Evolution of Script in India * Script: Writing system/ orthography of language with help of letters, number & symbol by making specific marks on a medium (Paper, rocks, etc) as Devanagari script. *HarappanScript: ® PS @QOX|@Ox + First evidence of writing system found in Indus Valley civilization. * Oldest script but not understood. * Harappan civilization used a pictographic & nonlinguistic language in which 396 different symbols were used, + Inscription found from Right-Left/ Left-Right/ Right - Left then Left - Right.Brahmi Script * Brahmi (Mother of all Script) is the oldest writing systems highly influenced by Sanskrit, * Brahmi is usually written from left to right. Brahmi is an abugida writing system. * Oldest deciphered script of India & Evolution of script in India is started from Brahmi Script. * All surviving Indic Scripts in South East Asia are descendants of Brahmi. (Devanagari, Bengali, Gujrati, Oriya, Tamil, Telgu, Kanada, Kana, Hangu, Javanese, Thai, etc.) * Kharosati Script (sister of Brahmi Script) is also influenced by Sanskrit. * Writing system of this script: Right to Left. * This script is used to write Gandhari Language belong to northern west part of India * Ashokan inscription found in Mansehra & Shahbazgarhi used Kharosati Script.Evolution of languages in India + Language: set of specific sounds for conversation by human beings to express thought. + Sanskrit is unique in the world because its literature was preserved by memorizing. d on culture, Indian Language belong to several * India consists of a number of languages base language families like: a + Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Hindi, Punjabi, Gujrati, Bengali, Pahari, Nepali etc.) + Sino-Tibetan(Bodo Garo, Burmese, Tibetean etc.) * Dravidian(Tamil, Telgu, Kanada, Malyalam, Tulu, Gondi etc.) * Austro-Asiatic language (Khasi, Munda, Nicobarese etc.) * Great Andamanese tie unre A oan suascReeDVedic Literature ESe> * Vedic literature mentions social & economical condition of this era. Types of Vedic literature: Shruti Literature— Shruti means ‘to hear’ and describes the sacred texts which comprise of Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads. If the Samhita is likened to a tree, the Brahmanas are its flowers and the Aranyakas are its fruit yet not ripened, the Upanishads are the ripe fruits. Smriti Literature- Smiriti means to be remembered & which is supplementary & may change over time. Smriti Literature is the entire body of post-Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature & consists of Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangas.Vedas * Rig Veda: it is the earliest form of Veda + Samaveda: Earliest reference for singing + Yajurveda: It is also called the book of prayers * Atharvaveda: The book of magic and charmsRigveda * The meaning of the word ‘Rigveda’ is Praise Knowledge * Rigvedic Mandal 2-9 deal with cosmology and deities (9"" Mandal dedicated to Soma) - Rigvedic Mandal 1 & 10 (youngest & longest) deal with philosophical questions & talk about various virtues including a charity in the society * Rigvedic mandal 2-7 are the oldest and shortest also called family books * 1028 hymns deal with deities including Agni, Indra & varuna. * The Shakala shakho is the only surviving recension of the Rig Veda.Samaveda The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian classical music and dance It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants It consists of hymns, detached verses and 16,000 raga (musical notes) and raginis. Though it has lesser verses than Rigveda, however, its texts are larger 3 recensions of the text of Samaveda: Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaimaniya 2 Upanishads embedded in Samaveda: Chandogya and Kena Upanishad enon ours EE 8It has two types ~Krishna (Black/Dark) & Shukla(White/Bright} Krishna Yajurveda has an un-arranged, unclear, motley collection of verses Shukla Yajurveda has arranged and clear verses The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up from Rigveda The middle layer of Veda has Satapatha Brahmana which is a commentary of Shukla Yajurveda Shukla Yajurveda- Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Krishna Yajurveda- Taittiriya Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. and the Maitri UpanishadAtharvaveda The daily procedures of life are very well enumerated in this Veda It has 730 hymns/suktas, 6000 mantras, and 20 books(arranged by the length of hymns) Paippalada and the Saunakiya are two surviving recensions of Atharvaveda i3 primary Upanishads: Mundaka, Mandukya & Prashna Upanishad ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ are mentioned as twin daughters of Prajapati in Atharvaveda. The book is known to prescribe treatment for almost 99 diseases, The Gopatha Brahmana is associated with the Atharvaveda, Hymns of Atharvaveda are unique except a few hymns. it contains hymns many of which were charms & magic spells. aUpanishads — ES e> There are 108 Upanishads in 13 are considered the major ones. The concepts of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’ are majorly explained by Upanishads It contains philosophical ideas Sacrifice, Body, Universe Upanishads occupy a unique place in the development of Indian philosophical thought. Vedanta Philosophy is directly related to the Upanishads, Upanishads are associated with Vedas & make entire range of Vedic knowledge as complete. According to the Muktikopanishad, 108 Upanishads are divided according to 4 Vedas. 