale the toxic sulfur dioxide
gas.
Sulfur dioxide is sometimes used as a preservative for dried fruits, such as dried
peaches and apricots and the guava rolls that so many of us love to eat. The
fact that it is toxic means that very small quantities of it can be added to food
to preserve it. In very small quantities SO2 does not permanently harm a large
organism such as a human being, but bacteria cannot survive when it is present.
Sulfur dioxide is also an important preservative in many South African wines.
Dried fruit, such as apricots, are preserved Many South African wines are preserved
with sulfur dioxide. with sulfur dioxide.
ACTIVITY: The reaction between sulfur and

oxygen
.
In the following activity we are going to review word equations, picture

equations and chemical equations, using. the reaction between sulfur and
oxygen as our context.
You wrote the word equation for the reaction between sulfur and oxygen
above. Did you write the following?
sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
. .

QUESTIONS:
1. What group is sulfur in on the Periodic Table?

Group 16
2. What are the reactants of this reaction? Write their names and formulas.
Sulfur (S) and oxygen (O2 )
3. What is the product of the reaction? Write its name and formula.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2 )
4. Now, use the formulas of the reactants and products to write a chemical
equation.
S + O2 → SO2
5. When is a reaction balanced?
When both sides of the reaction have the same number of the same types
of atoms.
6. Is your reaction above balanced? Why do you say so?
The reaction is balanced because it has the same number of S and O atoms
on either side of the equation.
7. Draw a picture equation for the reaction, using the example of carbon
above as guide.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The picture equation for the reaction is shown below. Colours are not important
as long as all atoms of the same element have the same colour. In our example,
the sulfur atoms are yellow and the oxygen atoms are red. Chemists have
evidence that the actual shape of the SO2 molecule is not linear; in other words,
the atoms do not all lie in a straight line as they do in CO2 . Rather, the SO2
molecule is believed to have a bent shape, as it appears in the picture equation.
.
Since the explanation for this shape requires some understanding of bonding
models, which are beyond the scope of this . level of the curriculum, we
recommend that you do not 'go there', but accept 'linear' drawings of the SO2
molecule as correct.
8. Use play dough or clay to build models of the reactants and products of
the reaction. This is what your starting reactants could look like:
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Provide play dough or modelling clay for this part of the activity. You can also
get learners to construct the equation by using sheets of white paper and
drawing a '+' and '→
And then they must rearrange the atoms to form the product as shown here:
.
You can also repeat this exercise with the other reactions covered so far.
1. Challenge question: How many bonds were broken and how many bonds
were formed during this reaction?
1 bond was broken (between the oxygen atoms) and 2 bonds were formed
(1 between each of the oxygen atoms and the sulfur atom)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an extension question.
.
.
.
4.4 Other non-metal oxides
.
TAKE NOTE
TEACHER'S NOTE .
. cover this
You might not
Important note: This is not required by CAPS but is offered as enrichment. section in class as it is an
extension.
We have looked at two examples of non-metals reacting with oxygen to form

non-metal oxides. Both of our examples had a dioxide as product (carbon
dioxide and sulfur dioxide). Do all non-metals form non-metal dioxides when
. .

they react with oxygen? What do you think?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Get learners to discuss this for a moment. You may want to ask if water (H2 O) is
.
a non-metal oxide. Point out that hydrogen (H) is a non-metal and that water
should be a non-metal oxide. Is it a dioxide? No, because it contains only one
oxygen. This is important in highlighting how the non-metals in different groups
react differently with oxygen.
Not all non-metal oxides are dioxides, as the following examples show.
The reaction between phosphorus and oxygen

Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. Can you remember what reactive
means?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
VISIT .
.
Video on phosphorus Ask your learners this question to see what they can remember. Compounds
burning in oxygen that are reactive will readily react with many other substances.
bit.ly/11YyPaD
When phosphorus reacts with oxygen the chemical equation for the reaction is
the following:
4 P + 5 O2 → 2 P2 O5
How many phosphorus atoms are in P2 O5 ? How many oxygen atoms are in
P 2 O5 ?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
There are 2 phosphorus and 5 oxygen atoms.
What is the systematic name of the product of this reaction? (If you are unsure
how to name it, sneak a peek at the first chapter!)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Diphosphorus pentoxide
Can you write a word equation for this reaction?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
phosphorus + oxygen → diphosphorus pentoxide
Our final example is a compound that you should be very familiar with!
...

The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
Hydrogen and oxygen also react spectacularly. The reaction between a large
quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in the air produces a beautiful orange fireball
and a very loud boom! (You can watch the video in the visit box to see this in
slow motion.)
Here is a diagram to show what is really happening to the compounds in this

reaction. The purpose of the candle shown in the picture is to set the hydrogen
gas alight, in other words: to provide enough energy for the reaction to start.
VISIT
A slow motion video of a
.
hydrogen-filled balloon
exploding in air
bit.ly/19n32pC
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. take note of the safety precautions.
If you choose to demonstrate this in class,
This is a very explosive reaction and everyone present should wear safety
goggles.
Can you complete the following chemical equation? The reaction is between
hydrogen and oxygen. Write the product where it belongs.
2 H2 + O2 →
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2 O. You can also get learners to practice rearranging the atoms
with this equation, making sure they have a balanced equation.
What is the common name of the product of this reaction? What is the
systematic name of the product of this reaction? (If you are unsure how to
name it, sneak a peek at the first chapter!)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The common name is water and the systematic name is dihydrogen monoxide.
. .

VISIT
The reaction .of hydrogen In 1937, a German airship exploded and fell to the ground in a huge fireball as the
with oxygen (video) hydrogen gas which kept it floating ignited and reacted with the oxygen in the air.
bit.ly/1bofMcI
In this chapter we learnt about some of the reactions between non-metals and
oxygen. Some of the skills that we practised during this chapter were: writing
equations (word, picture and chemical equations) and naming compounds.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metal oxides.
• The non-metal and oxygen gas (O2 ) are the reactants in this type of
reaction, and a non-metal oxide is the product.
• The reactions of carbon and sulfur with oxygen are examples of
non-metals reacting with oxygen.
• Carbon and sulfur both form dioxides with oxygen, but this is not true
of all non-metals.
. Map
Concept
Complete the concept map below. What will you fill in for the products when
the two different non-metals react with oxygen during combustion?
...

.
.
.
REVISION: Revision questions

.
1. Fill in the missing words in these sentences. Write the word on the line
below. [5 marks]
a) A substance that will react readily with many other substances is
called a substance.
b) Substances that do not react with other substances and do not
change into other compounds are called or
.
c) When a non-metal reacts with oxygen the product of the reaction is a
.
d) When a compound reacts with oxygen, we say it has become
.
a) reactive
b) unreactive or inert
c) non-metal oxide
d) oxidised
2. Write a short paragraph (3 or more sentences) to explain what you

understand each of the following terms to mean, in your own words. [3 x 3
= 9 marks]
a) systematic name
Learner's paragraph should contain
. at least the following ideas:
• The systematic name of a compound is the name that is recognised
by IUPAC.
• IUPAC refers to the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry.
• The systematic name of any given compound should be unique so
that the compound cannot be confused with any other compound.
b) preservative
Learner's paragraph should contain at least the following ideas:
• A preservative is a chemical compound that is added to a product
(such as a foodstuff or a beverage) to make it last longer.
• Most preservatives are poisonous to microorganisms, but are
added in such small quantities that they are not harmful to humans.
• SO2 is used as a preservative in many foods, including dried fruit
and wine.
c) non-renewable energy source
• Non-renewable energy sources refer to sources that can be used
up, such as fossil fuels.
• Coal, oil and natural gas are examples of non-renewable fuels.
• The energy in these energy sources comes from the energy stored
in plants and other living organisms that were fossilised over
millions of years.
. .

3. For each of the following reactions, complete the tables by providing the
missing equations.
a) The reaction between carbon and oxygen [6 marks]
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

Word equation
C + O2 → CO2
Chemical equation
Picture equation
b) The reaction between sulfur and oxygen [6 marks]

.
sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide

Word equation
S + O2 → SO2
Chemical equation
Picture equation
Total [26 marks]
...

5 Acids, bases and the pH value
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
1 week
In this chapter, learners are introduced to the pH scale and learn how to measure
and interpret pH values. There are two activities around pH measurement in this
chapter: One is a paper activity and one is an investigation using indicators.
There is an introductory activity on measurement - this helps to link this content
to what learners might be doing in other subjects, such as Mathematics and
Technology, and also to what they already know about measurement.
The investigation uses universal indicator paper and red cabbage paper to
measure the pH of a selection of household products. If you do not have
universal indicator paper, but have universal indicator solution, you could easily
adapt the activity in the following way: Instead of using paper, learners should
add 2 - 3 drops of universal indicator solution to their test solutions, note and
record the resulting colours. Red cabbage solution can also be used instead of
paper. It would be best to add approximately 1 ml of each test solution to 2 ml
portions of the red cabbage water.
.
To make red cabbage indicator paper, follow the instructions below:
1. Cut a large red cabbage into thin slices and place it in a pot.
2. Add just enough water to cover the cabbage slices.
3. Boil it over low heat for approximately 30 minutes, adding water to keep
the cabbage covered if necessary.
4. Remove the pot from the heat and let it cool completely.
5. Strain the juice off the cabbage slices into a large shallow dish. The boiled
cabbage slices can be eaten (or placed in the compost).
6. Place sheets of absorbent paper (kitchen towel, coffee filters or filter
paper) in the cabbage water.
7. After 30 minutes, remove the paper and leave it in a warm place to dry.
You can also dry the paper with a hair dryer, but do not leave it in direct
sunlight.
8. When the paper has completely dried, cut it into strips (approximately 1
cm wide). The strips will keep for a long time if stored in a dry place.
The time indicated for this chapter is 1 week and so a suggested 1.5 hours has
been allocated to each section. However, as there are only two key tasks in this
chapter, you might progress through it at a faster rate than 1 week, and then
move onto the next chapter dealing with the reactions of acids with bases,
which requires more time.
288
5.1 What is the pH value? (1.5 hours)

Activity: Measuring
Optional
instruments and Identifying, observing,
(Suggested)
units
Activity: The pH Observing, identifying, Optional
scale remembering (Suggested)
.
5.2 Indicators (1.5 hours)

Investigation:
Universal indicator Testing, observing,
paper and red measuring, recording, CAPS suggested
cabbage indicator analysing, interpreting
paper
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What measurement can we use to decide whether something is an acid
or a base?
• What does 'the pH scale' refer to?
• How can we measure the pH of a substance?
• What does it mean if a substance has a pH below 7?
• What does it mean if a substance has a pH above 7?
• What does it mean when a substance has a pH equal to 7?
• How does a universal indicator respond to substances that are acidic,
basic, or neutral?
.
5.1 What is the pH value?
In Grade 7 we learnt about acids and bases. Can you remember how to
distinguish between them? Here is a table that highlights the main
characteristics of acids and bases.
Acids Bases
Taste sour Taste bitter
Feel rough between Feel slippery
your fingers between your fingers
Can be corrosive Can be corrosive
Can make bases lose Can make acids lose
their basic character their acidic character
Turn blue litmus red Turn red litmus blue
We used the criteria in the table above to classify a number of substances as

either acids, bases, or neutral substances. The table below contains some
examples and shows their classification.
. .
Chapter 5. Acids, bases and the pH value 289

Acids Bases Neutral substances
Orange juice Water
Bicarbonate of soda
Vinegar Table salt solution
(baking soda)
Lemon juice Cooking oil
Soaps
Citric acid
Bleach
Gastric acid
Ammonia solution
(stomach acid)
Finally, we learnt that there are substances that we can use that will show
whether we have an acid or a base. Can you remember what they were called?
Hint: They indicate, or show, whether we have an acid or base.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Indicators
Indicators can show us if a substance is an acid or a base. In this chapter we are

going to link some important new learning to what we already know about acids
and bases.
A word or two on measurement
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This section briefly creates the link between what learners might have done in
other subjects and in previous grades about
. measurement and scales, especially
Mathematics. It is used to show that many things can be measured and is used
to introduce the idea of measuring how acidic or basic a substance is, as before
this we only ever classified a substance as an acid or a base and did not make
reference to a scale.
Let us talk briefly about 'measuring'.
ACTIVITY: Measuring instruments and units

.
What would you measure with each of the measuring instruments below?
The measuring tape and

ruler measure…
Measuring tapes and a ruler
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
length or distance
The balance measures…
A triple beam balance.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Mass. Make sure learners do not say 'weight'. This is a misconception.
.
These measuring beakers
measure…
Different size beakers.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
volume
The thermometer
measures…
A thermometer.
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
temperature
A measurement always consists of two things: a number and a unit. To explain

what this means, let's imagine we are measuring the length of a pencil.
What is the length of the pencil in the picture?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
18.5 cm
The unit is a very important part of the measurement because it shows the
relative size of the measurement. If you said: "The pencil is 18.5 long", people
would not be sure if you meant centimeters, millimeters, or even meters!
What unit would you use to measure the length of your classroom?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Meter (m). Centimeter is also acceptable. What learners need to realise is that
the unit needs to be made explicit.
What unit would you use to measure your mass?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
kilogram (kg)
What unit would you use to measure temperature?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
degrees Celsius (°C)
.
...

Can we 'measure' how acidic or basic a substance is?
Measuring acidity and basicity

The unit that we use to measure the acidity of a substance (how acidic that
substance is) is called pH. We pronounce the two letters, 'p' and 'H' separately
when we say pH.
Have you ever heard the term pH?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Get learners to discuss this in class for a .few minutes. Perhaps they have seen
adverts on TV claiming that a certain brand of shampoo or skin soap is 'pH
balanced'. Ask them what they think this means.
Perhaps you have heard of a certain shampoo being 'pH balanced', or a skin
soap that is 'neutral'. Perhaps you have heard that it is important for the water
in a swimming pool to have 'the right pH'?
A kit for testing swimming pool water pH.
The pH scale ranges between the values of 1 and 14.
In science and in everyday life, we measure the acidity of substances in pH

units. We could say that the 'acidity' of a specific shampoo has a pH of 5.5. pH
is the unit of measurement and 5.5 is be the number indicating the relative
acidity on the pH scale. It has become acceptable, however, for us to rather say:
"The pH of this shampoo is 5,5."
In the next activity, we are going to get to know the pH scale a little better.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: The pH scale

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. In the following picture the pH values of a variety of substances are shown

on the pH scale
2. Use the picture to answer the questions.
The pH scale.
QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the substances in the table at the start of this chapter can you
find on the pH scale above? Write their names and approximate pH values
in the table below.
...

