CHAPTER-2

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric current
The directed rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of
a conductor is known as electric current.
𝑞
I= (Unit- Coulomb/sec or ampere )
𝑡
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑏
1A=
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Direction of conventional current- Current flows from positive to

negative terminal or opposite to flow of electrons.

Even though current has direction it is a scalar quantity. Because it does not
obey vector law of addition.
Conduction in metallic conductors
E=0 E≠ 𝟎

In the absence of electric field, the free electrons move in random direction in
the presence of electric field, the free electron.
In the presence of electric field, the free electrons experience a force and
hence accelerated towards the positive terminal. The free electrons collide
with each other and with ions lose their velocity. Due to continuous collision
their average acceleration becomes zero and electrons acquire constant
average velocity called drift velocity.

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Drift velocity (Vd) –It is the average velocity with which the free electrons get
drifted towards the positive end of the conductor under the influence of an
external electric field. It in the of order of 10-3ms-1
Relaxation time (𝝉)- It is the time interval between two successive collisions.
Relation between relaxation time and electric field
𝐹
Force on a free e- = -eE and acceleration =
𝑚
eE eE
a=- , Vd = a 𝜏 = - 𝜏
𝑚 𝑚

i.e. Vd ∝ E
Relation between current and drift velocity

volume of the conductor= al

Total no.of free e- in the conductor= na𝑙
Charge of all the free e- in the conductor= nAle
𝑞 nAle l
I= = here t =
𝑡 𝑡 𝑉𝑑
nAle nAle𝑉𝑑
I= l =
𝑙
𝑉𝑑

I= neAVd
I ∝ Vd
Electron mobility(𝝁e)
It is the drift velocity acquired per unit electric filed
𝑽𝒅
𝝁e = Unit-ms-1N-1C or m2v-1 s-1
𝑬

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Current density( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑱)
It is the current per unit area perpendicular to direction of current
⃗𝐽 = 𝐼 It is a vector. Its unit is 𝐴
𝐴 𝑚2

Ohm’s law
“At constant temperature, current across a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across the ends of the conductor” flowing through
𝑉
it,. (i.e.) I ∝ V or = R where R is resistance
𝐼

Resistance – It is the property of a material to oppose the current. It is defined

as the ratio of potential to current
𝑉
R= Unit – VA-1 or Ohm(Ω)
𝐼
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1Ω=
1𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒

Resistance depends on
(i) length of the conductor (R ∝ l)
1
(ii)area of the conductor (R ∝ )
𝐴
(iii) Temperature
(iv) nature of material
l 1
R ∝ or R =𝜌 where 𝜌 is resistivity or specific resistance
𝐴 𝐴

If l = 1 m and A= 1m2, then R = 𝜌 Resistivity is equal to resistance of a

conductor having unit length and unit area.
Resistivity depends on
(i) Temperature
(ii) nature of material
It is independent of length and area .

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Conductance (G) – It is the reciprocal of resistance
1
G= Unit- Siemens (S) or mho (Ω⁻¹)
𝑅
Conductivity (σ) - It is the reciprocal of resistivity
1
σ = Unit - Siemens per meter (Sm-1) or mho-1 m-1 (Ω⁻¹m-1)
𝜌

Relation between 𝒋⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗

𝑬

Validity of Ohm’s law

𝑒𝐸
I = nAeVd =nAe( 𝜏)
𝑚
ne2AE 𝜏 𝑉
I= [ E= ]
𝑚 𝑙
ne2AV 𝜏
I=
𝑚𝑙
𝐼 ne2A 𝜏
=
𝑉 𝑚𝑙
𝑉 𝑚𝑙 𝑙 𝑚 𝑙
= = = 𝜌 = R = constant
𝐼 ne2A 𝜏 A ne2 𝜏 A
𝑙 𝑚
R= 𝜌 and 𝜌 =
A ne2 𝜏

