Biology Summary

S7-NLA

Kleio van Gemert

PREBAC -

2024
GELL SEALE

1
. Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic

I
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Nucleus
· ·

no nucleus

region
>
instead they have nucleoid enclosed by a nuclear membrane
-
>
-
a

genetic material
>
-
>
-
DNA is not enclosed by a membrane contains

Smaller (0 um) Bigger (10 um)

· ·

, 5-10 -
100

No membrane-bound Membrane-bound
·

organelles organelles
Single-celled Both multicellular
·

unicellular
·

and

Circular DNA Linear

· 6

DNA

single multiple linear

>
-
>
-
circular chromosome chromosomes

Simple ribosomes larger complex ribosomes

·

more

1
.1 . Prokaryotic cell

Capsule (not all prokaryotes

>
-

Provides protection against immune responses

and drying out

Helps
>
-
cells adhere to surfaces

Cell wall (most proka )

·

-
Provides
>
-
Structural support &
protection
>
-
Determines Shape
Cell membrane
·

>
-
Separates external and internal environment

domain : bacteria + archaea

>
-
Controls the passage of molecules in & out
>
Houses enzymes for energy production
-

asexually mitosis Cytoplasm

·

reproduce =

>
-
Gell like substance where cellular reactions

diverse metabolism :
take place

Photosynthetic Nucleoid
· ·

Autotrophic Stores
genetic information
·
>
-

Heterotrophic
>
-
contains the circular
·

chromosome

Ribosomes
·

Synthesis (translation)
>
-
Site of protein
Plasmid
·

for specific
>
-
Extra DNA that may carry genes
functions

Mesosomes
·

Infoldings
>
-
of membrane
>
-
Helps with respiration ,
division & DNA
replicat .

Flagellum
·

Helps
>
-
move

Pilus

Help with attachment to surfaces

>
-

Helps with DNA transfer

>
-
between cells
 . 2
1 . Eukaryotic cells

domain plants animals fungi protists

·
:
, , ,

·
metabolism :
·

reproduction : mitosis + meiosis

Heterotrophic
·

Autotrophic
·

Photosynthetic

Animal Cell + Plant cell Animal cell only

Cell membrane Centrioles

· ·

Involved in mitosis
> >
-
Separates external from internal meiosis
-

+ controls +

of
Flagellum
·

molecules
passage
·
Nucleus >
-
Enables cell movement

>
-
Contains DNA in the form of chromosomes

activities Plant
Regulates gene expression cell cell only
>
-
+

Cytoplasm
·

Gel-like substance in which cellular processes Chloroplasts

>
- ·

>
-
take place Site of
photosynthesis where is formed
glucose
Endoplasmic Reticulum >
-
Contains Chlorophyll for absorption of
Sunlight
·

>

Rough ER ribosomes surface and is Cell wall

- ·
: on

>
-
involved in Synthesis
protein Outer layer of cellulose that provides support+
>
-
Smooth ER : Involved in lipid
Synthesis protection
Golgi Apparatus Central Vacuole
· ·

>
-
Modifies lipids
>
-
Structure filled ions molecules
,
sorts +
packages proteins and w water ,
+

>
-
for transport within or outside the cell Maintain
turgor pressure ,
stores nutrients +

Ribosomes helps with

·

plant growth
>
-

Helps with protein

Synthesis Amyloplast
·

Mitochondrium >
-
Synthesises and stores Starch

>
-
Site of cellular respiration
Cytoskeleton
·

>
-
Microtubules ,
microfilaments
>
Provides Structural Support helps cell
-

+ move

Lysosomes
·

>
-
Contains enzymes for cellular digestion +

waste removal

Peroxisomes
>
-
Help with breakdown of fatty acids
2 .
Basic Biochemistry

Chemical Elements :

!
·

Carbon

Hydrogen
·

Oxygen bonds between atoms : covalent ,

lonic
, hydrogen ,
Van Der Waals Forces

Nitrogen
·

Sulfur ·
Disulfide Bonds =
covalent bond between 2 sulfur atoms

↳
important in
folding & Stability of
proteins
Common functional groups :

Hydroxyl
·

Simple Carbonyl
·

Monomer :

>
-

amino acids fatty

,
acids ,
·
Carboxyl -
make molecule acidic
glycerol ,
glucose ·
Amino >
- make molecule basic

Sulfhydryl
·

Polymer :
multiple monomers

>
(nucleic acids) Phosphate
·

DNA
-

,
RNA
,

proteins , starch

Carbohydrates : (CH2O) x

simple Sugars
·

: CHzOH
OHCH 2 O I

H H
H -
O

↳ pentose (ribose + deoxiribosel d

&
deoxiribose
/
OH-HC
-
glucose Y
CH-OH

H
↳ nexose (glucose + fructosel I o -

2 .
1
.
Sugars

2 .
. 1
1 .
Monosaccharides

=
Single-sugar molecules (3-6 carbon atoms
↳ used as a primary energy source for cellular metabolism

reducing Sugars
>
-

·
Glucose
·
Fructose

Condensation : H20 leaves >

- disaccharide

Hydrolysis : H2O added >

- 2x
glucose

2 .
1 . 2
. Disaccharides

double-sugar joined glycocidic

=
molecules w bond

& used as
energy sources and building blocks for larger molecules

>
- convenient way of transporting glucose

Sucrose
·

Maltose

Lactose
·

·
Cellobiose
 .
2 1 .
3
. Polysaccharide

① Cellulose =
glucose polymer found in plants (B-all
1 -
41 -
41 -
4

B-glucose held together by 1 ,

4 glycosidic bonds

parallel chains held together by hydrogen bonds -

> microfibrils

② Starch
glucose polymer (x-g)
=
-

'
↳
amylose t amylopectin

③ Glycogen =
glucose polymer found in animal alls

↳
energy storage

2 .
.
2 Lipids

Oily , greasy or waxy

Hydrophobic (insoluble in water)

·

-
> soluble in
organic solvents

2 .
2 .
1 .
Fats & oils

=
neutral fats (found in
plants & animals

·
formed by condensation reactions between fatty acids and
glycerol to form ester links

fatty monoglyceride alconol with 3

acid
glycerol carbons
: =
1

2
fatty acids :
diglyceride and each c is bonded to

3 fatty acids :
triacylglycerol (most common) OH

2
. 2
. 2 .
Phospholipids

=
Fatty Acid
glycerol ,
2 fatty acids , phosphate
Fatty Acid
Phosphate end (polar) is hydrophilic
·

I
↳ Pop- acid end (apolar) is hydrophobic
·

Fatty

. 3
2 . Introduction to nucleic Acids

·
Nucleic Acids =
macromolecules involved w transmission of inherited information

deoxiribosenucleic acid (DNA)

I Polymers
>
-
made up

>
-
ribonucleic acid (RNA) of nucleotides
2 .
3 1 . .
Nucleotides

P
Base Nucleotides :
phosphate group ,
Sugar ,
base

Adenine ·

Thymine (uracil
Sugar
Guanine Cytosine
·
·

~ -

Purines Pyrimidines

dinucleotide : 2 nucleotides covalently linked

together between phosphate groups
↳ phosphodiester linkage

2
. 3
. 2
. Nucleic Acids

nucleic acid many nucleotides linked

=
together

1
. DNA (deoxiribosenucleic acids (

↳ 2
polynucleotide chains wrapped around eachother (double helix

DNA found in : chromosomes , plasmids ,

mitochondria
, chloroplasts

2
. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

↳ Single strand of
polynucleotide /is read from 5' to 3)

RNA found in transfer RNA (tRNA)

, RNA (mRNA)
, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) virus
:
Messenger ,

2 .
3 3 . .
DNA VS RNA

I=
DNA

double

deoxiribose

quanine
Single
ribose

guanine
I
Bases cytosine cytosine

thymine uracil

adenine adenine

.4
2 . Amino Acids ( = 20 dif types)

=
basic units of proteins

R aminoacids
I
Polypeptides : linked together via peptide bonds

HiN-C -
COOH

it condensation :
process joining amino acids together
hydrolysis :
process in which polypeptide chains are broken down
 2 .
. 5 Proteins

=
Macromolecules (amino acids linked together as polypeptide chains

Involved in : Conformation =
Shape

enzyme reactions ↳ depends amino acid sequence

·

on

oxidation-reductions central to function

·

↳
structure
·

Storage primary
·

1
.