Name of substance Approximate pH
Gastric acid 1
Lemon juice 2
Orange juice 3
Distilled water 7
Baking soda (solution) 9
Ammonia solution 11
Soapy water 12
Bleach 13
2. Circle the names of all the acids in the table above with a red pen or koki.
Learners should circle orange juice, lemon juice and gastric acid in red.
3. Write the lowest and highest pH values of these acids. This represents the
pH range of the acids on our list.
Lowest value: 1 (gastric acid); Highest value: 3 (orange juice)
4. Does this range lie below or above pH 7?
Below 7 .
5. Circle the names of all the bases in the table above with a blue pen or koki
on the pH scale above.
Learners should circle bicarbonate of soda, soapy water, bleach and
ammonia solution in blue.
6. Write the lowest and highest pH values of these bases below. This
represents the pH range of the bases on our list.
Lowest value: 9 (baking soda); Highest value: 13 (bleach)
7. Does this range lie below or above pH 7?
Above 7
8. Find water on the scale and circle it with a green pen or koki. Is water an
acid or a base? Or is it perhaps something else?
Water is neither an acid nor a base. Water is a neutral substance.
9. What is the pH of water?
Water has a pH equal to 7.
10. Which do you think is more acidic: orange juice or lemon juice? If you are
not sure, ask yourself this question: Which one is more sour?
Lemon juice is more acidic.
11. Which one has the lower pH: orange juice or lemon juice?
Lemon juice has a lower pH. .
.
In the above activity we learnt a number of important things:
• Acids have pH values below 7;

• Bases have pH values above 7; and
• Neutral substances have pH values equal to 7.
This information has been summarised visually in the following diagram.
We saw in the activity that lemon juice, which is more sour than orange juice,
. .

has a lower pH than orange juice. Does that mean that the relative pH of a
substance will tell us how acidic or basic it is?
Can we measure how acidic or basic something is?

When we compared orange juice and lemon juice earlier, we learnt something
important: The lower the pH of a substance, the more acidic it is. For bases we
can state the folllowing: The higher the pH of a substance, the more basic it is.
Here is a summary:
• The closer to pH 1, the more strongly acidic the solution;

VISIT • The closer to pH 14, the more strongly basic the solution; and
Now that you have learnt
• pH 7 is a neutral substance.
about pH,.test your
We have learnt that the pH value of a substance tells us if it is an acid or a base.
knowledge with this fun
But how do we measure pH? One way to measure pH is with the help of
online game
acid-base indicators. Can you remember what they are? The next section will
bit.ly/13dHNnm
refresh your memory.
.
5.2 Indicators
What is an acid-base-indicator?
We know that some substances change colour when they react with an acid or
a base. These substances are called acid-base indicators, which can show us if a
substance is an acid or a base.
Different indicators change colour at different pH values. The table below

shows a selection of acid-base indicators and the colours they will have at
different pH values.
In Grade 7 we made and indicator from red cabbage and even made some red
cabbage indicator paper. Can you find red cabbage water on the table above?
In acids, the red cabbage water will turn red or pink. In neutral solutions it will
be purple or violet. Which colours will the red cabbage indicator be when it is
mixed with a base?
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Blue, green or yellow
VISIT
.
Red cabbage chemistry
If red cabbage indicator is mixed with something that is only slightly basic, it will
bit.ly/17IpPoQ
turn blue. If it is mixed with something that is strongly basic, it will turn yellow.
When you look at the table above and you compare the information given for
red cabbage water with the picture below, the colour changes you observed in
the red cabbage water (in Grade 7) will make sense!
Red cabbage water mixed with base (left) and with acid (right). The blue drop at the top VISIT
is the juice in a neutral solution (water). .
Cabbage juice indicator
bit.ly/17iLBR8
You may recall that we also learnt about litmus, the most widely used of all
acid-base indicators. Can you find litmus on the table of indicators?
Litmus does not change colour in the presence of a neutral substance, but
responds to acids and bases in the following way:
• litmus is red in the presence of an acid; and

• litmus is blue in the presence of base.
Litmus can be bought as a solution or as litmus paper, although the paper is

more commonly used.
By changing to different
colours in the presence of an
acid or a base, indicators can
show us if a substance is an
acid or a base. In the next
section we are going to learn
about a special indicator that is
so sensitive that it not only tells
us whether a substance is an
acid or a base, but also what its
approximate pH is! Blue and red litmus paper
. .

VISIT Universal indicator
.
Video showing universal
Unlike litmus, universal indicator can show us much more accurately how acidic
indicator bit.ly/168rfO5
or basic a solution is. Can you find universal indicator on the previous table of
indicators? Universal indicator can change into a whole range of colours,
depending on the pH of the solution. In the following picture, solutions of
increasing pH were mixed with universal indicator to show its full range of
colours.
Universal indicator can have many different colours, from red for strong acids to dark
purple for strong bases. The liquid inside the middle test tube is neutral (pH = 7) and this
is shown by the green colour of the indicator.
Like litmus, universal indicator

also comes in paper form, with
the pH colour range of the
indicator printed on the
packaging.
In the next investigation we will
test a number of household
substances with red cabbage
indicator paper and with
universal indicator paper.
INVESTIGATION: Universal indicator paper and red

cabbage indicator paper
.
The purpose of this investigation is to determine

. whether universal indicator
and red cabbage can be used to show whether one substance is more acidic or
basic than another.
INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION:
What question are we trying to answer with this investigation?
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners can formulate their own question,. but it should be something along the
following lines: Can universal indicator paper and red cabbage indicator paper
show us whether one substance is more acidic or basic than another?
HYPOTHESIS:
What do you think the answer to the investigative question is? You should try
to make a prediction.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Learners should make their own prediction/hypothesis.
IDENTIFY VARIABLES:
1. What will you be changing in this investigation? What is this variable

called?
We will change the substances that we are testing. The independent
variable is the one that is changed.
2. What will you be measuring in this investigation? What is this variable
called?
We will measure the pH. This is the dependent variable.
3. What will you keep the same? What is this variable called?
The controlled variable is the type of indicator that we are using in the
measurement, namely the universal. indicator paper or the red cabbage
paper.
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:

• small containers (test tubes or yoghurt tubs) containing the following
substances:
– clean water
– soda water
– vinegar
– lemon juice
– sugar solution (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of
water)
– Handy Andy (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– aspirin (Disprin) (1 tablet in 2 tablespoons of water)
– dishwashing liquid (1 teaspoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– any other substances commonly used at home that are not dangerous.
Do not use strong acids or bases, or bleach. Suggestions include: tea,
coffee, rooibos tea, milk, tartaric acid, salt water, Sprite.
• universal indicator paper
• red cabbage indicator paper
• glass or plastic rods (plastic teaspoons or straws will also work well).
• white tile or sheet of A4 printer paper.
METHOD:
1. Use a small strip (1 cm long) of universal indicator paper for each

substance that you will be testing. Place them on a sheet of printer paper
or a white tile. ..
. .

2. Dip the glass rod or straw into the first solution and transfer a drop of it to
the first piece of universal indicator paper. Does the paper change colour?
Write the colour of the paper with each substance in your table, in the
appropriate place.
3. Compare the colour of the test strip with the colour range on the
packaging of the universal indicator paper roll to find the pH of the
solution. Write this in your table as well.
4. Rinse the straw very thoroughly with tap water before testing the next
solution. Do so every time you move from one solution to the next.
5. Test all the solutions and record their colours.
6. Save the solutions to now test them again with red cabbage indicator
paper.
7. Use a small strip (2 cm long) of red cabbage paper for each substance that
you will be testing.
8. Dip a fresh piece of paper into each of the test solutions and place it on the
tile or white paper to dry. For each test solution, write the colour of the red
cabbage paper in the table in the appropriate place.
Record your observations in the table.
Colour with universal Colour with red

Substance pH of the substance
indicator paper cabbage paper
Water
Soda water
Vinegar .
Lemon juice
Sugar water
Baking soda
Handy Andy
Aspirin
Dishwashing liquid
1. Sequence the substances that you tested according to the colour change
of the universal indicator, from the most acidic (darkest red) to the most
basic (purple).
The answer here depends on the results and the substances used.
QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the test substances are acids?

Learners should list all the substances that gave pH measurements below 7.
2. Which of the test substances are bases?
Learners should list all the substances that gave pH measurements above 7.
...

3. Which of the test substances are neutral substances?
Learners should list all the substances that gave pH measurements equal to
7.
4. Which substance is the strongest acid?
Activity-dependent answer.
5. Which substance is the strongest base?
Activity-dependent answer.
6. Count all the different colours that were possible with the red cabbage.
Activityr-dependent answer.
7. What colour(s) did the red cabbage paper turn in the test substances that
were acids?
The red cabbage paper should turn a red-pink colour in an acid.
were bases?
The red cabbage paper should turn a blue-green colour in a base.
were neutral?
The red cabbage paper should turn (or remain) purple with neutral
substances.
10. Do you think red cabbage indicator can be used to actually measure pH?
Why or why not?
Learner-dependent answer. Allow learners to express an opinion here,
backed by one or two sentences as motivation.
CONCLUSIONS:
1. What is your conclusion(s)? (Here you should answer the investigative

question.) .
Learner-dependent answer. They should note that universal indicator
allows them to measure the pH of individual substances. By arranging the
substances in order of increasing pH, they can rank the substances from
most acidic to most basic. They should note that red cabbage indicator
does give a range of colours with varying pH, but that it is not as effective
as universal indicator for measuring pH.
Something to think about: Extension question
1. What could we do to make red cabbage indicator suitable for measuring

pH?
Learners could discuss this question in class if there is time. The important
thing here is that each of the colours of the red cabbage indicator needs to
be standardised/linked to a specific pH value or range of values. Hence, if
we had a range of samples of known pH, we could 'calibrate' the red
cabbage solution, by mixing it with each of the pH standards and carefully
noting the colour. This would allow us to produce a colour chart, that we
could then use in the same way as the one that is available for universal
indicator and other commercial indicators.
In the last investigation we explored whether or not universal indicator paper or

red cabbage indicator paper could tell us whether a substance is more acidic or
basic than another. The advantage of using universal indicator over other
indicators is that universal indicator can give us more accurate pH
measurements. This is because it has different colours for different pH values.
Most other indicators change colour only once or twice over the entire pH
range. .
.
. .

Many other colourful foods can be used to make acid-base indicators. Check
out the diagram below for some examples. You could even try out a few of
them at home!
TAKE NOTE
Universal indicators give a
range of colours that can be
. the pH of
used to determine
a solution. Litmus paper can
only indicate whether a
solution is acidic, neutral or
basic.
pH indicators made from edible substances.
Measuring pH with indicator solutions or paper is easy, economical and

convenient if we have only a few measurements to make. If we have many pH
measurements to make, tearing and dipping paper strips and matching them up
with a colour chart can become quite tedious and time-consuming.
What other quick and easy ways are there to measure pH?
How else can we measure pH?

Scientists use a pH meter to quickly and accurately measure the pH of a
substance. While they are much more expensive to purchase than indicator
paper or solution, they are a worthwhile investment for a laboratory that has to
make many pH measurements daily and need these measurements to be done
quickly.
A portable pH meter.
A pH meter is an electronic instrument with a special sensor at the end that is
sensitive to acids and bases. This is more accurate than the universal indicator.
Help the scientist to read the pH of the solutions in the photos and classify them
as acidic, neutral or basic!
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The solution on the left has a pH of 7.053 so it is neutral. The solution on the
right has a pH of 10.33 so it is basic. .
pH meters work as follows: When the sensor is dipped into the test solution, it
sends a signal to the electronic circuitry of the pH meter, which is converted to
a pH reading on a small LCD screen.
In this chapter we have learnt about the pH scale. We have also learnt how to
make pH measurements and how to interpret pH values.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• When we want to decide whether a solution (in water) is acidic or basic,
we can measure its pH.
• One of the ways pH can be measured, is with an acid-base indicator,
such as universal indicator.
• An acid-base indicator is a substance that changes its colour depending
on the pH of the solution that it is added to.
• The pH scale ranges between 1 and 14:
– Acids have pH values lower than 7;
– Bases have pH values higher than 7; and
– Neutral substances have pH values approximately equal to 7.
• How acidic or basic a solution is, depends on its relative pH value:
– The more acidic a solution is, the closer its pH value will be to 0;
and
– The more basic a solution is, the closer its pH value will be to 14.
. Map
Concept
What can you use to determine whether a substance is an acid, base or
neutral? Fill this in on the concept map. Finally, complete it by completing
the information for the universal indicator. Fill in acid, base or neutral,
depending on the colours listed.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
below. [6 marks]
a) Something which shows whether a substance is an acid or a base, by

changing colour when we add it to that substance, is called an
.
indicator or acid-base indicator
b) The pH scale ranges between the values and .
0; 14
c) have pH values less than 7.
Acids
d) Bases have pH values ranging between .
7 and 14
e) substances have pH values approximately equal to 7.
Neutral
2. Imagine we start with a beaker of clean, distilled water. Answer the

following questions. [4 marks]
a) What will be the pH of the clean, distilled water?

The pH will be equal to 7.
b) How will the pH change if we add
. a small amount of acid to the water?
The pH will decrease.
c) How could we get the pH to increase?
We would have to add a base.
d) How could we get the pH to increase to a higher value, for example 13?
We would have to add a large amount of a strong base.
3. In the following picture, the three beakers contain three different solutions.
Red cabbage water was added to each of the beakers. Answer the
following questions. [4 x 2 = 8 marks]
a) Which solution, A, B or C, is the most acidic? Motivate your answer.

Solution A is most acidic. Red cabbage water turns red in acidic
solutions.
b) Which solution, A, B or C, is the most basic? Motivate your answer.
Solution C is most basic. When red cabbage water turns green we
know we have a basic solution.
...

c) Which solution, A, B or C, is neutral? Motivate your answer.
Solution B is neutral, because the colour of the red cabbage water is
purple in the solution. This is the colour red cabbage water will have in
neutral solutions.
d) What do you think would happen to the colour of solution A if we
mixed it with solution B? Motivate your answer.
The red colour of the solution would change. When we add a base to
an acid, the acid loses some of its power. The acid makes the base lose
some of its potency too. The mixture will be less acidic than solution A
and less basic than solution C. If we added enough base for the
mixture of the two solutions to be neutral, the solution will turn purple.
4. A scientist is given 6 solutions labelled A to F. The scientist tests each

solution with universal indicator and records her results as follows:
Solution Colour of universal indicator

A Yellow
B Blue
C Green
D Red
E Purple
F Orange
Use the results in the table and the colour guide for universal indicator
underneath the table, to answer the following questions:
a) Which solutions are acidic? Write their labels below. [2 marks]
A, F and D
b) Which solutions are basic? Write their labels below. [2 marks]
B and E
c) Which solution is neutral? Write its label below. [2 marks]
C
d) Arrange the solutions in order from most acidic to most basic in the
table below. Also write the colour and the approximate pH range of
each solution in the table. [6 marks]
Solution Colour of the solution Approximate pH range of the solution

1-3
D Red
F Orange 4-5
A Yellow 5-6
C Green 7
B Blue 8 - 10
E Purple 11 - 14
Total [30 marks]
.
.
. .