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Temperature dependences of resistivity
m 1
ρ= (i.e.) ρ ∝
ne2ζ 𝜏
Resistivity inversely proportional to relaxation time.
Metals - Resistivity increases with increase in temperature. If there is increase
in temperature relaxation time decreases and resistivity increases
Insulators and semiconductors – Resistivity decreases with increase in
temperature.
1
𝜌=
n𝜏
If there is increase in temperature the number of electrons increases and
relaxation time decreases. But n >>> 𝜏 . so resistivity depends only on number
1
of e-. 𝜌∝
n
Alloys – The resistivity of materials like nichrome, manganin and constantan
does not depend much on temperature and show a very low dependence

Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature as

ρt = ρo (1 + αrt) where ρo and ρt are resistivity of metals at O°C and t°C and α
temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material.
ρt − ρo
αr =
ρot
For metals αr is positive, for some alloys like nichrome, manganin and
constantan, αr is positive but very low.
For semiconductors and insulators. αr is negative

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ρ2 = ρ1 [1 + α (t2- t1)] where ρ1 and ρ2 are resistivity of metals at t1°C and t2°C
ρ2− ρ1
α=
ρo(t2−t2)

Temperature dependences of resistance

RT = R0 [1+ α t] where Ro and Rt are resistivity of metals at O°C and t°C and α
temperature coefficient of resistance of the material
Rt − Ro
α=
Rot
R2 = R1 [1 + α (t2- t1)] where R1 and R2 are resistivity of metals at t1°C and t2°C
R2− R1
α=
Ro(t2−t2)

Resistors - Resistors are objects which resist the flow of current.

Carbon resistors: -They are made up of carbon compound and used in small
electrical circuits.
Resistor colour codes-To know the resistance of a resistor colour coding is
done. Carbon resistors have different colour bands or different colour rings
which have specific value.

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 Internal resistance of a cell (r) – It is the resistance offered to the current by
the cell.
𝐸
I=
𝑅+𝑟

IR+Ir = E (V=IR)
Ir = E – V
𝐸–𝑉
r=
𝐼
𝐸–𝑉
r =[ ]R
V

Internal resistance of a cell depends on

(i) directly proportional r ∝ distance between the electrodes (r ∝ d)
1
(ii) inversely proportional to the area of the electrodes (r ∝ )
A
(iii) nature of electrolyte and electrodes
(iv) ) inversely proportional to the temperature
EMF of a cell (electromotive force) (E)
The potential difference between two ends of the cell in an open circuit (when
no current is drawn from the cell) is called the electromotive force (emf) of the
cell.
Terminal potential difference (V)
The potential difference between the two electrodes of a cell in a closed
circuit i.e. when current is being drawn from the cell is called terminal
potential difference.
𝐸
I=
𝑅+𝑟

IR+Ir = E (V=IR)

V = E – Ir

If I = 0 , then E= V E is always greater than V because V= E-Ir

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 EMF (E) TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V)

During discharging E > V During charging V>E

It is the potential difference between It is the potential difference between

the electrodes of a cell when no the electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit
current is drawn from the cell. (when current is drawn from the cell).
It is measured by potentiometer It is s measured by voltmeter
Independent of external Depends of external resistance (V=IR)
resistance(R)
It is cause It is effect
Cells in series
(i) Cells with equal emf in series
Consider n cells, each of emf E and internal
resistance r connected in series across an I
external resistor R.
Total emf= n E
Total internal resistance = nr
Total resistance = R + nr
nE
I=
R + nr

Special cases
E
(i) If R > > nr , Imax =n
R
E
(ii) If R << r , Imin =
R

(ii) Cells with unequal emfs in series

VAB = V (A) – V (B) = E1 - I r1

VBC = V (B) – V (C) = E2 – I r2
VAC = V (A) – V (C) = V (A) – V (B) + V (B) – V (C)
= (E1 + E2) - I(r1 + r2)
VAC = Eeq – I req

Eeq = E1 + E2 and req = r1 + r2

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If two cells connected in opposite direction
Eeq = E1 - E2 and req = r1 + r2

Cells in parallel
(i) Cells with equal emf in parallel
Consider n cells, each of emf E and internal
resistance r connected in parallel across an
external resistor R.
Total emf= E
1 1 1 1
Total internal resistance= = + + +…..’m’ rows
𝑟𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

1 𝑚 𝑟
= or rp =
𝑟𝑝 𝑟 𝑚

𝑟
Total resistance = R +
𝑚

E
I= 𝑟
R +𝑚

𝑚𝐸
I=
𝑚𝑅+𝑟

Special cases
E
(i) If R > > r , Imax =m
R

E
(ii) If R << r , Imin =
R

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(ii) Cells with unequal emf in parallel

If we replace the cells by a single cell lying between the point B1 and B2 with
emf εeq and internal resistance req, then V = εeq - Ireq.