Transport
·

2
. secondary
Cell tertiary
·

Signaling 3
.

4
·

Defense . quaternary

1) Primary Structure (19 ·

3) Tertiary Structure (31)

=
amino acid Sequence
-Y
·
⑨
=

way it is folded

2) Secondary Structure (20 4) Quaternary Structure (4 %

shape of the polypeptides chain

a-helix
·

·
Sheeth
B-pleated
coil
B
X-helix
B-pleateda

2
.5.2 .
Protein denaturation

three-dimensional high temperature

·
=
loss of shape
↳ loss of function Heavy metals
·

- irreversible
·

Strong Acids
·

Detergents + Solvents

.
3 Membranes

Plasma membrane forms boundary that separates cell from environment

·
= 8 nm thick

Controls the movement of

·
materials in/out of cell

responsible cell-cell
recognition
·

=
double layer of phospholipids (hydrophobic tails
facing inward

fulfill in communication between

glycolipids
membranes a role recognition + cells
Mglycoproteins

↳ + membrane transport :

import
·

export
·
4
. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

The
=

making of
proteins

divided transcription translation

in 2
parts : and

.1
4
.
TRANSCRIPTION

in which info encoded in copied into

=
the strand is mRNA
process a DNA

.
1 Initiation

·
RNA polymerase /enzyme that Synthesises RNA) binds to a promoter (specific sequence

of DNA) >
-
On the 3' to 5' strand

·
RNA polymerase then unwinds the promoter to expose the
template strands

2
. Elongation

·
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand adding complementary RNA nucleotides

to the growing Strand

RNA >
- adds new nucleotides to the 3 end of the new RNA

3'
.
3 Splicing RNz is 5' - gelezen

·
the introns (non-coding regions) are removed from the
pre-mRNA transcript ,
and exons are

joined together - creates MRNA

4
. Termination

·
When a terminator sequence is encountered ,
the RNA
polymerase detaches from the

DNA and releases the Synthesised RNA (often MRNA)

↓ If the RNA strand in the end is

.
4 2 .
TRANSLATION 3 to 5' , you have to transcribe

again
=
the process of reading the mRNA and creating a polypeptide chain (protein)

1
. Initiation

Small unit of the ribosome binds to a specific sequence on the mRNA at the start codon

(AUG) .

·
The first tRNA carrying an amino acid ,
binds the start codon

The
large unit the attaches and forms a complete ribosome

2 . Elongation

The ribosome moves along the mRNA and tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome in the

right order
- >
creates growing polypeptide chain

.
3 Termination

When a stop-codon is encountered the protein synthesis is halted & protein released
·
4 3
.
. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS REGULATION (OPERON) >
-

prokaryotes

Operon :
functioning unit of Genomic DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control

of a
single promoter

⑪ RNA polymerase binds to the Tomoter to transcribe

DNA into RNA

↳ DNA sequence that
RNA polymerase binds
+O

matory Segment of DNA where

↑
Fres
protein repressor binds to restrict
RNA polymerase

② A repressor binds to the operator to repress the

transcription of RNA-thus protein production

"on"
Regulatory proteins can be turned

and "off" by small molecules

.

If these bind to the it turns

protein ,

a
on binds to the DNA

matory

③ reg proteins
Activators bind and increase the DNA transcription

Examples :

1
. Lac Operon

> has both repressor and activator .

-

is operator repressing transcription . When Allolactose

>
-
repressor usually on the a molecule

binds to the repressor it releases the repressor allowing the RNA polymerase to transcribe

>
-
When
glucose levels are low ,
CAMP is
produced which will bind to the activator , allowing it to

bind to the site and thus promoting transcription

2
. Trp Operon

Only
>
-
has a repressor
.

>
-
Repressor is always active ,
when tryptophan binds to the repressor ,
it releases the

operator allowing RNA polymerase to transcribe again

GENETIE

Gene · heritable factor , length of DNA which controls 1 characteristic

Allele :
a specific form of gene

Homozygous : two identical alleles (aa] or (AA)

Heterozygous
: two different alleles [Aa]
Dominant allele :
allele that if present ,
dominates phenotype
Recessive allele : allele which only controls phenotype if homozygous
Co-dominant alleles which affect the
:
pairs of alleles both phenotype
Genotype : all the alleles of an
organism
Phenotype : the visible characteristics of an organism
Locus
position where
:
on a chromosome alleles are

Carrier :
Someone who has the allele of a disease but doesn't have the disease

Test Crossing the subject with recessive homozygote find out what their alleles are
:

cross a to

1 .
CHROMOSOMES

>
-
In nucleus of every cell

Made of :

(Protein)
② wrapped
Histones
·

around
deoxiribosenucleic acid
·
1x

G
7 condensed form Telomeres :
repetitive DNA

(during cell division) which

Sequences ,

protect the chromosome

*
2
-
thread-like from damage
form

Function -

Genetic Information
·

Storage
Protein
provide blueprints
·

Synthesis : for synthesizing proteins

Cell division
·

: maintain genetic stability +

variability

1 .
2 .
TYPES

Autosomes don't determine the

·
=
chromosomes that Sex

Gametes =
Sex chromosomes =
XX or XY

Diploid /1 of each parent) 4

·

Sets :
2 Sets of chromosomes >
-

Haploid Sets set of chromosomes >

-
23
·

:I

2
. MITOSIS + MELOSIS

Mitosis :
cell replication
Meiosis :
Sex cell replication
2 .
1 MITOSIS

=
cell division in eukaryotic cells

↳ leads to 2 identical daughter cell from 1

parent cell

.
1 Interphase
G1 growth Synthesis of proteins
-
: +

S DNA replication
-

G2 :
more growth
2 .
Prophase
Chromosomes condense
-

Membrane disintegrates
-

Centrioles move to
poles and mitotic Spindle forms

Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromosomes

-

3
. Metaphase
-

chromosomes line up in the Metaphase plate

4. Anaphase
-

Sister chromatids are

pulled apart by spindle fibers
-

chromatids move to sides

!
.
5 Telophase Cytokinesis :