6 Reactions of acids with bases
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
2 weeks
The central challenge of this chapter is to establish that acid-base reactions are
exchange reactions. A fragment of the acid is exchanged with a fragment of the
base and a salt and water are the resulting products of the reaction. The type of
salt that forms depends on the identities of the acid and the base that were
combined during the reaction.
Once learners understand this, they have taken an important step to

understanding acid-base chemistry. We will spend some time developing a
frame for explaining this at the start of the chapter, to which we will return
frequently.
In light of the fact that learners have yet to learn about cations and anions, we
have considered it pedagogically justifiable to make the following
simplifications to currently accepted acid-base theory, in order to bring the
concept of exchange across to the learners:
• Acids can be thought of as contributing H (instead of H+ ); and

• Bases can be thought of as contributing O or OH (instead of O2- and OH- ).
• Water (H2 O) is a combination of 2 H and 1 O, or alternatively 1 H and 1 OH.
We are well aware that writing H + OH → H2 O has no meaning in science and for
.
this reason we have avoided this usage in the text. But we do consider the use
+
of simplified symbols (H instead of H and so forth) to have an advantage over
their scientifically correct (but potentially confusing) counterparts in this
context.
There is also a danger that misconceptions and sloppy usage of symbols may
result further down the line, when simplifying in this way. However, we feel
these risks are counterbalanced by the greater likelihood of learners
understanding the concept of exchange if the symbols they work with are not
cluttered with additional information - like the charges on the ions - that have
no meaning for them yet.
Other skills that will be reinforced in this chapter are:
• writing chemical formulae;

• converting between word equations and chemical equations; and
• balancing chemical equations.
A word of caution: Acid-base reactions are neutralisation reactions. However,

this does not mean that the mixture of an acid with a base will be a neutral
solution and you should avoid language that reinforces this notion. Even if
equivalent quantities (stoichiometric quantities) of the acid and base are mixed
- which would imply that both have been neutralised - the resulting solution will
only be neutral (i.e. pH = 7) under very special circumstances. The reason is that
not all salts are 'neutral substances'; in fact most salts have acid-base properties
of their own. The chemistry required for learners to understand this is beyond
them at this stage and will only be dealt with in Physical Sciences in Grade 12.
308
Our suggestion is that you simply refrain from calling salts 'neutral substances'.
If questions arise around the issue you could point out that the salts they will
encounter in this chapter may be neutral substances, but that this is not true of
all salts.
Take note that although there is no section specifically named 'Applications' as

indicated in CAPS, this content has rather been dealt with under other sections
where it is more appropriate.
6.1 Neutralisation and pH (1.5 hours)

Hypothesising,
Investigation: The
measuring, preparing, CAPS suggested
reaction between
observing, comparing,
vinegar and baking
recording, plotting
soda
graphs
Activity: CO2 bubbled Observing, measuring, Optional
through water comparing
Observing, reading,
Activity: What is acid researching, CAPS suggested
rain? interpreting, analysing,
summarising
6.2 The general reaction of an acid with a metal oxide (1.5 hours)
.
Investigation: The Hypothesising,
reaction between preparing, observing, CAPS suggested
magnesium oxide and measuring, recording,
hydrochloric acid plotting graphs
Activity: Writing the Writing and balancing Optional (Suggested)
chemical equation chemical equations
6.3 The general reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide (1.5 hours)

Hypothesising,
Investigation: The
preparing, measuring, CAPS suggested
reaction between
observing, measuring,
sodium hydroxide and
recording, plotting
hydrochloric acid
graphs
. .
Chapter 6. Reactions of acids with bases 309

6.4 The general reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate (1.5 hours)

Investigation: The
Hypothesising,
reaction between . CAPS suggested
preparing, comparing,
calcium carbonate
measuring, recording,
(chalk) and
plotting graphs
hydrochloric acid
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is the reaction between an acid and a base called?
• What happens to the pH when an acid and a base are mixed?
• Does the reaction between an acid and a base always give a neutral
mixture, in other words a mixture with pH = 7?
• Which factors will determine the pH of the final solution when an acid
and a base are mixed?
• Is there a way to predict which classes of compounds will tend to be
acids and which will tend to be bases?
• Are metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates acidic or
basic? Which pH range will their solutions fall into?
• What products can we expect when a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide
or a metal carbonate react with an acid?
• Are there general equations to explain these reactions?
• How does acid rain form?
.
6.1 Neutralisation and pH
In the previous chapter we learnt about a new concept, namely pH. If we want
to know whether something is an acid or a base, we can measure its pH:
• Acids have pH values below 7. The lower the pH value, the more strongly
acidic the substance.
• Bases have pH values above 7. The higher the pH value, the more strongly
basic the substance.
• Neutral substances have pH equal to 7.
Another useful thing we learnt in the previous chapter is that we can use
universal indicator to measure the pH of a solution. Universal indicator has
different colours at different pH values. Below is a colour chart showing the
range of colours for universal indicator and the pH values they correspond to.
You will need it for all the activities of this chapter, because we are going to do
lots of pH measurements!
...

Can you remember how we used the universal indicator paper in the previous
chapter? Here are some suggestions for the investigations of this chapter:
1. Before you start, place 1-cm lengths of universal indicator paper on a sheet
of white paper, like this:
Later, if you want to write down a note or an observation, you can do so directly
on the paper and copy it to your workbook afterwards.
2. Instead of dipping the paper in the solutions you are testing, use a glass
rod or drinking straw to transfer a drop of the test solution to the indicator
paper.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
For some of the investigations in this chapter, you will be using droppers or
syringes to measure out quantities. Tell learners that they may not use droppers
.
or syringes to squirt water at other learners! There are many reasons why this is
not a good idea. The most important reason is that the dropper or syringe may
contain acid, that could end up in someone's eye where it could cause
permanent damage or even blindness. So, squirting each other with the
droppers or syringes is not allowed.
What is neutralisation?
What do you think would happen if we mixed an acid and a base?
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Get learners to discuss this in class or in small groups. Allow them to speculate
and guide them to recall their Grade 7 learning: An acid will lose its potency
when it is mixed with a base and vice versa. So the acid will be weakened by the
base and the base will be weakened by the . acid. 'Weaken', however, is a term
best avoided, because 'weak' and 'strong' have very specific meanings when
speaking about acids and bases. In a sense their acid-base properties will be
destroyed, because they will be converted to products that won't be acids or
bases. (Often the salt that results from the reaction between an acid and a base
will have acid-base properties of its own, but we will not be discussing that
now.)
We are going to do an investigation to find out. We are going to mix vinegar

with baking soda. But first, a little revision: is vinegar an acid or a base? If you
are not sure, imagine putting a drop of vinegar on your tongue. What would it
taste like?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
It would taste sour, therefore it is an acid.
Is baking soda an acid or a base? If you are not sure, turn back to the previous
chapter and look at the activity 'The pH scale'.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Baking soda is a base.
INVESTIGATION: The reaction between vinegar and

baking soda
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Quantities for this investigation are as follows:
. Every 1 g of baking soda will
require approximately 15 ml of vinegar for complete neutralisation. We
recommend that you measure out 1 teaspoon of baking soda and approximately
50 ml vinegar for each group.
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate how the pH changes when

vinegar is added to baking soda.
...

INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION(S):
1. What question do you hope to answer with this investigation?

A possible answer is: What will happen to the pH of the solution if we add
vinegar to baking soda?
OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION:
1. We will measure the pH of a solution of baking soda with universal

indicator paper to confirm whether it is acidic or basic. What range do you
expect the pH of this solution to fall in?
In the range pH > 7
2. We will add vinegar to the baking soda solution in small portions and
measure the pH after each portion has been added. What changes do you
expect to observe? Will the pH increase, decrease or stay the same?
The pH will decrease.
HYPOTHESIS:
1. What is your prediction? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the

finding(s) of the investigation. You should write it in the form of a possible
answer to the investigative question.
When we add vinegar to baking soda, the pH of the mixture will decrease.
MATERIALS:
• baking soda .
• vinegar
• water
• glass beaker or small yoghurt tub
• universal indicator paper (cut into 1 cm strips)
• sheet of white printer paper
• plastic teaspoon
METHOD:
1. Prepare the universal indicator paper by neatly placing five 1-cm pieces
underneath each other on the sheet of paper.
2. Place one teaspoon of baking soda in the beaker or yoghurt tub.
3. Add approximately 10 teaspoons of water to the baking soda.
4. Use the teaspoon to stir the solution until all the baking soda has dissolved.
We will be calling this the 'test solution' from now on.
5. Transfer one drop of the test solution to the first piece of universal
indicator paper using the teaspoon or a straw.
6. Compare the colour of the paper with the colour guide given at the start of
the chapter, to find the pH of the solution. Record this pH in your results
table.
7. Add 1 teaspoon of the vinegar to the test solution. Stir it gently and transfer
another drop of the solution to a fresh strip of the universal indicator.
8. Read the pH of the solution off the colour guide and record it in your
results table.
9. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the pH of the test solution drops below 7. You
may need more than 5 pieces of universal indicator paper.
..
. .

RESULTS:
Present your results in a neat table. Use appropriate headings for your table.
'Number of teaspoons of vinegar added' and 'Colour of the universal indicator
paper' and 'pH of the test solution' are suggested headings for your columns.
Draw a line graph to illustrate your results. What will be on the x-axis and what
will be on the y-axis? Give your graph a heading.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
..
Learners must draw a graph with the 'number of teaspoons of vinegar added'
on the x-axis (independent variable) and the pH of the solution on the y-axis
(dependent variable).
CONCLUSIONS:
What conclusions can be made from the results of your investigation? Here you
can rewrite your hypothesis, but change it to reflect your findings if they are
different from what you predicted earlier.
Were you able to confirm or reject your hypothesis?
In this investigation, you probably noticed that the pH of the mixture dropped
every time you added more vinegar to the baking soda! Why did this happen?
When an acid and a base are mixed (in the right amounts), they will neutralise
each other. That means that, together, they will change into something that is
neither an acid nor a base. So, the acid will lose its 'acidity' and the base will
lose its 'basicity'.
What have we learnt so far? We have learnt that acids and bases neutralise
each other:
• If we add a base to an acid, the pH of the resulting solution will increase,

because the acid will lose some of its potency.
• If we add an acid to a base, the opposite will happen. The pH will decrease,
because the base will lose some of its potency.
What are the products of an acid-base reaction? Can we predict what they will
be?
The products of acid-base reactions

In order to understand how an acid-base reaction works, we have to take a
quick detour and say something about exchange reactions. Acid-base
reactions are exchange reactions.
In the reaction below, two substances AB and CD are undergoing an exchange

reaction:
AB + CD → AD + CB
Can you see that A and C have exchanged partners so that A is now combined
with D, while C combined with B?
...

What does this have to do with acids and bases? Well, acids and bases undergo
exchange reactions too. Here are some examples. See if you can figure out
which parts have exchanged with which.
Example 1
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + HOH
In the above equation HOH should actually be written: H2 O. The reaction

equation becomes:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
or, in words:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
In this example, the following happened:
• the acid gave its H towards making a water molecule;

• the base gave OH towards making a water molecule; and
• the Na from the base and the Cl from the acid combined to form a salt.
Example 2
2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + HOH
In the above equation HOH should actually be written: H2 O. The reaction

equation becomes:
2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H 2 O
or, in words:
hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium chloride + water
In this example, the following happened:
• the acid gave 2 H's towards making a water molecule;

• the base gave OH towards making a water molecule; and TAKE NOTE
• the Mg from the base and the 2 Cl's from the acid combined to form a salt.
In Grade 11 you will learn that
Acid-base reactions always produce water and a salt. In both of the examples the mechanisms of these
above the general equation was: reactions are actually
. slightly
more complex than this, but
acid + base → salt + water for now, understanding it at
this level is good enough.
There is one class of acid-base reactions that produces an additional product,
but we will learn more about that later.
Which laboratory acids should we know about?

When we investigated acids and bases in the previous chapter, we considered
only household acids like lemon juice and vinegar. There are a few laboratory
acids that you should know the names and formulae of and they have been
listed in the following table:
. .

Name of the acid Formula of the acid
hydrochloric acid HCl
nitric acid HNO3
sulfuric acid H2 SO4
These acids are very corrosive, even when they have been diluted with water
and should always be handled with great care.
VISIT
What happens if you put a
.
burger in concentrated
hydrochloric acid? (video)
bit.ly/14COOMG
Look out for this label on bottles which

contain corrosive substances, such as
Hydrochloric acid is the acid we will be strong acids.
using in our investigations in this chapter.
In the next sections will discuss the classes of substances that are typically acids
or bases. Two important things to remember are the following:
• Non-metal oxides form acidic solutions when they are dissolved in water.
• Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates all form basic
solutions when they are dissolved in water.
First, we will look at the non-metal oxides.
Non-metal oxides form acidic solutions

Can you name a few non-metal oxides? Write down their formulae. If you are
not sure you can take a peek at the Periodic Table and pick a few non-metals
from the right-hand side of the table. Add oxygen and you have a non-metal
oxide!
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
CO2 and SO2
How do we know that non-metal oxides form acidic solutions? Experiments

have shown this.
...

You may not know this, but when CO2 gas is bubbled through water some of it
dissolves in the water to form carbonic acid. Here is the reaction equation:
CO2 + H2 O → H2 CO3
To see this happen, try the following quick activity.
ACTIVITY: CO2 bubbled through water

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A variation of this activity is if you have liquid universal indicator, you can add it
to the tap water at the start to show the. pH is 7 (it should be green). Then as
you blow into the water, the universal indicator will change colour. Make sure
you use a clear glass so learners can observe the colour change as it becomes
more yellow. This links to the next activity on acid rain and how it forms.
MATERIALS:
• tap water
• glass
• straw
• indicator paper
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Test the pH of clean tap water. It should be approximately 7. How would

you do that? .
We could measure the pH of the water with universal indicator paper.
2. Now exhale into the water using

a straw. Your breath contains
CO2 and some of this will dissolve
in the water if you carry on doing
this for a few minutes.
1. If you measure the pH of the solution now, you will see that it has
decreased! What do you think the pH will be?
The pH will be below 7.
. .