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 Limitations of Ohm’s law

1. Ohm's law is valid for metal conductors, provided the temperature and
other physical conditions remain constant.
2. Ohm's law is not applicable to gaseous conductors.
3. Ohm's law is also not applicable to semi-conductors

Kirchhoff's Laws
Kirchhoff's first Law or Junction rule
“The algebraic sum of electric currents at any junction of electric circuit is equal
to zero”

Sign convention
Current towards the junction – positive
Current towards the junction - negative

-I1 + I2 –I3 + I 4 + I5 = 0

I1 + I3 = I2+ I 4 + I5

i.e. the sum of current entering into a junction is equal to the sum of current
leaving the junction.
This law is based on law of conservation of charge

Kirchhoff's second Law or junction rule

“In any closed mesh of electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of emf’s of cell and the
product of currents and resistance is always equal to zero”
This is based on law of conservation of energy
Sign convention

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Illustration of Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Apply KCL at junction 'a'

I3=I1+I2
Apply KVL in loop 'ahdcba'
-30I1-41I3 +45=0
Apply KVL in loop 'ahdefgba'
-30I1+21I2-80=0
Wheatstone’s bridge network
Principle - Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the
ratio of their resistances are equal and no current flows through the circuit
It consists of four resistances P,Q,R and S connected to form a network. G is
the resistance of galvanometer.
Apply KVL in loop ABDA
– I1P –Ig G+ I2 R= 0……..(1)
Apply KVL in loop BCDB
–I3 Q+ I4 S+ Ig G =0 ……(2)
if potential difference between B and D is same, then
Ig =0 ,
if Ig =0 then (1) & (2) became
I1 P= I2 R……..(3)
I3 Q = I4 S ……(4) if Ig =0 then I1 = I3 , I2 Q = I4 S
then (3) & (4) became
I1 P= I1 R …..(5)
I3 Q = I3 S…..(6)
I1 P= I1 R
divide (5)by (6)
I3 Q = I3 S

𝑃 𝑅
= This is called bridge balance condition.
𝑄 𝑆

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Meter bridge
Principle- Wheatstone bridge
Use- To measure unknown resistance
Circuit diagram

Description of the apparatus

It consists of a uniform wire of 1 meter made of manganin (or constntan).
The wire is kept strectched between two copper strips fixed on a wooden
board.
Another copper strip is fixed centrally between the other two on the board
leaves two gaps between the strips. The copper strips are provided with
terminals.
Procedure to find the resistance.
The unknown resistance X is connected in the left gap and the resistance box is
connected in the right gap. A battery us connected between A and C. A
galvanometer is connected between B and D. Jockey J which can slide along
the bridge wire.
A suitable resistance (R) is taken in box and the circuit is closed. The position of
the jockey is adjusted so that the galvanometer deflection is zero. The
balancing length AD is measured as l1 and CJ as l2 = (100 - l1).
According to Wheatstone’s bridge balanced condition,
𝑋
= l1r/ l2r, where r is resistance per unit length of the wire.
𝑅
X=R l1/ l2
(i.e.) X = R l1/(100- l1)
The experiment is repeated for different values of R.
This experiment can also be repeated by interchanging X and R between the
gaps. If AD = l’1 and BD= l’2
R/X= l’1/ l’2 = l’1//(100- l’1) and the average of X is calculated.