-cell's cytoplasm divides creating

Chromosomes decondense 2 new
daughter
-

Nuclear membrane recondenses cells ,

with own nucleus + identical set of chromosomes

2 .
2 MELOSIS

=
cell division of sex cells resulting in 4 different daughter cells

.
1 Interphase I
-growth
+ DNA replication
2
. Prophase I

Chromosomes condense and form X

-

Chromosomes exchange alleles

-

Membrane disintegrates
-

Centrioles move to poles and mitotic Spindle forms

Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

-

.
3 Metaphase I

Chromosomes move to the

metaphase plate
4
. Anaphase I

Chromosomes are pulled apart + move to poles

.
5 Telophasel +
cytokinese
-

Membrane reforms

-
2 daughter cells are created

in
>
- Then every step is repeated resulting 4 different daughter cells
3
. DNA REPLICATION

process in which DNA strand is replicated and results in 2 identical DNA strands

Helicase (restriction enzyme

Splits
↳ 2 strands by breaking
the hydrogen bonds

DNA polymerase
↳ adds
matching bases to free

Strands

ligase DNA
ligase
↳ sticks the
lagging strand
together

strand continuous
Leading :

lagging strand : not

4
. PCR AND GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

4
.1 .
PCR (POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (

=
technique to
amplify DNA
segments
>
-
produce many copies of particular DNA Sequence

98 %
(high
:
94
.
1 Denaturation temp :

>
-

double strand denaturates / Separates into 2 Strands

.
2
Annealing (Low temp : 500 - 65 %
>
-
primers bind to complementary Sequence on Single-stranded DNA

3
. Elongation (moderate temp : 72 %
>
-
Tag polymerase adds nucleotides to 3' end of
primers which extends the primer and creates

new DNA Strand

4
. Repetition >
- 25-35 times

.
5 Hold it at a low temp to the reaction
pause

key components :

Tag polymerase enzyme that is heat resistant

·
:

Primers specific region

Single-stranded
·

: Short DNA sequences to

 .2
4
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

=
technique to
separate DNA ,
RNA and /or proteins based on their size and charge
↳
analyze DNA fragments

1
. Preparing Gel
>
-
Agarose (forDNA/RNA) or
polyacrylamide (for proteins
>
-
Gel is poured into mold and allowed to set

in
Wells gell
>
-
put

2
.
Loading samples
>
-
samples mixed with
loading dye Callows better visibility
>
-
samples put in gell

3
. Running the gell
>
- Electric current is applied to DNA & RNA ( charged so more to (t)
gell .
are ,

>
-
Smaller molecules travel faster and farther than bigger molecules

4
. Visualization
Under
light
-
a UV DNA & RNA can be seen

.
5 GENETRANSFER

=
movement of genetic material between organisms or dif locations within an organism

.1
5 .
HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER (HGT)

= between dif species or same species that are not parent-offspring

>
-
often in bacteria

1
. Transformation

naked DNA
fragment uptake
=

from environment into cell

.
2 Conjugation
=
transfer of genetic material

through direct contact often

mediated by a plasmid
.
3 Transduction
=
transfer of genetic material
via a
bacteriophage (virus)

.2
5 .
VERTICAL GENE TRANSFER

transferred from offspring during reproduction

=
genes are
parent to

.
1 Sexual reproduction
- > mix of parents
2
. Asexual reproduction doning/genetically
>
- identical copy of parent
.3
5 . ARTIFICIAL GENE TRANSFER

=
man made methods

1
. Genetic Engineering
=
direct manipulation of an organism's genes

2
. Gene therapy
=
using genes to treat/prevent disease by inserting gene into a patient's cells

6
. MUTATIONS

changes in the DNA sequence of an

organism's genome
↳
primary source of genetic variation

.1
6 .
POINT MUTATIONS

nucleotide is substituted/exchanged
=
I

Results in :

1) Silent Mutation

=
no
change in amino acid created
during protein Synthesis
-
>
no effect

2) Missense Mutation
=
substitution of an amino acid
>
-
range of effects

3) Nonsense Mutation

Change in codon that was amino acid into stop codon

=
a

↳ nonfunctional protein

G 2
. .
MAKESHIFT MUTATIONS

Insertion deletion of nucleotides

reading frame
=
or >
- alters of a
gene

1) Insertion
=
add 1 or more nucleotides

2) Deletion

=
remove + or more nucleotides

3) In-dels
=
nucleotides are added & others removed

.3
6 .
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS

Mutations
affecting the full chromosome part of it
=
or

1) Deletion

Segment
=
of chromosome is lot >
-
leading to
missing genes
2) Duplications
=
Segment is
duplicated -
extra copies of
genes
3) Inversion

= Section of chromosome is flipped around

 4) Translocations

=
Segment of one chromosome attaches to another chromosome >
- can disrupt gene function
5) Aneuploidy
=
Abnormal number of chromosomes

6) Polyploidy
= too many chromosomes (bv down Syndrome-chromosome 21 x 2)

6
. 4. MUTATION CAUSES

Spontaneous Mutations
& zorgt
populatie
voor variatie in een

Without influence of
=
external factors

·
Induced mutations
=
caused by external factors ( mutagens (
=

1
. Chemical mutagens

.
2 Physical mutagens (Radiation
.
3 Biological mutagens (Virus or transposable elements

.
7
INHERITANCE

process by which genetic information is their offspring

=

passed on from parent to

Mendelian Inheritance law

:

Each individual has two alleles for each gene which separate during
formation each carries only1 allele for
gamete ,
so gene

Types of Inheritance Pattern

1) Autosomal Dominant :
a
single copy of the dominant allele on a non-sex chromosome

will produce the trait

2) Autosomal Recessive : trait is only expressed when two

copies of the recessive allele are
present

3) Sex-linked :
gene causing the trait is located on the X or Y chromosome

.2
7

.
PUNNET GRID + PEDIGREE CHART

To calculate ratio :

A A

Ab Ab dominant= ratio
b recessive

b Ab Ab
-

I I
.I
7

.
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE

.
1 Incomplete dominance
=
phenotype of the heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of the 2 homozygotes
mmm-U =
.
2 Codominance
both phenotypes of the
homozygote equally expressed
=
are

mmm =
3
. Polygenic Inheritance
=
traits that are controlled by multiple genes (height and Skin color
4
. Pleiotropy
= 1 gene affects multiple phenotypes
.
5 Epistasis
=
1 gene enhances/interferes with the expression of another gene

.3
7

.
BLOOD GROUPS .
7
4 .
TYPES OF CROSSING

O Test crossing individual with recessive

"in
·
:
cross :
an a

A · 1A ,
Or
A
homozygous individual
B ilB 1 B /3
:
Back between parent and
offspring
·

or cross : cross

AB - 141 B ·

Monohybrid : two homozygous crossed

Dihybrid two different homozygous

·
:
crossed

.
8 EPIGENETICS

=
Study of heritable changes in gene function that don't involve changes to the DNA Sequence

8
. 1. .
EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS

1
. DNA methylation
=
adding a methyl group at a cytosine base

>
-
surpresses gene transcription (Heavily methylated DNA are less active

2
. Histone modification
=
Modifying histones (protein that DNA wounds around

Impacts accessibility genes for transcription /modification of histones

>
- the of can affect

how tightly DNA is wound around the histone

Types :

Methylation (surpress genes

·

:
adding methyl group to the histone tail or activate
·

Acetylation :
adding acetyl group to the histone tail (activates genes
>
-
loosens chromatin structure which makes DNA more accessible

for transcription
3
. Non-coding RNA (ncRNA)
the molecules
regulate gene expression at
transcriptional and
post-transcriptional
=
level
8
.2. EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE

Can from gen reproductive process (meiosis

>
-
be passed down .
1 to gen .
2
through the

(Unlike genetic changes which are

passed down
through DNA Sequence

This genetic changes

>
-
means that environmental factors can affect

Environmental factors : Stress , diet and exposure to toxins

. 3
8 . ROLE IN DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE

Epigenetic Mechanisms are crucial for normal development and cellular differentiation

>
↳ Errors in these processes can result in diseases :

cancer
·

·
autoimmune disorders
·

neurological disorders

proportion of individuals in variant of

penetrance = a
population who carry a a gene +
express the trait

or condition .

