Department of Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Engineering
Central Campus, Pulchowk

Prepared by
Umesh Sharma
Course outline
Newton’s law of cooling
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients
Boundary Layer Concepts
Free Convection
Dimensional Analysis
Flow over Plates, Cylinders and Spheres
Forced Convection
Dimensional Analysis
Flow over Plates, Cylinders and Spheres
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Combined Laminar and Turbulent
Flow over Bank of tubes

2
PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION

Conduction and convection both require the

presence of a material medium but convection
requires fluid motion.
Convection involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction.
Heat transfer through a solid is always by
conduction.
Heat transfer through a fluid is by convection in
the presence of bulk fluid motion and by
conduction in the absence of it.
Therefore, conduction in a fluid can be viewed as
the limiting case of convection, corresponding to
the case of quiescent fluid.

3
The fluid motion enhances heat transfer, since it brings warmer and cooler chunks of
fluid into contact, initiating higher rates of conduction at a greater number of sites in a
fluid.
The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by convection than it is by
conduction.
In fact, the higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer.

Heat transfer through a fluid sandwiched

between two parallel plates.
4
1. NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties dynamic viscosity,
thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat, as well as the fluid velocity. It also
depends on the geometry and the roughness of the solid surface, in addition to the type of
fluid flow (such as being streamlined or turbulent).

Newton’s law of cooling

Convection heat transfer coefficient, h: The rate of heat transfer between a solid
surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature difference.

5
No-slip condition: A fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the surface due to
viscous effects, and there is no slip.
Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous effects (and
thus the velocity gradients) are significant.
The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the development of the
boundary layer is viscosity.

A fluid flowing over a stationary surface comes to a

complete stop at the surface because of the no-slip condition.
6
2. CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from the solid surface to the
fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction, since the fluid layer is
motionless, and can be expressed as

The determination of the convection heat transfer coefficient when the temperature
distribution within the fluid is known

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow (or x-)
direction. The average or mean convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface in
such cases is determined by properly averaging the local convection heat transfer
coefficients over the entire surface area As or length L as

7
 3. BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPTS
Velocity boundary layer: The region of the flow above the plate
bounded by  in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused
by fluid viscosity are felt.
The boundary layer thickness, , is typically defined as the distance y
from the surface at which u = 0.99V.
The hypothetical line of u = 0.99V divides the flow over a plate into two
regions:
Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity changes
are significant.
Irrotational flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the
velocity remains essentially constant.

8
Wall Shear Stress Shear stress: Friction force per unit area.
The shear stress for most fluids is proportional to the
velocity gradient, and the shear stress at the wall surface
is expressed as

 dynamic viscosity
kg/ms or Ns/m2 or Pas
1 poise = 0.1 Pa  s

The fluids that obey the linear relationship above are

called Newtonian Fluids.
Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils
are Newtonian fluids.
Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian
fluids. In this text we consider Newtonian fluids only.

9
Kinematic viscosity,
m2/s or stoke
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to

deformation, and it is a strong function of temperature.
Wall shear stress:
Cf friction coefficient or
skin friction coefficient

Friction force over the entire surface:

The friction coefficient is an important parameter in heat transfer studies since it is directly related to
the heat transfer coefficient and the power requirements of the pump or fan.
10
THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
A thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at a specified temperature flows over a surface
that is at a different temperature.
Thermal boundary layer: The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation
in the direction normal to the surface is significant.
The thickness of the thermal boundary layer t at any location along the surface is defined as the
distance from the surface at which the temperature difference T − Ts equals 0.99(T− Ts).
The thickness of the thermal boundary
layer increases in the flow direction,
since the effects of heat transfer are felt
at greater distances from the surface
further down stream.
The shape of the temperature profile in
the thermal boundary layer dictates the
convection heat transfer between a solid
surface and the fluid flowing over it.

