Medarević, A

International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Efficiency and Productivity of Public Hospitals in Serbia Using
DEA-Malmquist Model and Tobit Regression Model, 2015–2019
Aleksandar Medarević 1,2, * and Dejana Vuković 3,4
1 Institute of Public Health of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

2 Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
3 Centre-School of Public Health and Health Management, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia; [email protected]
4 Institute of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Improving productivity within health systems using limited resources is a matter of great
concern. The objectives of the paper were to evaluate the productivity, efficiency, and impact of
environmental factors on efficiency in Serbian hospitals from 2015–2019. Data envelopment analysis,
Malmquist index and Tobit regression were applied to hospital data from this period, and public
hospitals in Serbia exhibited a great variation regarding their capacity and performance. Between
five and eight hospitals ran efficiently from 2015 to 2019, and the productivity of public hospitals
increased whereas technical efficiency decreased in the same period. Tobit regression indicated that
the proportion of elderly patients and small hospital size (below 200 beds) had a negative correlation
with technical efficiency, while large hospital size (between 400 and 600 beds), the ratio of outpatient

episodes to inpatient days, bed turnover rate and the bed occupation rate had a positive correlation
Citation: Medarević, A.; Vuković, D.
with technical efficiency. Serbian public hospitals have considerable space for technical efficiency
Efficiency and Productivity of Public improvement and public action must be taken to improve resource utilization.
Hospitals in Serbia Using
DEA-Malmquist Model and Tobit Keywords: data envelopment analysis; panel data analysis; benchmarking; technical efficiency; scale
Regression Model, 2015–2019. Int. J. efficiency; environmental factors
Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18,
12475. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph182312475
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Rodney P Jones
A health care system is often just one of many interconnected social welfare systems
in a given country [1]. Given that health care systems are not isolated from the broader
Received: 15 October 2021
social context, the specific boundaries of a given system are difficult to determine. This
Accepted: 19 November 2021
Published: 26 November 2021
makes the quality of any scientific evaluation of health care highly dependent on its
ability to incorporate a wide variety of influencing factors into its methodology. In the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
case of hospital system performance, this requires accounting for the activities of other
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
health care institutions, legal regulations, dominant service delivery practices, the health
published maps and institutional affil- status of the population from which the users of health services come, and general socio-
iations. cultural, socio-economic, and other social factors [2,3]. This complex network of variables
affecting hospital performance raises several questions about which factors have the most
influence on performance, how these missing links can be uncovered, and how a better
understanding of these factors can improve decision-making. Providing answers to these
questions can help decision-makers to understand the effects of specific environmental
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
factors and managerial variables on efficiency and performance, ultimately leading to
This article is an open access article
evidence-based improvements in hospital systems. In the Serbian context, much of this
distributed under the terms and
understanding is currently missing and needs to be examined in order to help strengthen
conditions of the Creative Commons hospital performance across the country.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Serbia is a country in Southeastern European, located in the central part of the Balkan
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Peninsula and classified as an upper–middle-income economy by the World Bank [4]. Since
4.0/). the breakup of the former Yugoslavia, Serbian society has been characterized by negative
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 12475. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312475 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 12475 2 of 22
growth and net migration rates, low fertility rates, an increasing proportion of elderly
people and sharp population decline [5]. Considering that, people are living longer and
fewer children are born, the population will continue to age in the coming years, and
this “silver tsunami” of population ageing is causing an increasing demand for social and
health services [6]. This trend of rapid population ageing also means that there will be
proportionately fewer people working to support increasing numbers of economically
inactive individuals, with the number of unemployed and inactive residents (primarily
pensioners) already exceeding the number of employed in 2020 [7].
The Serbian health system is a social health system with compulsory health insurance
and broad population coverage [8]. It is organized and managed by the Ministry of Health,
Provincial Secretariat for Health Care Vojvodina, and Republic Health Insurance Fund
(RHIF). Contributions are the main sources of financing. The RHIF collects revenues
through obligatory insurance and distributes them to health providers. Out of pocket
spending has increased over the years, suggesting shortcomings in compulsory insurance
schemes. The health system includes both public and private institutions. There were
41 private hospitals providing secondary level health services in 2016 [8]. However, the
volume of services provided by the private health sector is small due to its limited capacities.
In general, the provision of curative and preventive services is based on the activities of
public health institutions organized along three levels of health care. Primary care centres,
which cover the territory of one or more municipalities or towns, provide health care at the
primary level through employed “chosen doctors”. A “chosen doctor” can be a doctor of
medicine with no specialty, or a doctor of medicine who is a specialist in general medicine
(GP), occupational medicine, paediatrics, or in gynaecology. In addition to his other duties,
the “chosen doctor” refers patients to the hospital and continues treatments after discharge.
Secondary health care is organized though general and specialty hospitals. General
hospitals house almost 40% of bed capacity of public hospitals in the country, providing
continuous diagnostic, therapeutic, rehabilitation and emergency services for outpatients,
and inpatient care when the complexity and severity of a disorder require this type of
treatment. A hospital’s minimum level of services requires at least 20 beds and the provi-
sion of specialist services in the fields of internal medicine, paediatrics, general surgery,
gynaecology and obstetrics [9]. These specialists services are associated with diagnostic
laboratory and imaging services, as well as anaesthesiology services and hospital pharma-
cies. Hospitals can also expand capacity to other services if needed. Therefore, a significant
number of hospitals in the districts’ administrative centers provide additional services in
the fields of neurology, mental health, surgery, and internal medicine.
Specialty hospitals aim to address certain conditions or population groups, whereas
general hospitals provide care for all populations and age groups, accounting for one fifth
of public beds. The primary purpose of specialty hospitals is prolonged rehabilitation and
long-term treatment of psychiatric disorders.
Tertiary health care is delivered in clinics, institutes, clinical hospitals, and clinical
centres. Trained personnel in these institutions provides highly specialized consulting and
inpatient care. In addition to health services, these institutions are often scientific-teaching
bases and research centers for medical faculties [8].
The public hospital network is established across the entire territory of Serbia. The
organizations of the hospital network and the Health Insurance Fund coincide with ter-
ritorial organizations which consider the availability and accessibility of adequate care.
At least one hospital is located in each district’s administrative centre, while small towns
have independent hospitals in remote areas or if there is a significant distance between
the town and the administrative centre. This encourages horizontal cooperation between
hospitals within the same district. Referring some patients from local hospitals to hospitals
in administrative centers for advanced treatment is the most common form of cooperation.
Patient transfer in the opposite direction exists, but it is infrequent. Considering this frag-
mented system, Peng’s recent finding that integrative health care raises the efficiency of
hospitals is also important to consider in the Serbian context [10]. Therefore, we considered
it important to compare the performance differences between hospitals that have peers in
the same district and sole district hospitals that have to bear the burden of inpatient care
for the entire population of the district.
Hospitals account for between one-third and one-half of the total healthcare spending
among OECD countries [11]. The overwhelming share of expenditure is related to inpatient
care, with increasing trends in recent years. The percentage of hospital expenditure is even
more significant in Serbia, comprising more than half of the RHIF’s annual spending, with
workforce compensation representing the largest share of the expenditure [12]. Therefore,
the performance of Serbian hospitals has been a concern of stakeholders for years, as
one of the major consequences of suboptimal resources consumption is a diminished
societal willingness to contribute to the system’s funding, particularly in a social health
insurance system.
Since 2000, Serbia’s health system has been reformed to improve its performance,
including the implementation of diagnostic-related groups (DRGs) that classify and mea-
sure inpatient activities [13]. The DRGs have been the “gold standard” for measuring
inpatient operations [14]. RHIF implemented a DRGs-based hospital payment system that
remunerated the variable part of total payments. That variable part represented a small
fraction of total reimbursement at the time of the study, with expected increases in the
years to come. The intention is to implement a more cost-cutting payment system instead
of the previous system based on the purchase of work plans.
Despite a wide breadth of literature on health care and health economics, there is a
noticeable lack of evidence from Serbia and other Eastern European countries on hospital
efficiency regarding specific healthcare concepts, organization, and financing [15]. The
possible reasons for this could be an absence of reliable data and an ingrained belief that
economic principles are unsuitable for use in healthcare settings. The implementation of
DRGs enabled the quantification of inpatient care, which represents the highest volume
of hospital activity. Utilizing DRGs, this study aims to fill the gap in knowledge by
exploring the efficiency of Serbian hospitals during periods of transition and reform, and
by producing estimates of the relative efficiency of Serbian public hospitals. In order to
reach that aim, we conducted a descriptive analysis of data (Section 3.1), performed data
envelopment analysis (DEA) using input and output data (Section 3.2), evaluated the
efficiency change between 2015 and 2019 (Section 3.3) and identified the variables that
influenced hospital performance (Section 3.4). The findings are relevant for stakeholders
during Serbia’s current health reforms [16].
2. Methodology
Our study investigated the relative efficiency of 39 Serbian hospitals based on 2019
data through a two-stage process. The first stage was concerned with the evaluation of
the relative efficiency of the observed hospitals. We conducted longitudinal (panel) data
analysis using the Malmquist index to support stage one findings. The second stage focused
on factors that might have had an impact on efficiency scores in 2019. A Tobit regression
model was employed to explore these effects and determine possible impact factors.
2.1. Data
This study included data from 39 general public hospitals in Serbia. Forty general
hospitals operate in Serbia [17]. Novi Pazar Hospital was removed from the analysis
because of a lack of data.
Ozcan named capital investment, labour, and operating expenses the three main
hospital input categories [18]. In Serbia, capital investments are sporadic and could be ex-
cluded for the study. Based on Chilingerian and Sherman’s suggestion about the distinction
between different types of personnel, health workers were decomposed into physicians
and other health workers [19]. Physicians play a dominant role in hospital expenditure as
practitioners and as managers of teams, departments, or entire hospitals. The middle-year
numbers of physicians and other health workers were used for input estimation.
Outputs included case-mix adjusted discharges and outpatient episodes to cover main
hospital productivity. The algorithm grouped discharges into Australia Redefined DRGs,
whereas coefficients were imported from the contract Rulebook [20]. The DRG coefficient
indicates the average amount of resources needed to care for patient cases under the specific
DRG, relative to the average resources used for treatment cases in all DRGs.
The Serbian Institute of Public Health (IPHS) provided input and output data from
routine statistics and the National hospital database. All variables utilized in DEA analysis
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. DEA input and output variables.
Inputs Variables Description

