Modelos Numericos Cuencas

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Chapter 1
Applying Numerical Models for Water Environments in

Watersheds – Case Studies of Tai Lake, Middle and Lower
Han River and East Lake in China
Wanshun Zhang
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
1. Introduction
The overall status of the global water environment has entered into a new stage exhibiting
serious ecological degradation and complex environmental pollution. China is confronting
critical water environmental problems, such as increasing pollutant loads and aggravated
surface and ground water contamination. Based on the mechanisms of water environment
evolution and contaminant transport, as well as theories of the watershed non-point source
pollution model, the hydrodynamic model and water-quality model, this study built a
comprehensive social-economic-hydrology-water environment model system for investigat‐
ing water environments in watersheds. This model system can simulate the water cycle of
watersheds and water environment quality changing processes, and analyse the utilization of
water resources, pollutant discharges and the relationship between quantitative couplings and
response connections, as well as reveal the formation mechanism of watershed pollutants and
the laws of water environment revolution. This model system has successfully supported the
comprehensive watersheds managements in Tai Lake, the middle and lower Han River and
East Lake in China.
1.1. Research background
The load of pollutants entering the water environment has rapidly increased in China since
the implementation of open and reform policies in China, while minor progress has been
achieved in the mitigation of pollution. Among China's seven major river systems, the Songhua
River and Huai River are slightly polluted, the Yellow River and the Liao River are moderately
polluted and the Hai River is highly polluted. Eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs has
© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
4 Research and Practices in Water Quality
become serious and is high in nitrogen and phosphorus. Drinking water may have been
polluted with conventional contaminants and new types of toxic pollution, which threatens to
health of urban and rural people.
The watersheds water environment model can be used in the simulation and evaluation of
water environments, the forecasting and prediction of water quality, and can supplement the
establishment of the standardization of pollutant discharges and water quality management.
It is an important tool for the water planning, management and scientific research of water‐
sheds. An established watersheds water environment model can describe the pollutant
migration and transformation rules over time and in terms of space scale. We can make
reasonable predictions about the development of the water environment based on the study
of variables and fixed scientific parameters. Therefore, the study of watersheds water envi‐
ronment system simulation technology and especially the integration of other factors such as
physical environment and ecology into the model system is one of the core technologies in
watersheds water planning and environmental management.
Lake Tai is located in the Yangtze River Delta and is one of the five largest fresh water lakes
in China. In China's lake district, many sub-lakes form extensive water networks. The Tai Lake
basin is China's fastest changing and developing region. In recent years, due to the continuous
degradation of water quality, eutrophication in Lake Tai has worsened and has had negative
impacts on regional socio-economic development.
The total length of the Han River is 1532 kilometres, making it the largest tributary of the
Yangtze River. Danjiangkou Reservoir, located in the middle and upper reaches of the Han
River, acts as the water source of the South-To-North Water Transfer Project, which channels
water from the Danjiangkou Reservoir through Henan and Hebei Province to the serious water
shortage district in Beijing-Tianjin, China. It provides water to more than 100 million people
along its main canal. The water transfer project reduced the reservoir’s water level, substituting
water resources supply and the demand balance of the middle and upper reaches of Han
watersheds.
East Lake, located in Wuhan, is the second largest downtown lake in China; however, the lake
has become atrophied. Due to a rapidly increasing urban population and intensification of the
industrial and agricultural sectors, the lake has received excessive amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus, sourced from surrounding point- and non-point sources. The local authorities
have made good progress on point-source pollution control. In order to achieve the overall
ecological health of East Lake, the next step is to strengthen the control of non-point source
pollution and establish a water management network for East Lake.
In summary, this study presents an adaptable watershed aquatic environment model that can
be applied to Lake Tai, middle and lower of Han River, and East Lake. The study will establish:
(1) an complex model of a river-lake network to achieve dynamic modelling of the Lake Tai
water environment; (2) establish a comprehensive water quality model for a systematic water
control project to quantitatively estimate the impact of water transfer; (3) a project for control‐
ling the water quality of middle and downstream Han River; (4) build a non-point, dynami‐
cally-sourced 3D mathematically-coupled water quality model according to the characteristics
Applying Numerical Models for Water Environments in Watersheds – Case Studies of Tai Lake… 5
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
of the received water and boundaries across watersheds, as well as the geography of East Lake.
This approach will assist in answering how water contamination developed in each watershed,
as well as the evolution patterns of the aquatic environment. The findings will help to improve
control of the pollution of watersheds in order to maintain the sustainability of their environ‐
mental, social and economic development.
1.2. Research progresses
1.2.1. Non-point source model
The source of non-point pollution primarily derives from the application of fertilizers,
pesticides, effluent irrigation and runoff from urban surfaces. Due to the complexity of these
sources, the indetermination of the mechanism, it can be challenging to quantify the formation
and load of non-point source pollution. In this instance, establishing models that stimulate
watershed environments from time and space perspectives can be the most effective and direct
measures. Usery et al. [1] coupled GIS and the distributed non-point source model to stimulate
and evaluate watershed contaminants. Bryan [2] suggested a multi-standard evaluation