Thermal boundary layer on a flat plate (the fluid is hotter

than the plate surface).
11
Reynolds Number At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces,
which are proportional to the fluid density and
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow the square of the fluid velocity, are large relative
depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces
velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid. cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations
The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of of the fluid (turbulent).
inertia forces to viscous forces (Reynolds At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, the
number). viscous forces are large enough to suppress these
fluctuations and to keep the fluid “in line”
(laminar).

Critical Reynolds number, Recr: The

Reynolds number at which the flow becomes
turbulent.
The value of the critical Reynolds number is
different for different geometries and flow
conditions.
The Reynolds number can be viewed as the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces acting
on a fluid element.
12
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

Common classifications:
A. Based on geometry:
External flow / Internal flow
B. Based on driving mechanism
Natural convection / forced convection / mixed convection
C. Based on number of phases
Single phase / multiple phase
D. Based on nature of flow
Laminar / turbulent

13
 4. FREE CONVECTION

Many familiar heat transfer applications involve natural convection as the primary mechanism of
heat transfer. Examples?
Natural convection in gases is usually accompanied by radiation of comparable magnitude except for
low-emissivity surfaces.
The motion that results from the continual replacement of the heated air in the vicinity of the egg by
the cooler air nearby is called a natural convection current, and the heat transfer that is enhanced as a
result of this current is called natural convection heat transfer.

The warming up of a
cold drink in a warmer
environment by
natural convection.

The cooling of a boiled egg in a cooler

environment by natural convection. 14
 Free convection refers to fluid motion induced by buoyancy forces.
 Buoyancy forces may arise in a fluid for which there are density gradients and a
body force that is proportional to density.
 In heat transfer, density gradients are due to temperature gradients and the body
force is gravitational.
 Stable and Unstable Temperature Gradients

15
4.1 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

In a number of engineering applications involving flow of fluids over a flat plate, inside and
outside of cylinders, heat is exchanged between fluids and solid surfaces. In order to determine
heat transfer rate, value of convective heat transfer coefficient must be determined. The
following methods are generally used to determine the value of convective heat transfer
coefficient.
i) Dimensional Analysis
ii) Solution of Boundary Layer Equations
iii) Analogy between Heat and Momentum Transport
Dimensional analysis:
The method of dimensional analysis was first used by Nusselt to derive mathematical equations
for convective heat transfer coefficients for free and forced convection. Dimensional analysis is
a mathematical technique which is used to obtain equations governing an unknown physical
phenomenon in terms of important parameters influencing that phenomenon. The influencing
parameters are organized into dimensionless groups, thereby, reducing the number of influencing
parameters.

16
Dimensional analysis for free and forced convection involves following steps
i) Determination of all parameters/variables affecting convective heat transfer
coefficient.
ii) Writing influencing parameters in terms of fundamental units of mass, length, time
and temperature.
iii) Developing mathematical expressions for convective heat transfer coefficient in
terms of fundamental units by using principle of dimensional homogeneity.
iv) Grouping of all influencing parameters into non-dimensional numbers.
Methods of Dimensional Analysis:
If number of variables influencing convective heat transfer coefficient are known,
then the following two methods can be used to develop a mathematical expression
relating the variables with the convective heat transfer coefficient.
i) Rayleigh’s Method
ii) Buckingham’s π-theorem

17
 However, in application of dimensional analysis for determining convective heat
transfer coefficient for free and forced convection, Rayleigh’s method will not be
used as it has certain limitations that can be overcome by using Buckingham’s π-
theorem method.
Buckingham’s π-Theorem Method
In the Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis, solution becomes more and more
cumbersome and laborious if number of influencing variables become more than the
fundamental units (M, L, T and θ) involved in the physical phenomenon.
The use of Buckingham’s π-theorem method enables to overcome this limitation and
states that if there are ‘n’ variables (independent and dependent) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain ‘m’ number of fundamental dimensions
(M, L, T and θ), then the variables are arranged in to (n-m) dimensionless terms
called π-terms.
Buckingham’s π-Theorem Method can be applied for forced and free convection
processes to determine the heat transfer coefficient