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End correction
The resistance between the ends A and B of the wire with copper strips are
neglected because it is very small. This is called end resistance. To yield
accurate result the correction has to be applied for the end correction.
The end correction can be minimized by
(i) obtaining the balancing point D at the middle of the wire.
(ii) Repeating the experiment by interchanging X and R between the gaps.
Potentiometer
Use- To measure the emf or potential difference very accurately.
Principle - For steady fall in potential across any portion of the wire is directly
proportional to the length of that portion.
(i.e.) V ∝ l
Consider a wire AB of uniform area of cross section and carrying a steady
current I. Consider a portion AC (= l) of this wire. The potential difference
across ‘l ‘ of the wire be V. If A is the area of cross-section ,then resistivity is 𝜌,
𝜌𝑙
then resistance of portion AC (= l) , R=
𝐴
Voltage across AC, V= IR
𝜌𝑙
= I( )
𝐴
𝜌𝑙
= K l where, K=I
𝐴

V ∝l
𝑉
[ = K = potential gradient (i.e.) fall of potential per unit length]
l
Construction of potentiometer

It consists of a long uniform wire AB made of manganin stretched on a wooden

board. A graduated scale runs parallel to the wire.
The end A connected to positive terminal of battery, whose negative terminal
is conneted to end B through an ammeter , rheostat and a key. This circuit is
called primary circuit.There is a fall of potential from A to B.
A is connected to a sensitive voltmeter to a jockey which slide along the wire
AB can make contact at any point on the wire

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Comparision of emfs of two cells – Potentiometer

The positive terminals of the two cells are connected to DPDT switch and the
negative terminals of the two cells connected to other terminals of the two
cells.
The common terminal of DPDT switch is connected to jockey through
galvanometer G.
The key is closed and the current in the potentiometer wire is adjusted to a
suitable constant value.
Cell E1 is connected in circuit, the jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire
till galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let this point J 1 and the distance AJ1 =
l1.
E1∝ l1
Now cell E1 is disconnected and cell E2 is connected. The same procedure above
is repeated till null point is obtained. Let it be l2 and the distance be AJ2= l2
E2∝ l2

E1 l1
=
E2 l2

Note: Battery emf should be greater than emf of E1 or E2. Otherwise, null point
will not be obtained.

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Determination of internal resistance of a cell- Potentiometer

The positive terminal of the cell is comnnected to the positive terminal of the
battery.
The negative termimnal of the cell is connected to the jockery through a
galvanometer G.
A resistance box R is connected across the cell through K2
K1 is closed and current in the potentiometer wire is adjusted to a suitable
constant value. Keeping K2 open, the position of jockey is adjusted till null
point is obtained. Let the null point be P1 and the distance AP1 = l1
Emf of the cell E∝ l1
Now a suitable resistance R from resistance box is inserted and K2is closed. The
null point obtained on the wire, let it be l2 and the distance be AP2. Potential
difference across the cell is V
V ∝ l2

𝐸
r=[ -1] R
𝑉
𝑙1
r=[ - 1] R
𝑙2

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Electrical energy and power
Electrical power is the rate of work done(energy) in maintaining the current in
the electrical circuit.
Work or energy = W=qV
𝑊 qV
Power = = = IV = VI
𝑡 𝑡
𝑉2
Also power = I2 R (V=IR) and P=
𝑅
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
P= I2 R = I2 = I 2
𝐴 πr2
𝑉2 𝑉2𝐴 𝑉2πr2
Also P= = =
𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
SI unit – watt
1 watt = 1 joules/sec
Definition of watt
The electric power is said to be one watt when one ampere current flows
through a conductor maintained at one-volt potential difference for one
second.
𝑉2
P= I2 R =
𝑅
The above equation has an important application in power transmission.
Through transmission cables, the electric power is transmitted from power
stations to houses and factories. Let the resistance of cables be Rc and the
power dissipated in these cables be wasted is Pc.
𝑃2
Then, Pc=I2Rc= Rc. [P=VI]
𝑉2
(i.e.)Pc ∝ 1/V2 To reduce Pc, the cables carry current at very high voltage (v).
At consuming point the voltage is lowered by using transformer.
Electric energy
SI unit- Joule
For commercial purpose its unit is kilo-watt- hour(kwh)
1kwh= 1000 w x 3600 sec = 3.6 x106 J

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