I
1) Complete Penetrance

>
- Every individual wallele exhibit trait Bu : if 60 % penetrance ,
2) Incomplete penetrance then 60 % do exhibit

>
- Individuals who carry allele don't exhibit trait .
and 40 % don't

·
There is uncertainty which can be worrying for the individual + family members
EYEI

which
process by organisms convert
light energy into
=

glucose .
>
-
done by plants , algae and some bacteria

Photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts :

Thylakoid membrane
-

Stroma

Chloroplasts have chlorophyll (a green pigment)

↳ looks green due to it reflecting
green wavelengths

Process :

Light dependent reactions

1
. Light energy (photon) is absorbed by
Chlorophyll in the I and It
photosystems
↳ this energy excites electrons

Photosystem II absorbs
light first which
·

excites electrons which then get passed

down to the Electron transport chain Light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle
↳ to replace those e ,
it absorbs H2O

splits it into
protons (HT) coverts CO2 and into
=
and xygen ,
energy glucose
I released into
and electrons
.
environment
1
. CO2 from the
atmosphere is attached to a

2
. Energetic electrons pass down the electron *BP by an enzyme .

↳ ↳ makes
transport chain
.
Energy from the electrons a 5-carbon
molecule
an unstable GC compoun

is used It ions It splits into

·

to
pump through proteins 2x compounds
into the men . >
- acidic
↳ 3-PGA

↳ creates a proton gradient across the 2

. Each 3-PGA molecule is phosphorylated (ATp used
thylakoid membrane and then reduced (NADPH used) to form
3
. Electrons re-excited in G3P
are the
photosystem I .

>
-
then Some G3P molecules used to form
and passed through the second electron
glucose
>
-
transport chain Some G3P molecules used to make RuBP

↳ electrons and HT ions are transferred

to NADP+ to form DPH - carrier molecule .

3 2 G3P molecules are used to form

1
glucose molecule

4
. The He flow back out of the lumen

through ATP Synthase drives the

Synthesis of ATP. Phosphorylation =

production of ATP in
light -

dependent reactions
 GELLIALALR RESEILATIQ
1
. Outer membrane

phospholipid bilayer /control which molecules

> can enter
-

>
important for pyruvate fatty acids and ions
-

,
.

.
2 Inner membrane

>
-

oxidative phosphorylation
>
-
impermeable to
protons (except through specific proteins)
↳
crucial for
maintaining proton gradient
>
-

cristae formation (increases surface area for ETC)

.
5 Intermembrane space
>
-

proton accumulation / Chemiosmosis /during

phosphorylation protons get pumped in here , creating
gradient / Epor)
-

a proton
-

energy storage /energy stored can be

>
-
used for ATP
-

-
Synthesis (
8
. Matrix

membrane bount
organelle (converts El ATP production I happens through metabolic reactions)
= >
-

·
Inner membrane - cellular resp .
>
-

Krebs cycle/Citric acid cycle (responsible for the

·
Outer membrane - aerobic resp. oxidation of acetyl-CoA to produce high-energy
electron carriers)
cellular resp ATP prod from oxidation DNA
replication
>
> =
Transcription
-
+
-
.

of fuels (glucose >

-

Matrix pH regulation (necessary for functioning of

enzymes
Systems form regions within calcium
>
mem discrete storage
-

the cell where enzyme reactions are . Cristae

9

compartmentalized .

I the rate is limited >

-

increased surface area for ETP + ATP Synthesis

by the
speed at which -
Electron transport chain (essential for ATP
production
Substrates enter the

organelle
Cellular respiration :
process by which an organism converts
glucose into ATP

① Glycolysis (cytoplasm) ③ Krebs cycle/Citric Acid Cycle (matrix)

1
. 1x
glucose molecule is broken down 1
. Acetyl-CoA + 4-c molecule >
- Citrate (6 -c)
into 2xG3P molecules (2 ATP used .
2 Citrate loses 2 C's (a) CO2) and

.
2 G3P is oxidized which turns NAD" into transfers e to NAD" and FAD .

NADH. >
-
releases energy which is converted > forms
- NADH and FADH2

into ATP 3
. ATP is generated
·

Result :
2ATP ,
2 NADH 2 pyruvate molecules 4
. Regeneration of 4-c molecule (to reuse
,

② Pyruvate Oxidation (matrix) ④ Electron transport chain (inner membrane

converted
1
. Pyruvate >
-
acetylCoA .I
1 are transferred through ETC -releases Energ
·

Pyruvate loses C (in CO2 form) .

2 Energy is used to pump protons (HT) across

oxidized
Remaining molecule which the membrane creates proton gradient
·
-

reduces NADT into NADH .

3 Protons flow back through ATP Synthase which
·

Remaining molecule attaches to drives the Synthesis of ATP

Coenzyme A >
-
Acetyl-CoA 4
. - combine with oxygen and protons to

produce H2O

Result : 34 ATP/glucose + water

·
 THE VERTEBRATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Pathogens :
micro-organisms that cause diseases in their hosts /bacteria ,
virus , p

·
disrupt normal functions of the body >
- illness (+ death)

·
travel through air ,
food , bodily fluids ,
animal bites
, water

Identifying particular pathogen och's postulates

rules for determining
cause of disease

Koch's postulate :

1) Pathogen must be present in Sick animal & absent in healthy animal

2) Pathogen must be isolated from the sick animal +

grown in lab

3) Isolated pathogen is injected into healthy animal ,

animal must develop disease
4) Pathogen taken from 2 animal +
grown in lab
. -
Pathogen from 2 is the same as
st

Non specific defenses

Innate Immunity : all

processes are non-specific

1
. Firstline of defense ->
physical barriers

Skin
=
barrier outside

>
-
any tear of skin allows pathogen to enter body
·

Sebacuous glands Secrete sebum - maintains skin moisture +

lowers pH

lower pH inhibits bacteria & fungus

>
-
growth
·
releases Sweat ,
oil & waxes

·
Mucous membranes

=
epithelial tissues which protect internal surfaces

>
-
respiratorySystem
,
digestiveSystem ,
Urethra
, Vagina tip penis ,

↳ lined with cells w cilia le

Sweep mucus +
pathogens to larynx

Secretes mucus Esticky solution glycoproteins

·

~
Secretions
.

which either help slide is toxic for

Substances
pathogens away or
pathogens
=

>
-
sweats ,
oils ,
wax
,
mucus

Contains chemicals which are toxic to

pathogens (bv Sweat>- lysozyme destroys
·
: :

bacterial
Cilia into stomach
·
-
Sweep mucus

If Skin is cut >

- blood vessels are severed + bleed

Etting >
-
stops bleeding + barrier to infection

= from liquid to semi-solid get

clotting involves
Blood reactions -
produces catalysts
-

↳ blood
only if
platelets release clotting factors clots fast

Platelet =
cellular fragment that circulates in blood
 Reactions that occur after release blood clotting factors results in thrombin
↳
enzyme