18
Dimensional Analysis for Free Convection
In free convection heat transfer process, convective heat transfer coefficient depends
upon the same parameters/variable as in case of forced convection except velocity of
fluid. It is on account of the fact that in free convection motion of fluid occurs due to
difference in density of various layers of fluid caused by temperature difference
whereas in case of forced convection motion of fluid is caused by an external
source.
The fluid velocity in case of free convection depends upon the following parameters;
a. Temperature difference between solid surface and bulk fluid, ΔT
b. Acceleration due to gravity, g
c. Coefficient of volumetric expansion of fluid, β

19
 The change in the volume when
S. No. Variable Symbol Dimensions
temperature changes can be expressed
as 1 Fluid density ρ ML-3
dV = V1 β (T2 – T1)…….. (1)
2 Dynamic viscosity of fluid μ ML-1T-1
Where
dV - change in volume (m3) = V2 – V1 3
Thermal conductivity of
k MLT-3 θ-1
fluid
β = Coefficient of volumetric expansion of
4 Specific heat of fluid Cp L2T-2 θ-1
fluid,(m3/m3 oC)
Characteristic length of
T2 - Final temperature (oC) 5
heat transfer area
D L

T1 - Initial temperature (oC)

Temperature difference
Therefore, free convection heat transfer 6 between surface and bulk ΔT θ
coefficient is a function of variables fluid

given in Table 7
Coefficient of volumetric
β θ-1
expansion

8 Acceleration due to gravity g LT-2

20
Therefore, convective heat transfer coefficient is expressed as
h = f(ρ, μ, k, Cp, D, ΔT, β, g) …………… (2)
However, in free convection, (ΔT β g) will be treated as single parameter as the
velocity of fluid particles is a function of these parameters. Therefore, equation (2)
can be expressed as
f(h, ρ, μ, k, Cp, D, (ΔT β g))= 0 …………… (3)
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h is dependent variable and remaining are
independent variables.
Total number of variables, n = 7
Number of fundamental units, m = 4
According to Buckingham’s π-theorem, number of π-terms is given by the difference
of total number of variables and number of fundamental units.
Number of π-terms = (n-m) = 7-4 = 3

21
 These non-dimensional π-terms control the forced convection phenomenon and are
expressed as
f(π1, π2, π3) = 0 …………… (4)
Each π-term is written in terms of repeating variables and one other variable and the
following repeating variables are selected
a. Dynamic viscosity, μ having fundamental dimensions ML-1T-1
b. Thermal conductivity, k having fundamental dimensions MLT-3 θ-1
c. Fluid density, ρ having fundamental dimensions ML-3
d. Characteristic length, D having fundamental dimensions L

22
Each π-term is expressed as: π1 = μa kb, ρc, Dd, h …………… (5)
Writing down each term in above equation in terms of fundamental dimensions
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (ML-3)c (L)d MT-3 θ-1 …………… (6)
Comparing the powers of M, we get 0 = a+b+c+1, a+b+c=1
Comparing powers of L, we get 0 = -a+b+c +d
Comparing powers of T, we get 0 = -a- 3b-c -3
Comparing powers of θ, we get 0 = -b -1
Solving above equations, we get a = 0 , b= -1, c = 0, d = 1
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ in equation (5), we get
π1 = μa kb, ρc, Dd, ρ
π1 = h D / k …………… (7)
Nusselt number = Nu = h D / k

23
Nusselt Number
In convection studies, it is common practice to non-dimensionalize the governing equations and
combine the variables, which group together into dimensionless numbers in order to reduce the
number of total variables.
Nusselt number: Dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient

Lc characteristic length

The Nusselt number represents the enhancement of

heat transfer through a fluid layer as a result of
convection relative to conduction across the same
fluid layer.
The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective
the convection.
A Nusselt number of Nu = 1 for a fluid layer
represents heat transfer across the layer by pure
Heat transfer through a fluid layer of conduction.
thickness L and temperature difference T.
24
The second π –term is expressed as π2 = μa kb, ρc, Dd, Cp …………… (8)
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (ML-3)c (L)d L2T-2 θ-1 …………… (9)
Comparing the powers of M, we get 0 = a+b+c
Comparing powers of L, we get 0 = -a+ b-3c +d +2
Comparing powers of T, we get 0 = -a- 3b-2
Comparing powers of θ, we get 0 = -b-1, b=-1
Solving above equations, we get
a = 1, c = 0, d = 0
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ in equation (8), we get
π2 = μ1 k-1, ρ0 , D0, Cp
π2 = μ Cp / k …………… (10)
Prandtl Number = Pr = μ Cp / k

25
Prandtl Number
The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is best described
by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number

The Prandtl numbers of gases are about

1, which indicates that both momentum
and heat dissipate through the fluid at
about the same rate.
Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid
metals (Pr << 1) and very slowly in oils
(Pr >> 1) relative to momentum.
Consequently the thermal boundary
layer is much thicker for liquid metals
and much thinner for oils relative to the
velocity boundary layer.
26
The third π –term is expressed as π3 = μa kb, ρc, Dd, ((ΔT β g)
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (ML-3)c (L)d (θ-1LT-2 θ1)
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (ML-3)c (L)d (LT-2)
Comparing the powers of M, we get 0 = a+b+c, a+b+c= 0
Comparing powers of L, we get 0 = -a+b-3c +d +1
Comparing powers of T, we get 0 = -a- 3b-2
Comparing powers of θ, we get 0 = -b,
Solving above equations, we get a = -2, b=0, c = 2, d = 3
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ in equation (47), we get
π3 = μ-2 k0, ρ2, D3, (ΔT β g)
π3 = ρ2 D3 (ΔT β g) / μ2 = D3 (ΔT β g) / υ2
Grasshof number = Gr = D3 (ΔT β g) / υ2

27
The Grashof Number
The governing equations of natural convection and the boundary conditions can be non-
dimensionalized by dividing all dependent and independent variables by suitable constant
quantities:

Substituting them into the momentum equation and simplifying give

Grashof number: Represents the natural convection

effects in momentum equation

28
• The Grashof number provides the main criterion in determining whether the fluid
flow is laminar or turbulent in natural convection.
• For vertical plates, the critical Grashof number is observed to be about 109.
When a surface is subjected to external flow, the
problem involves both natural and forced
convection.
The relative importance of each mode of heat
transfer is determined by the value of the
coefficient Gr/Re2:
• Natural convection effects are negligible if
Gr/Re2 << 1.
• Free convection dominates and the forced
convection effects are negligible if Gr/Re2 >> 1.
The Grashof number Gr is a measure
• Both effects are significant and must be
of the relative magnitudes of the
considered if Gr/Re2  1 (mixed convection).
buoyancy force and the opposing
viscous force acting on the fluid. 29
Substituting the values of π1, π2, π3 in equation (30), we get
f(h D / k, μ Cp/k, D3 (ΔT β g) / υ2 ) =0
h D / k = φ(μ Cp/k, D3 (ΔT β g) / υ2 )
Nu = φ(Pr, Gr) as Gr = D3 (ΔT β g) / υ2
The above correlation is generally expressed as
Nu = C (Pr)a (Gr)b
The constant C and exponents a and b are determined through experiments.

30
4.2 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES, CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Natural convection heat transfer on a surface depends on the geometry of the surface as well as its
orientation, the variation of temperature on the surface and the thermo physical properties of the fluid
involved. With the exception of some simple cases, heat transfer relations in natural convection are
based on experimental studies.