measure in the study of non-point agricultural source pollution in Western Australia. Chow‐
dary et al. [3] applied remote sensing and GIS to stimulate non-point agricultural pollutants
and sediments on 2700 ha of land in Jharkhand State. Gikas et al. [4] utilized a SWAT model
suitable for non-point source pollution in the Mediterranean region. Wang et al. [5] adapted
LEAM, which was designated for modelling land use changes, to non-point source pollution
and water quality modelling for the determination of the long-term effect of urbanization on
water quality.
Recently, the intensification of non-point source pollution has drawn the increasing attention
of the science community. Zhang [6-7] built a model of distributed urban-precipitation-runoff
source pollution according to the properties of urban-sourced pollution and its transformation
processes for the Project of Urban Water Environment Remediation Wuhan, which analysed
pollution patterns resulting from different precipitations and land uses. Qiao et al. [8] coupled
river network development DEM grid vector data to supply an alternative means for analysing
basic terrain data in a non-point source model. Liu et al. [9] combined RS and GIS technology
to construct a watershed non-point source pollution model to calculate pollution loads of
various types of pollution sources. Tang et al. [10] applied a SWAT watershed non-point source
pollution model to evaluate the effect of measures on water quality improvement in Wenyu
River.
1.2.2. Water dynamics and quality model
Contaminants produced from lands are discharged as a single point source into rivers and
lakes. The quantification of the migration and transformation of pollutants requires a dynamic
water quality model. In light of the different properties of watersheds, such models study river
network water dynamics and quality, including that of lakes and reservoirs.
1.2.2.1. Dynamic river network water and quality model
Many dynamic river network water and quality models have already undergone real-world
applications. [11] Mikell [12] scattered the water level of watercourses and the flow of water
into calculation points. Arega [13] established a simple two-dimensional waterflow-salinity
model and applied obvious TVD limited volumetric calculus to solve the calculation of
waterflow-salinity. Peng et al. [14] constructed the model for establishing the Han River's water
quality ecology numerically, which took into account the effect of the top support action of the
water level of the Yangtze River. They then numerically stimulated the migration and
transformation of water dynamics, total phosphorus, dissolved oxygen and phytoplankton of
the Han River.
1.2.2.2. Lakes and reservoirs: water dynamics and quality model
The common lake and reservoir water dynamics and quality models are grouped into zero-,
one-, two- and three-dimensional modelling and according to specific resolutions. Vejzak [15]
tested the effect of eutrophication on phytoplankton dynamic, built an eutrophication model
and predicted the effect of different nutritional changes. Asaeda [16] stimulated the effect of
large aquatic vegetation degradation on nutrient budget in shallow lakes. Kurup [17] applied
the finite difference scheme, where TISAT and CE-QUAL-W2 were coupled and tested in a
swan lake estuary. Angelini [18] utilized the ELLOBO model to illustrate three status varieties
on reservoirs. AyseMuhammetoglu [19] suggested a three-dimensional model on the effect of
advantageous large aquatic vegetation on the quality of water of shallow lakes. Wang et al. [20]
applied sourced convection diffusion equation and the water ecology dynamic model, based
on the two-dimensional watershed water flow-quality model, and as a result built the shallow
water ecological restoration model, which they applied to the study of reservoir restoration in
Shenzhen.
2. Non-point source model
2.1. Runoff-yield model
The sub-basin was considered as a nonlinear reservoir. We combined the Manning Continuity
equation and established the nonlinear hysteresis of surface runoff storage. The Manning
Continuity equation can be presented as:
dV dh
= As1 × = As1P - QW 1 (1)
dt dt
where As1 is the basin area (m2), V is sub-basin water rate (m3), T is time (s), H is the water
depth (m), QW 1 is the sub-basin for the flow of traffic and P is net rain (m/s).
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
QW 1 = Qpl' + Qgl' (2)
where Qp1´is the surface of the slope flow (m3/s) and Qg1´is the flow into the ditch (m3/s).
The flow equation for the sub-valley can be presented as:
1
( )
5 1
3
QW 1 = W × h-h p S 2
(3)
n
where W is the width of the sub-basin type (m), S is sub-basin slope, N is the Manning
roughness surface and HP is the hollow lag of storage water depth (mm).
The Von Hoyningen-Hune formula was applied for formulating canopy interception of
rainfall:
é ù
ê 1 ú
Pi = aLAI ê1 - ú (4)
ê 1 + bp gross ú
êë aLAI úû
where Pi is the quantity of rainfall interception (mm), a is the empirical coefficient (cmd-1),
pgross is rainfall (mm), LAI is the leaf area index (m2m-2) and b is soil coverage, b=LAI / 3. With
an increase in rainfall, the rainfall interception amount will gradually approached to the
saturation value aLAI .
Fill the depression, in the form of incremental is:
DV = DPe e - Pe Sd
(5)
where Pe is net rainfall (mm) and Sd is maximum filling depression (mm).
For infiltration, the Green-Ampt equation can be applied when initial rainfall is stronger than
the infiltration amount, as well as when the initial rainfall is less than the infiltration amount.
The surface infiltration capacity can be defined as:
when F < Fs:
f =i
S ⋅M
Fs =
i/K s -1
( i > Ks ) (6)
Fs = 0(i £ K s ),
when F ≥ F s :
f = fp
æ S×M ö
f p = Ks ç1 + ÷ (7)
è F ø
where f is infiltration rate (mm/s), Fp is stable infiltration rate (mm/s), M is the initial saturation
(mm/mm), I is the rainfall intensity (mm/s), F is the cumulative infiltration amount (mm), Ks
is soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/s), S is the wetting front of capillary suction (mm)
and Fs is saturated with the cumulative infiltration amount (mm).
2.2. The pollution-generation model
1. Pollutant accumulation
The cumulative equation can be represented as:
dLsi
= ki -k2 i Lsi (8)
dt
where i is the first type of surface coverage, Ki is dust sedimentation rate (g/m2 day), Lsi is the
surface dust (g/m2), K2i is the consumption rate of dust fall (d-1) and T is time (d).
The accumulated amount of dust, where Lsi is proportional to the accumulated amount of
pollutants Lij can be presented as:
Lsi = fij × Lij (9)
where fij is the i kind of surface coverage on the characteristics of the j proportion coefficient
of pollutants (mg/g).
2. Pollutant washing
The pollutant washing index equation can be represented as:
DLij = Lij éë1 - exp ( - k3i R ) ùû (10)