>
- Thrombin converts soluble protein fibronogen - insolub le #brin
forms mean in cuts
that traps blood cells
fibrin = Scab(korstje) and
platelets

it line of defense it goes to end line of defense

>
- when pathogen passes through

Second line of defense

2 .
>
-
nonspecific immunity

Inflammatory Response
=
series of events which suppresses infections and speeds recovery
process
·
:

1)
Injury allows pathogens to enter .
Injured cells release chemical
messengers
↳ histamine

Histamine : increases blood flow + increases permeability of capillaries

↳ results in redness +
paint swelling

2) Nearby capillaries respond by swelling and

leaking fluids (white blood
phagocytes
. -

cells)

3) Phagocytes >
-
ingest + destroy pathogens

Types of
phagocytes
:

Neutrophil -
Wait for pathogens
·

>
Macrophage - Seek out
pathogens

Natural
killer cell =

large white blood cell

↳ >
attack pathogen-infected cells by piercing their membranes
-

kil, not which & cell to burst

to rush in
effectiveat allows water

Temperature Response
·

=
body temperature rises (fever) as a response to
fighting illness
°
·
above 37 C >
- fever
°
·
above 39 c >
-
dangerous
°

·
above 41 C >
- death

·
Proteins

= 20 dif .

proteins make up the complement system

Some form die
ring-shaped structure that punctures membranes -> cells
·

>
-
interferon : causes nearby cells to make a
protein that helps resist viral infection
Specific Defenses

When a
pathogen passes through line of defense - 3 line of defense

.
3 Third line of defense : Immune system

that foreign
cells and tissues recognize and attack substances
=

>
-
specific defense

Lymphoid tissues :
thymus ,
bone marrow , spleen and lymph nodes -
Important role defense

↑ Blood & lymph (important for their functioning

Blood & Lymph :

water ,
dissolved solutes and cells

Blood plasma :
Yellowish solution with ions ,
small sollutes and proteins
>
- redblood cells ,
white blood cells +
platelets

lymph =
fluid derived from blood and other tissues which accumulates in intercellular

spaces .

Immune System

Lymphocytes white blood cells that specific foreign

recognize invaders
·
:

·
Bone Marrow :
makes new
lymphocytes

·
The mus :
helps produce special lymphocyte

·
Lymph nodes : contain lymphocytes + collect
pathogens from
[
lymph
fluid that leaks
from circulatory

healthy blood cells breaks down

Spleen stores aging system
·
: +

red blood cells +

helps develop lymphocytes + collects

pathogens and lymphocytes break them down

2 types of lymphocytes :

1) B cells

:
made of bone marrow +
complete their development there

2) T cells

:
made of bone marrow +
complete their development in thymus

3) Natural killer cells

Immune System Characteristics

4 features characterize the Immune System

 1) Specificity
is specific determinant
= Each T cell and each antibody to a single antigenic

2) Diversity
The
=

challenges to the immune System are diverse (virus bacteria

, , fungi , parasites

3) Distinguishing self from nonself

= It can
recognize the cells that
belong to the body and
foreigners

4) Immunological memory
=
After Specific type
responding to of pathogen once ,
the immune system remembers that pathogen
and later on can fight it more efficiently and rapidly.

Pathogen Recognition

Lymphocytes >
-
recognize foreign invaders

Antigen =
a substance that the immune system can recognize and react with

many types of antigens :

pathogens ,
toxins ,
venom , pollen +
any molecule which is not part of

the body
>
-
transplant/blood transfusion can act as
foreign antigen
be found surface
·

can on
pathogen

1)
Lymphocyte recognizes antigen (has receptors on surface
2) Lymphocyte binds to
antigen
3) Lymphocyte starts attack I immune response

Antigenic determinant : Site on antigen that is

recognized
Antigens in blood transfusion

Antigen =
foreign molecule that can
trigger Immune response

Most common :
very large polysaccharides (on surface cancer cells , parasites + bacterial

Hemagglutinin + neuraminidase
↓
on influenza virus
↓
allows to stick helps release new
to host cell virus particles

Surface of our own cells have proteins and polypeptides

Antigens in blood transfusion -

Blood
groups

Blood groups based on

presence/absence certain antigens ourface
on red blood cells

Transfusion :
patient is given blood from donor

> if
-
wrong blood
group given >
-
trigger Immune response

4
bloodgroups
- all contain antigen H

new molec .
is galactose >
-
antigen B

It modified by addition of new molecule

.
F new molec is 1
both
>
-
antigen AB

is N-acetylgalactosamine
->
new molec .

antigen A

If
wrong bloodgroup given agglutination followed by hemolysic ↓ Except O
·

group
red blood cells destroyed
immune response

Specific Immune Response

14

Challenge and response" -> used to explain how immune system produces specific antibodies which

are needed to
fight infection (and doesn't produce unnecellary ones

Challenge :
antigens on
pathogens which invade body

Response :
body's reaction : immune response t

Helper T cells :
lymphocytes with antibody-like receptor protein in membrane

>
-
bind to antigen they fit I don't all fit same antigens) +
bind to B cells

B cells :
lymphocytes that have receptor protein to which antigen binds

multiply to form cells & memory cells

playma
>
-

Plasma cells :
mature B cells that
produce + secrete antibodies

high
>
-
amount of r . ER and small range of expressed genes

Memory cells :
mature B cells which remain inactive until same pathogen infects body again
>
-
responsible for immunity
Immune Response

2
part assault pathogen which happen at the same time
=
on

&
>
-
cell mediated cell response Both need helper T cell
- humoral immune response

1 .
Macrophages engulf pathogen +
display the viral antigens

.
2 Receptor proteins on helper T cells bind to the viral
antigen >
- interleukins -
1 released

.
3 Interleukins-1 activates helper T cells >
- interleukin-2 released

Cell mediated
>
- Immune response

4
. Interleukin-2 stimulates the division of helper T cells + activates cytoxic T cells

5.
5 Cytotoxic T cells destroy infected body cells

-
Humoral Immune response

G .
B cello begin to multiply

7
. Some cells become memory cells

8
. Most cells
cells become
plasma

9 .
Plasma cells make and secrete antibodies >
- bind to
antigens
+ mark them for destruction

Primary +
Secundary Immune response

Memory
cells stay in body When memory cell meets pathogen again :

lymphocytes whi Ch
>
-
But will recognize
Won't the first & attack when they
respond
1)
time they meet invader meet again Starts dividing rapidly
2) Eliminates pathogen before serious illness

Memory protection is
cells :
long term produced
.

>
-
get disease only 1 time

Primary Immune response : first time body encounters antigen

Secundary Immune response : response of memory cells second

to a encounter with same antigen

I
primary US secondary

slower
· ·
faster Colds + flus are exception
less antibodies antibodies keep mutating
· ·
more >
-

powerful
·
more
Humoral Immune Response

ntibodies react with antigenic determinants on

pathogens
·
soluble = travel free

Insoluble integral membrane proteins

·
=

If specific antigen invades body :

membraneantibody
detected by cells
·

·
membrane antibody recognizes antigenic determinant
t
memory cells

binds - activates multiplication of B cell

X plasma cells >
- antibodies

Cellular Immune System

Is directed in host animal

against an
antigen that comes .