Rayleigh
number
The constants C and n depend on the geometry of the
surface and the flow regime, which is characterized by the
range of the Rayleigh number. Natural convection heat transfer
The value of n is usually 1/4 for laminar flow and 1/3 for correlations are usually expressed in terms
turbulent flow. of the Rayleigh number raised to a
All fluid properties are to be evaluated at the film constant n multiplied by another constant
temperature Tf = (Ts + T)/2. C, both of which are determined
experimentally.
31
4.2 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES, CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Vertical Plates (qs = constant)
The relations for isothermal plates in the table can also be used for plates subjected to uniform heat
flux, provided that the plate midpoint temperature TL / 2 is used for Ts in the evaluation of the film
temperature, Rayleigh number, and the Nusselt number.

Inclined Plates
In a hot plate in a cooler environment for the lower
surface of a hot plate, the convection currents are
weaker, and the rate of heat transfer is lower relative
to the vertical plate case.
On the upper surface of a hot plate, the thickness of
the boundary layer and thus the resistance to heat
transfer decreases, and the rate of heat transfer
increases relative to the vertical orientation.
In the case of a cold plate in a warmer environment,
the opposite occurs.
Natural convection flows on the upper and
lower surfaces of an inclined hot plate.
32
Horizontal Plates For a hot surface in a cooler environment, the net
force acts upward, forcing the heated fluid to rise.
If the hot surface is facing upward, the heated fluid
rises freely, inducing strong natural convection
currents and thus effective heat transfer.
But if the hot surface is facing downward, the plate
blocks the heated fluid that tends to rise, impeding
heat transfer.
The opposite is true for a cold plate in a warmer
environment since the net force (weight minus
buoyancy force) in this case acts downward, and the
cooled fluid near the plate tends to descend.
Natural convection flows on the upper and
lower surfaces of a horizontal hot plate. Characteristic
length
Lc = a/4 for a horizontal square surface of length a
Lc = D/4 for a horizontal circular surface of diameter D

33
Horizontal Cylinders and Spheres
The boundary layer over a hot horizontal cylinder starts to
develop at the bottom, increasing in thickness along the
circumference, and forming a rising plume at the top.
Therefore, the local Nusselt number is highest at the
bottom, and lowest at the top of the cylinder when the
boundary layer flow remains laminar.
The opposite is true in the case of a cold horizontal
cylinder in a warmer medium, and the boundary layer in
this case starts to develop at the top of the cylinder and
Natural convection flow over ending with a descending plume at the bottom.
a horizontal hot cylinder.

34
Concentric Cylinders

The rate of heat transfer through the annular

space between the cylinders by natural
convection per unit length

Characteristic length

the geometric factor for concentric cylinders

For FcylRaL < 100, natural convection currents are
negligible and thus keff = k.
Note that keff cannot be less than k, and thus we
should set keff = k if keff/k < 1.
The fluid properties are evaluated at the average
temperature of (Ti + To)/2.
Two concentric horizontal isothermal
cylinders. 35
 Concentric Spheres
Characteristic length

Two concentric isothermal

spheres.

If keff /k < 1, we should set keff = k.

36
37
38
39
40
5. FORCED CONVECTION

A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe

by external means such as a pump or a fan.
Fluid flow over solid bodies frequently occurs in
practice such as the drag force acting on the
automobiles, power lines, trees, and underwater
pipelines; the lift developed by airplane wings;
upward draft of rain, snow, hail, and dust
particles in high winds; and the cooling of metal
or plastic sheets, steam and hot water pipes,
and extruded wires.

External flow
Internal flow

41
5.2 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

On the basis of experience, it is concluded that forced convection heat transfer

coefficient is a function of variables table given.