I1 Total number of beds
I2 Total number of health workers without physicians
I3 Total number of physicians
Output Variables
O1 Number of inpatient episodes weighed with DRG coefficient
O2 Number of outpatient Episodes
To explore the effect of external factors, we collected the data of several variables
that might explain efficiency differences from 2015–2019 (Table 2). Reliability, accuracy,
timeliness, and relevance were the main criteria for factor selection. Unfortunately, only
a few indicators available on the community level satisfied those criteria. Since some
age groups tend to be overrepresented among hospitalised patients, their share in the
catchment area population might affect hospital efficiency [21].
Table 2. External factors.
External Factors Description Coding

The ratio of outpatient episodes to
Z1
inpatient days
1 = if it is the sole hospital in
the district
Z2 No other hospital in the region
0 = if there are other hospitals in
the district
The proportion of people older than
Z3
65 in the catchment area
Proportion of infants in the
Z4
catchment area
Z5 The bed turnover rate
Z6 The bed occupation rate
Z7 The average length of stay
1 = if the hospital has a number of
Very large hospitals beds greater than 600
D1
(>600 beds)
0 = otherwise
Large hospitals beds between 400 and 600
D2
(400 ≤ beds < 600)
0 = otherwise
D3 Medium size hospitals beds between 200 and 400
(200 ≤ beds < 400)
0 = otherwise
To illustrate the issue of hospital size and its impact on efficiency, we arranged the
hospitals according to the number of beds and used four groups: very large hospitals, large
hospitals, medium size hospitals and small hospitals (Table 2) [22]. The group of small size
hospitals consists of facilities with less than 200 beds, and it is represented by the constant
in the Tobit model.
Independent variables (Z1, Z2, Z5, Z6, and Z7) were collected from the Serbian
national hospital register. The population characteristics (Z3, Z4) were obtained from the
Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia as a mid-year projection of the population size of
the catchment area [23]. The catchment area was congruent for districts with a sole hospital.
In districts with more hospitals, the main hospital was located in the administrative centre,
whereas other hospitals were located in local communities within the district. For those
situations, the catchment area of the local hospital coincides with the community area,
whereas all other communities are represented in the area served by the main hospital.
This approach for defining the catchment area was the closest to the actual patient flow
within the healthcare system following the acts of RHIF.
2.2. The Applicability of Data Envelopment Analysis

Techniques for efficiency measurement can be classified as parametric or non-parametric
and deterministic or stochastic [14]. Parametric techniques are regression-based, presuming
a specific functional form for the frontier. They are susceptible to model misspecification
because the efficiency scores are sensitive to distributional assumptions. Stochastic meth-
ods are less sensitive to outliers, as part of the observed distance to the frontier can be
attributed to random error. Deterministic methods do not contain a random error as they
assume inefficiency as the only reason for the observed distance to the frontier. Therefore,
the deterministic non-parametric approach of (DEA) is the first choice for measuring effi-
ciency in health care, as it explores efficiency more profoundly by looking for the root of
the inefficiency.
A main advantage of DEA is that it can handle a variety of inputs and outputs,
which is essential when evaluating complex health systems such as hospitals. From the
optimization standpoint, this method respects hospital individuality and does not require
information on relative prices, allowing for more effective comparison [21]. Efficiency
measures obtained via DEA can also be used in second stage (often multi-stage) analyses
which can help to evaluate the efficiency predicates [18]. In such second stage analysis, the
efficiency score obtained through DEA becomes the dependent variable in the post hoc
regression analysis. One of the most common methods for this second stage analysis is
the Tobit regression model that transforms DEA scores to be censored at “0” [24]. After
the Chilingerian study, this regression method found wide application in assessing the
influence of external factors on hospital productivity [25].
This combination of DEA and Tobit regression has seen significant adoption in the
literature on hospital performance evaluation. Kohl et al. included 18 studies of hospi-
tal operations in their systematic review of the literature in which the Tobit regression
model was applied in the second phase using transformed DEA scores as dependent
variables [15]. A search of the Medline database on the 9th of November, revealed an
additional 16 such papers that have been published since that systematic review was
conducted [10,26–40]. Among the published papers, studies focused on European hospital
systems were well-represented with two studies from Turkey and one study each from
Ukraine, Greece, Poland, and the Netherlands [29,41–44].
As the existing studies using this methodology examine different systems in different
social contexts, it is difficult to compare their results and establish specific conclusions.
However, it is clear throughout the literature that broad factors such as hospital location,
population density in a hospital’s catchment area, and bed occupancy ratio are associated
with efficiency. Raising bed occupancy seems to increase efficiency, but only to a certain
threshold, after which point it is correlated with inefficiencies, becomes a threat to the
safety of patients, and jeopardizes the quality of care [45–47]. In every study except one,
average length of hospital stay is correlated with lower level of efficiency, whereas the ratio
between outpatient episodes and inpatient days has the opposite effect [30,34]. On the
other hand, the effects of factors such as hospital competition, hospital size as measured by
the number of beds, hospital type, the percentage of elderly patients, and the number of
specific health workers per hospital bed, are contradictory and vary across studies. This
variance further emphasizes the importance of conducting a DEA on hospital performance
specific to the Serbian context.
2.3. DEA Models

DEA establishes an efficiency frontier by optimizing the ratio between weighted out-
put(s) and weighted input(s) of each decision-making unit (DMU). The frontier represents
the most pessimistic piecewise linear envelopment of the data [48,49]. The set of DMUs is
supposed to contain relatively homogeneous DMUs. Therefore, we included only general
hospitals in our analysis. According to Farrell, this technique compares the DMUs and
assigns 1 to an efficient DMU and less than 1 to inefficient ones [48]. Farrell’s initial study
was expanded by Charnes and colleagues, who suggested a new approach that uses the
constant return to scale (CRS) model, which was then followed by Banker and colleagues
who developed the variable return to scale (VRS) model [48–50].
This study considered hospitals, and each one represented a DMUi (i = 1, . . . ,39) and
produced two outputs yj = (y1i ,y2i ) using three inputs xj = (x1i ,x2i ,x3i ). Two approaches can
be used with the CRS and VRS models: input-oriented and output-oriented. We used the
input-oriented CRS and VRS models for three main reasons. Firstly, it is easier to control the
inputs in a hospital environment than the outputs. Secondly, the input-oriented approach
quantifies the input reduction without changing the output quantities [14]. Thirdly, public
institutions are non-profit entities seeking to provide better services, with less of a focus on
financial profit.
The CRS dual linear programming model has the following mathematical formulation:
Minθ0
39
Subject to ∑ λi xsi ≤ θo xso s = 1, 2, 3
j=1 (1)
39
∑ λi yri ≥ yro r = 1, 2
j=1
λi ≥ 0 i = 1, 2, · · · , 39
in which:
• θo is the efficiency score of hospital under assessment,
• xri is the quantity of input s used by ith the hospital,
• yri is the quantity of output r produced by ith hospital,
• λ denotes the dual variables that identify the benchmarks for inefficient DMUs.
The input-oriented VRS required an additional constraint for the dual CRS model.
This constraint states that the sum of the lambdas is equal to one and can be written
as follows:
39
∑ λi = 1 (2)
i =1
The sum of λ resulting from the CRS model indicates the scale under which the
hospitals are operating. Thus, if we have:
∑ λ > 1, the inefficient hospital is operating under decreasing returns to scale (DRS),
∑ λ < 1, the inefficient hospital is operating under increasing returns to scale (IRS),
∑ λ = 1, the efficient hospital is operating at the most productive scale size.
The use of the DEA technique allows us to obtain three types of efficiencies: technical
efficiency (TE) provided by the CRS model, the pure technical efficiency (PTE) provided by
the VRS model, and the scale efficiency (SE) obtained from the formula:
CRS scores = VRS sores × Scale efficiency

(3)
TE = PTE × SE
Hence, the technical efficiency of a DMU is decomposed into pure technical efficiency
and scale efficiency. This means that pure technical efficiency consists of technical efficiency
not attributed to deviations from the optimal scale. There are equal or greater number of
efficient DMUs in VRS than in CRS, and the assumed scores are also equal or greater [18].
The CRS frontier is prone to a lower estimate of resource utilization and greater output
production than the VRS frontier. In addition, scale efficiency measures the extent to which
a DMU deviates from the optimal scale, revealing the portion of inefficiency attributable
to a given scale of operations. The scale efficiency allows decision makers to select the
optimal amount of resources required to reach an expected production level.
2.4. Malmquist Total Factor Productivity Index

Before measuring productivity, we need to define it. Productivity can be represented
as the ratio between outputs and inputs, in which the maximum output attainable from
each input level presents the production frontier [51]. The specificity of health institutions
is that they operate with a large number of inputs and outputs, many of which are difficult
to express through price.
Following Malmquist’s concept, Fare et al. developed the DEA-based Malmquist total
factor productivity (TFP) to include all factors of production [52–54]. It depends on the
DEA and measures the productivity change of a specific value between time points t and
t + 1. It also applies the constant return to scale over technology to assess the distance
functions employed in evaluating the Malmquist TFP index. The DEA-based Malmquist
TFP index is expressed using the following formula [18]:
1/2
DtI (y t+1 , xt+1 DIt+1 (y t+1 , xt+1


MtI+1 yt+1 , xt+1 , yt , xt = ×  (4)
DtI (y t , xt DIt+1 (y t , xt
MI is the Malmquist index based on the input-oriented approach, DI are the input distance
functions, and x and y are inputs and outputs vectors. An input distance function indicates
the amount that specific input use can be decreased while producing the same output fixed
under the production possibility.
Hence, the Malmquist productivity index is divided into two elements; the first one is
the technical change in efficiency (ECH) (the catch-up effect) [55]:
Dt+1 yt+1 , xt+1