The pH of the solution is now below 7 because it contains carbonic acid
(H2 CO3 ). Carbonic acid is not a very strong acid, but still acidic enough to have
a pH lower than 7.
When sulfur dioxide (a gas) is bubbled through water it dissolves in the water to
form an acid called sulfurous acid:
SO2 + H2 O → H2 SO3
These are two of the reactions that produce a phenomenon called acid rain.
SO2 and CO2 are released as waste products from factories and power stations.
For example, burning wood and fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and sulfur
dioxide into the atmosphere. These gases then dissolve in water droplets in the
atmosphere to form acids, in a similar way that the CO2 in your breath dissolved
in the water in the last activity to produce an acidic solution. When it rains,
these acids are present in the raindrops that fall back to earth. Sulfurous acid
(H2 SO3 ) is strong enough to damage plant life and to acidify water sources.
Acid rain forms when CO2 and SO2 from A forest that has been destroyed by acid
factories and other air pollutants combine rain.
with water in the atmosphere.
ACTIVITY: What is acid rain?

.
For the next activity, you have to do some research on acid rain.
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the diagram showing how acid rain forms.

2. Do some extra reading and research about acid rain.
3. Answer the questions about acid rain.
...

QUESTIONS:
1. Which three gases are shown in the diagram that contribute to the
formation of acid rain? Write their names and formulae.
They are sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2 ).
2. What are some of the sources of these gases? You can do some extra
reading about this to help you answer . this question.
The main sources of these gases which contribute to acid rain are from
human activity, such as electricity generation in fossil fuel power plants
(especially coal), factories emitting smoke and the exhaust fumes from
motor vehicles. Acid rain can also occur due to natural phenomena, such as
volcanoes which emit sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Some processes
in the ocean and in wetlands also produce the gases which form acids.
3. Write the equations for how two of these gases which you have learnt
about react with the water in the atmosphere to form acids.
SO2 + H2 O → H2 SO3
CO2 + H2 O → H2 CO3
4. What are the names of these two acids?
Sulphurous acid and carbonic acid.
5. What are some of the environmental impacts of acid rain? Study the
diagram for some clues and do some extra reading.
The impacts include:
• damage of plant life, both wilderness areas and also crops, depending
on where the rain falls
• the rain leaches into soil and makes it more acidic; this kills
microorganisms living in the soil, damages plants further by
contaminating soil water
• the rain can fall into various water sources and also run off into water
sources such as rivers, lakes and dams; this causes the water to
become more acidic; aquatic animals and plants can die; human water
sources become too acidic as well
6. Acid rain can also damage buildings as it 'eats away' the stone. What
property of acids allow it to do this?
Acids are corrosive and so they can corrode surfaces over time.
..
. .

7. Factories used to have quite short funnels to let out the smoke, but it was
found that this caused many problems in the local towns and cities near
the factory as the gases would combine with water in the immediate
environment to cause acid rain. Factories then started to build much
higher smoke funnels so that the smoke was let out high enough to be
blown further away. Do you think this is an efficient way to help reduce
acid rain? Explain your answer.
Learners need to justify their answers. They may say that it helps the local
environment as the gases are carried further away and therefore do not
pollute the town or city that the factory is in or near. But this does not do
anything to minimize the acid rain that could potentially form as the same
amount of gases are still emitted; they are just carried further away. The
. fall on the vegetation and areas
acid rain therefore can still form and
outside of the towns and cities.
8. Do some research to find out about the possible ways to prevent or
minimize the formation of acid rain. Write a paragraph to summarize these
methods below.
There are several solutions to minimizing the formation of acid rain. For
example, coal-powered stations can use filters and other processes in their
smoke towers to remove sulfur gases before the smoke is released into the
atmosphere. Countries can take bigger steps by signing treaties to reduce
their sulfur and other greenhouse gas emissions. The move towards using
renewable energy sources will also help to reduce the reliance on coal and
other fossil fuels, thereby reducing the emission of acid-producing gases
into the atmosphere.
.
We have now learnt about non-metal oxides, but what about metal oxides?
What kind of solutions do they form in water? We will find out more about them
and other metal compounds in the next section.
Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates form basic

solutions
Metal oxides
Do you remember learning about some of the metal oxides in Chapter 3? We

already learnt these rules to write the formulae of metal oxides.
1. Metal oxides from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the formula M
2 O, where M stands for any metal in group 1.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: Li2 O, Na2 O, K2 O, Rb2 O, Cs2 O
2. Metal oxides from group 2 will have the formula MO, where M stands for
any metal in group 2.
Can you write 2 examples?
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: BeO, MgO, CaO, SeO, BaO
What do you think the pH will be of a solution of a metal oxide in water?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The pH will be above 7.
The next class of compounds that form basic solutions in water are the metal
hydroxides.
Metal hydroxides
A metal hydroxide forms when a metal reacts with water. A metal hydroxide
has the general formula MOH or M(OH)2 . In the formula, M represents a metal
atom, O represents an oxygen atom and H represents a hydrogen atom.
To know whether the MOH or M(OH)2 will be the correct formula, here are two
simple rules for you to remember:
1. Metal hydroxides from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the
formula MOH.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH.
2. Metal hydroxides from group 2 will have the formula M(OH)2 .
Can you write two examples?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: Be(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2 , Ca(OH)2 , Sr(OH)2 , Ba(OH)2 .
What do you think the pH will be of a solution of a metal hydroxide in water?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The pH will be above 7.
. .

The final class of compounds that forms basic solutions in water is the metal
carbonates. Baking soda is a special kind of carbonate, called a bicarbonate (or
hydrogen carbonate). You may remember that it was one of the bases we
tested with universal indicator earlier.
Metal carbonates
A metal carbonate has the general formula MCO3 or M2 CO3 . In the formula, M
represents a metal atom, C represents a carbon atom and O represents an
oxygen atom.
To know whether the MCO3 or M2 CO3 will be the correct formula, there are two
simple rules to remember:
1. Metal carbonates from group 1 on the Periodic Table will have the
formula M2 CO3 .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: Li2 CO3 , Na2 CO3, K2 CO3 ,Rb2 CO3 , Cs2 CO3 .
2. Metal hydroxides from group 2 will have the formula MCO3 .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Any two of the following: BeCO3 , MgCO3 , CaCO3 , SrCO3 , BaCO3 .
What do you think the pH will be of a solution of a metal carbonate in water?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The pH will be above 7
In the next sections we will be investigating real reactions!
...

6.2 The general reaction of. an acid with a metal oxide
In the previous section we learnt about two classes of oxides, namely metal
oxides and non-metal oxides. Here is what we know about them so far:
• Metal oxides are formed from the reaction between a metal and oxygen.
Metal oxides are basic. When we dissolve them in water, they form
solutions with pH values above 7.
• Non-metal oxides are formed from the reaction between a non-metal and
oxygen. Non-metal oxides are acidic. When they dissolve in water, they
form solutions with pH values below 7.
Here is the same summary, in table form, with some examples added:
Metal oxides Non-metal oxides
metal + oxygen → metal oxide non-metal + oxygen → non-metal

oxide
basic acidic
pH > 7 pH < 7
Examples: Li2 O, Na2 O, MgO, CaO Examples: CO2 , SO2 , NO2 , P2 O5
In this section, we are going to learn about the reactions between metal oxides
and acids.
INVESTIGATION: The reaction between magnesium

oxide and hydrochloric acid
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This investigation requires magnesium oxide from the reaction when
magnesium ribbon burns in oxygen. If you . have set some aside from the earlier
activity 'The reaction of magnesium with oxygen' (Chapter 3), learners can use it
for this investigation. If you did not, you. can easily repeat that demonstration to
produce more white magnesium oxide powder for this next investigation. This
investigation is also suitable to scale up as a demonstration.
The purpose of this investigation is to:
• test whether a solution of magnesium oxide in water is acidic, basic or

neutral; and
• determine whether the reaction between an aqueous solution of
magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid is a neutralisation reaction.
. .

What are the questions you hope to answer with this investigation? Write them
in the space below. There are a few words to start you off.
1. When magnesium oxide is dissolved in water, will the resulting solution…

When magnesium oxide is dissolved in water, will the resulting solution be
acidic, basic or neutral?
2. When a solution of magnesium oxide is treated with hydrochloric acid, will
the pH of the mixture …
When a solution of magnesium oxide is treated with hydrochloric acid, will
the pH of the mixture increase, decrease, or stay the same?
OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION:
1. We will measure the pH of a solution of magnesium oxide (MgO) with

universal indicator paper to confirm whether it is acidic or basic. Within
what range do you expect the pH of the magnesium oxide solution to fall?
In the range pH > 7
2. We will add hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the magnesium oxide solution in
small portions and measure the pH after each portion has been added.
What changes do you expect to observe - will the pH increase, decrease or
stay the same?
The pH will decrease
.
HYPOTHESIS:
What are your predictions? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the

answer to the investigative question(s). Here are a few words to start you off:
1. When magnesium oxide is dissolved in water, the resulting solution will…

When magnesium oxide is dissolved in water, the resulting solution will be
basic (have a pH > 7).
2. When a solution of magnesium oxide is treated with hydrochloric acid, the
pH of the mixture will…
When a solution of magnesium oxide is treated with hydrochloric acid, the
pH of the mixture will decrease.
MATERIALS:
• magnesium oxide powder

• water
• white tile or sheet of white printer paper
• glass rod (or plastic straw)
• test tube
• dropper
• hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution (0.1 M)
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Notes for the investigation:
• Learners must not dilute hydrochloric acid themselves as it reacts

strongly with water. Make sure to add the acid slowly to the water and
NOT the other way around.
• To prepare 0.1 M HCl solution, carefully add approximately 10 ml
concentrated hydrochloric acid (33% or 11 M) to 1 liter of tap water. It is
recommended that you wear safety goggles and protective gloves during
this step and that you rinse away any acid spills with cold tap water. Since
this is just a qualitative experiment, it is not necessary to use distilled water
for the solution. It is also not required that you measure the volumes with
extreme accuracy.
• The following guide will help you to determine quantities: The magnesium
oxide prepared from a 1 cm length of . magnesium ribbon will require
approximately 8 ml of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid for complete neutralisation.
If the learners work in small groups and each group dissolves a small
quantity of MgO (the size of a match head) in 2 ml of water, they will only
need a few drops of HCl solution to neutralise all the MgO.
• If you have universal indicator solution, this will work very nicely as you
can observe the colour changes as you add the drops.
• If you decide to give the learners droppers to measure out the HCl, you will
have to enforce very strict rules for handling the droppers. Learners find
the temptation to squirt water at each other very difficult to resist and they
must be made aware of the hazards of accidentally squirting acid at
another learner.
• Remind learners to use the colour guide for universal indicator provided at
the start of the chapter. If you have. the budget, a good idea would be to
make a number of colour photocopies of the chart and to have them
laminated so they will last longer.
• Remind learners to prepare a table for their results beforehand.
METHOD:
1. Prepare the universal indicator paper by neatly placing five 1 cm pieces in a

column on the white tile or sheet of printer paper.
2. Place a small quantity (the size of a match head) of the magnesium oxide
in a test tube.
3. Add approximately 2 ml of tap water to dissolve most of the magnesium
oxide.
4. Use the glass rod (or plastic straw) to stir the solution until most the
magnesium oxide has dissolved. We will be calling this the test solution
from now on.
5. Transfer one drop of the test solution to the first piece of universal
indicator paper.
6. Compare the colour of the paper with the colour guide to find the pH of
the solution.
7. Record this pH in the table you prepared beforehand.
8. Add 10 drops of the hydrochloric acid solution to the test solution. Stir it
gently and transfer another drop of the solution to a fresh strip of the
universal indicator.
9. Read the pH of the solution off the colour guide and record it in your table.
10. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the pH of the test solution drops below 7. You
may need more than 5 pieces of universal indicator paper.
..
. .

RESULTS:
1. Present your results in a table. You should prepare this beforehand. Use
appropriate headings for your table. 'Number of drops of HCl added' and
'Colour of the universal indicator paper' and 'pH of the test solution' are
suggested headings for your columns.
2. Draw a graph of your results. Here are some hints to help you decide
which variable to put on which axis:
a) What is your independent variable? (Which variable did you change?)
This goes on the x-axis.
Number of drops of HCl
b) What is your dependent variable? (Which variable did you measure?)
This goes on the y-axis.
pH
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The number of drops of HCl should be on the x-axis of the graph and pH should
be on the y-axis. There should be a general trend downwards (since acid is
added to a base, we can expect the pH to drop), but it should not be linear. This
experiment is a very rudimentary 'titration' and an example of a titration curve
from this experiment is given here:
It is therefore not expected that learners' curves will be linear, but rather that
there will be a gradual decline in pH at first, followed by a rapid drop when all
the base has been neutralised. After this the curve levels out again.
CONCLUSIONS:
What conclusions can be made from the results of your investigation? Rewrite
your hypothesis, but change it to reflect your findings if they are different from
what you predicted earlier.
Were you able to confirm or reject your hypotheses?
.
...

Now that we have investigated a reaction between a metal oxide (MgO) and an VISIT
acid (HCl), we can write an equation for the reaction. We will begin by writing a A video showing the
general equation and end with one that matches the reaction that we have just .
reaction of copper(II)oxide
investigated. with hydrochloric acid
bit.ly/19ncbyc
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal oxide
Can you remember learning that an acid-base reaction is an exchange reaction?
We learnt that:
• The acid contributes H towards making a water molecule;

• The base contributes O or OH towards making a water molecule; and
• Whatever is left of the the acid and the base after making a H2 O molecule,
combines to form a salt.
The general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a base is:
acid + base → salt + water
Since the base in our reaction is a metal oxide we can write:
acid + metal oxide → salt + water
This is the general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal
oxide. The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and metal
oxide which were used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric

acid
Now we are going to learn how to write equations for our actual reaction.
ACTIVITY: Writing the chemical equation

.
The following steps will guide you:
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Write its chemical formula.
HCl
2. What is the name and formula of the metal oxide we used?
Magnesium oxide (MgO) .
3. Now,let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that water
will be one of the products.
4. Write what remains of the base (MgO) after we have taken away the O (to
make water).
Mg
5. Write what remains of the acid (HCl) after we have taken away the H (to
make water). (Remember we need two H to make one H2 O).
2 Cl (we used 2 HCl)
. .