S. No. Variable / Parameter Symbol Dimensions

1 Fluid density ρ ML-3

2 Dynamic viscosity of fluid μ ML-1T-1

3 Fluid Velocity V LT-1

4 Thermal conductivity of fluid k MLT-3 θ-1

5 Specific heat of fluid Cp L2T-2 θ-1

6 Characteristic length of heat transfer area D L

42
Therefore, convective heat transfer coefficient is expressed as
h = f(ρ, μ, V, k, Cp, D) ………………. (1)
f( h, ρ, μ, V, k, Cp, D) = 0 ………………. (2)
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h is dependent variable and remaining are
independent variables.
Total number of variables, n = 7
Number of fundamental units, m = 4
According to Buckingham’s π-theorem, number of π-terms is given by the difference
of total number of variables and number of fundamental units.
Number of π-terms = (n-m) = 7-4 = 3
These non-dimensional π-terms control the forced convection phenomenon and are
expressed as
f(π1, π2, π3) = 0 ………………. (3)

43
 Each π-term is written in terms of repeating variables and one other variable. In
order to select repeating variables following method should be followed.
 Number of repeating variables should be equal to number of fundamental units
involved in the physical phenomenon.
 Dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
 The repeating variables should be selected in such a way that one of the variables
should contain a geometric property such as length, diameter or height. Other
repeating variable should contain a flow property such as velocity or acceleration
and the third one should contain a fluid property such as viscosity, density, specific
heat or specific weight.
 The selected repeating variables should not form a dimensionless group.
 The selected repeating variables together must have same number of fundamental
dimensions.
 No two selected repeating variables should have same dimensions.

44
The following repeating variables are selected
i) Dynamic viscosity, μ having fundamental dimensions ML-1T-1
ii) Thermal conductivity, k having fundamental dimensions MLT-3 θ-1
iii) Fluid velocity, V having fundamental dimensions LT-1
iv) Characteristic length, D having fundamental dimensions L

45
Each π-term is expressed as: π1 = μa kb, ρc, Dd, h …………… (5)
Writing down each term in above equation in terms of fundamental dimensions
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (ML-3)c (L)d MT-3 θ-1 …………… (6)
Comparing the powers of M, we get 0 = a+b+c+1, a+b+c=1
Comparing powers of L, we get 0 = -a+b+c +d
Comparing powers of T, we get 0 = -a- 3b-c -3
Comparing powers of θ, we get 0 = -b -1
Solving above equations, we get a = 0 , b= -1, c = 0, d = 1
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ in equation (5), we get
π1 = μa kb, ρc, Dd, ρ
π1 = h D / k …………… (7)
Nusselt number = Nu = h D / k

46
The second π –term is expressed as
π2 = μa kb, Vc, Dd, ρ
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (LT-1)c (L)d ML-3
Comparing the powers of M, we get 0 = a+b+1, a+b= -1
Comparing powers of L, we get 0 = -a+ b+ c +d -3
Comparing powers of T, we get 0 = -a- 3b-c
Comparing powers of θ, we get 0 = -b
Solving above equations, we get a = -1 , b=0, c = 1, d = 1
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ in equation (12), we get
π2 = μ-1 k0, V1, D1, ρ
π2 = ρ VD / μ

47
The third π –term is expressed as
π3 = μa kb, Vc, Dd, Cp
M0L0T0 θ0 = (ML-1T-1)a (MLT-3 θ-1)b (LT-1)c (L)d L2T-2 θ-1
Comparing the powers of M, we get 0 = a+b, a+b= 0
Comparing powers of L, we get 0 = -a+ b+ c +d +2
Comparing powers of T, we get 0 = -a- 3b-c-2
Comparing powers of θ, we get 0 = -b -1,
Solving above equations, we get a = 1, b=-1, c = 0, d = 0
Substituting the values of ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ in equation (12), we get
π3 = μ1 k-1, V0, D0, Cp
π3 = μ Cp/k

48
Substituting the values of π1, π2, π3 in equation (3), we get
f(h D / k, ρ VD / μ, μ Cp/k ) =0
h D / k = φ(ρ VD / μ, μ Cp/k )
Nu = φ(Re, Pr)
The above correlation is generally expressed as
Nu = C (Re)a (Pr)b
The constant C and exponents ‘a’ and ‘b’ are determined through experiments.