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where ΔLij is the j type of pollutants (g/m2) devided from the i cover characteristics of catch‐
ment units wash, Lij is the amount of pollutants accumulated at the start of rain in the j
catchment units by covering i characteristics (g/m2), k 3i is the scouring coefficient of the water
unit by covering i characteristics set of (mm-1) and R is rainfall (mm).
3. River network water dynamics and water quality model
We applied the Saint Venant equations to describe the process of river water dynamics; the
fundamental equations can be presented as follows:
Continuity equation is,
¶A j ¶Q j
+ = qj (11)
¶t ¶x
The momentum equation is,
¶Q j ¶ujQ j ¶z j gn2 uj Q j
+ + gA j + 4
=0 (12)
¶t ¶x ¶x R 3
where uj is the j river channel section's average flow velocity, Qj is the flow of river channel j,
A is the crossing water area of river j, T is time, Qj is the river flow Q of lateral flow bus j, G is
acceleration of gravity, zj is the j river channel water level, N is the river roughness and R is
hydraulic radius.
The pollutants diffusion equation can be presented as:
¶ ( h j ci ) ¶ (uj h j ci ) ¶ 2 ( Eh j ci )
+ = - h j kd ci + h jSm (13)
¶t ¶x ¶x 2
where Ci is pollutant concentration, Hj is j river channel water level, uj is j river channel, E is