ECH = I t t t (5)
DI (y , x )
and the second element is technological change (TECH) (the frontier shift effect) according
to the formula:
1/2
DtI (y t+1 , xt+1 DtI (y t , xt

TECH = ×  (6)
DIt+1 (y t+1 , xt+1 DtI+1 (y t , xt
The change in the Malmquist productivity index (TFPCH) is the result of the multi-
plication of the change in technical efficiency (ECH) and technological change (TECH). If
this index is greater than 1, the productivity increased between points of time t and t + 1.
Otherwise, productivity decreased if TFP is less than 1, and was stagnant if it equals 1.
ECH represents the change in the technical efficiency, whereas TECH indicates the
difference in technology between time points. In other words, the Malmquist index deter-
mines the contribution of diffusion and learning (efficiency change or the catching up effect)
and innovation (technical change of shifts in the frontier of technology) to productivity
changes [56]. The values of ECH and TECH can be interpreted based on the same principle
as TFPCH.
2.5. Econometric Model

Hospitals’ performance is influenced by managerial skills and environmental variables
beyond managerial influence. A Tobit regression model (also known as the censored model)
was used to investigate the impact of those exogenous factors on efficiency scores in the
second stage of the analysis. According to Hoff, the Tobit regression is sufficient to represent
the second stage of DEA models compared to alternative methods, especially ordinary
least squares (OLS) regression [57].
The Tobit regression allows for the identification of variables that have a significant
influence on the performance of Serbian hospitals. The usual approach is to fit several
different models and choose the one that gives the “best” fit under one or more statistical
measures. The selected model could explain to what extent the observed factors contribute
to inefficiency.
CRS-DEA efficiency scores were transformed to be left-censored at zero because the
original DEA efficiency scores are right-censored. The dependent variables of the Tobit
equation consist of DEA scores transformed into hospital inefficiency scores using the
following formula:
1
Transformed DEA Score = Inefficiency Score = − 1 (7)
DEA score
As a result of the transformation, the inefficiency score was used as a dependent
variable and regressed against hypothesized determinants. The interpretation of regression
coefficients is the same as in OLS. However, they differ in the interpretation of the factor
signs, as a negative sign indicates better efficiency, and a positive sign signifies a greater
level of inefficiency. We assessed multicollinearity before created six models with the
limited number of variables identified from the literature and chose the one that had the
best fit as measured by Wald Chi-squared test.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis
Table 3 reports descriptive statistics for input and output variables for the period
2015–2019. These variables were used in the evaluation of the total factor productivity
of the Serbian hospitals under study. Our study used three input variables: number of
physicians, the number of workers without physicians, and the number of beds. The
mean number of physicians has shown slight fluctuations between 2015 and 2019, with a
five-year average of 121. The mean number of workers, excluding physicians, revealed
the same patterns as the previous variable, with a five-year average of 397. However, the
mean number of beds increased, with a five-year average of 394 and an average increase of
1.37 per cent.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of input and output variables, 2015–2019.
Standard
Input/ Output Mean Median Maximum Minimum
Deviation
2015
Physicians 121 113 253 21 62.44
Workers 400 382 922 65 215.38
Beds 387 354 887 55 222.31
Inpatients with DRG 12,763 10,995 28,012 1276 7184.84
Outpatient 179,943 14,6346 380,024 16,112 101,458
Physicians 119 109 250 22 61.46
Workers 396 379 921 56 214.33
Beds 390 342 868 55 221.64
Outpatient 186,816 161,406 371,341 17,842 105,865.20
Physicians 121 110 261 20 62.78
Workers 399 375 945 49 218.46
Beds 392 353 880 55 222.26
Inpatients with DRG 16,355 14,206 37,330 1517 10,450.44
Outpatient 173,836 148,995 328,275 16,285 94,588.07
Physicians 122 113 260 20 64.09
Workers 399 376 934 48 220.12
Beds 393 357 845 55 220.13
Outpatient 176,813 156,134 344,580 15,591 97,053.67
Physicians 120 110 255 16 63.07
Workers 393 369 921 45 216.10
Beds 409 365 868 64 217.43
Inpatients with DRG 16,950 16,894 44,186.00 1680 10,877.01
Outpatient 179,889 150,738 376,322.0 21,107 101,057.30
Two outputs were considered in this study: the number of inpatients with a DRG and
the number of outpatients. With a five-year average of 14,574, the number of inpatients
revealed fluctuations throughout the study period. The number of outpatients showed a
decline in 2017; afterwards, a slight increase appeared in the last two years of the period
under consideration. The five-year average of this variable was 179,460.
The data from 2019 are presented in Table 3 with related statistical characteristics
of the inputs and outputs employed in the DEA models. We noticed that the median of
each factor was significantly close to the mean value. Moreover, the values of standard
deviations were relatively high, indicating that the resource utilization levels, and resource
allocation were unbalanced.
We included several variables in the Tobit model to explore how environmental factors
affect efficiency. The descriptive characteristics of those variables are summarized in Table 4.
We notice there is a relatively large variation in all considered variables.
3.2. Results of DEA

The efficiency scores provided by the DEA model rely on the quantities of inputs and
outputs. Best practice dictates that the highest efficiency consists of producing a quality
of outputs using the least inputs possible. Given the limited quantities of inputs, the
maximum amounts of outputs are bounded.
Table 4. The summary of the explanatory variable of Tobit model.
DMU Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 Z6 Z7 D1 D2 D3
H01 3.007 0 0.236 0.009 52.358 74.825 5.216 0 0 0
H02 2.333 0 0.212 0.005 51.553 76.480 5.415 0 0 0
H03 1.684 0 0.206 0.008 30.408 66.133 7.938 0 0 1
H04 2.829 0 0.226 0.009 46.499 59.338 4.658 0 1 0
H05 1.505 0 0.267 0.006 40.110 89.797 8.171 0 1 0
H06 2.890 0 0.233 0.009 43.147 78.426 6.634 0 0 0
H07 3.381 0 0.220 0.009 29.169 46.589 5.830 0 0 1
H08 1.593 0 0.206 0.008 58.652 58.667 3.651 0 0 1
H09 1.099 0 0.283 0.007 35.038 77.193 8.041 0 0 0
H10 3.589 0 0.312 0.006 30.440 44.220 5.302 0 0 0
H11 2.730 0 0.203 0.010 62.265 66.368 3.891 0 1 0
H12 1.756 1 0.239 0.007 44.046 70.901 5.875 1 0 0
H13 1.931 1 0.214 0.008 30.409 46.185 5.544 1 0 0
H14 2.338 0 0.203 0.009 51.453 58.712 4.165 0 1 0
H15 2.231 0 0.229 0.007 26.250 44.435 6.179 0 0 0
H16 2.280 0 0.298 0.006 27.962 51.014 6.659 0 0 1
H17 2.471 0 0.203 0.008 66.948 50.595 2.758 1 0 0
H18 3.968 0 0.223 0.007 43.168 48.638 4.112 0 0 1
H19 2.432 0 0.263 0.007 59.587 46.589 2.854 0 0 0
H20 1.616 1 0.258 0.007 64.705 63.834 3.601 0 0 1
H21 2.131 0 0.243 0.008 33.879 49.890 5.375 0 1 0
H22 1.972 0 0.242 0.007 31.600 59.487 6.871 0 0 0
H23 1.467 0 0.195 0.010 36.227 73.496 7.405 0 0 0
H24 1.845 1 0.230 0.009 34.946 64.599 6.747 0 0 1
H25 1.066 0 0.206 0.009 36.228 116.666 11.754 0 1 0
H26 1.386 0 0.211 0.008 38.796 55.184 5.192 0 0 1
H27 3.925 0 0.204 0.009 31.115 55.346 6.492 0 0 1
H28 1.606 0 0.235 0.006 38.880 84.011 7.887 0 0 1
H29 2.258 1 0.201 0.009 75.647 65.982 3.184 0 1 0
H30 1.342 1 0.221 0.008 23.079 56.569 8.946 1 0 0
H31 1.774 1 0.198 0.009 41.531 57.691 5.070 1 0 0
H32 3.842 0 0.195 0.009 5.930 8.383 5.160 1 0 0
H33 1.663 0 0.219 0.009 32.767 54.227 6.040 1 0 0
H34 1.803 1 0.220 0.008 34.837 68.048 7.130 1 0 0
H35 2.418 0 0.153 0.010 35.580 67.276 6.901 0 1 0
H36 1.995 0 0.190 0.010 67.119 61.997 3.371 0 0 1
H37 1.669 0 0.204 0.009 41.545 80.282 7.053 0 0 1
H38 0.337 0 0.275 0.006 35.637 35.361 3.622 0 1 0
H39 3.078 1 0.206 0.009 61.937 48.620 2.865 0 1 0
Table 5 presents the DEA calculations of the CRS, VRS, and SE scores for 2019. In the
CRS model, we notice that 5 out of the 39 hospitals were technically efficient. These were
hospitals: H1, H6, H17, H27, and H29. The findings indicated that they were efficient at
the technical and scale levels. A percentage change in inputs was associated with a similar
percentage change in outputs. The remaining 34 hospitals were technically inefficient.
Technical efficiency scores ranged from 0.4230 to 1. The average technical efficiency score
was 0.7252, which indicates that, on average, the 39 hospitals could achieve the same level
of performance and the same output levels by using 27.48% fewer resources. Otherwise,
hospitals needed to produce 1.3789 (=1/0.7252) times as many as outputs from the same
level of inputs. Hence, an inefficient hospital had to both reduce its inputs and improve its
internal practices. The CRS efficient hospitals were also efficient in pure technical and scale
efficiency measures.
Table 5. Efficiency scores of CRS, VRS and SE in 2019.
Efficiency Scores Return to Reference Set

DMU Σλ
CRS VRS SE Scale (Benchmarks)
H01 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 Constant