6. Now put the two remaining fragments together. Place the metal first and
remember that 2 HCl will leave 2 Cl after the 2 H has been given to O to
make water. One Mg and 2 Cl makes...
MgCl2
Now, let's put it all together, first the reactants, then the products:
2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H2 O
7. Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.

a) How many H atoms on the left hand side and on the right hand side?
Are they balanced? .
2 H atoms left and 2 H atoms right. The H's are balanced.
b) How many Cl atoms on the left hand side and on the right hand side?
Are they balanced?
2 Cl atoms left and 2 Cl atoms right. The Cl's are balanced.
c) How many O atoms on the left hand side and on the right hand side?
Are they balanced?
1 O atoms left and 1 O atoms right. The O's are balanced.
Since the numbers of each type of atom is the same on either side of the
equation, we can confirm that it is balanced.
Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction:
hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium chloride + water
In the next section we are going to look at the reactions between acids and
metal hydroxides.
6.3 The general reaction of. an acid with a metal

hydroxide
We will start this section with an investigation to illustrate the reaction between
an acid and a metal hydroxide.
...

.
INVESTIGATION: The reaction between sodium

hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Notes for the investigation:
• The same cautions regarding droppers and syringes apply to this activity.
You will need to enforce very strict. rules for handling these items or
learners may find the temptation to squirt water at each other very difficult
to resist.
• Remember to provide learners with a colour guide for universal indicator, if
you have this.
• Remind learners to draw a results table before they start the experiment.
• test whether sodium hydroxide is acidic or basic; and

• determine whether the reaction between sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid is a neutralisation reaction.
1. What are the questions you hope to answer with this investigation? Write
them below. You may use the previous . investigation (of the reaction
between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid) as guideline.
Here are some ideas:
• When sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water, will the resulting
solution be acidic, basic or neutral?
• When a solution of sodium hydroxide is treated with hydrochloric acid,
will the pH of the mixture increase, decrease or stay the same?
• Will it be possible to neutralise all the sodium hydroxide by adding
hydrochloric acid?
OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION :
1. We will measure the pH of a solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with

universal indicator paper to confirm whether it is acidic or basic. Within
what range do you expect the pH of the sodium hydroxide solution to fall?
In the range pH > 7
2. We will add hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the sodium hydroxide solution in
small portions and measure the pH after each portion has been added.
What changes do you expect to observe? Will the pH increase, decrease
or stay the same?
HYPOTHESIS:
1. What are your predictions? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the

answer to the investigative question(s). If you are unsure, check the
previous investigation.
. .

Some ideas:
• Sodium hydroxide solution will have a pH greater than 7.
• When a solution of sodium hydroxide is treated with hydrochloric acid,
the pH of the mixture will decrease.
• By adding hydrochloric acid to the sodium hydroxide solution, it
should be able to decrease the pH to 7 and even below 7.
MATERIALS:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Prepare 0.1 M NaOH solution by dissolving. approximately 4 g of NaOH pellets in
1 liter of cold tap water. Wear safety goggles and gloves since there is a chance
the sodium hydroxide solution could splash up.
• sodium hydroxide solution (0.1 M)

• glass rod or plastic straw
• test tube or small glass beaker
• plastic syringe (2.5 ml capacity)
. .
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Instructions for preparation are given with the previous investigation: The
reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid
METHOD:

2. Use the syringe to transfer 2 ml of the sodium hydroxide solution into the
test tube or small glass beaker. We will be calling this the test solution
from now on.
3. Rinse the syringe very thoroughly with water and dry it out with a clean
tissue. Now fill it with hydrochloric acid solution and set it aside.
4. Transfer one drop of the sodium hydroxide (test solution) to the first piece
of universal indicator paper.
5. Compare the colour of the paper with the colour guide to find the pH of
the sodium hydroxide solution. Record this pH in your results table.
6. Add 0.5 ml of the hydrochloric acid solution from the syringe to the test
solution. Stir it gently with the glass rod or straw and transfer another drop
of the test solution to a fresh strip of the universal indicator paper.
7. Read the pH of the solution off the colour guide and record it in your
results table.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the pH of the test solution reaches
approximately 7.
9. How much of the hydrochloric acid solution have you used? Write the
volume on the line below.
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Learner dependent answer. Should be around 2 ml.
9. If you are quite sure that all the base has been neutralised by the acid (the
pH should be 7 and the universal indicator paper should have turned
green), pour the test solution into a small glass beaker and leave it in the
window sill for a few days. Remember to come back to it later to see what
has happened to it.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
NaCl forms in this reaction and the idea .is for learners to let it dry out in the
window sill and examine it later. It is probably not a good idea to let them taste
it, as there is a possibility that not all of the acid or base has been neutralised.
RESULTS:
1. Present your results in a neat table. Use appropriate headings for your
table.
The following are suggested headings for your columns.

• Volume of HCl added
• Colour of the universal indicator paper
• pH of the test solution .
learner-dependent answer
1. Draw a graph of your results.

Volume of HCl
pH
.
TEACHER'S NOTE VISIT
The volume of HCl added should be on the A video illustrating the

. x-axis of the graph and pH should be
on the y-axis. There should be a general trend downwards (since acid is added reaction of magnesium
.
hydroxide with hydrochloric
to a base, we can expect the pH to drop), but it should not be linear. See
comments and graph provided with the previous investigation. acid in the presence of
universal indicator
bit.ly/11YINsP
CONCLUSIONS:
.
.
. .

Now that we have investigated a reaction between a metal hydroxide (NaOH)
and an acid (HCl), we can write an equation for the reaction. We will begin by
writing a general equation and end with one that matches the reaction that we
have just investigated.
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide

You learnt that an acid-base reaction can be represented by the following
general word equation:
The base in our reaction was a metal hydroxide, so the general equation
becomes:
acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
This is the general equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal
hydroxide. The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and
metal hydroxide which were used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric

acid

.
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Write its chemical formula.
HCl
2. What is the name and formula of the metal hydroxide we used?
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
will be one of the products.
4. Write what remains of the base after . we have taken away the OH to make
water.
Na
5. Write what remains of the acid after we have taken away the H to make
water. Remember we need two H to make one H2 O, but NaOH has already
contributed one O and one H. Now put the two fragments together. Place
the metal from the base first and the non-metal from the acid. One Na and
one Cl makes...
NaCl
6. Now, let's put it all together, in the following order: Acid + metal hydroxide
→ salt + water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
...

a) How many H atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?
b) How many Cl atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?
c) How many O atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?
a) 2 H atoms on the left and 2 H atoms on the right. The H's are balanced.
b) 1 Cl atoms on the left and 1 Cl atoms on the right. The Cl's are balanced.
c) 1 O atoms on the left and 1 O atoms
. on the right. The O's are balanced.
8. Once you have performed this reaction and you are left with a neutral
solution, you decide you want to recover the sodium chloride (table salt).
How will you do this?
You need to evaporate the water so that the salt crystallizes, either by
leaving it in a sunny spot or boiling the solution.
.
.
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
In the next section we are going to look at the reactions between acids and
metal carbonates.
6.4 The general reaction of. an acid with a metal

carbonate
In this section we will investigate the reaction between an acid and a metal
carbonate.
Blackboard chalk is calcium carbonate, a metal carbonate.
. .

.
INVESTIGATION: The reaction between calcium

carbonate (chalk) and hydrochloric
acid
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Grind up a few pieces of white chalk for this experiment. The calcium carbonate
will not actually dissolve well in water, but
. it should be possible to determine
that the solution is basic, from the tiny amount of calcium carbonate that will
dissolve when the chalk dust is suspended in water.
Learners will need their colour charts and results tables before they start.
• test whether calcium carbonate is acidic or basic;

• determine whether the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid is a neutralisation reaction; and
• determine the products of the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid.
INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the questions you hope to answer with this investigation? Write
them on the lines below. You may use . your previous investigations as a
guideline.
Some ideas:
• When calcium carbonate is dissolved in water, will the resulting
solution be acidic, basic or neutral?
• When a solution of calcium carbonate is treated with hydrochloric acid,
will the pH of the mixture increase, decrease or stay the same?
• Will it be possible to neutralise all the calcium carbonate by adding
hydrochloric acid? (Be careful not to introduce misconceptions here)
• What other products will form when calcium carbonate reacts with
hydrochloric acid?
OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION :
1. We will measure the pH of a suspension of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 )

with universal indicator paper to confirm whether it is acidic or basic.
Within what range do you expect the pH of the calcium carbonate to fall?
In the range pH > 7
2. We will add hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the calcium carbonate in small
portions and measure the pH after each portion has been added. What
changes do you expect to observe? Will the pH increase, decrease or stay
the same?
HYPOTHESIS:
1. What are your predictions? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the

answer to the investigative question(s). If you are unsure, check the
...

previous investigation.
Some ideas:
• Calcium carbonate solution will have a pH greater than 7

• When calcium carbonate is treated with hydrochloric acid, the pH of
the mixture will decrease
• By adding hydrochloric acid to the calcium carbonate, it should be able
to decrease the pH to 7 and even below 7
MATERIALS:
• chalk dust (calcium carbonate) suspended in a small quantity of water.

• glass rod or plastic straw
• test tube or small glass beaker
• plastic syringe (2.5 cm capacity) or dropper
METHOD:

2. Place approximately 2 ml of the calcium
. carbonate suspension into the test
tube or small glass beaker. We will be calling this the test solution from
now on.
3. Rinse the syringe very thoroughly with water and dry it out with a clean
tissue. Now fill it with hydrochloric acid solution and set it aside.
4. Transfer one drop of the calcium carbonate (test solution) to the first piece
of universal indicator paper.
5. Compare the colour of the paper with the colour guide below, to find the
pH of the calcium carbonate solution. Record this pH in your results table.
6. Add 0.5 cm of the hydrochloric acid solution from the syringe to the test
solution. Watch very carefully what happens. Do you see anything
interesting? (Hint: Look for bubbles!) Stir the test solution gently with the
glass rod and transfer another drop of it to a fresh strip of the universal
indicator.
7. Read the pH of the solution off the colour guide and record it in your table.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the pH of the test solution reaches
approximately 7. How much of the hydrochloric acid solution have you
used? Write the volume in the space below.
9. Your teacher will repeat the experiment as a demonstration and will collect
the gas that formed during the reaction, for testing with clear limewater.
10. Can you remember which gas we are testing for with clear limewater?
Write its name and formula below.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Carbon dioxide, CO2
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Perform the experiment in a conical flask, as follows:
• 2 into another conical flask containing lime water (see diagram below). The
CO2 gas should be poured out. Shake the conical flask containing the lime
water and CO2 to facilitate mixing. Allow the learners to make their
observations.2 is denser than air and will remain in the conical flask for a
few minutes before diffusing into the air. It is during this time that you
should pour it over into the lime water. Be careful not to let any of the test
solution flow over into the clear lime water. Only the CO
Alternatively, you could use a setup like the one shown in the diagram below:
These experiments can also be done using combo plates.
RESULTS:
1. Present your results in a neat table. Use appropriate headings for your
table. Suggested headings for your columns are as follows:
• Volume of HCl added

• Colour of the universal indicator paper
• pH of the test solution
...

2. Draw a graph of your results.
Volume of HCl
pH
CONCLUSIONS:
.
.
.
VISIT
A video showing the
Now that we have investigated a reaction between a metal carbonate (CaCO3 ) .
reaction between metal
and an acid (HCl), we can write an equation for the reaction. We will begin by
carbonates and acids
writing a general equation and end with one that matches the reaction that we
bit.ly/17IyN5N
have just investigated.
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate

The general equation for the reaction between an acid and a base is as follows:
If we replace 'base' with 'metal carbonate', we get:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water
But wait, there was a third product in our reaction! Can you remember what it
was? (Hint: Bubbles formed, so it was a gas.)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
CO2
We need to make it clear that CO2 was a product of the reaction, so the correct
general word equation would be:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and metal carbonate
which were used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric

acid
. .

.

.The following steps will guide you:
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Can you write its chemical
formula?
HCl
2. What is the name and formula of the metal carbonate we used?
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 )
and carbon dioxide will be two of the products.
4. Write what remains of the base after we have taken away the CO3 to make
CO2 and leave one O to make water.
Ca
5. Write what remains of the acid after we have taken away the H to make
water. Remember we need two H to make one H2 O and CaCO3 has only
.
contributed one O.
2 HCl are needed, so 2 Cl will remain.
6. Now put the two fragments together. Place the metal from the base first
and the non-metal from the acid Ca and 2 Cl makes...
CaCl2
7. Now, let's put it all together, first the reactants, then the products:
2 HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2

a) How many H on the left and right? Are they balanced?
2 H left and 2 H right. The H's are balanced.
b) How many Cl on the left and right? Are they balanced?
2 Cl left and 2 Cl right. The Cl's are balanced.
c) How many O on the left and right? Are they balanced?
3 O left and 3 O right. The O's are balanced.
d) How many C on the left and right? Are they balanced?
1 C left and 1 C right. The C's are balanced.
hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium chloride + water + carbon

dioxide
Applications for calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate is found in many places outside of the laboratory. It is found
in different types of rocks around the world, for example limestone, chalk and
marble.
...

The Cango Caves near Oudtshoorn, South Africa, are situated in a limestone ridge and
contain spectacular limestone formations. Such caves are the result of water high in
carbonic acid acting upon limestone deposits in ancient rock layers.
Calcium carbonate is also the main part of shells of various marine organisms,
snails, pearls, oysters and bird eggshells. It is also found in the exoskeletons of
crustaceans (such as crabs, prawns and lobsters).
Chunks of calcium carbonate from various shells.
Calcium carbonate also has many applications. In industry, the main application
is in construction as it is used in various building materials and in cement.
Calcium carbonate is used in many adhesives, paints and in ceramics. It is also
used in swimming pools to adjust the pH. When do you think it would be
added? If the pool was too acidic and you wanted to make it more basic, or if
the pool was too basic and you wanted to make it more acidic?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
CaCO3 forms a basic solution in water so it is used if the pH is too low (too
acidic) and you want to make the pool water more basic.
Calcium carbonate is also used in agriculture in the form of lime powder.