>
- detects +
destroys virus-infected/mutated cells

If specific antigen invades animal :

T cell receptors recognize bind antigenic determinant

·
+ to

·
Once bound - Immune response

·
Interleukins -
1 stimulates interleukins-2 release

- Interleukins-2 Stimulates division T-cells ->

activation cytotoxic T cells

Cytotoxic break down infected cell

·
cells

Clonal Selection

= Immune System Selects Specific cells for their ability to

fight off an
invading pathogen
↳
allows immune system to remember a
pathogen &
fight it more after

1) Base of Clonal Selection

pre-existing (B T) specific to different

diversity big variety lymphocytes antigen
>
- :
of & each a .

Generated through genetic recombination during lymphocyte development

2) Clonal Expansion
>
- Selection + Proliferation :
binding of antigen to lymphocyte triggers proliferation of lymphocytes .

> results in clones of

-
lymphocytes

Lymphocytes
Cloned
I 1
.

2 .
Effector Cells

Memory Cells
(B-cells =
plasma cells/T-cell =
diftypes]
Antibodies -

production + role

=
large proteins with 2 main regions :

hypervariable binds to
specific antigen
·
:

other helps body fight the pathogen

·
:

>
-
only stay in body for few weeks/months

Role : aid in destruction of pathogens in a number of ways

1) Opsonization
: make pathogen recognizable to
phagocytes

2) Neutralization of Viruses + bacteria :

prevent viruses from sticking to host cells so that they

can't enter

3) Neutralization of toxins : bind to toxins /produced by pathogens) to prevent affecting

Celly

4) complement activation :
Complement system is a collection of proteins which lead to

perforating pathogen membranes

. If antibody binds to

to pathogen surface it activates complement cascade

which leads to the attack of a pathogen and perforates
. This
the membrane allows water and ions to enter

and cell to die .

5)
Agglutination Sticking together
:
of pathogens which prevents them from

entering the cells and allows

phagocytes to easily
ingest them
.

Production

production of antibody= response to antigen

Antibody produced by lymphocytes

↳ antibody.
Every lymphocyte produces 1 type of

Initially not enough lymph. to produce all antibodies

But ! antigens stimulate

division of lymphocyte which produces correct antigen .

Large clone
= plasma all

>
-
Plasma cells produce large quantities of antibodies
Immunity

=
ability to resist infectious disease .

·
due to :
develops when Immune system challenged
·

presence of antibodies that recognize antigens by antigen

of antibodies
memory cells that allow
production
·

2 ways to gain Immunity :

1
. Get infected by disease and survive

.
2 Vaccination

Vaccination
Some diseases w

=
Solution that contains dead/weakened pathogen or material from a pathogen .
vaccination :

primary
~

Vaccine is introduced into the movie (injection) stimulates immune response Polic
· ·
+

>
- if
again recognizes it Chickenpox
·

pathogen enters , body already

·
tetanus
·

Sometimes boostershot

3 ways to make weaker

pathogen

1) Attentuation : chemical or repeadetly infected cells in lab until less toxic

2) Biotechnology :
produce peptide fragments which activate lymphocytes ,
but are harmless

3) DNA Vaccines :
gene encoding an antigen into body

Problems with the Immune System Histamines

cause

>
-
Sometimes reacts to antigens in harmful way allergic reactions

① Allergies

=
Antigens can trigger allergic reactions such as swelling throat, irritation eyes
, or life threatening
>
-
Pollen ,
dust ,
nuts

2 Asthma

=
respiratory disorder triggered by allergies in which bronchioles tighten too fast

3 Autoimmune disease

disorder in which immune system doesn't recognize cells & attacks them
=
own body >
- weakens the
person
 HIV & AIDS

HiV =
human immunodeficiency virus

↳ turns into AIDS

1) Hiv binds to receptor +

co-receptor .

2) Virus replicates
- results in many mutations

3) HiV enters T cells >

- AIDS

PHASE I-Asymptomatic Stage (10 or more yrs)

Amount of virus ↑ due to replication

-
can infect others

PHASE 11-

More replication
Symptoms Start

Immune System starts failing (Tcelks N

PHASE III

So little T cells ,
no more
fighting invaders

Hir levels

Cancers develop
Death
.
ECOLOGY -
INTRODUCTION

Ecology =
Study of interactions between organisms and the living and non living components of their environment.

Interdependance :
all organisms rely on eachother for survival

>
-
Change in environment can affect populations

I .
ECOLOGICAL MODELS 11 .
COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM + CHANGING

ENVIRONMENT

1) Biosphere biotic factors :

living/organic components

>
-
most inclusive level ,
contains all organisms (bv : earth) >
-
bu :
frog ,
leaf ,
fish

2) Ecosystems

>
- all biotic & abiotic factors in a particular region (bu : the jungle) abiotic factors :
non-living components
3) Communities >
-
bu Wind sunlight
:
,
pH ,

>
-
all the interacting organisms living in an area

4) Populations Organisms can survive within a limited range of conditions

↳ tolerance
-
all members of a species that live in an area curve

5) Organisms If outside optimum range

- > reduced performance
-
>
living organism
·

Acclimation :
adjusting to abiotic factors
I

Escaping environmental change I

I
2 ways to deal w
change :

Dormancy state of reduced activity

·
:

I 1)
eg :
Schildpad Conformers : do not regulate their internal conditions .

Migration : move to better environment

! -
they change with external envi.
I

ea : birds- seasonal movements I (bv :

reptiles/cold-blooded
I

2) Regulators : use energy to control their internal

! conditions .

2
.1 .
NICHE

=
organism's role way of life within its environment

Includes : tolerable conditions ,

used resources ,
different methods used
, number of offspring and time of reproduction

Generalists

Specialists
:

:
broad

narrow
niches

niches
(bv

(bv
:

:
human

Koala
I Realized niche
=

Fundamental niche
=
the

range
part of the niche that

of conditions a species
is actually used

could potentially tolerate

III . ENERGY TRANSFER

!
.
1 Producers .
2 Consumers

-
autotrophs
most are
= all animals , protistsa fungi
photosy nthetic
Some chemosynthetic >
- need to consume others for energy

. 1
.
3 .
CONSUMERS .2
3 .
ENERGY FLOW

Herbivores :
Only eat producers Trophic level >
- indicates organism's position in energy transfers

Carnivores :
Only eat consumers Food chain : Hawk = Snake mouse grass

Omnivores Eat both & consumers

producers Food
Hawk
:
web :

↑
Detrivores Eat the Waste
-
>
-
rabbit
~
>
-
Fox
↑
bird

I
mouse cricket

* - M
I
Decomposers :
Break down molecules grass bush
3 3 . .
ENERGY TRANSFER

1
10 % of total consumed energy is incorporated in the next trophic level

100 % - 10 % + 1 % 4 0 .
1 %

explains why only a few trophic levels in ecosystem Energy transfer Efficiency :

Efficiency Transferred BioMas?

Lower trophic levels
> higher trophic levels =
·
100

Biomass previous level

1000 gazelles 1 Lion

IV .
ECOSYSTEM RECYCLING

4
. 1 WATER CYCLE
.

·
Cells are 70 % -90 % Water

Water
↓
Watercycle
-
everywhere

: movement
on the

of
planet

water
(lake

between
, atmosphere (vapor)

reservoirs
.
,
soil)
& Evaporation , transpiration and precipitation

.
1 Evaporation

!
weg L
I

Fanta
i

=
adds water to atmosphere as vapor precipitation M

2 .
>
-

Transpiration
heat causes it

plani
&
· ↑ ↑
S

,
,
5

S
, E
S
Evaporation

Ss
S
E

↑
↑

&
&*I I
evaporates from leaves

-
water of plants
=
I

SS
>
-
plant takes soil water and releases it through the leaves S1 S

·
- =· SEA
3
. Precipitation

water leaves atmosphere (rain)

=

4
.2 CARBON CYCLE
.