H02 0.8757 0.9355 0.9361 0.757 Increasing H1 H29
H03 0.5788 0.5809 0.9964 1.066 Decreasing H1 H6 H17
H04 0.8335 0.9008 0.9253 2.606 Decreasing H1 H6 H17
H05 0.6937 0.7193 0.9644 1.784 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H06 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 Constant H6
H07 0.7610 0.7611 0.9999 0.899 Increasing H6 H17 H27
H08 0.7998 0.8616 0.9284 0.488 Increasing H17 H29
H09 0.5032 0.6916 0.7276 0.257 Increasing H1 H29
H10 0.7005 0.8097 0.8651 0.628 Increasing H1 H6
H11 0.9711 1.0000 0.9711 2.503 Decreasing H1 H29
H12 0.6841 0.7041 0.9717 1.853 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H13 0.4919 0.5164 0.9526 1.704 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H14 0.8044 0.8316 0.9674 1.543 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H15 0.5978 1.0000 0.5978 0.148 Increasing H1 H17
H16 0.6116 0.6566 0.9316 0.424 Increasing H1 H6 H17 H27
H17 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 Constant H17
H18 0.9283 0.9284 0.9999 0.952 Increasing H1 H6 H17 H27
H19 0.7877 1.0000 0.7877 0.198 Increasing H29
H20 0.8554 0.9130 0.9368 0.496 Increasing H29
H21 0.5859 0.6049 0.9686 1.625 Decreasing H1 H6 H17
H22 0.5568 0.7902 0.7046 0.384 Increasing H1 H29
H23 0.5710 0.7293 0.7830 0.402 Increasing H1 H29
H24 0.6150 0.6200 0.9920 1.192 Decreasing H1 H6 H17
H25 0.6449 0.6773 0.9522 1.992 Decreasing H1 H6 H17
H26 0.5402 0.6522 0.8283 0.271 Increasing H1 H17 H29
H27 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 Constant H27
H28 0.6864 0.6904 0.9942 1.162 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H29 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 Constant H29
H30 0.4230 0.4347 0.9732 1.326 Decreasing H1 H6 H17 H27
H31 0.6190 0.6268 0.9876 1.374 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H32 0.6528 0.8069 0.8090 0.262 Increasing H17
H33 0.5172 0.5314 0.9733 1.819 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H34 0.6240 0.6634 0.9406 2.401 Decreasing H1 H6 H17
H35 0.7885 0.8321 0.9476 2.195 Decreasing H1 H17 H27
H36 0.8954 0.9664 0.9266 0.474 Increasing H17 H29
H37 0.6928 0.6945 0.9975 1.045 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
H38 0.4905 0.5426 0.9039 0.408 Increasing H17 H29
H39 0.9009 0.9189 0.9804 1.692 Decreasing H1 H17 H29
Mean 0.7252 0.7844 0.9262
Median 0.6928 0.7902 0.9644
Maximum 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Minimum 0.4230 0.4347 0.5978
Standard
0.1711 0.1662 0.0950
Deviation
The variable return to scale (VRS) represents pure technical efficiency. It measures
inefficiencies due to managerial underperformance only. The hospitals H11, H15, and
H19 were VRS-efficient but not CRS-efficient. These hospitals were technically efficient,
and the source of their inefficiency in CRS was due to environmental factors rather than
technical factors. In other words, these hospitals had implemented the best practices, but
their productivity differences were due to economies of scale. An enhancement in the
productivity of these hospitals was possible by using increasing or decreasing returns to
scale. The average VRS efficiency score was 0.7844 and the standard variation was 0.1662
(Table 6).
The scale efficiency calculated by the DEA method revealed that five hospitals (12.82%
of total hospitals) were efficient and operating under constant returns to scale. Eighteen
hospitals (about 46.15%) were operating under decreasing returns to scale, which means
that input increases lead to less than proportional output increases. Their average scale
efficiency was 0.9697. However, 16 hospitals (about 41.02%) are operating under increasing
returns to scale. Their average scale efficiency was 0.8541. Increasing returns to scale is a
result of positive feedback within the market to improve something already developed or
to worsen an already bad situation.
The assessment of scale efficiency is crucial to address the optimal productive size of
a hospital, as it suggests how resources can be allocated most effectively. Scale efficiency
reveals the ability of a hospital to pinpoint the optimal productive size that provides the
full advantage of economies of scale in producing maximum output per unit of input and
decreasing the average unit costs of production. Concisely, hospital efficiency depends
on the hospital size. We classified hospitals into four groups by bed capacity to illustrate
this issue in our study. The averages of technical and scale efficiencies for each group are
presented in Table 6 as follows:
Table 6. Averages of technical and scale efficiencies for groups in 2019.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

Hospital Group
Very Large Size Large Size Medium Size Small Size
Number of beds ≥600 400 ≤ beds < 600 200 ≤ beds < 400 <00
Number of hospitals in group 8 10 12 9
Technical efficiency average 0.6265 0.7713 0.7470 0.7325
Scale efficiency average 0.9510 0.9581 0.9609 0.8224
Table 6 shows that the average technical efficiency of large hospitals (Group 2) is
0.7713, above the averages in other groups. Medium and small hospitals (Groups 3 and 4)
are in the second and third ranks, respectively, slightly different in their averages. Very
large hospitals from Group 1 are least technically efficient, with an average of 0.6265.
As to the averages of scale efficiency, we notice that Group 3 comes first with a value of
0.9609, while the fourth group has the lowest average (0.8224). In conclusion, Groups 2 and
3 performed the best in both efficiency scores and medium and large hospitals performed
better than very large and small hospitals.
Table 7 reports the efficiency reference set, or peers (also called benchmarks) for each
inefficient hospital. Each pack consists of several peers against which an inefficient hospital
may be benchmarked. Peers represent best practices from which inefficient hospitals may
learn and even adopt policies and techniques to become efficient. For instance, inefficient
H2 had two peers: H1 and H29. Therefore, H2 could adopt best practices from these
peer hospitals to improve its own operations. The other inefficient hospitals had different
combinations of peers. The most cited hospital as a peer was H1, which was related to
28 hospitals, while the least mentioned was H6, which was related to 10 hospitals. DEA
also quantifies the amount of knowledge the hospital has to adopt from each peer in the
form of a percentage of hospital contribution represented by a lambda value. The particular
lambda values (λ) are available upon request, whereas their sums are displayed in Table 6.
According to the lambda values, all hospitals are classified into three groups: those who
operated with decreasing returns to scale and those who operated with increasing returns
to scale and the most efficient which operated with constant returns to scale. The constancy
of returns to scale calls into question the empirical part of Solow’s contribution [58].
Table 7. The efficiency of general hospitals under constant return to scale, 2015–2019.
Efficiency Scores (CRS) Number of Times on

DMU
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 the Frontier
H01 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 5

H02 0.8609 † 0.8171 † 0.9483 † 0.8566 † 0.8757 †
H03 0.6710 ‡ 0.5200 † 0.6061 † 0.6387 † 0.5788 ‡
H04 0.9892 ‡ 0.9467 ‡ 1.0000 0.8697 ‡ 0.8335 ‡ 1
H05 0.8847 ‡ 0.9104 ‡ 0.7989 ‡ 0.6869 † 0.6937 ‡
H06 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9949 1.0000 4
H07 0.8937 ‡ 0.8655 ‡ 1.0000 0.7976 ‡ 0.7610 † 1
H08 0.8387 † 0.7920 † 0.8342 † 1.0000 0.7998 † 1
H09 0.6207 † 0.5978 † 0.4597 † 0.5405 † 0.5032 †
H10 0.8094 † 0.5673 † 0.7193 † 0.6834 † 0.7005 †
H11 0.9636 ‡ 0.9703 ‡ 0.8758 ‡ 0.8404 ‡ 0.9711 ‡
H12 0.8590 ‡ 1.0000 0.8286 ‡ 0.8046 ‡ 0.6841 ‡ 1
H13 0.6788 ‡ 0.7282 ‡ 0.8021 ‡ 0.6283 ‡ 0.4919 ‡
H14 0.8924 ‡ 0.9118 ‡ 0.8571 ‡ 0.8816 † 0.8044 ‡
H15 0.4250 † 0.4168 † 0.5696 † 0.5120 † 0.5978 †
H16 0.6529 † 0.5120 † 0.6622 † 0.6916 † 0.6117 †
H17 0.7614 ‡ 0.8100 ‡ 0.7845 ‡ 0.7383 ‡ 1.0000 1
H18 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9283 † 4
H19 0.6506 † 0.5587 † 0.5787 † 0.8754 † 0.7877 †
H20 0.6372 † 0.6950 † 0.6883 † 0.6357 ‡ 0.8554 †
H21 0.7878 ‡ 0.8121 ‡ 0.8194 ‡ 0.6458 † 0.5859 ‡
H22 0.5813 † 0.5952 † 0.5410 † 0.5941 † 0.5568 †
H23 0.7324 † 0.7477 † 0.7354 † 0.6090 † 0.5710 †
H24 0.7942 ‡ 0.7042 ‡ 0.7619 ‡ 0.6534 † 0.6150 ‡
H25 0.8819 ‡ 0.8364 ‡ 0.8639 ‡ 0.7498 ‡ 0.6449 ‡
H26 0.8947 † 0.9689 † 0.9546 † 0.7677 † 0.5402 †
H27 1.0000 0.8351 ‡ 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 4
H28 0.7522 ‡ 1.0000 0.7759 ‡ 0.7087 † 0.6864 ‡ 1
H29 0.9149 ‡ 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 4
H30 0.7576 † 0.7841 † 0.8742 ‡ 0.6742 ‡ 0.4230 ‡
H31 1.0000 1.0000 0.9858 ‡ 0.7607 ‡ 0.6190 ‡ 2
H32 1.0000 0.9215 † 0.9002 † 0.7568 † 0.6528 † 1
H33 0.5627 ‡ 0.6035 ‡ 0.6748 ‡ 0.6207 ‡ 0.5172 ‡
H34 0.7433 ‡ 0.7831 ‡ 0.8782 ‡ 0.6837 ‡ 0.6240 ‡
H35 0.9633 ‡ 0.8248 ‡ 0.9432 ‡ 0.8768 ‡ 0.7885 ‡
H36 0.5815 † 0.6057 † 1.0000 1.0000 0.8954 † 2
H37 0.7305 † 0.7879 † 0.6297 † 0.7137 † 0.6928 ‡
H38 0.7414 ‡ 0.7510 † 0.6762 † 0.6281 † 0.4905 †
H39 0.8460 ‡ 0.8598 ‡ 0.8752 ‡ 0.7652 † 0.9009 ‡
Mean 0.8040 0.7959 0.8180 0.7663 0.7252
Median 0.8094 0.8121 0.8342 0.7498 0.6928
Maximum 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Minimum 0.4250 0.4168 0.4597 0.5120 0.4230
Standard
0.1469 0.1618 0.1500 0.1410 0.1689
Deviation
Note: † = increasing return to scale, ‡ = decreasing return to scale.
We present efficiency scores for hospitals for each year in Table 7. Only 14 of
39 hospitals were on the frontier once, but only five were on the frontier more than
three times. Mean and especially median values of the entire set in 2019 were below the
levels seen in 2015. Panel data in the second stage will expand on this information with
additional insights.
3.3. Results of Malmquist Index