Agricultural lime is made by grinding up limestone or chalk. It is added to the
soil if the soil is too acidic to increase the pH. It also provides plants with a
source of calcium.
. .

This tractor is busy depositing agricultural lime onto a field. This is called liming.
In this chapter we have investigated a number of reactions of acids with bases.

We have learnt to write word equations for these reactions and practised
converting between word and balanced chemical equations.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• The reaction of an acid with a base is called a neutralisation reaction.
• When an acid (pH < 7) is added to a base (pH > 7), the pH of the resulting
mixture will lie somewhere between that of the acid and the base. Even
though the acid and base will be neutralised, the resulting solution will
not necessarily be neutral.
• Some common laboratory acids are sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), nitric acid
(HNO3 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
• Non-metal oxides tend to form acidic solutions when they dissolve in
water. These solutions will have pH values below 7.
• Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates form basic
solutions in water; these will have pH values above 7.
• When a metal oxide, or a metal hydroxide reacts with an acid, a salt and
water form as products.
• When a metal carbonate reacts with an acid, a salt, water and carbon
dioxide form as products.
• The general word equations for the reactions of this chapter are the
following:
– acid + metal oxide → salt + water
– acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
– acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
. Map
Concept
Complete the concept map by filling in the blank spaces..
...

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
below. [10 marks]
a) To know if something is an acid or a base, we measure its
.
pH
b) The name of the laboratory acid with the formula H2 SO4 , is
.
sulfuric acid
c) The formula of the laboratory acid named hydrochloric acid, is
.
HCl
d) When a metal oxide reacts with an , a salt and water will
be formed.
acid
e) When a metal hydroxide reacts with an acid, a salt and will
be formed.
water
f) When a metal carbonate reacts with an acid, a salt, water and
will be formed.
carbon dioxide
g) Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates all dissolve in
water, forming solutions. This means the solutions will
have pH values than 7..
basic; greater
h) The reaction of an acid with a base is called a reaction.
neutralisation
i) Non-metal oxides tend to form solutions when they
dissolve in water.
acidic
2. Write a short paragraph (3 or more sentences) to explain what you

understand each of the following terms to mean, in your own words. [2 x 3
= 6 marks]
a) neutralisation
• When an acid and a base are mixed, the acid will lose some of its
'acidity' and the base will lose some of its 'basicity'.
• If they are mixed in the right amounts, they will neutralise each
other.
• The products of the reaction will be a salt and water.
b) acid rain
• Certain industries (and even some natural phenomena like volcanic
eruptions) produce non-metal oxides as waste products.
• Non-metal oxides form acidic solutions when they dissolve in
atmospheric water droplets.
• These acidic solutions rain down onto the Earth's surface and can
cause damage to buildings, plant life and acidify water sources.
. .

3. For each of the following reactions, complete the tables by providing the
missing equations.
a) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxide [4

marks]
hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium
Word equation chloride + water
Chemical 2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H2 O

equation
General acid + metal oxide → salt + water

equation
b) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide [6

marks]
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium
Word equation chloride + water
Chemical HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O

equation
General acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water

equation
.
c) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate [4
marks]
hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium
Word equation chloride + water + carbon dioxide
Chemical 2 HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2

equation
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon
General dioxide
equation
d) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium hydroxide [4

marks]
hydrochloric acid + magnesium hydroxide →
Word equation magnesium chloride + water
Chemical 2 HCl + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2 + 2 H2 O

equation
General acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water

equation
...

e) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium oxide [4 marks]
hydrochloric acid + calcium oxide → calcium chloride
Word equation + water
Chemical 2 HCl + CaO → CaCl2 + H2 O

equation
General acid + metal oxide → salt + water

equation
f) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide [6

marks]
hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide →
Word equation potassium chloride + water
Chemical HCl + KOH → KCl + H2 O

equation
. hydroxide → salt + water
acid + metal
General
equation
g) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate [4

marks]
hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate → sodium
Word equation chloride + water + carbon dioxide
Chemical 2 HCl + Na2 CO3 → 2 NaCl + H2 O + CO2

equation
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon
General dioxide
equation
Total [48 marks]
.
.
. .

7 Reactions of acids with metals
.
. ... NOTE
.TEACHER'S
Chapter overview
0.5 week
This is a short chapter to conclude the series of reactions that learners will have
been exposed to this term. The last reactions to look at are those between an
acid and a metal. At the end of this chapter, there is a short activity on some of
the careers in the chemical industry. Although this is not for assessment
purposes, if you do not have time to do it in class, we encourage you to
encourage or get your learners to do it as a homework activity. Seeing the real
world application for what they learn in the classroom is a very important part
of the learning process and in discovering what is possible through science and
technology.
.
7.1 The reaction of an acid with a metal (1.5 hours)

Remembering, Optional
Activity: Testing for
balancing chemical
hydrogen gas
equations
Investigation: The
Hypothesising, CAPS suggested
reaction between
preparing, measuring,
magnesium and
observing, interpreting
hydrochloric acid
Activity: Other careers Researching, Optional
in chemistry comparing, describing
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What do we get when a metal reacts with an acid?
• What is the general equation for the reaction between a metal and an
acid?
• How do we write the word equation and the balanced chemical
equation?
• How can we test for the presence of hydrogen gas?
346
.
7.1 The reaction of an acid with a metal
In the previous chapter we learnt about the reactions of acids with a variety of
bases: metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates. We learnt how to
write general equations, word equations and chemical equations for those
reactions.
In this chapter we will investigate one final type of reaction, namely the reaction
between an acid and a metal.
First, we will do an investigation to observe the reaction and then we will write
equations to represent it. Before we do this, however, we have to take a quick
detour to learn something interesting about hydrogen gas.
ACTIVITY: Testing for hydrogen gas

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This activity introduces the test for hydrogen
. gas. It is optional, however, the
test will be sued in the following investigation so if you do not do this activity in
class, a suggestion is for learners to do it in their own time, or to just explain the
hydrogen test briefly before proceeding to the investigation.
1. What do you know about hydrogen gas? Perhaps you know its formula?
Write it below.
H2
2. Hydrogen gas is a diatomic gas. What does this mean?
That means each molecule of hydrogen gas consists of two H atoms.
3. What do you know about the position of hydrogen in the periodic table?
Write what you know below.
Hydrogen can be found in the top left. hand corner of the periodic table.
4. The position of hydrogen in the periodic table tells us that it is the lightest
of all the elements. It has the smallest atomic mass. Because the element
hydrogen is a gas (even though it is a diatomic one), it has one of the
lowest densities of any substance. Can you remember what density
means? Write your own definition below.
Density is the mass of a substance in a given space (volume).
When hydrogen gas is
released in a reaction it
will immediately rise up,
because hydrogen is less
dense than air. If you
filled a balloon with
hydrogen, it would float
up and you would need
to tie a string to it to
prevent it from floating
away!
This man is about to launch a weather balloon filled
with hydrogen gas. It will float upwards to collect
information about the weather in Antarctica.
. .
Chapter 7. Reactions of acids with metals 347

Another interesting thing about hydrogen is that it reacts explosively with
oxygen if you bring a flame near it. You may remember learning about this
in Chapter 4 about the reactions of non-metals with oxygen. The reaction
between a large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in the air produces a
beautiful orange fireball and a very loud boom! Do you remember seeing
the following diagram?
5. Write the balanced equation for the reaction between hydrogen gas and
oxygen below.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
The reaction between a tiny amount of hydrogen and oxygen in the air
produces a characteristic 'pop' sound and this serves as test for the presence of
hydrogen. You can watch the short video clip in the visit box in the margin to
see this 'pop'.
VISIT
.
Testing for hydrogen gas
bit.ly/14CyU4Q
When a glowing splint is put into a test ...it makes a 'pop' sound.
tube containing hydrogen gas...
Let's now investigate the reaction between an acid and a metal. You should
listen carefully for this 'pop' sound during the investigation. If you hear it, it will
signal the presence of hydrogen gas!
...

.
INVESTIGATION: The reaction between magnesium

and hydrochloric acid
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It is recommended that you demonstrate this reaction to learners. There are
many ways to perform this demonstration and if you have a tried and trusted
method, you should use it by all means. .For example, a simple method is to
place diluted HCl in a test tube, add a piece of magnesium and then bring a
glowing splint to the neck of the test tube so that it goes 'pop' in the presence
of the hydrogen gas that is produced. The method we have included here does
not require anything too complicated and it has the added fun aspect of
blowing hydrogen bubbles and popping them with a candle flame.
• observe the reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium; and

• identify the gaseous product of the reaction between hydrochloric acid
and magnesium.
Your teacher will demonstrate the reaction between magnesium and

hydrochloric acid, while you make observations. Remember to watch carefully
and take detailed notes.
.
INVESTIGATIVE QUESTION:
What question(s) do you hope to answer with this investigation?
One possible question would be: What products will form when magnesium
reacts with hydrochloric acid?
HYPOTHESIS:
What do you predict will happen? Your hypothesis should be a prediction of the
answer to the investigative question(s).
Some ideas:
• When magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid, a gas is released.

• When magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is released.
MATERIALS:
• magnesium ribbon (cut into smallish pieces)

• hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution (1 M)
• large test tube
• retort stand with clamp
• rubber stopper with short length of glass tubing pushed through it
• silicone or rubber tubing (or a glass delivery tube as shown in the set-up
below)
• shallow dish filled with soapy water (made by mixing a few teaspoons of
dishwashing liquid with water)
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
To prepare dilute hydrochloric acid solution, slowly and carefully add
approximately 100 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid (33% or 11 M) to 900 ml of
cold tap water. It is recommended that you wear safety goggles and protective
gloves during this step and that you rinse away any acid spills with cold tap
water. Since this is just a qualitative experiment,
. it is not necessary to use
distilled water for the solution. It is also not required that you measure the
volumes with extreme accuracy. Be careful when handling this solution; even
though it is dilute it can still cause burns.
The quantities for this experiment are as follows: 1 g of magnesium will require
approximately 42 ml of 1 M hydrochloric acid to be consumed. Just more than
900 ml of hydrogen gas will be produced by these quantities of reactants.
METHOD:
1. Use a piece of universal indicator paper to test the pH of the hydrochloric

acid solution. Record its pH.
The pH of the 1 M HCl solution will be below 1. Since this solution is still very
corrosive, it is recommended that you choose one responsible learner to
perform the pH measurement on behalf of the class.
2. Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram. Ensure that the
end of the delivery tube is below the surface of the soap solution in the
dish.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
A possible extension is to hold a cold piece of metal or glass above the place
where you burst the bubbles so that the water vapour that forms during the
reaction condenses on the metal or glass.
3. Place approximately 1 g of the magnesium pieces in the test tube, but do

not add the hydrochloric acid until everything else is ready to be
assembled.
4. Add approximately 40 ml of hydrochloric acid and immediately place the
stopper on the test tube. The first few bubbles of gas that are released
from the end of the delivery tube will be air.
...

5. When the soap bubbles start to float up, hold a burning candle to them
and listen carefully for the sound they make when they pop. Do not hold
the candle to the end of the delivery tube.
6. When the magnesium stops reacting and no further hydrogen bubbles are
released, extinguish the candle and set it aside.
7. Disassemble the experiment and test the pH of the reaction mixture.
Record the pH value.
Record your results in the following table:
pH of the 1 M hydrochloric acid before the reaction
pH of the mixture after the reaction
Use the following lines to write down any observations that you make during
the investigation.
Learners should note that there is a 'pop' sound when the candle bursts the
bubbles. They should note that when HCl is added to the magnesium pieces, the
solution bubbles as the gas is produced.
CONCLUSIONS:
What conclusions can be made from the results of your investigation? Rewrite
your hypothesis, but change it to reflect your findings if they are different from
what you predicted earlier. .
QUESTIONS:
1. What did you observe in the test tube when the magnesium and
hydrochloric acid were mixed?
Bubbles formed on the surface of the magnesium pieces.
2. What did you observe at the end of the gas delivery tube after the
magnesium and hydrochloric acid were mixed?
Bubbles came out of the end of the gas delivery tube.
3. Why do you think the soap bubbles floated upwards?
The gas in the soap bubbles is less dense than air. NOTE: Learners may say
'lighter' than air; you can use the opportunity to remind them that less
dense substances will float on substances of higher density.
4. Which gas do you think was produced by the reaction? Write its name and
formula below. What makes you think it was this gas?
Hydrogen gas (H2 ). Hydrogen is less dense than air so it made soap
bubbles and floated upwards which made the characteristic 'pop' sound
when a candle was brought near to the bubbles.
5. What happened to the pH of the hydrochloric acid solution during the
reaction?
The pH increased.
6. What does the increase in pH mean?
When the pH increases, it means there is less acid in the solution. The
hydrochloric acid was being used up in the reaction with magnesium.
7. Were you able to confirm or reject your hypothesis?
Learner dependent answer.
.
.
. .

In our investigation hydrochloric acid reacted with magnesium (a metal). Our
next task is to write an equation for the reaction. We will begin by writing a
general equation and end with one that matches the reaction that we have just
investigated.
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal

VISIT The general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal is:
A video and simulation that
.
teaches you more about the
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
reactions of acids with
The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific metal and acid which are
metals bit.ly/1eDGii7
used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric

acid
Now let's write equations for our actual reaction from the last investigation.

.
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Can you write its chemical
formula?
HCl
2. What is the name and formula of the metal we used?
Magnesium (Mg)
3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that
hydrogen gas will be one of the products. Write the chemical formula for
hydrogen gas.
H2
4. Write what remains of the acid (HCl) after we have taken away the H to
make H2 . (Remember we need two H to make one H2 ).
2 Cl
.
5. The two Cl and the Mg are exactly what are needed to make magnesium
chloride. Write the formula below.
MgCl2
6. Now, let's write the reaction; first the reactants, then the products:
2 HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
VISIT Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.

Coke cans made from
. a) How many H on the left and right? Are they balanced?
aluminium (a metal) react
2 H left and 2 H right. The H's are balanced.
with an acid and a base
b) How many Cl on the left and right? Are they balanced?
(video) bit.ly/11YxBMO
2 Cl left and 2 Cl right. The Cl's are balanced.
c) How many Mg on the left and right? Are they balanced?
1 Mg left and 1 Mg right. The Mg's are balanced.
Since the numbers of each type of atom is the same on either side of the
equation, we can confirm that it is balanced.
...

7. Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the
.
reaction.
hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas .
.
Chemist or Pharmacist?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This section is not for assessment purposes and you may be inclined to leave it
out. However, we strongly encourage you . to give your learners the opportunity
to discover the applications of what they are learning in class in the world VISIT
around them, even if only as a homework exercise. It is very important for A useful site to find out more
learners to realise that what they learn in class extends far beyond the walls of .
about some
your classroom. Encourage them to be curious! chemistry-related careers
bit.ly/15tsQI0
When people hear that someone is a 'chemist', they often confuse this with
being a 'pharmacist'. In some countries the terms 'chemist' and 'pharmacist' are
even used to describe the same kind of person. In South Africa the two words
have different meanings. But what is the difference between being a chemist
and being a pharmacist?
Look up these careers to identify the main difference between a chemist and a
pharmacist and summarise them below:
Chemists:
Two chemists working in a laboratory.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Chemists are people who have studied chemistry
. and can use their specialist
knowledge of chemical reactions to produce new materials and compounds.
These could be new medicines, innovative building materials, new fuels that do
not harm the environment and many others.
. .

Pharmacists:
A pharmacist in his dispensary.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Pharmacists also study chemistry, but combine this with other subjects like
pharmacology, physiology and biochemistry. Pharmacists are health
professionals and have specialist training. in the health sciences as well as the
chemical sciences. Their key responsibility is to ensure the safe and effective use
of pharmaceutical drugs. They use their knowledge of medicines and the human
body to dispense prescriptions from a licensed pharmacy. Job opportunities for
pharmacists also include clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and
efficacy and providing drug information where it is needed.
ACTIVITY: Other careers in chemistry

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is an optional activity, which is not for
. assessment. A suggestion is that if
you do not have time to do it in class, learners should still be encouraged to do
.
it outside of class as it is important that they see how and where chemistry can
take them after school.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Below is a list of different careers that all use chemistry in some way. Have
a look through the list and then select the five careers you find most
interesting.
2. Do an internet search to find out what each career is.
...

3. Write a one line description of this career.
4. If there is a career that really interests you, draw a smiley face next to it
and be sure to do some extra reading around the topic and where
chemistry might take you! Find out what level of chemistry you will need
for this particular career.
5. There are many other careers besides the ones listed here which use
chemistry in some way, so if you know of something else which is not listed
here and it interests you, follow your curiosity and discover the
possibilities!
Some careers involving chemistry:
• Agricultural chemistry
• Biochemistry
• Biotechnology
• Chemical education/teaching
• Dentistry
• Environmental chemistry .
• Forensic science
• Food science/technology
• Geneticist
• Geochemistry
VISIT
• Materials science
.
• Medicine and medicinal chemistry 10 reasons to love science!
• Mining (video) bit.ly/14nxWFy
• Oil and petroleum industry
• Organic chemistry
• Oceanography
• Patent law
• Pharmaceuticals
• Space exploration
• Zoology
Your descriptions of the careers you are interested in:

.
.
In this chapter we have studied the reaction of hydrochloric acid with

magnesium, as an example of a reaction between an acid and a metal.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• An acid will react with a metal to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
• The general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal
is as follows:
– acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
. Map
Concept
This was quite a short chapter, so the concept map has been left blank for you
to do your own. Be sure to include something about the test for hydrogen.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
below. [3 marks]
a) When an acid reacts with a metal, a salt and gas forms.
b) A molecule that consists of two atoms bonded together is called a
molecule.
c) The scientific quantity represented by the mass of a substance in a
given volume is called the of that substance.
a) hydrogen
b) diatomic
c) density
2. Write a short paragraph (2 sentences or more) to explain why a balloon
filled with hydrogen will float upwards. [2 marks]
Learner's paragraph should contain at least the following:
• Hydrogen gas is less dense than air.
• Substances of lesser density always float on substances of greater
density.
3. Imagine you are carrying out a reaction and you expect one of the
products that will form is hydrogen. Write a short paragraph (2 sentences
or more) to describe how you would confirm the presence of hydrogen
gas. [2 marks]
Learner's paragraph should contain at least the following:
• The first sign to look out for is bubbles. The presence of bubbles
.
signals that a gas is formed during the reaction.
• To confirm whether the gas is hydrogen, collect a small amount in a
test tube. Hold a glowing splint at the opening of the test tube when
you release the gas. If the gas ignites with a characteristic 'pop' sound,
we will know it is hydrogen.
4. When an acid reacts with a metal, do you think the pH of the solution will
increase, decrease, or stay the same? Motivate your answer briefly.
[3 marks]
The pH will increase. In the reaction, the acid is changed into something
else that is not an acid. That means the pH must increase.
5. Complete the following table by providing the missing equations for the
reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium [6 marks]
hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride

Word equation
+ hydrogen gas
Chemical equation 2 HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
General equation acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
6. Complete the following table by providing the missing equations for the
reaction between hydrochloric acid and zinc [4 marks]
Word equation hydrochloric acid + zinc → zinc chloride + hydrogen gas

Chemical equation 2 HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2
General equation acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
...

7. We have looked at many different chemical reactions this term. As a
summary, complete the following table by giving the general equations in
words for each of the chemical reactions in the second column, and
provide an example for each type as a balanced chemical equation in the
third column. [18 marks]
Only one example has been provided in this table as an example of what
learners might write. There are however other suitable reactions which they
have also learnt about this term. You must check that the reactions they
provide are balanced.
The mark allocation is 1 mark for each of the general word equations and 2
marks for the example (only 1 mark if it is not correctly balanced).
Type of
chemical General word equation Example (balanced equation)
reaction .
metals with metal + oxygen → metal
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
oxygen oxide
non-metals non-metal + oxygen →
C + O2 → CO2
with oxygen non-metal oxide
acids with acid + metal oxide → salt +
2HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H2 O
metal oxides water
acids with
acid + metal hydroxide → salt
metal HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
+ water
hydroxides
acids with
acid + metal carbonate → salt 2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + CO2
metal
+ carbon dioxide + water + H2 O
carbonates
acids with acid + metal → salt +
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
metals hydrogen gas
Total [38 marks]

.
.
. .

.
.
GLOSSARY
acidity: this word is related to the word 'acid', so is the

word 'acidic'; a substance is strongly acidic when it
has a high (degree of) acidity
acid rain: rainwater that is unusually acidic as a result of
dissolved non-metal oxides that have entered the
atmosphere
alternative: different
atomic number: a unique number that represents a given element,
and shows its position on the periodic table; the
number of protons found in the nucleus
balanced : a balanced equation reaction has the same
numbers of atoms of a particular type on opposite
sides of the reaction equation
barrier : a fence or other obstacle that keeps things apart
bond : a force between atoms in a compound, holding
them together
camera flash: a device (usually attached to the camera) that
provides a quick burst of light at the instant that
the photo is taken
characteristic: a quality or feature of an object or item; for
example, one of the characteristics of an acid is
that it is corrosive
.
chemical bond: a special attractive force that holds the atoms in a
molecule together
chemical equation: an equation that describes a chemical reaction
using the chemical formulae of the compounds
involved in the reaction
chemical formula: a combination of element symbols that shows the
types and number of atoms in one molecule of a
given compound; a unique string of symbols
(letters and numbers) that represents a chemical
compound
chemical reaction: a process in which atoms in substances, called
reactants, are rearranged to form new substances,
called products
chemist : a person who has studied chemistry and uses this
knowledge to do his/her job
chromed metal: metal that is covered by a thin layer of chromium
coefficient: a number that is placedin front of a chemical
formula in a reaction equation; it shows the number
of molecules of that type taking part in the
reaction, for example2 Mg
collide : to bump into something
combustion : a type of chemical reaction where a substance
and oxygen react during burning to form a new
product
...

compound: a pure substance in which atoms of two or more
different chemical elements are bonded in some
fixed ratio
convention: a way in which something is usually done
corrosion: the gradual destruction of materials (usually
metals) by chemical reaction with substances in
the environment
corrosive : a corrosive substance is something that causes
corrosion; substances that are corrosive can cause
burns on the skin and damage to certain surfaces
crystal lattice: in some compounds, the atoms are arranged in a
regular pattern in a fixed ratio to form a lattice
structure; a lattice looks like a mesh or trellis
density: the mass of a substance in a given space (volume)
detour: to take a roundabout route, either to make a visit
along the way, or to avoid something
diatomic : a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms; H2 , N2 ,
O2 , F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , and I2 are all examples of elements
that consist of diatomic molecules
dioxide : a compound that contains two oxygen atoms in
its chemical formula; examples are carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) and sulfur dioxide (SO2 )
electrons: the smallest of the three types of sub-atomic
particles; they are negatively charged and are
located outside the atomic nucleus
.
element : a pure substance that consists of only one type of
atom throughout
exchange reaction: a reaction in which the reactants break up in
fragments that are then exchanged, or swapped
around
exposed : when a material is exposed, it is uncovered or
unprotected (in this case from oxygen that will
react with it)
fossil fuel: a fuel that was formed from the prehistoric remains
of plant and animal life (fossils); it usually has to be
extracted from the earth; examples include oil, coal
and natural gas
fuel : a substance that will release energy when it reacts
with another substance; in this context that other
substance is usually oxygen
galvanised metal: metal that is covered by thin layers of zinc
and zinc oxide
galvanise: to galvanise iron or steel means to cover it with a
thin layer of zinc; the zinc reacts with oxygen to
form zinc oxide when it is exposed to air and this
forms a strong and impenetrable coating
generate : to produce something; in this case it refers to
some other source of energy being converted to
electrical energy (electrical power or electricity)
group : the vertical columns of the Periodic Table are
calledgroups
. .

identical: exactly the same in every way
ignite : to set something on fire
indicator : a substance that changes colour in the presence
of another substance, showing that that substance
is present
inert: unreactive; these substances do not react with
other substances and do not change into other
compounds
IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(acronym)
IUPAC system: a system for naming compounds in a way that is
unique for each compound
laboratory acids: acid commonly found in the laboratory
litmus : a well known acid-base indicator that turns red
when mixed with an acid and blue when mixed with
a base
macroscopic : themacroscopic world includes all the things we
can observe with our five senses - things we can
see, hear, smell, touch and taste
metal: an element that is shiny, ductile and malleable;
metals occur on the left and towards the middle of
the periodic table
metal carbonate: a compound with the the general formula MCO3 or
M2 CO3 where M represents a metal atom, C
represents a carbon atom and O represents an
.
oxygen atom
metal hydroxide: a compound with the the general formula MOH or
M(OH)2 where M represents a metal atom, O
represents an oxygen atom and H represents a
hydrogen atom
metal oxide: the product of the reaction between a metal and
oxygen; a compound with the general formula MO
or M2 O where M represents a metal atom and O
represents an oxygen atom
molecule : two or more atoms that have chemically bonded
with each other; the atoms in a molecule can be of
the same kind (in which case it would be a molecule
of an element), or they can be of different kinds (in
which case it would be a molecule of a compound)
neutralisation a reaction in which the reactants neutralise each
reaction: other
neutralise: to neutralise something means to take away its
potency
neutral solution: a solution with pH = 7
neutrons : a type of sub-atomic particle similar to protons in
mass and size, but neutral (without charge);
neutrons together with protons make up the
atomic nucleus
non-metal: an element that does not have metallic properties;
non-metals (excluding hydrogen) occur in the top
right-hand corner of the periodic table
...

non-metal oxide: the product of the reaction between a non-metal
and oxygen
non-renewable: non-renewable energy sources refer to sources
that can be used up, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, or
natural gas)
oxidise : when a compound reacts with oxygen, we say it is
oxidised; in chemistry, the word oxidise means
much more than this, but in this chapter we will
limit ourselves to this simple definition
penetrate : when liquid or air penetrates into a material, it
passes into or through that material (usually
because of tiny holes in the material); something
that cannot be penetrated is called impenetrable
periodic table: a table in which the chemical elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number
period: the horizontal rows of the Periodic Table are
calledperiods
pharmacist : a person who has studied pharmacy and uses this
knowledge in the field of health science
pH : pH measures the acidity and alkalinity of a
solution as a number on a scale ranging between 0
and 14
picture equation: an equation that describes a chemical reaction
using diagrams of the particles of the compounds
involved in the reaction
porous : material that has tiny holes through which liquid
.
or air may pass
potency : power
prefix : a bit added at the start of a word, usually to
indicate number, e.g.,mono-, di-, or tri-
presence: the state of something existing or being present in
a place
preservative : a substance that is added to products (usually
food or beverages) to make them last longer; most
preservatives are toxic to microorganisms, but are
added in such small quantities that they do not
pose significant harm to humans
product : a substance that forms during the reaction; it will
be present after the reaction has taken place
protons : sub-atomic particles that are positively charged
and occur inside the atomic nucleus along with
neutrons
reactant: the starting substances that undergo change in a
chemical reaction
reactive : elements and compounds that arereactive will
readily react with many other substances
red cabbage An acid-base indicator made from the sap of red
indicator: cabbage; red cabbage indicator is also capable of
displaying a range of colours, depending on the pH
of the solution with which it is mixed
renewable: a renewable source of energy cannot be used up,
such as water, wind, or solar power
. .

rust : a reddish- or yellowish-brown, often flaky, coating
of iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel by
oxidation (when it reacts with oxygen in the air)
rust-resistant: a rust-resistant material; one that does not rust
semi-metal: an element that has properties of both metals and
non-metals; the semi-metals occur in a narrow
diagonal strip that separates the metals form the
non-metals on the periodic table
steel : a metal alloy composed of a mixture of iron and
other elements (mostly metal); it is very strong and
used widely in the construction industry (also in
buildings)
submicroscopic: the submicroscopic world includes things that exist
but that we can't see; atoms and molecules can
only be 'seen' as mental pictures and when we
draw these, we refer to them as 'submicroscopic
diagrams'
subscript : a number that is placedinside a chemical formula;
it shows the number of atoms of that type in one
molecule of that compound, for example O2
suffix : a bit added at the end of a word, e.g.,-ide
symbolic : thesymbolic .world includes letters and numbers
that we use to represent atoms and molecules
symbol (or element a unique letter (or letters) that represent a given
symbol): element
systematic name: The unique name that will be generated for a given
compound, if the IUPAC system for naming
compounds is followed correctly
tarnish: when a metal surface gets dirty or spotty after
reacting with oxygen or other substances in the air,
we say it is tarnished
toxic : poisonous, harmful to living organisms
unique : the only one of its kind; unlike anything else
unit: In this chapter, unit means a quantity used as a
standard of measurement, e.g. units of time are
second, minute, hour, day, week, month, year and
decade
universal indicator: An acid-base indicator that can display a range of
colours, depending on the pH of the solution with
which it is mixed
word equation: an equation that describes a chemical reaction
using the names of the compounds involved in the
reaction
...