49
Heat Transfer

Local and average Nusselt

numbers:

Average Nusselt number:

Film temperature:

Average friction coefficient:

Average heat transfer coefficient:

The heat transfer rate:

50
50
5.2 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES, CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
PARALLEL FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface roughness,
upstream velocity, surface temperature, and the type of fluid, among other things, and is best
characterized by the Reynolds number.
The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is expressed as

A generally accepted value for the Critical

Reynold number

The actual value of the engineering critical

Reynolds number for a flat plate may vary
somewhat from 105 to 3  106, depending on
the surface roughness, the turbulence level, and
the variation of pressure along the surface.

51
Heat Transfer Coefficient
The local Nusselt number at a location x for laminar flow over a flat plate may be
obtained by solving the differential energy equation to be

These relations are for isothermal and smooth

surfaces
The local friction and heat transfer coefficients
are higher in turbulent flow than they are in
laminar flow. Also, hx reaches its highest
values when the flow becomes fully turbulent,
and then decreases by a factor of x−0.2 in the
flow direction.
The variation of the local friction and
heat transfer coefficients for flow over a
flat plate. 52
Nusselt numbers for average heat transfer coefficients

Laminar +
turbulent

For liquid metals

For all liquids, all Prandtl numbers

Graphical representation of the average heat

transfer coefficient for a flat plate with
combined laminar and turbulent flow. 53
Uniform Heat Flux
For a flat plate subjected to uniform heat flux

These relations give values that are 36 percent higher for laminar flow and
4 percent higher for turbulent flow relative to the isothermal plate case.
When heat flux is prescribed, the rate of heat transfer to or from the
plate and the surface temperature at a distance x are determined from

54
FLOW OVER CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Flow over cylinders and spheres is frequently encountered in practice.
The tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger involve both internal flow through the tubes
and external flow over the tubes.
Many sports such as soccer, tennis, and golf involve flow over spherical balls.

At very low velocities, the fluid completely

wraps around the cylinder. Flow in the wake
region is characterized by periodic vortex
formation and low pressures.

Laminar boundary layer separation with

a turbulent wake; flow over a circular
cylinder at Re=2000. 55
For flow over a cylinder

The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature

For flow over a sphere

The fluid properties are evaluated at the free-stream temperature T, except
for s, which is evaluated at the surface temperature Ts.

Constants C and m are

given in the table.
The relations for cylinders above are for single cylinders or cylinders oriented such
that the flow over them is not affected by the presence of others. They are applicable
to smooth surfaces. 56
Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
Flow in a tube can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the flow conditions.
Fluid flow is streamlined and thus laminar at low velocities, but turns turbulent as the
velocity is increased beyond a critical value.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs
over some range of velocity where the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent
flows before it becomes fully turbulent.
Most pipe flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small
diameter tubes or narrow passages.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number as well as
the degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe vibrations, and the
fluctuations in the flow.
The flow in a pipe is laminar for Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
transitional in between.
57
Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube

For flow through noncircular tubes, the

Reynolds number as well as the Nusselt
number, and the friction factor are based on
the hydraulic diameter Dh

Under most practical conditions,

the flow in a pipe is laminar for
Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re
> 10,000, and transitional in
between.

58
LAMINAR FLOW IN TUBES
Constant Surface Heat Flux

Applying the boundary conditions

T/x = 0 at r = 0 (because of
symmetry) and T = Ts at r = R
Therefore, for fully developed laminar flow in a
circular tube subjected to constant surface heat
flux, the Nusselt number is a constant.
There is no dependence on the Reynolds or the
Prandtl numbers.

59
Constant Surface Temperature

The thermal conductivity k for use in the Nu relations should be evaluated at the
bulk mean fluid temperature.
For laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and the heat
transfer coefficient is negligible. Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
Nusselt number relations are given in
Table 8-1 for fully developed laminar flow
in tubes of various cross sections.
The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers for
flow in these tubes are based on the
hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/p,
Once the Nusselt number is available, the
In laminar flow in a tube with constant
convection heat transfer coefficient is
surface temperature, both the friction factor
determined from h = kNu/Dh.
and the heat transfer coefficient remain
constant in the fully developed region. 60
Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature, the
average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region:

The average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, and it approaches
asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as L → .
When the difference between the surface and the fluid temperatures is large, it may
be necessary to account for the variation of viscosity with temperature:
All properties are evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature, except for s, which is evaluated at
the surface temperature.