The results of the Malmquist index are presented in Table 8, indicating that 28 hospitals
improved in the TFP from 2015–2019. The number of hospitals with a Malmquist index
above 1 was greatest in the final year. The overall average of the TFPCH revealed a slight
improvement in productivity over the observed period.
Table 8. The average Malmquist index, frontier shift and efficiency changes over the period
2015–2019.
Malmquist Frontier Shift Efficiency Pure Efficiency Scale Efficiency

DMU
Index [TFPCH] (TECH) Change [ECH] Change [PECH] Change [SECH]
H01 1.027 1.027 1.000 1.000 1.000
H02 1.044 1.040 1.004 1.013 0.991
H03 0.989 1.027 0.964 0.964 1.000
H04 1.011 1.056 0.958 0.974 0.983
H05 1.000 1.063 0.941 0.933 1.009
H06 1.030 1.030 1.000 1.000 1.000
H07 0.978 1.018 0.961 0.956 1.004
H08 1.126 1.140 0.988 1.003 0.985
H09 1.034 1.089 0.949 0.959 0.989
H10 0.956 0.991 0.965 0.967 0.998
H11 1.065 1.062 1.002 1.000 1.002
H12 1.043 1.104 0.945 0.916 1.031
H13 0.988 1.071 0.923 0.881 1.047
H14 1.050 1.078 0.974 0.975 1.000
H15 1.180 1.083 1.089 1.000 1.089
H16 1.040 1.057 0.984 0.980 1.004
H17 1.244 1.162 1.071 1.055 1.015
H18 0.951 0.969 0.982 0.982 1.000
H19 1.111 1.059 1.049 1.051 0.998
H20 1.157 1.075 1.076 1.093 0.984
H21 1.020 1.098 0.929 0.922 1.007
H22 1.003 1.014 0.989 0.990 0.999
H23 0.988 1.051 0.940 0.974 0.964
H24 0.992 1.057 0.938 0.935 1.003
H25 0.983 1.063 0.925 0.920 1.005
H26 1.023 1.161 0.882 0.910 0.968
H27 1.015 1.015 1.000 1.000 1.000
H28 1.028 1.052 0.977 0.977 1.000
H29 1.009 1.167 0.864 0.870 0.993
H30 1.140 1.115 1.022 1.000 1.022
H31 1.023 1.153 0.887 0.890 0.997
H32 0.946 1.052 0.899 0.948 0.948
H33 1.065 1.088 0.979 0.967 1.012
H34 1.027 1.073 0.957 0.950 1.008
H35 0.988 1.038 0.951 0.957 0.994
H36 1.221 1.096 1.114 1.119 0.996
H37 1.048 1.062 0.987 0.981 1.006
H38 1.013 1.124 0.902 0.919 0.982
H39 1.099 1.082 1.016 1.004 1.011
2015–2016 1.015 1.030 0.985 0.989 0.997
2016–2017 1.099 1.065 1.032 1.013 1.019
2017–2018 0.952 1.014 0.939 0.950 0.988
2018–2019 1.103 1.178 0.936 0.936 1.001
2015–2019 1.042 1.072 0.973 0.972 1.001
The findings from this table indicate that nine hospitals improved their efficiency over
the period 2015–2019, with the greatest gains observed between 2016 and 2017. However,
the progress was not sustained in 2018 and 2019. The primary drive in efficiency was
scale efficiency, whereas pure technical efficiency decreased in the observed period. These
results show a technological improvement resulting from year-over-year TECH growth in
23 hospitals from 2015 to 2016 and 37 hospitals from 2018 to 2019.
3.4. Results of Tobit Regression Model