Photosynthesis & cellular respiration Photosynthesis

T

↳ S (
autotrophs and heterotrophs use carbohydrates (glucose) to form CO2 and H,O Cellular respiration
>
-
autotrophs CO2 H10 fotons to form
use
,
and
glucose

Humans
- > increase CO2 in atmosphere

-
More forest burned - more Co less oxygen production

Fossil fuels
Y less
-
burned vegetation
coal burned Increase CO2

Oils burned

4
. 3 .
NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen needed for

Ne is 78 %
production proteins

atmosphere
and nucleic acid dead bodies

urine
& have nitrogen decomposers
& release
break down materials
nitrogen as ammonia NHs

Most plants only use Nitrogen in Nitrate form Ammonification : ammonia (NHz) in soil = ammonium (NHT)

nitrogen fixation =
nitrogen nitrate Nitrification : ammonium oxidized =
Nitrogen (Noi) and nitrates (NO3

↳ done nitrogen
by nitrogen fixing bacteria Denitrification released to atmosphere
:
4
.4. PHOSPHOPUS CYCLE

E
·

Phosphorus needed to form bones ,

teeth ,
DNA and RNA 1) Rocks erode - release phosphorus in soil and water

2 Plants absorb
phosphorus
phosphorus Cycle
Plants get through Soil & water 3) Animals eat plants

Animals get through eating plants 1 Animal dies -

phosphorus released into soil again

ECOLOGY -
POPULATIONS
1 . UNDERSTANDING POPULATIONS

Population =
group of organisms that belong to the same species in a region

Boundaries of a population (kan bu strand zijn )

↳ where populations stop

1. 2
. POPULATION SIZE 1 . 3 .
POPULATION DENSITY

=
number of individuals in the population =
how crowded a population is

>
- often an estimate >
-
given as number/area or volume

1 .
4
. DISPERSION

Spatial
=
contribution of individuals within the population

0
O

080 1) Clumped distribution

·
0 v

individuals clustered
= are together

O ⑧

:.
2) Uniform distribution

= individuals are separated by a consistent distance

·
⑧
O

3) Random distribution
·
⑧

o individuals located
=
are
independently

II .
POPULATION DYNAMICS

Populations are namic

↳ constantly change

I
·
Birth rate =
number of births a year Survivorship curves

↳ show
·
Deathrate =
number of deaths a year probability that members of

· Life expectancy =
average age individuals are expected to get a population will survive

III .
MEASURING POPULATIONS

Growth rate =
how size changes over a certain time (death ,
birth , migrations

·
Immigration
Emmigration =
=
movement

movement
into a

out of a
pop.

pop .
I Often assumed

is
O

Birthrate -
death rate
=
growth rate

Population growth :
exponential
IV POPULATION REGULATION

Limiting factors = factor which refrains population growth Populations always fluctuate

X
1

ur
·

Density-independent :
weather ,
fire ,
flood , earthquake

Density-dependent :
Shortage of food
, recourse limitation
t

When small population :

·
Bigger chance at extinction

Inbreeding - decrease genetic variation

·

V .
HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

5 1 . .
HISTORY

Slow population growth fast population growth

500
, 000 years ago , 000
10 years ago , now
- ↳ - &
Hunter-gatherer lifestyle Agricultural revolution

Population explosion : massive population growth .

2 billion growth in 27 years

·
Developed countries

Developing countries
:

:
20 %

80 %
of

of
population

population
& Currently 8 1 ,
Billion

Demographic transition model :

shows how industrial development affects pop. growth rates
.

ECOLOGY-COMMUNITY
1. SPECIES INTERACTIONS

.
1 Predation

.
2 Competition

.
3 Symbiosis

1 1
. .
PREDATION

·
Predation

Prey=
=
eats

is eaten
all or

by a
part of an

predator
individual of another species
Y influence size of population

Predator Adaptation : What predators do

>
-
finding capturing
, ,
consuming
DV :
Sticky webs (spiders) Speed (Cheetah
,

Animal Prey Adaptations : how animals avoid being eaten Types of mimicry =
one species resembles another

.
1
Camouflage
2 .
Hiding
·
Batesian Mimicry :
harmless species resembles venomous

.
3 Mimicry ·
Millerian Mimicry :
Species look similar and both benefit

.
4 Chemical defences

.
5 Deceptive markings

Plant prey adaptation

: how plants avoid being eaten

1 . Physical defences

(Dv : thorns , sticky hairs , Spines (

.
2 Chemical defences

(bv :
poison
, irritating ,
bad tasting
1. 2 .
COMPETITION

Interspecific competition =
multiple species use the same limited resources

Competitive exclusion =
When a species is eliminated due to limited resources

>
-
when 2 species need exactly the same resources : more competition

>
- When 2 species coexist :
competition is avoided

1 3 . .
SYMBIOSIS

Symbiosis
= close , long term relationship between 2 organisms
.

① Parasitism

=
- individual is harmed while the other y benefits

Host harmed r Ectoparasites remain outside of body (bv lice fleas leeches
(
·
·
: : :
, ,

feeds on host
·

Parasite :
benefits for long time

>
- humans & pathogen
·

Endoparasites : live inside host's body (bV :

Tapeworm ,
heartworms

② Mutualism

=
both individuals benefit from eachother

- close die without the other

some are so they

Pollination - of the most important mutualistic relationships

·
:

·
Pollinator :
Organisms that carry the pollen around

Flower lures pollinators with colours & Scent

·
:

3 Commensialism

=
1 species benefits and the other isn't affected

ECOLOGY-ECOSYSTEMS
1 . BIOMES

Biome distinguished by :
presence plant or animal

↳ 8
major biomes

Biomes don't have boundaries >

- abiotic factors change

II .
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Aphotic zone light penetrates, photosynthesis

·
=
no no can occur

·
photic zone =
light penetrates
 ECOLOGY-HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Atmosphere Consists of Nitrogen , Oxygen and 1 % other gasses (Ho or CO2)

Greenhouse effect =
atmosphere's ability to trap heat

⑧ light absorbed & converted to heat

M
2
Solar strikes earth's surface
~
Energy through atmosphere
&
1
. +

mum
me-

light radiates back

even Some light radiates

Escapes into space

atmosphere /
2 .
back through the
mmmmmmmm
u

absorbed by gases in atmosphere & radiated back

1 . BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity =
variety of forms of life in an area

1) Species diversity :

more important to understand ecosystem

eies evenness :
relative number of individuals of each species
·

species richness : number of unique species

2) Genetic diversity :

↳ affects population's ability to adapt

II .
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

2 1 . .
POLLUTION

Consequences :

&
Smog in air ·
Ozone thinning
chemicals in water caused by humans ·
Global warming
Plastic in the oceans ·
Acid precipitation

.2
2 . ECOSYSTEM DISRUPTION

Climate change , pollution ,

destruction of land etc -
disrupts ecosystems

1 Extinction

I
.

>
-
every single member of species dies

Habitat destruction , hunting ,

transfer invasive species

Before extinction :
Pendangered
↳ risk going extinct

.
2 Ecosystem Imbalance

>
- If certain stone
species goes extinct ,
serious effects on remaining/dependant species
.

Species which
affect many other species

>
- If certain resource
gone ,
serious effects on dependent species
.