A Assessment rubrics
The assessment guidelines for Gr 7-9 Natural Sciences are outlined in CAPS on
page 85. Provided here are various rubrics as a guideline for assessment for the
. . ...
different tasks which you would like to assess, either informally (to assess
learners' progress) or formally (to record marks to contribute to the final year
mark). These rubrics can be photocopied and used for each learner.
The various rubrics provided are:
• Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity

• To be used for any practical task where learners are required to follow
instructions to complete the task.
• Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
• To be used for an investigation, especially where learners have to write
their own experimental report or design the investigation themselves.
• Assessment Rubric 3: Graph
• To be used for any graph or translation task you would like to assess,
either on its own or within another activity.
• Assessment Rubric 4: Table
• To be used when learners have to draw their own table and you would like
to assess it.
• Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing
• To be used when learners have to do a drawing, particularly in Life and
Living.
• Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or project
• To be used when learners have to do a research assignment or project,
either outside of class or in class time, and either individually or in groups.
• Assessment Rubric 7: Model
• To be used when learners have to design and build their own scientific
models.
• Assessment Rubric 8: Poster
• To be used when learners have to make a poster, either individually or in a
group.
• Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation
• To be used when learners have to give an oral presentation to the class on
a selected topic.
• Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
• To be used to assess any work where learners are required to complete the
task as a group. This rubric is designed to assess the group as a whole.
366
. 1: Practical activity
A.1 Assessment Rubric
Name:
Date:
Task:
Assessment 0 1 2 Comments
criteria
Following Unable to Instructions Able to work
instructions follow followed with independently
instructions guidance
Observing Unable to Sometimes Able to follow
safety observe safety does not safety
precautions precautions follow safety precautions
precautions completely
Ability to Cannot work Can work
work tidily tidily tidily
Cleans up Does so once Does so
afterwards reminded without
reminding
Organisation Disorganised Fairly Organised and
organised efficient
Use of Always used Sometimes Apparatus
apparatus, incorrectly used correctly and materials
equipment and materials and aware of used correctly
and materials wasted material usage and efficiently
Results or No result or Partially Results or
final product final product correct results product
or product correct
Answers to No answers Can answer Can answer
questions provided or questions and application
based on most are at least 60% and questions
activity incorrect are correct correctly
Total /15
. .
Appendix A. Assessment rubrics 367

.
A.2 Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
Name:
Date:
Task:
Assessment 0 1 2 3 Comments
criteria
Aim Not stated Not clearly Clearly
or incorrect stated stated
Hypothesis Not able to Able to Clearly
or hypothesise hypothesise, hypothesises
prediction but not
clearly
Materials Not listed Partially Correct
and or incorrect correct
apparatus
Method None Confused, Partially Clearly and
not in order correct correctly
or incorrect stated
Results and No results Partially accurately Correctly
observations recorded or correctly recorded and
(recorded incorrectly recorded but not in accurately
either as a recorded the most recorded in
graph, table appropriate the most
or or specified appropriate
observations) way or specified
way
Analysis or No Some Understands Insightful
discussion understand- understand- the understand-
ing of the ing of the investigation ing of the
investigation investigation investigation
Evaluation No attempt Partially Correct, but Critical
correct superficial evaluation
with
suggestions
Neatness of Untidy Tidy
report
Logical Not logical Some of Report is
presentation report is logically
of report logically presented
presented
Total /25
...

A.3 Assessment . Rubric 3: Graph
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Correct type of Not correct Correct
graph
Appropriate Not present Present, but Complete
heading, incomplete
describing both
variables
Independent Not present Present
variable on or incorrect
x-axis
Dependent Not present Present
variable on or incorrect
y-axis
Appropriate Incorrect Correct
scale on x-axis
Appropriate Incorrect Correct
scale on y-axis
Appropriate Not present Correct
heading for or incorrect
x-axis
Appropriate Not present Correct
heading for or incorrect
y-axis
Units for Not present Correct
independent or incorrect
variable on
x-axis
Units for Not present Correct
dependent or incorrect
variable on
y-axis
Plotting points All incorrect Mostly or All correct
partially
correct
Neatness Untidy Tidy
Graph size Too small Large
Total /15
. .

A.4 Assessment. Rubric 4: Table
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Appropriate Not present Present, but Complete
heading, incomplete
describing both
variables
Appropriate Not present Mostly Correct
column headings or incorrect correct and
descriptive
Appropriate row Not present At least half All correct
headings or incorrect correct
Units in headings None present Present but Present
and not in body in the body and in the
of table headings
Layout of table No horizontal Some lines All vertical
or vertical drawn and
lines horizontal
lines drawn
Data entered in Not correct Partially All correct
table correct
Total /12
...

. 5: Scientific drawing
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Appropriate, Not present Present, but Complete
descriptive incomplete
heading
Appropriate size Incorrect (too Correct
of drawing small)
(sufficiently large
on page)
Accuracy of Incorrect Somewhat Correct
drawing (correct correct
shape and
proportion of
parts)
Structures or Mostly Mostly All correct
parts placed incorrect correct, but
correctly in some
relation to each misplaced
other
Diagram lines are Not clear or Clear and
neat, straight and neat or blunt neat
done with a sharp pencil
pencil
Label lines do not Incorrect Correct All correct
cross over each
other
Parts are labelled Mostly Mostly All correct
incorrect correct with and
some labelled
missing or
incorrectly
labelled
Total /12
. .

A.6 Assessment Rubric 6: Research
.
assignment or
Project
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Group work (if Conflict Some Worked
applicable) between conflict and efficiently
members or some as a group
some did not members
participate did not
always
participate
Project layout No clear or Some parts Clear and
logical are clear logical
organisation and logical, layout and
while others organisation
are not
Accuracy Many errors A few errors Content is
in content in content accurate
Resources used No resources Some or A range of
(material or used limited resources
media) resources used
used
Standard Poor standard Satisfactory Of a high
standard
Use of time Did not work Worked Worked
efficiently and fairly efficiently
ran out of efficiently and
time finished in
time
Total /12
...

A.7 Assessment . Rubric 7: Model
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Scientifically Model Mostly Accurate,
accurate inaccurate or accurate, complete
incomplete but with and
some parts correct.
missing or
incorrect
Size and scale Too big or Correct size, Correct
too small, but some size and
parts not in parts too proportional
proportion to big or too scale
each other small
Use of colour or Dull, with Somewhat Creative
contrast little use of colourful and good
contrast use of
colour and
contrast
Use of materials Inappropriate Satisfactory Excellent
use or only use of use of
expensive appropriate materials
materials materials and
used and recyclables
recyclables where
where appropriate
possible
Use of a key or Not present Present but Clear and
explanation incomplete accurate
or vague
Total /10
. .

A.8 Assessment .Rubric 8: Poster
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Title Absent Present, but Complete
not title
sufficiently
descriptive
Main points Not relevant Some points All points
relevant relevant
Accuracy of facts Many Mostly All correct
incorrect correct, but
some errors
Language and Many errors Some errors No errors
spelling
Organisation and Disorganised Organisation Excellent,
layout and no logic partially logical
clear and layout
logical
Use of colour No colour or Some use of Effective
only one colour colour
colour
Size of text Text very Some text Text
small too small appropriate
size
Use of diagrams Absent or Present but Present,
and pictures irrelevant sometimes relevant
irrelevant and
appealing
Accuracy of Inaccurate Mostly Completely
diagrams or accurate accurate
pictures
Impact of poster Does not Makes Eye
make an somewhat catching
impact of an impact and makes
a lasting
impact
Creativeness Nothing new Some signs Original
or original of creativity and very
and creative
independent
thought
Total /22
...

. 9: Oral presentation
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Introducing Did not do Present, but Present, and Interesting
the topic with no links to and
clear links to content catching
content being introduction
covered
Speed of Too fast or Started off Good speed
presentation too slow too fast or throughout
too slow but
reaches
optimal
pace
Pitch and Too soft or Started off Speaks
clearness of unclear unclear or clearly and
voice too soft, but optimal pitch
improved throughout
Capturing Did not Interesting Sustained Sustained
audience's make an at times interest and interest and
attention and impact or no stimulating stimulating
originality attempt to throughout
capture with
interest originality
Organisation Illogical or Clear and Clear and
of content unclear mostly logical
during logical throughout
presentation
Factual Many errors Some errors All correct
content in content in content
Concluding No Made a Insightful/
remarks conclusion satisfactory thought-
or not conclusion provoking
appropriate conclusion
Answers to Was not Was able to Was able to
educator and able to answer answer recall
class's answer recall and
questions questions or questions application
gave only questions
incorrect
answers
Total /18
. .

.
A.10 Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Member Very few Only some In the Full
participation members members beginning participation
participated participated only some throughout
or one or two members
members did participated
most of work but then full
participation
Discipline Lack of Some Most All members
within the discipline members members disciplined
group disciplined disciplined
Group Unmotivated Some Most All members
motivation or lack focus members members motivated
motivated, motivated and focused
but others and
lack focus focused
Respect for Show Some All
each other disrespect to members members
each other showed are
disrespect respectful
Conflict Considerable Some No conflict
within the conflict and conflict or any
group disagreements which was issues were
which were either resolved
unresolved resolved or maturely
unresolved
Time Disorganised Mostly able Effective
management and unable to work use of time
to stick to within the to
time frames given time complete
the task
Total /15
...

. .

Image Attribution
1 http://www.cellimagelibrary.org/images/10233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2 http://www.cellimagelibrary.org/images/18042 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 http://www.flickr.com/photos/codonaug/6936088946/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Transmission_electron_microscope_%28Morgagni_268D%29_pl.jpg 42
6 http://www.flickr.com/photos/kaibara/4966621857/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mikrofoto.de−arcella_3.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8 http://www.flickr.com/photos/dkeats/3064466247/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9 http://www.flickr.com/photos/gtzecosan/5600199114/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
10 http://www.cellimagelibrary.org/images/8735 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brain_MRI_131666.png . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Population_growth_rate_world_2005−2010_UN.PNG . . . . 100
13 http://www.flickr.com/photos/tessawatson/407048082/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
16 http://www.flickr.com/photos/trekkyandy/3316748814/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
17 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lithium_in_mineral_oil.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
18 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kaalumi_reaktsioon_veega.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
19 http://www.flickr.com/photos/derekskey/3219004793/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
20 http://www.flickr.com/photos/dok1/3513263469/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
21 http://www.flickr.com/photos/jeua/7217824700/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
22 http://www.flickr.com/photos/dno1967b/6996590307/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
23 http://www.flickr.com/photos/rockandrollfreak/7697586652/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
24 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1909_Victor_Flash_Lamp.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
25 http://www.flickr.com/photos/flattop341/347445202/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
26 http://www.flickr.com/photos/mikebaird/4585328947/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
27 http://www.flickr.com/photos/lizjones/449708229/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
28 http://www.flickr.com/photos/a2gemma/2373078360/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
29 http://www.flickr.com/photos/49889874@N05/4883527730/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
30 http://www.flickr.com/photos/ell−r−brown/5375682861/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
31 http://www.flickr.com/photos/sbeebe/5225048839/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
32 http://www.flickr.com/photos/a_mason/3212274/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
33 http://www.flickr.com/photos/cwisnieski/5947754467/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
34 http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnloo/5289139290/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
35 http://www.flickr.com/photos/ants88/6846263748/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
36 http://www.flickr.com/photos/cote/66570391/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
37 http://www.flickr.com/photos/thure/2549381513/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
38 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sulfur−sample.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
39 http://www.flickr.com/photos/borderlys/4986300585/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
40 http://www.flickr.com/photos/itineranttightwad/3694711587/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
41 http://www.flickr.com/photos/indyplanets/3397279830/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
42 http://www.flickr.com/photos/27663074@N07/3415792966/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
43 http://www.flickr.com/photos/pat00139/5983796116/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
44 http://www.flickr.com/photos/jackson3/3769878095/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
45 http://www.flickr.com/photos/ryochijiiwa/4542559854/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
46 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PH_Scale.svg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
47 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alkaline_pH.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
49 http://www.flickr.com/photos/aidanmorgan/2327622517/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
50 http://www.flickr.com/photos/russelljsmith/3604339900/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
51 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spreading_lime_on_a_Devon_field.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
52 http://www.flickr.com/photos/noaaphotolib/5083799912/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
53 http://www.flickr.com/photos/rdecom/8050387990/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

GR 9 - A - Teacher - Eng

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1 18

Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Distributed by the Department of Basic Education

For more information about the Creative Commons

Siyavula Coordinator and Editor

Teacher's guide overview 12

Teacher's Guide Overview 12

Life and living 22

1 Cells as the basic units of life 24

2 Systems in the human body 64

4 Circulatory and respiratory systems 124

5 Digestive system 162

Matter and Materials 196

2 Chemical reactions 228

3 Reactions of metals with oxygen 250

4 Reactions of non-metals with oxygen 272

5 Acids, bases and the pH value 288

6 Reactions of acids with bases 308

7 Reactions of acids with metals 346

A Assessment rubrics 366

Image Attribution 378

"Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the

"The glory of science is to imagine more than we can prove."

Learners must be encouraged to 'doodle' themselves, take notes during your

We have aimed to present the content in an investigative, questioning way. At

Albert Einstein certainly did this when he observed:

"The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious - the

Natural Sciences Knowledge Strands www.thunderboltkids.co.za

Life and Living

Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 13

• 10 weeks per term with 3 hours per week

Life and Living

Chapter Time allocation

Matter and Materials

Chapter Time allocation

Energy and Change

Chapter Time allocation

14 Teacher's guide overview

Planet Earth and Beyond

Chapter Time allocation

Speciﬁc Aim 1: 'Doing Science'

Learners should be able to complete investigations, analyse problems and use

Speciﬁc Aim 2: 'Knowing the subject content and making connections'

Learners should have a grasp of scientiﬁc, technological and environmental

Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 15

Speciﬁc Aim 3: 'Understanding the uses of Science'

Learners should understand the uses of Natural Sciences and indigenous

There is a strong emphasis in these workbooks to show that science is relevant

You are legally allowed to copy this book.

We encourage you to photocopy it, download it from our website, save it on

16 Teacher's guide overview

With OERs, you are free to:

• Reuse - the right to reuse the content in its unaltered form

Structure of the book

The A book covers term 1 and 2:

• Life and Living

The B book covers terms 3 and 4:

• Energy and Change