Variance inflation factor (VIF) was used to detect the severity of multicollinearity
(Table 9). VIFs for all variables were calculated and results show that all of them to be less
than 2. This indicates that multicollinearity is not a substantive concern in our study [59,60].
Table 9. The values of variance inflation factor for examined environmental factors.
Variable Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 Z6 Z7 D1 D2 D3
Mean VIF † 1.42 1.77 1.85 1.92 1.40 1.80 1.85 1.61 1.64 1.71
Note: † VIF: variance inflation factor.
Table 10 presents the results of the estimation of the Tobit models. Model 6 has
the higher value of the Wald Chi-squared test (169.50). In this model, we notice three
statistically significant variables at 1% and two at 5%. Respectively, these variables are the
ratio of output episodes to inpatient days (Z1), the proportion of people older than 65 in
the catchment area (Z3), the large size hospitals (D2), the bed turnover rate (Z5), and the
bed occupation rate (Z6).
Table 10. Results of the estimation of Tobit model.
Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Z1 −0.0185 *** 0.0184 *** −0.0215 *** −0.0218 *** −0.0219 *** −0.0185 ***
Z2 0.0308 0.0332 . . . .. 0.0369 0.0336 0.0346
Z3 2.7140 *** 2.9427 *** 2.6519 *** 2.5945 *** 2.4396 *** 2.4384 ***
Z4 −5.3141 . . . .. . . . .. −4.0363 −4.1911
D1 . . . .. . . . .. −0.0097 −0.0353 −0.0312 −0.0298
D2 . . . .. . . . .. −0.1155 ** −0.1231 *** −0.1154 ** −0.1141 **
D3 . . . .. . . . .. −0.0495 −0.05844 −0.0577 −0.0596
Z5 −0.0135 *** −0.0135 *** −0.0164 *** −0.0167 *** −0.0168 *** −0.0135 ***
Z6 −0.0026 ** −0.0025 * ... . ... . −0.0025 **
Z7 ... . . . . .. −0.0215 −0.0225 −0.02316 * ... .
Constant 0.4995 *** 0.3959 *** 0.6067 *** 0.6372 *** 0.7129 *** 0.5857 ***
Observations 195 195 195 195 195 195
Number of groups 39 39 39 39 39 39
Obs. per group 5 5 5 5 5 5
Wald X2 157.78 153.72 163.97 165.12 167.55 169.50
Prob. > X2 0.0000 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Log Likelihood 13.4347 12.3064 15.1307 15.4441 16.0987 16.6212
Note: ***, **, * indicate significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively.
At 1%, we notice that the regression coefficient regarding the ratio of outpatient
episodes to inpatient days (Z1) is negative and statistically significant. One increase in this
variable leads to a decrease in the inefficiency scores for 0.0185. In other words, more out-
patient episodes increase efficiency. The coefficient of (Z3) was statistically and positively
significant at 1%. This means that an increase of 1% of the proportion of the elderly in the
catchment area increases the inefficiency score by 2.4384. The lack of competition from
other hospitals in the district (Z2) correlated with greater inefficiency, although this correla-
tion was not statistically significant. Variables related to the hospital sizes are expressed in
D1, D2, and D3, representing the groups of very large, large, and medium hospitals. The
constant of the model represents the fourth group. We notice that large hospitals (D2) have
a negative and statistically significant correlation with inefficiency scores. Thus, that group
of hospitals has a positive correlation with efficiency scores. The same result is revealed
previously in Table 7.
However, the findings stipulate that very large and medium hospital size does not
significantly affect inefficiency scores. As to the small hospitals, their coefficient is positive
and statistically significant at 1% (represented by the constant of the model). This indi-
cates that this group of hospitals has a positive correlation with inefficiency scores. The
coefficients of the bed turnover rate (Z5) and the bed occupation rate (Z6) are negative
and statistically significant at 1% and 5%, respectively. These variables impair inefficiency
scores. An increase of 1% percent in (Z5) and (Z6) reduces the inefficiency scores by 0.0135
and 0.0025, respectively.
To obtained results, we used R-package deaR for DEA and panel-data analysis [61].
Additionally, Tobit regression was performed with the STATA 15 statistical package,
whereas descriptive statistics were calculated using Microsoft Excel 2016 [62,63].
4. Discussion
As stated in the introduction, the main aim of the study was to evaluate hospitals’
performances and identify environmental factors that correlate with hospital efficiency
using operational research methods.
Serbian hospitals operated at the low-efficiency level during 2015–2019, compared
to most European peers [14,64]. Some peers were more inefficient than Serbia, such as
in Turkey during some years and in some DEA models of Slovakian hospitals [65–67].
However, hospitals in the Czech Republic and Netherlands had slightly higher average
efficiency, whereas hospitals in Austria and Greece performed much better [68–71]. Only
five hospitals in Serbia were both technically and scale efficient in the last studied year.
Three of those five hospitals were on the frontier in the starting year, suggesting minor
changes among efficient DMUs. Among inefficient hospitals, almost the same number
operated on either decreasing or increasing returns to scale. Our analysis intends to
identify examples of good practice to allow managers at other hospitals to know how
they can implement the practices of their top performing peers. Efficiency is only one
characteristic of the patient-centered quality care along with timeliness, effectiveness,
equity or fairness [72]. We are sure that all health professionals work for the patient’s best
interests, but some are simply more efficient than others.
The most inefficient hospital is far behind the median and mean values of the complete
sample. Such results might be expected from summarizing inputs and outputs data
that illustrated differences in resources among hospitals. Despite all observed hospitals
being general care facilities, their respective capacities to deal with local health needs
differs significantly as some of them are located in remote and less populated areas and
operating on a small scale [9]. Small hospitals have relatively few patients compared
to their fixed operating costs, so the average cost per case tends to be higher than in
larger hospitals. Moreover, they lack the resources for optimization in the face of payment
changes and require time to become used to these changes. Since their efficiency did not
change significantly over the observed period, there is reason to be pessimistic about their
managerial capacities. To avoid leaving people in rural areas without health care, some less
efficient hospitals might eventually need to be converted into nursing homes or outpatient
care centres that provide specialist ambulatory care [73].
During the observed period, the productivity of Serbian hospitals increased despite
a decline in efficiency. This finding is in line with similar studies in which productivity
is closely related to technical improvements [74,75]. Even in studies with productivity
decline, it was mostly driven by technical descent rather than efficiency changes [76,77]. In
the observed period, Serbia started implementing DRGs through a pilot study and finally
as a part of the reimbursement scheme. Paradoxically, productivity rather than efficiency
increased throughout implementation. Increasing productivity might be explained by
hospitals attempting to better position themselves before the pay-for-performance scheme
is fully implemented.
The Tobit model was applied in order to evaluate external factors that can affect
efficiency. Among evaluated variables, two lead to inefficiency, whereas four were as-
sociated with efficiency. The proportion of elderly in the catchment area was associated
with inefficiency, which was expected [38,42]. As numbers of elderly living in an area
increased, the less efficient the corresponding hospital was, and this finding is important
in light of current Serbian demographic projections [78]. Elders have higher rates of pro-
longed hospital stay, institutional residence, and use of long-term care services. Their
services consume a tremendous amount of resources and amplify hospital resources’ waste.
Ageing-driven inefficiencies are another ballast that seriously jeopardizes already ineffi-
cient Serbian hospitals. The demographic situation is not better in most of the Southeast
European countries [79]. There is a widespread fear that the existing health system, which
was built on a model of demographic growth, will not withstand projected demand for
health services [6]. Perhaps, payment regulation adjusted for unfavourable population
conditions is a solution for hospitals that will not endanger their operations if ceasing
operations is not an option.
Variable Z2 in the model indicated whether or not the DMU was the only hospital in
the district. The hypothesis behind its inclusion was that hospitals without competition
in the district would take advantage of the monopoly to achieve relative efficiency com-
pared to hospitals with competition. However, the regression results did not support our
hypothesis, and monopoly hospitals did not materialise their privileged market position.
Perhaps, the absence of competition might explain this finding. A previous paper suggests
that competition between public providers stimulate public hospitals to improve their
efficiency [80]. Another possible reason might be better management of individual patients
within hospitals in multi-hospital districts, with patients chosen for some characteristic(s)
other than their needs [81]. Selective treatment of patients based on resource consumption
negatively affects hospitals’ technical efficiency and is especially frequent in the prospective
payment system if the reimbursement system is not sophisticated [81–83]. The financial
benefits of choosing profitable patients are temporary, whereas consequences of delays in
treatment for those who need help the most are permanent.
Our econometric study shows that hospital size is a significant factor that contributes
to inefficiency in small size hospitals and efficiency in medium and large hospitals. This
finding supports literature evidence that the optimum efficiency level exists in hospitals
with 200–600 beds [22,71,75,84]. Small hospitals with under 200 beds cannot realize their
full potential, while huge hospitals, beyond 600 beds, are also difficult to manage efficiently.
The negative coefficients related to the ratio of outpatient visits to inpatient day and bed
turnover indicate that an expansion of outpatient care and increasing turnover would lead
to an inefficiency decrease. The reasonable utilization of beds should be associated with
management realignments to facilitate patient flow. Day hospitals are part of the solution
where multiple patients can use the same bed in the same shift with proper planning
between procedures. Adequate care without an overnight stay will also increase bed
turnover and enhance ambulatory care within existing capacities [37,85]. Patients are also
interested in day hospitals that are less stressful and more comfortable, allowing them to
regain everyday routine earlier [86]. Currently, day-cases are underrepresented in Serbia,
but that can be gradually increased with incentives [13].
Limitations
Our case study has limitations due to the applied method, the data, and the specific
characteristics of healthcare. DEA is a non-parametric efficiency analysis that depends
heavily on data accuracy under the assumption of the right level of inputs and outputs for
each DMU. Researchers resort to estimation because they cannot cover all inputs and all
outputs in one study. Therefore, we selected values that best reflect hospital activity with
an awareness of data quality [13]. Ideally, measuring health efficiency should include the
health gains of individual patients, but since data on individual health improvements is
hard to collect on the national level, we chose intermediate outputs [87]. Among outputs,
the most resource-intensive is inpatient care expressed through DRG coefficients not
available before 2015.
Regarding resources, we have to acknowledge that “full-time equivalent” is a more
accurate indicator of staff workload than the number of employees. Unfortunately, hospitals
have not collected data on this indicator. Nor does the study consider the differences within