the diffusion coefficient, Sm is pollutant source items, Kd is the pollutant degradation coeffi‐
cient, Kd = K 0θ T −20, T is the water temperature, θ is coefficient of 1 ~ 1.08 and K 0 is the
degradation coefficient of the normal temperature.
The river network node equation can be presented as:
z j1 = z j2 = L = z jn (14)
Dz ji
Aj = å Q ji (15)
Dt
åc
iin
iin Qiin
cs = (16)
åQ
iout
iout
where zj is for the node j water level, Aj is the node j cross-sectional area, cs is the water
concentration of node j, ciin is the water concentration of inflow and Qiin is the inflow flow.
4. Lake water dynamics and water quality model
We described the natural water body movement control equation using the continuity
equation and momentum equation. Under the rectangular coordinate system, this can be
expressed as follows:
Continuous equation is:
¶h ¶hu ¶hv
+ + =0 (17)
¶t ¶x ¶y
X direction momentum equation is:
¶hu ¶huu ¶hvu ¶z gn2 h u2 + v 2 u

+ + + gh + 4
=
¶t ¶x ¶y ¶x h 3
(18)
r a fw ( wx2 + w y2 ) wx ¶ ¶u ¶ ¶u
= hfv + + (hg t ) + (hg t )
rw ¶x ¶x ¶y ¶y
Y direction momentum equation is:
¶hv ¶huv ¶hvv ¶z gn2 h u2 + v 2 v

+ + + gh + 4
=
¶t ¶x ¶y ¶y h 3
(19)
r a fw ( wx2 + w y2 ) w y ¶ ¶v ¶ ¶v
= - hfu + + (hg t ) + (hg t )
rw ¶x ¶x ¶y ¶y
where u and v are the vertical average velocities on x and y direction, Z is the surface elevation,
H is the depth of the water, F is Coriolis force coefficient F = 2Ωsinθ , to which Ω is suitable for
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
the earth's rotation angular frequency, θ is local latitude, γi is turbulence viscosity coefficient,
ρa, ρw is the density of air and water, fw is wind stress coefficient and Wx and Wy are the wind
speeds on x and y direction.
The pollutants diffusion equation can be presented as:
¶hCi ¶huCi ¶hvCi ¶ ¶C ¶ ¶C

+ + = (hK x i ) + (hK y i ) - hSi (20)
¶t ¶x ¶y ¶x ¶x ¶y ¶y
where Ci is the concentration of contaminant i and Kx and Ky are the diffusion coefficients on
the x and y directions. The pollutants diffusion equation fully considered that water convection
and diffusion can potentially degrade pollutants.
5. One-dimensional and two-dimensional model coupling method
On the interface section of the one-dimensional and two-dimensional models, we used the
one-dimensional model to simulate the river water level and change of flow rate, and took the
data as an implicit variable of the two-dimensional lake model. At the same time, water level,
flow and concentration showed equivalent conditions for both models, so that the coupling of
one-dimensional and two-dimensional models was achieved. Transitional elements were the
connecting units between the one-dimensional model and two-dimensional models. The
transitional unit grid layout is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. One-dimensional and two-dimensional models of connection.
Water connection condition:
Z1 = Z2 (21)
Traffic connection conditions:

Q1 = ò Ue he de (22)
Water connection conditions:
C1 = C 2 (23)
where Z 1, Z 2 is the water level on the connection section of one- and two-dimensional models,
C1, C2 is water quality concentration on the connection section of one- and two-dimensional
models, Q1 is flow on the connection section of one- and two-dimensional models, Us is
velocity on the connection section of one- and two-dimensional models, uj is the coordinate
on the connection section of one- and two-dimensional models and H is the water depth.
6. Numerical dispersion and solving
Adapting the hydrodynamic and water quality model equation to a unified form can be
presented as:
(j )t + ( uj )x + ( vj ) y = (e sj x )x + (e sj y ) y + Sj (24)
We used non-orthogonal and non-staggered grids to adopt the processing of the wind
convection format within the control body, to integral and discrete on the formula(24), and to
obtain the discrete equation of convection diffusion as follows:
apj p = å anbjnb + Sjp (25)

nb
where ap and anb are the relevant coefficients, respectively.
We used the SIMPLE orthogonal algorithm to establish the η free surface correction equation
and velocity correction equation. The η correction equation can be presented as:
dph p¢ = å dnbhnb
¢ + Shp (26)
nb
The velocity correction equation can be presented as:
( ) (
u¢p = u*p + bpu h p¢ - h e¢ ; v¢p = v*p + bpv h p¢ - hn¢ ) (27)
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where bpu , bpv , dp and dnp are the discrete coefficients and up∗, vp∗ and η ′ p are guesses.
The surface and velocity equations both belong to diagonal algebraic equations, where the
SIMPLE algorithm can be applied for finding a rapid solution.
7. Examples of application
7.1. The survey of experimental research and the typical environmental processes in Lake
Tai
7.1.1. The Lake Tai basin overview
Lake Tai basin is located in the delta plain area of Yangtze River and its watershed area is 36
500 km2 [21]. Lake Tai basin is China's fastest changing and development region and its serious
water pollution is a top concern. In investigating the complexity of the Lake Tai watershed,
this study only selected Ge Lake, which is in the west of Lake Tai.
7.1.1.1. Natural environment conditions
The study area is located in upstream Lake Tai and is a major pollutant source of Lake Tai (as
shown in Figure 2).The local climate is subtropical and experiences moist marine monsoons.
It has abundant rainfall and sunlight hours annually. [22]
Figure 2. Location map of the Ge Lake river network of the Lake Tai Basin.
7.1.1.2. Social and economic situation

The local economy of the studied area is quite well-developed, with steady agronomy and
rapidly increasing industrial economy. The local GDP per capita was 15,900 CNY in 2000 and
63 000 CNY in 2008, which was three times higher than the national average. [23]
7.1.2. Analysis and evaluation of water quality of Ge Lake
7.1.2.1. Water quality at Ge Lake

The results of water quality evaluation are shown in Table 1, where TP, TN and COD exceed
largely when compared with the normal standard. The properties of organic pollution are
highlighted.
Period NH3-N COD TN TP Water quality

category
Dry season Grade II Grade V Worse than Grade V Grade III Worse than Grade V
Normal season Grade IV Grade IV Worse than Grade V Grade IV Worse than Grade V
Wet season Grade II Grade V Worse than Grade V Grade IV Worse than Grade V
Table 1. Water quality evaluation results for Ge Lake in 2010.
7.1.2.2. The analysis of varying water quality in Ge Lake

The water quality is worse than Grade V at Ge Lake, with atrophied nutrition and the major
pollution indicators of COD and NH3-N, as well as TN and TP. The lake water quality has
declined from Grade III in the early 1990s to the poorer Grade V class and the lake's pollution
index has risen 10% per year on average. Presently, algal species have become dominant and
the lake has changed from being a grass-type lake into an algae-type lake.
7.1.3. Ge Lake water quality model

Combined with the features of the study area, in view of the mixture of pollutants present, a
one-dimensional and two-dimensional mathematical model, respectively, were chosen to
describe the hydrodynamic processes of the river and the transformation processes of pollutant
migration. The finite control volume method was applied to solve the control equation of the
two-dimensional hydrodynamic- and water-quality model (see Section 2). To generalize the
research area, typical Ge-Lake watershed hydrology and water quality data were applied,
which assisted in calibrating and verifying the model.
7.1.3.1. Drainage generalization