The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of flow
between isothermal parallel plates of length L is

61
TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES

First Petukhov equation

Chilton–Colburn analogy

Colburn equation

Dittus–Boelter equation

When the variation in properties is large due to a large temperature difference

All properties are evaluated at Tb except s, which is evaluated at Ts.

62
 Second
Petukhov
equation
Gnielinski
relation

The relations above are not very sensitive to the thermal conditions at the
tube surfaces and can be used for both Ts = constant and qs = constant.

63
Flow through Tube Annulus
The hydraulic
diameter of annulus
For laminar flow, the convection coefficients for the inner
Tube surfaces are often roughened,
and the outer surfaces are determined from
corrugated, or finned in order to
enhance convection heat transfer.

For fully developed turbulent flow, hi and ho are

approximately equal to each other, and the tube
annulus can be treated as a noncircular duct with a
hydraulic diameter of Dh = Do − Di.
The Nusselt number can be determined from a
suitable turbulent flow relation such as the Gnielinski
equation. To improve the accuracy, Nusselt number
can be multiplied by the following correction factors
when one of the tube walls is adiabatic and heat
transfer is through the other wall:
64
GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
Rate of heat transfer The thermal conditions at the surface can be
approximated to be
constant surface temperature (Ts= const)
Surface heat flux
constant surface heat flux (qs = const)
hx the local heat transfer coefficient The constant surface temperature condition
is realized when a phase change process such
as boiling or condensation occurs at the outer
surface of a tube.
The constant surface heat flux condition is
realized when the tube is subjected to
radiation or electric resistance heating
uniformly from all directions.
We may have either Ts = constant or qs =
The heat transfer to a fluid flowing in a constant at the surface of a tube, but not
tube is equal to the increase in the energy both.
of the fluid. 65
Constant Surface Heat Flux (qs = constant)
Rate of heat transfer:

Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

Surface temperature:

Variation of the tube surface and the mean

fluid temperatures along the tube for the case
of constant surface heat flux.

66
Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)
Rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg

• arithmetic mean temperature difference
• logarithmic mean temperature difference
Arithmetic mean temperature difference

Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb = (Ti + Te)/2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean fluid
temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case when Ts =
constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate Tavg.
67
5.5 FLOW ACROSS TUBE BANKS
 Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered in
practice in heat transfer equipment, e.g., heat exchangers.
 In such equipment, one fluid moves through the tubes while
the other moves over the tubes in a perpendicular direction.
 Flow through the tubes can be analyzed by considering flow
through a single tube, and multiplying the results by the
number of tubes.
 For flow over the tubes the tubes affect the flow pattern and
turbulence level downstream, and thus heat transfer to or from
them are altered.
• Typical arrangement: in-line or staggered
• The outer tube diameter D is the characteristic length.
• The arrangement of the tubes are characterized by the
transverse pitch ST, longitudinal pitch SL , and the diagonal
pitch SD between tube centers.
68
diagonal pitch

Arrangement of the
tubes in in-line and
staggered tube banks
(A1, AT, and AD are
flow areas at indicated
locations, and L is the
length of the tubes).

69
 All properties except Prs are to be
evaluated at the arithmetic mean
Correlations in Table Below temperature.
The average Nusselt number relations in Table 7–2 are for tube banks with more than 16
rows. Those relations can also be used for tube banks with NL < 16 provided that they are
modified as
NL < 16
where F is a correction factor whose values are given in Table Below
For ReD > 1000, the correction factor is independent of Reynolds number.
Log mean temperature
difference
Exit temperature

Heat transfer rate

70
71