the categories of physicians and other healthcare workers. The quality of labour may vary
depending on individual health skills, experience, martial, and health status.
Indicators of hospital performances (LOS, BOR, BOR) were calculated using the “day-
to-day method”, despite the greater accuracy of bed occupancy in hours that reflects
the genuine patient occupancy of beds [88,89]. Unfortunately, we did not have such a
precise measure.
The DEA’s results refer to one particular period. One may argue that the operation
of a hospital in one year may be the result of a transient advantage or disadvantage.
However, the panel-data analysis for the five-year interval suggests stability of hospital
efficiency throughout the observed period. The traditional DEA model cannot forecast the
future efficiency of DMUs or predict the efficiency of new DMUs based on the existing
dataset. DEA results are relative, and at least one DMU is always fully efficient, whereas
the efficiency level of other units depends on their operations and operation of other
comparable counterparts [90].
5. Conclusions
Using the DEA method, Malmquist total factor productivity index, and the Tobit
regression model, our study has empirically shown that there is a large margin for im-
provement in efficiency in Serbian hospitals. Even important factors that affect hospital
performance but cannot be influenced, such as demographic trends, should not be out of
the scope of both policy changes and shifts in hospital management strategies.
We suggest several strategies for efficiency improvements and cost reduction. Where
possible, managers of inefficient hospitals should follow the example of their top-performing
peers to find the proper relationship between inputs and outputs in their specific contexts.
This implies greater levels of cooperation and data-sharing across the hospital system,
which can be catalyzed by changes to national policy. Improving the capacities of day
hospitals is another key strategy that can be implemented to enable higher patient turnover
with lower costs. Managers should also consider possible mergers of small-scale hospitals
in order to improve scale efficiency and realize performance gains, while accounting for
potential new sources of inefficiency that may arise following such a merger [91].
Certainly, it is also important to remember that efficiency is not the ultimate goal
of hospital systems, but merely a means through which the primary goal of delivering
improved health outcomes can be supported. In moving towards efficient hospitals, policy-
makers must remain aware of the unique challenges faced by hospitals that are isolated in
their districts and must bear the majority of the burden of inpatient and outpatient care
for the local population. In these instances, total efficiency (a DEA score of 1) may not be
realistically achievable without a reduction in essential services and a negative impact on
population health.
Future research is also needed to promote the balanced systemic development and
sustainable health policy that would contribute further to hospital performance. These
efforts should focus on evaluating more methods and other factors affecting the entire
system’s efficiency [92]. The efficiency research is a powerful tool to improve the efficiency
of hospitals because public reporting affects the behavior of healthcare professionals and
organizations more than the choices of patients and caregivers [93]. The results of this work
may not reflect immediately in hospital operations, but will have a net positive impact over
time, especially if combined with evidence-based decision-making and consideration for
unique hospital situations on the part of hospital financing administrators.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.M. and D.V.; methodology, A.M. and D.V.; software,
A.M.; validation, A.M. and D.V.; formal analysis, A.M.; investigation, A.M.; resources, A.M.; data
curation, A.M.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M.; writing—review and editing, D.V.; vi-
sualization, A.M.; supervision, D.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data available on request. The data presented in this study are
available on request from the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the anonymous reviewer for their careful reading of
manuscript and their insightful comments and suggestions. Thank you to all of the hospitals who
supplied the data used in this study. All hospital rankings were kept anonymous in consideration of
privacy concerns but if you supplied data and wish to see the results for your hospital, please reach
out to the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Murray, C.J.; Frenk, J. A framework for assessing the performance of health systems. Bull. World Health Organ. 2000, 78, 717–731.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social Behavioral and Genetic Factors in Health. The Impact of Social and Cultural
Environment on Health. In Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment: Moving beyond the Nature/Nurture Debate; Hernandez, L.M.,
Blazer, D.G., Eds.; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2006; pp. 25–43.
3. Braveman, P.; Gottlieb, L. The social determinants of health: It’s time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Rep. 2014,
129, 19–31. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. The World Bank. World Bank Country and Lending Groups. Available online: https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/
knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups (accessed on 23 July 2021).
5. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Demographic Yearbook 2019; Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia: Belgrade,
Serbia, 2020.
6. Jakovljević, M. Population ageing alongside health care spending growth. Srp. Arh. Za Celok. Lek. 2017, 145, 534–539. [CrossRef]
7. Republički Zavod za Statistiku. Bilten o Anketiranoj Radnoj Snazi u Republici Srbiji 2020 (Translated Title: Bulletin on the Surveyed
Labor Force in the Republic of Serbia 2020); Republički Zavod za Statistiku: Belgrade, Serbia, 2021.
8. Bjegovic-Mikanovic, V.; Vasic, M.; Vukovic, D.; Jankovic, J.; Jovic-Vranes, A.; Santric-Milicevic, M.; Terzic-Supic, Z.;
Hernández-Quevedo, C.; W.H.O. Serbia: Health System Review; European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies: Brussels,
Belgium, 2019.
9. Ministarstvo zdravlja Vlade Republike Srbije. Pravilnik o Bližim Uslovima za Obavljanje Zdravstvene Delatnosti u Zdravstvenim
Ustanovama i Drugim Oblicima Zdravstvene Službe (Translated Title: Rulebook on Detailed Conditions for Performing Health Care Activities
in Health Care Institutions and Other Forms of Health Care Service); Ministarstvo zdravlja Vlade Republike Srbije: Belgrade, Serbia,
2018; 16/2018.
10. Peng, Z.; Zhu, L.; Wan, G.; Coyte, P.C. Can integrated care improve the efficiency of hospitals? Research based on 200 Hospitals
in China. Cost Eff. Resour. Alloc. 2021, 19, 61. [CrossRef]
11. OECD/European Union. Health Expenditure by Provider. In Health at a Glance: Europe 2020: State of Health in the EU Cycle; OECD
Publishing: Paris, France, 2020; pp. 168–170.
12. Republički Fond za Zdravstveno Osiguranje. Izveštaj o Finansijskom Poslovanju Republičkog Fonda za Zdravstveno Osiguranje za
2018. Godinu (Translated Title: Report on the Financial Operations of the Republic Health Insurance Fund for 2018); Republički Fond za
Zdravstveno Osiguranje: Belgrade, Serbia, 2019; pp. 12–30.
13. Medarevic, A.P. Describing Serbian Hospital Activity Using Australian Refined Diagnosis Related Groups: A Case Study in
Vojvodina Province. Zdr. Varst. 2020, 59, 18–26. [CrossRef]
14. O’Neill, L.; Rauner, M.; Heidenberger, K.; Kraus, M. A cross-national comparison and taxonomy of DEA-based hospital efficiency
studies. Socio-Econ. Plan. Sci. 2008, 42, 158–189. [CrossRef]
15. Kohl, S.; Schoenfelder, J.; Fugener, A.; Brunner, J.O. The use of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) in healthcare with a focus on
hospitals. Health Care Manag. Sci. 2019, 22, 245–286. [CrossRef]
16. Ministarstvo zdravlja Vlade Republike Srbije. Plan Optimizacije Mreže Ustanova Zdravstvene Zaštite—Masterplan (Translated Title:
Optimization Plan of the Network of Health Care Institutions—Master Plan); Ministarstvo zdravlja Vlade Republike Srbije: Belgrade,
Serbia, 2020.
17. Institute of Public Health of Serbia. Health Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Serbia 2019; Institute of Public Health of Serbia:
Belgrade, Serbia, 2020.
18. Ozcan, Y.A. Health Care Benchmarking and Performance Evaluation; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2008; pp. 15–41.
19. Chilingerian, J.A.; Sherman, H.D. Health Care Applications. In Handbook on Data Envelopment Analysis; Springer: Boston, MA,
USA, 2004; pp. 481–537.
20. Republički Fond za Zdravstveno Osiguranje. Pravilnik o Ugovaranju Zdravstvene Zaštite iz Obaveznog Zdravstvenog Osiguranja
sa Davaocima Zdravstvenih Usluga za 2019. Godinu (Translated Title: Rulebook on Contracting Health Care from Compulsory Health
Insurance with Health Care Providers for 2019); Republički Fond za Zdravstveno Osiguranje: Belgrade, Serbia, 2018.
21. Weiss, A.J.; Elixhauser, A. Overview of Hospital Stays in the United States, 2012: Statistical Brief #180; Healthcare Cost and Utilization
Project (HCUP) Statistical Briefs; Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: Rockville, MD, USA, 2014; pp. 1–14.
22. Giancotti, M.; Guglielmo, A.; Mauro, M. Efficiency and optimal size of hospitals: Results of a systematic search. PLoS ONE 2017,
12, e0174533. [CrossRef]
23. Republički Zavod za Statistiku. Opštine i Regioni u Republici Srbiji 2020 (Translated Title: Municipalities and Regions in the Republic of
Serbia 2020); Republički Zavod za Statistiku: Belgrade, Serbia, 2021.
24. Maddala, G.S. Limited-Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1986.
25. Chilingerian, J.A. Evaluating physician efficiency in hospitals: A multivariate analysis of best practices. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 1995, 80,
548–574. [CrossRef]
26. Han, A.; Lee, K.H. The Impact of Public Reporting Schemes and Market Competition on Hospital Efficiency. Healthcare 2021,
9, 1031. [CrossRef]
27. Kim, Y.; Lee, K.H.; Choi, S.W. Multifaced Evidence of Hospital Performance in Pennsylvania. Healthcare 2021, 9, 670. [CrossRef]
28. Sarabi Asiabar, A.; Sharifi, T.; Rezapour, A.; Khatami Firouzabadi, S.M.A.; Haghighat-Fard, P.; Mohammad-Pour, S. Technical
efficiency and its affecting factors in Tehran’s public hospitals: DEA approach and Tobit regression. Med. J. Islam. Repub. Iran
2020, 34, 176. [CrossRef]
29. Bagci, H.; Konca, M. Evaluating the Technical Efficiency of Hospitals Providing Tertiary Health Care in Turkey: An Application
Based on Data Envelopment Analysis. Hosp. Top. 2021, 99, 49–63. [CrossRef]
30. Ayiko, R.; Mujasi, P.N.; Abaliwano, J.; Turyareeba, D.; Enyaku, R.; Anguyo, R.; Odoch, W.; Bakibinga, P.; Aliti, T. Levels, trends
and determinants of technical efficiency of general hospitals in Uganda: Data envelopment analysis and Tobit regression analysis.
BMC Health Serv. Res. 2020, 20, 916. [CrossRef]
31. Jing, R.; Xu, T.; Lai, X.; Mahmoudi, E.; Fang, H. Technical Efficiency of Public and Private Hospitals in Beijing, China: A
Comparative Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 17, 82. [CrossRef]
32. Kakemam, E.; Dargahi, H. The Health Sector Evolution Plan and the Technical Efficiency of Public Hospitals in Iran. Iran J. Public
Health 2019, 48, 1681–1689.
33. Ahmed, S.; Hasan, M.Z.; Laokri, S.; Jannat, Z.; Ahmed, M.W.; Dorin, F.; Vargas, V.; Khan, J.A.M. Technical efficiency of public
district hospitals in Bangladesh: A data envelopment analysis. Cost Eff. Resour. Alloc. 2019, 17, 15. [CrossRef]
34. Jing, R.Z.; Zhang, H.Y.; Xu, T.T.; Zhang, L.Y.; Fang, H. Study on the efficiency of tertiary public hospitals and its influencing
factors in Beijing. Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2018, 50, 408–415.
35. Sultan, W.I.M.; Crispim, J. Measuring the efficiency of Palestinian public hospitals during 2010–2015: An application of a
two-stage DEA method. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2018, 18, 381. [CrossRef]