10 Upanishads from the Rigveda, 51 Upanishads from the Yajurveda (19 from Shukla & 32 from Krishna), 16 Upanishads from the Samaveda & 31 Upanishads from the Atharvaveda, _ ua A con [Sea] #Ramayana * Ramayana (Adikavya) is written sage Valmiki (Adikavi), + Ramayana is called Historians argue that it was first compiled around 1500 8C. * Version of Ramayana: Reamker (Cambodian), Ramakien (Thai), Champu Ramayanam (Bhoja 11° CE), Kamban’s Ramavataram (Tamil_11" CE), Muni's Kumudendu Ramayana (Jain_13" CE), Narahari's Ramayana (Kannada_16™ CE) & Tulsidas' Ramcharitamanas (Awadhi_16th CE). * Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses & divided into 7 books (Khandas) such as (Bala, Ayodhya, Aranya, Kishkindha, Sundara, Yuddha, Uttara Kanda) + Rama who is projected as the ideal man (Maryada Purush), instructions on how to achieve the four-fold objectives (Purushartha) of mankind are given as Dharma, Artha, Kama & Moksha. * This success has been considered to be the victory of good over evil. -AY Mahabharata eee * The Mahabharata was written in Sanskrit by Ved Vyas and initially had SES, Cal ‘Jaya’ (story of ‘victory’) After that several stories were complied and added to this collection. - Number of verses increased to 24,000 & it was renamed as ‘Bharata’ after earliest Vedic tribes. + The current form consists of 1,00,000 verses and is divided into 10 Parvas (chapters), Adi, Sabha, Vana, Virata, Udyoga, Bhishma, Drona, Karna, Shalya, Sauptika, Stri, Shanti, Anushasana, Asghvamedhika, Ashramavasika, Mausala, Mahaprasthanika, Svargarohana Parva. - Story is based on Kauravas & Pandavas conflict over right to claim throne of Hastinapur. - Bhagwata Gita guide to mankind on how to live a righteous life, duties, problem of violence vs non-violence; action vs non-action & in the end about the Dharma. + Krishna even makes distinction between various kinds of Dharma & prefers Nishkama Karma.Puranas The word ‘Purana’ means ‘old’. According to tradition, the Puranas were composed by Vyasa. There are 18 Mahapuranas , and many more Upapuranas. Origins of Puranas may have overlapped to some extent with the Vedas, but their composition stretched forward into the 4"".5® centuries CE, and in some cases, even later. An early reference of puranas is found in chandogya upanishad. Brahadaranyaka upanishad refers to purana as 5® vedas. Puransas include topic like Cosmology, Genealogy, Medicine, Astronomy, Grammer, sages etc. Predominating deity In 18 Puranas: Lord Vishnu (6), Lord brahma (6) & Lord shiva (6) Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavate, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shive, Skenda, Agni, Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarte, Markondeyo, Bhavishya, Vamana, Brahma. “eum +o EEEEE 0Puranas The Matysa Puranas are supposed to have five characteristics (pancha-lakshanas): * The creation of the world (sarga), Re-creation (pratisarga), The periods of the various Manus (manvontaras), the Genealogies of gods and rishis (vamsha), Account of royal dynasties refer Parikshit (vamshanucharita), including Suryavamshi & Chandravamshi 4 yugas: krita, treta, dvapara, and kali:- a mahayugo,a kalpa, manvantaras . This cycle of time is connected with the cyclical decline and revival of dharma, kali yuga began the day Krishna died (20 years after war) have historical material. Vayu, Brahmanda, Brahmo, Harivamsha, Matsya, and Vishnu Puranas provide useful information on ancient political history, They refer to historical dynasties such as the Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas, and Andhras (Satavahanas), Puranas have accounts of mountains, rivers & places (useful for study of historical geography)Buddhism Literature * Buddhist literature can be divided into Canonical{Tripitaka’ or baskets of knowledge written in Pali) & Non-canonical works (Jatakas). * (Vinaya Pitaka covers the rules and regulations, followed by the Buddhist monks. + |Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and speeches of the Buddha + | Abhidhamma Pitaka that concentrates on the ethics, philosophy and metaphysics. Jatakas are stories (Sanskrit and Pali) of the Bodhisattva. arita by Asvaghosha in Sanskrit. The great epic Budd! Dipavamsa: the visit of Buddha to Sri Lanka and the arrival of tooth relic of Buddha. Mahavamsa: It is an epic poem similar to Dipavamsa and is written in Pali language. Milinda Panho: dialogue between King Meander (or Milinda) and Buddhist monk Nagasena. Mahavastu: It contains Jakata and Avadana tales. written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali & Prakrit.Jain Literature Jain monks wrote in many languages like Prakrit, Ardh-Maghdi, Tamil during the Sangam Age, Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi. : 2 major categories: Canonical or religious texts (Agamas or Agam) & Non-canonical texts. Jain Agamas: Teachings of the Tirthankaras. Originally compiled by Ganadharas (Chief Disciples of Mahavira. 