III . SOLUTIONS

3 1 . .
CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION BIOLOGY

Conservation biology Scientists

:
identify , protect and manage natural areas which still have a wide biodiversity

Restoration biology Scientists

: deal w extreme cases of ecosystem damage
& restore it by
adding bacteria , seedlings etc
.2
3 .
GOVERNMENT AND LAWS

Government actions

Legally protecting endangered species

·

Cleaning
·

up pollution
·

Conducting scientific studies

Encouraging responsible
·

recourse

EXTRA LITTLE FACTS

Heterotrophs get energy from other organisms

o
:

Autotrophs : create their own

energy

- Saprotrophs :
get energy from feeding off nonliving organic matter
 EXLUTTON

Evolution = Characteristics of a species changing over time

↳ natural selection

Acquired characteristics :
developped during lifetime

Heritable characteristics :
passed down from parent to offspring

1. EVIDENCE EVOLUTION

1
. Fossil records

·
Sequence in which they appear shows evolution sequence

.
2 Selective breeding
·
domesticated breeds have not always existed in this form

.
3 Homologous Structures

·
structures that look different and have different functions ,
but when broken down are very similar

11 .
SPECIATION

Speciation when population of a species gradually diverges into two species by evolution
·
=
a

they can't interbreed anymore

⑧
Characteristics will slowly change

Often happens when of the population migrates

part
·

III .
VARIATION

Natural selection only when variation

>
- bv : human population has big variation in skintone ,
height ,
face shape etc . . .

If all individuals were identical ,

then no natural selection would take place

.2
3 .
SOURCES VARIATION

4
. Mutations

2 .
Meiosis If creature doesn't reproduce sexually -
only mutation

.
3 Sexual reproduction

IV . ADAPTATIONS

Adaptations =
characteristics which make an individual suited for an environment

>
-
all about structure and function

>
-
happens through natural selection

Changes in characteristics show the development of a species

Acquired characteristics :
develop during the lifetime

V . OVERPRODUCTION SPECIES

>
-
Species tend to produce more than can be supported by environment

Often struggle in survival due to overproduction of offspring

[
L
-
-
-

v/ OLUTION =
ELIVERSITY
1 . BINOMIAL SYSTEM

Binomial naming system -> universal

First name :
genus name ( =
group of species with similar characteristics

Second name :
Species specific name

Rules :

1 .
Genus name w uppercase &
species name with lower case

.
2 Genus name can be abbreviated to "letter

.
3 First published name is correct one

11 .
CLADES

Clade =

group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor

>
-
Include all species alive today ,
with the common ancestor and any species evolved from it and then went extinct

+
are often very large

Identifying if Species is member of clade

>
-

looking at base sequences of

genes or amino acid sequences of proteins
.

III .
ANALOGOUS AND HOMOLOGOUS TRAITS

Homologous traits >

- structures are similar due to similar ancestry

Analogous traits >

structures are similar because of convergent evolution (evolved independently
·
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
1 .
GENE VARIATION

All Species arise from other , pre-existing species

population individual with specific inherited characteristics surviving offspring

Natural Selection = when in a an
produces more

Charles Darwin than individuals without these traits

.

>
-
population will gradually evolve

Acquired characteristics inheritance : characteristics acquired during life are passed down to
offspring
Jean-Baptiste Lamerack

II . GENE VARIATION IN NATURE

.1
2 .
MEASURING LEVELS OF GENETIC VARIATION

1 .
Blood groups :

·
>
30

45
blood group genes

genes which code for proteins

in humans

in blood cells
& > 75

for
genes just

blood

2
. Enzymes

. 2
2 . POLYMORPHISM MUTATIONS

Enzyme polymorphism
= when a locus has more variation than can be explained by mutation

↳ most injects +
plants

III . ALLELE FREQUENCIES CHANGING IN POPULATIONS

Theory of blending inheritance -

offspring are phenotypically intermediate relative to their parents

. 1
.
3 .
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

If following assumptions met.

7 .
Pop . Size is very large Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
2
. Random mating occurs >
- dominant alleles don't replace recessive alleles

.
3 No mutations -
proportions don't change

genes input from

4
. No other sources

.
5 No selection

Then the original genotype of the population remains

.2
3 .
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
>
- calculate genotype frequencies

(p + q) =
p +
2pq +
q Δp a
+ =
1

*
If you don't have this

you're doing smi wrong

p2 :
homozygous dominant allele (BB)
·

q :
homozygous recessive allele (bb)
·

2pq
:
Heterozygous allele (Bb)
IV .
REASONS FOR EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE

4
. 1 .
MUTATION

don't have genetic variation

>
-
big effect usually ,
but still
big source of

·
Look at theory before

4
. 2 .
GENE FLOW

=
movement of alleles from one pop .
to another

>
- when
I organism moves to new pop .

>
-
when 2 organisms from different .
pops mate (mix genes
>
-
gametes flowing to new environments (flower gametes

↓ Gene flow can prevent the maintainance of

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
>
- tends to homogenize allele frequencies

.3
4
.
NONRANDOM MATING

Individuals with certain genotype often mate with eachother

1 .
Inbreeding
=
between family members

2
. Outcrossing
different
genotypes
=

4
. 4 .
GENETIC DRIFT

=
When in small pops .
the allele frequencies change without contributing factors

>
-
purely by chance

This is why populations should be big for the equilibrium

1
. Founder Effect

few individuals leave & "founders"

When
=
form new population as

·
Some alleles will be lost

Some alleles will have bigger frequencies

·

Dv :
Self-pollinating plants

.
2 Bottleneck effect

When a
=

population is drastically reduced in size

↳ random
genetic sample of the pop .

·
Alleles might disappear

bu :
flooding
, epidemic diseases etc . . .

4 5
. .
SELECTION

>
- results of the emmigration of individuals due to their phenotype and behavior

2 types : -
artificial selection :
chooses which characteristics he wants

Selection environmental conditions determine which individuals produce

natural more
offspring
·
:
 Conditions that must be met for natural selection to occur

1
. Variation must exist

.
2 Variation results in in different numbers of offspring

.
3 Variation must be genetically inherited

Natural selection = evolution

↳ ↳ outcome
process

Selection to avoid predators :

adaptations which decrease probability of being captured by a predator

bv :
background matching , camouflage etc ...

·
Selection to match climatic conditions :
bv : fish in Northic sea are accustomed to cold

·
Selection for pesticide resistance :
bu :
pigweed is resistant now

. IDENTIFYING
V EVOLUTIONARY +
FORCES MAINTAINING POLYMORPHISM

5 1 . . ADAPTIVE SELECTION THEORY 5 2

. .
NEUTRAL THEORY

·
Natural env often very heterogenous

·↑
.

I ·
Balance between mutation and genetic drift maintains

Selection pulls gene frequencies in dif directions in polymorphism

microhabitats - creates conditions in which alleles Even in absence of selection if mutations are high &

!
,

persist pop sizes small ->

polymorphism

.3
5 . GENE FLOW US NATURAL SELECTION

&
Gene flow

O constructive & constraining force Hinders & helps natural selection

>
- increase adaptedness >
-
impede adaptation by

of a species importing inferior alleles

VI .
SELECTION

types
1
. Disruptive selection

=
acts to eliminate intermediate

.
2 Directional Selection

= Eliminates

of phenotypes
I extreme from the

range
.
3 Stabilizing
=
Selection

eliminates both extremes from

the
range of phenotypes