36. Jiang, S.; Min, R.; Fang, P.Q. The impact of healthcare reform on the efficiency of public county hospitals in China. BMC Health
Serv. Res. 2017, 17, 838. [CrossRef]
37. Ali, M.; Debela, M.; Bamud, T. Technical efficiency of selected hospitals in Eastern Ethiopia. Health Econ. Rev. 2017, 7, 24.
[CrossRef]
38. Guo, H.; Zhao, Y.; Niu, T.; Tsui, K.L. Hong Kong Hospital Authority resource efficiency evaluation: Via a novel DEA-Malmquist
model and Tobit regression model. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0184211. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Sielskas, A. Determinants of hospital inefficiency. The case of Polish county hospitals. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0256267. [CrossRef]
40. Hsiao, B.; Chen, L.H.; Wu, H.T. Assessing performance of Taiwan hospitals using data envelopment analysis: In view of
ownership. Int. J. Health Plan. Manag. 2019, 34, e602–e616. [CrossRef]
41. Ozgen Narci, H.; Ozcan, Y.A.; Sahin, I.; Tarcan, M.; Narci, M. An examination of competition and efficiency for hospital industry
in Turkey. Health Care Manag. Sci. 2015, 18, 407–418. [CrossRef]
42. Pilyavsky, A.I.; Aaronson, W.E.; Bernet, P.M.; Rosko, M.D.; Valdmanis, V.G.; Golubchikov, M.V. East-west: Does it make a
difference to hospital efficiencies in Ukraine? Health Econ. 2006, 15, 1173–1186. [CrossRef]
43. Dimas, G.; Goula, A.; Soulis, S. Productive performance and its components in Greek public hospitals. Oper. Res. 2012, 12, 15–27.
[CrossRef]
44. Blank, J.L.; Valdmanis, V.G. Environmental factors and productivity on Dutch hospitals: A semi-parametric approach. Health Care
Manag. Sci. 2010, 13, 27–34. [CrossRef]
45. Jones, R. Hospital bed occupancy demystified. Br. J. Healthc. Manag. 2011, 17, 242–248. [CrossRef]
46. Madsen, F.; Ladelund, S.; Linneberg, A. High levels of bed occupancy associated with increased inpatient and thirty-day hospital
mortality in Denmark. Health Aff. 2014, 33, 1236–1244. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Hopson, C.; Marx, C. High Bed Occupancy Rates Increasing Inefficiency; Nhs Providers: London, UK, 2017.
48. Farrell, M.J. The measurement of productive efficiency. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. A (Gen.) 1957, 120, 253–281. [CrossRef]
49. Charnes, A.; Cooper, W.W.; Rhodes, E. Measuring the efficiency of decision making units. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 1978, 2, 429–444.
[CrossRef]
50. Banker, R.D.; Charnes, A.; Cooper, W.W. Some models for estimating technical and scale inefficiencies in data envelopment
analysis. Manag. Sci. 1984, 30, 1078–1092. [CrossRef]
51. Diewert, E.W.; Fox, K.J. The Difference Approach to Productivity Measurement and Exact Indicators. In Advances in Efficiency and
Productivity Analysis; Parmeter, C.F., Sickles, R.C., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 9–40.
52. Malmquist, S. Index numbers and indifference surfaces. Trab. Estad. 1953, 4, 209–242. [CrossRef]
53. Färe, R.; Grosskopf, S.; Lindgren, B.; Roos, P. Productivity changes in Swedish pharamacies 1980–1989: A non-parametric
Malmquist approach. J. Product. Anal. 1992, 3, 85–101. [CrossRef]
54. Färe, R.; Grosskopf, S.; Norris, M.; Zhang, Z. Productivity growth, technical progress, and efficiency change in industrialized
countries. Am. Econ. Rev. 1994, 84, 66–83.
55. Färe, R.; Grosskopf, S.; Margaritis, D. Malmquist Productivity Indexes and DEA. In Handbook on Data Envelopment Analysis;
Cooper, W.W., Seiford, L.M., Zhu, J., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2011; pp. 127–149.
56. Mujasi, P.N.; Asbu, E.Z.; Puig-Junoy, J. How efficient are referral hospitals in Uganda? A data envelopment analysis and Tobit
regression approach. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2016, 16, 230. [CrossRef]
57. Hoff, A. Second stage DEA: Comparison of approaches for modelling the DEA score. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2007, 181, 425–435.
[CrossRef]
58. Solow, R.M. Technical change and the aggregate production function. Rev. Econ. Stat. 1957, 39, 312–320. [CrossRef]
59. Ryan, T.P. Detecting Multicollinearity. In Modern Regression Methods; Applied Probability and Statistics; John Wiley & Sons:
New York, NY, USA, 1997; pp. 132–136.
60. Neter, J.; Kutner, M.H.; Nachtsheim, C.J.; Wasserman, W. Multicollinearity Diagnostics—Variance Inflation Factor. In Applied
Linear Statistical Models; McGraw Hill/Irwin: New York, NY, USA, 2004; pp. 406–410.
61. Coll-Serrano, V.; Bolos, V.; Benitez Suarez, R. Data Envelopment Analysis with deaR.; University of Valencia: Valencia, Spain, 2018.
62. StataCorp, L. Stata: Release 15. Statistical Software; StataCorp LLC: College Station, TX, USA, 2017.
63. Microsoft Corporation. Microsoft Excel; Microsoft Corporation: Washington, DC, USA, 2016.
64. Hollingsworth, B. Non-parametric and parametric applications measuring efficiency in health care. Health Care Manag. Sci. 2003,
6, 203–218. [CrossRef]
65. Blatnik, P.; Bojnec, S.; Tusak, M. Measuring Efficiency of Secondary Healthcare Providers in Slovenia. Open Med. 2017, 12, 214–225.
[CrossRef]
66. Stefko, R.; Gavurova, B.; Kocisova, K. Healthcare efficiency assessment using DEA analysis in the Slovak Republic. Health Econ.
Rev. 2018, 8, 6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Kucuk, A.; Ozsoy, V.S.; Balkan, D. Assessment of technical efficiency of public hospitals in Turkey. Eur. J. Public Health 2020, 30,
230–235. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Vrabkova, I.; Vankova, I. Efficiency of Human Resources in Public Hospitals: An Example from the Czech Republic. Int. J. Environ.
Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4711. [CrossRef]
69. Van Ineveld, M.; van Oostrum, J.; Vermeulen, R.; Steenhoek, A.; van de Klundert, J. Productivity and quality of Dutch hospitals
during system reform. Health Care Manag. Sci. 2016, 19, 279–290. [CrossRef]
70. Flokou, A.; Aletras, V.; Niakas, D. A window-DEA based efficiency evaluation of the public hospital sector in Greece during the
5-year economic crisis. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0177946. [CrossRef]
71. Czypionka, T.; Kraus, M.; Mayer, S.; Rohrling, G. Efficiency, ownership, and financing of hospitals: The case of Austria. Health
Care Manag. Sci. 2014, 17, 331–347. [CrossRef]
72. Institute of Medicine Committee on Quality of Health Care in America. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the
21st Century; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2001.
73. Koppel, A.; Kahur, K.; Habicht, T.; Saar, P.; Habicht, J.; van Ginneken, E. Estonia: Health System Review; Health Systems in
Transition; European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies: Brussels, Belgium, 2008; Volume 10, pp. 1–230.
74. Ngobeni, V.; Breitenbach, M.C.; Aye, G.C. Technical efficiency of provincial public healthcare in South Africa. Cost Eff. Resour.
Alloc. 2020, 18, 3. [CrossRef]
75. Cheng, Z.; Tao, H.; Cai, M.; Lin, H.; Lin, X.; Shu, Q.; Zhang, R.N. Technical efficiency and productivity of Chinese county hospitals:
An exploratory study in Henan province, China. BMJ Open 2015, 5, e007267. [CrossRef]
76. Tlotlego, N.; Nonvignon, J.; Sambo, L.G.; Asbu, E.Z.; Kirigia, J.M. Assessment of productivity of hospitals in Botswana: A DEA
application. Int. Arch. Med. 2010, 3, 27. [CrossRef]
77. Zhang, X.; Tone, K.; Lu, Y. Impact of the Local Public Hospital Reform on the Efficiency of Medium-Sized Hospitals in Japan: An
Improved Slacks-Based Measure Data Envelopment Analysis Approach. Health Serv. Res. 2018, 53, 896–918. [CrossRef]
78. Avdeev, A.; Eremenko, T.; Festy, P.; Gaymu, J.; Le Bouteillec, N.; Springer, S.; Depledge, R.; Grieve, M.; Jacobs-Colas, A.;
Wiles-Portier, E. Populations and demographic trends of European countries, 1980–2010. Population 2011, 66, 9–129. [CrossRef]
79. Judah, T. Southeast Europe’s Looming Demographic Crisis. Available online: https://www.helvetas.org/en/eastern-europe/
about-us/follow-us/helvetas-mosaic/article/March2021/demographic-decline-southeast-europe (accessed on 23 July 2021).
80. Cooper, Z.; Gibbons, S.; Jones, S.; McGuire, A. Does Competition Improve Public Hospitals’ Efficiency?: Evidence from a Quasi-
Experiment in the English National Health Service; Centre for Economic Performance, LSE: London, UK, 2012.
81. Friesner, D.L.; Rosenman, R. Do hospitals practice cream skimming? Health Serv. Manag. Res. 2009, 22, 39–49. [CrossRef]
82. Berta, P.; Callea, G.; Martini, G.; Vittadini, G. The effects of upcoding, cream skimming and readmissions on the Italian hospitals
efficiency: A population-based investigation. Econ. Model. 2010, 27, 812–821. [CrossRef]
83. Martinussen, P.E.; Hagen, T.P. Reimbursement systems, organisational forms and patient selection: Evidence from day surgery in
Norway. Health Econ. Policy Law 2009, 4, 139–158. [CrossRef]
84. Yong, K.; Harris, A.H. Efficiency of Hospitals in Victoria under Casemix Funding: A Stochastic Frontier Approach; Centre for Health
Program Evaluation Australia: Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 1999; pp. 1–21.
85. Kirigia, J.M.; Asbu, E.Z. Technical and scale efficiency of public community hospitals in Eritrea: An exploratory study. Health
Econ. Rev. 2013, 3, 6. [CrossRef]
86. Adamson, E.; Pow, J.; Houston, F.; Redpath, P. Exploring the experiences of patients attending day hospitals in the rural Scotland:
Capturing the patient’s voice. J. Clin. Nurs. 2017, 26, 3044–3055. [CrossRef]
87. Hollingsworth, B. The measurement of efficiency and productivity of health care delivery. Health Econ. 2008, 17, 1107–1128.
[CrossRef]
88. Cao, P.; Toyabe, S.; Abe, T.; Akazawa, K. Profit and loss analysis for an intensive care unit (ICU) in Japan: A tool for strategic
management. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2006, 6, 1. [CrossRef]
89. Tierney, L.T.; Conroy, K.M. Optimal occupancy in the ICU: A literature review. Aust. Crit. Care 2014, 27, 77–84. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
90. Cooper, W.W.; Seiford, L.M.; Zhu, J. Data Envelopment Analysis: History, Models, and Interpretations. In Handbook on Data
Envelopment Analysis; Cooper, W.W., Seiford, L.M., Zhu, J., Eds.; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2011; p. 3.
91. Kjekshus, L.; Hagen, T. Do hospital mergers increase hospital efficiency? Evidence from a National Health Service country. J.
Health Serv. Res. Policy 2007, 12, 230–235. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Cylus, J.; Papanicolas, I.; Smith, P.C. How to Make Sense of Health System Efficiency Comparisons? World Health Organization,
Regional Office for Europe: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2017.
93. Hibbard, J.H.; Greene, J.; Sofaer, S.; Firminger, K.; Hirsh, J. An experiment shows that a well-designed report on costs and quality
can help consumers choose high-value health care. Health Aff. 2012, 31, 560–568. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Medarević, A

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Medarević, A

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Medarević, A

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of

1 Institute of Public Health of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

Inputs Variables Description

Table 2. External factors.

External Factors Description Coding

2.2. The Applicability of Data Envelopment Analysis

2.3. DEA Models

CRS scores = VRS sores × Scale efficiency

2.4. Malmquist Total Factor Productivity Index

Dt+1 yt+1 , xt+1

2.5. Econometric Model

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of input and output variables, 2015–2019.

3.2. Results of DEA

Table 4. The summary of the explanatory variable of Tobit model.

Table 5. Efficiency scores of CRS, VRS and SE in 2019.

Efficiency Scores Return to Reference Set

H01 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 Constant

Table 6. Averages of technical and scale efficiencies for groups in 2019.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

Efficiency Scores (CRS) Number of Times on

H01 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 5

3.3. Results of Malmquist Index

Malmquist Frontier Shift Efficiency Pure Efficiency Scale Efficiency

3.4. Results of Tobit Regression Model

Table 10. Results of the estimation of Tobit model.

Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

You might also like