46 texts in Agamas (12 Angas, 12 Upanga, 10 Painnas, 4 Mulasutras, 6 Cheda sutras, 2 Culikasutras) Digambaras gave sacred status to two works: the Karmaprabhrita (Discussion on Karma) or Shatkhandagama and the Kashayaprabhrita. Bhadrabahu (3rd century BC): Uvasaggaharam Stotra, Kalpa Sutra (Biographies of Jain Tirthankars). Haribhadra Suri (6th century AD) a Svetambara Jain author who wrote in Sanskrit.Kautilya’s Arthashastra ES 22 * Written by Chankya / Kautilya / Vishnugupta in Grantha script & Sanskrit language. * Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta refers to Kautilya as kutila-mati (crafty-minded) * It was written This is a book of statecraft. It teaches how to establish an empire and preserve it. * It contains 15 Adhikarnas/Books like Subject of Training, Activities of Superintendents, Justices, Eradication of Thorns, Secret Conduct, Basis of the Circle, Six fold Strategy, Subject of Calamities, Activity of King preparing to March into Battle, War, Conduct toward Confederacies, On Weaker King, Means of Capturing Fort, On Esoteric Practices, Organization of Scientific Treatise into 150 Prakarnas (chapters) on 180 topic. “teu +o EXE #Arthashastra * Ithas been translated into German, French and many other languages. * It includes books on diplomacy, theories on war, gathering intelligence about hostile states, forming strategic alliances, nature of peace, duties & obligations of a king, nature of government, the methods for screening ministers, law, civil and criminal court systems, ethics, economics, markets and trade, Bearer et end: 1 encfer get otek: 1 oreher yet te | trerea We sf oe: | sferorerren yet fara: 1 reer get Geatosar NeesFamous Sanskrit Authors S * Sanskrit Drama: Sole purpose was to entertain the public or Lokaranjana. These were usual written in the form of stories and yet they gave a unique perspective on life, . Bharata Munt’s Natyashastra contains Rules regarding Performance, Acting & Stage Direction. a B feat ott * Kalidas: —— Malavikagnimitra, Meghaduta, Vikramorvasiya (Love story of Vikram and Urvasi), Abhigyana Shakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala) — * Sudraka: Mricchakatika (Little Clay Cart) Love affair of Charudatta with a wealthy courtesan. —— - Vishakhadutta: Mudrarakshasa, Devi Chandraguptam * Harshavardhana: Ratnavali, Nagananda, Priyadarsika, * Bhavabhuti: Uttara Ramacharitam (The later life of Rama). It was written in 700 AD. the ur A cure sunSCREED fLFamous Sanskrit Authors * Bhasa: Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream), Pancharatra, Urubhanga (Story of ‘Duryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima. * Kalidasa: Kumarasambhava (Birth of Kumar or Kartiya), Raghuvamsa (dynasty of the Raghus), Meghaduta (cloud messenger) & Ritusamhara (medley of seasons). * Jayadeva(12" CE): Gita Govinda (concentrates on life and escapades of Lord Krishna. The text combines elements of devotion to Lord Krishna, his love for Radha and the beauty of nature.Telgu Literature * Nannayya (11" CE, “Adikavi" of Telugu): aka (century of verses), Andhra Mahabharata, - Errapragada: Composed Ramayana in champu genre (a mixed form of verse and prose). + Krishnadevaraya_Vijaynagara Period(1509-1529): Amuktamalyada. During Krishnadevaraya’s reign, 8 learned Telugu poets were attached to his court. They were called ashtadiggajas. + Nachana Somanatha (court poet of King Bukka I): Uttaraharivamsam * Allasani Peddana (known as Andhra Kavita Pitamahudu): Manu Charitra * Nandi Thimmana: Parijatapaharanamy, Tenali Ramakrishna: Pandurang Mahatmayam *Ramaraja Bhushanudu (known as Bhattumurti): Vasucharitram Narasabhupaleeyamu Harishchandra NalopakhyanamuKannada Literature * Kannada literature is influenced by Jain,_ * Amoghavarsha | (Rashtrakuta king ): Kavirajamarga (first recorded texts in Kannada in 9th cen.) * 3. gems of Kannada, 1, Pampa as Adhikavi (9th-10th century AD, court of Chalukya Arikesari), known as the ‘Father of Kannada written Adipurana (Champu style) and Vikramarjuna Vijaya * 2. Ponna (9th-10th century AD- court of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna II) : Shanti Purana + 3, Ranna (10th-11th century AD- court of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna Ill} ; Ajitha Purana * Madhava: Dharmanathapurana (life of 15th Tirthankara), + Uritta Vilasa: Dharma Parikshe (Jain teachings), + Keshiraja: Shabdamanidarpana (grammar of the Kannada) * Narahari: Torave Ramayana (first story on Rama inspired by the Valmiki Ramayana and written entirely in Kannada) + Honnamma(first poetess ): Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a devout wife).Malayalam Literature ES e> * Ezhuthachan (strong proponent of Bhakti movement) is known as the Father of Malayalam Language. * Two of the major Malayalam works of the medieval period are Kokasandisan and Bhasa Kautilya (a commentary on Arthashastra). * Another major literary work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, an epic poem written by Cheeraman in 12th century.Sangam Age * 3 Sangams held in ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam. 1. In Madurai: Chaired by Agastya & attended by gods & sages. No literary work available. 2. In Kapadapuram: chaired by Initially Agastya & then his Disciple Tolkappiyar. only Tolkappiyam (textbook on Tamil grammar) survives from this. 3. 3rd Sangam(Madurai): chaired by Nakkirar, Literary works have survived and a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period, * There are 2 major schools of Sangam literature: Aham / Agam & Puram * Aham; ‘Inner field’ & concentrates on discussion of human aspects like love, sexual relations. * Puram: ‘Outer field’ discusses about human experiences like social life, ethics, value, customs.Sangam Age * Tolkappiyam (earliest of Tamil literary work ): Authored by Tolkappiyar & work on Tamil grammar, insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of time. * Ettutogai (30,000 lines of Poetry in 8 Anthologies): Consist of 8 works. - Pattuppattu, 10 Idylls: Anthology of 10 poem (100 & 800 line) dedicated to Lord Murugan. + 2 Epics: Silappathikaramis written by Elango Adigal & Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity. + Pathinenkilkanakku: Contains 18 works about ethics & morals. Most important is Tirukkural.. ‘ Tirukkural of Thiruvalluvar (Great poet & Philosopher) divided in 3 parts, deal with Epic, Polity & Governance and Love. tun A cure sunsceneD atHindi Literature (R= mie=) ESZ2 * Hindi Literature started to develop in 10-11" centewey-in various Sub-Language of Hindi in Devanagari Script like Kharoboli, Braj, Bundeli, Awadhi, Mewati, Marwari, Bhojpuri, Maithli, etc. * 3 types of literature found in Hindi. * Prose— * Poetry ftcted C * Champu ed * Hindi literature divided in four phase accruing to George Gearson,Hindi Literature (fe-

Chand Bardai: rithviraj Raso Surdas : Sahitya Lahari, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar * Malik Muhammad Jayasi: Padmavat + Maithili Sharan Gupt: Saket, Yashodhara * Mirabai: Mira Padavali + Jaishankar Prasad: Kamayani, Ohruvswamini, Skandagupta * Tulsidas: Ramacharitamanas, Vinay Patrika + Devaki Nandan Khatri: Chandrakanta, Bhootnath + Bhushan: Shivabavani, Chhatrasal Dashak Keshavda: Rasikpriya Bihari : Satasai (Seven Hundred Verses) Bharatendu Harishchandra: Andher Nagari, Bharatendu Granthavali. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi: Kavya Manjusha, Sugandh, Sahitya Sandarbh, Sahitya Vichar, Munshi Premchand: Godan, Karmabhomi, Gaban, Mansarovar, Idgah Makhanlal Chaturvedi: Taringini, Yug Charan, Pushp Ki Abhilasha sea 4 eon | sesceee BTPersian Literature It is one of oldest literature in the Persian language, belong to Iran(Persia) from ancient period. Oldest texts are the Gathas, 16 short hymns written in Old Iranian language called Avestan, named for the Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism (Parsi). Persian was adopted as court language in medieval period of India. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote superb poetry in Persian. Babar wrote his tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his grandson Akbar got it translated into Persian. Akbar patronized many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into Persian. + Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian, * Itis said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian poetess. » Abul Fazl's Akbarnamah and Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature.Urdu Literature * Urdu as a language of the interaction between Hindi & Persian & developed in Dell Sultanate, * Urdu literature originated some time around 14th century in the courts & became more popular in 18 century. + Khusrau (1253-1325), follower of Nizam ud-din Auliya: Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari * Some poets are Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal. Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is available in his collection called Bang-i-dara and a song also composed Sarejahan se achcha Hindostan hamara. * Even in the early days, Munshi Prem Chand, who is supposed to be a doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in Urdu. * Urdu was patronized by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in this language. Slowly it became quite popular. _ Moun + one EE 0