The river network in the study area was divided into different calculation sections, including
110 river sections, 91 calculation nodes and 519 calculation sections. The river network
generalization results are shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. The typical river network profile in Ge-Lake.
7.1.3.2. Rate of model and validation
The distribution map of verification monitoring points in Ge Lake is shown in Figure 4.
Using daily water flow data from Xiaxi bridge station (Xiaxi River), Huangli station (Huangli
River) and Dong’an bridge station (Beigang River) in 2007, we were able to calculate water
outflow and input at every river sections. This was then applied to the verification of hydro‐
dynamics at the upper-boundary conditions. Using daily water level data from Dukou station,
Dapukou station and Yixing station at Lake Tai in 2007, we were able to calculate water output
level at every river sections.This was then applied for the verification of hydrodynamics at
lower-boundary conditions. We used pollution discharge load data in 2007 for the verification
of the water quality model.
Figure 4. Distribution map of verification monitoring points in Ge Lake.
Correlation parameters
1. Roughness coefficient
The empirical formula and the result of the model parameter calibration determined the
roughness coefficient n. River roughness was 0.02 ~ 0.025 and Ge-Lake had roughness of
approximately 0.022.
2. Diffusion coefficient
The diffusion coefficient of the body of water in the study area (Ex) was obtained using an
empirical formula according to Lagrange turbulence length and the intensity of turbulence
length concept. The Ex values can be expressed as:
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Ex = a hu* (28)
u* = ghI (29)
where α is the dimensionless coefficient, (0. 1-0.2); u* is the friction velocity (m/s), I is the water
surface slope and h is the water level (m).
3. Degradation coefficient
The degradation coefficient (K0) of NH3-N, COD, TN and TP are shown in Table 2.
Parameter NH3-N COD TN TP
K0 (d-1) 0.03-0.15 0.02-0.13 0.05-0.08 0.05
Table 2. Degradation coefficient (K0) of NH3-N, COD, TN and TP.
Model validation
1. Hydrodynamic model validation
Daily water flow and water level data (2007) from Huangnianqiao station (Taige Canal) and
Caoqiao station (Caoqiao River) was used to verify the water dynamics of the model.
1. flow verification
The results of flow verification are shown in Figures 5 and 6. Overall, changes in flow calcu‐
lation were consistent with changes in the measured data.
Figure 5. Flow verification of Huangnianqiao section.

Figure 6. Flow verification of Caoqiao section.
2. Water level validation
The results of water level verification are shown in Figures 7 and 8. The precision of the model
was good and it was able to meet the needs of the calculation.
Figure 7. Water level verification of Huangnianhe section.

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Figure 8. Water level verification of Caoqiao section.
The two-dimensional hydrodynamic model used daily water level data from Fangqian station
(Ge Lake) for verification. It showed that the rule of calculated values and measured values
had good consistency. Validation results are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Water level verification of Ge-Lake.
3. Water quality model validation
Choosing three section stations within the scope of the study area, i.e., Huangnianqiao,
Xuenianqiao and Cao Qiao, we used monthly-measured water quality data in 2007 to validate
the river network model. The calculated results were compared with the measured values.
Model simulated values and measured values were consistent, matching the requirements for
the river's one-dimensional water quality simulation.
Sections Relative Error
NH3-N COD TN TP
Huangnianqiao Section 23.98 18.92 23.49 21.56
Xuenianqiao Section 34.56 31.6 26.28 30.54
Caoqiao Section 20.5 16.68 22.65 23.56
Table 3. Average error of all section indexes (%).
We selected north Ge Lake as a regular water quality monitoring site. We validated the two-
dimensional lake water quality model results by using measured data from January, April,
July and October, 2007. As shown in Table 4, by comparing the simulated values and measured
values, NH3-N, COD, TN and TP in Ge Lake indicated that the relative errors were mostly less
than 30% and the average error was roughly 24%.
Time Relative Error
NH3-N COD TN TP
2007-1 18.92 20.11 14.66 17.39
2007-4 28.23 20.45 26.12 11.54
2007-7 29.03 21.55 13.24 24.48
2007-10 36.11 37.08 22 34.51
Table 4. Relative error of all indexes (%).
7.1.4. Conclusion
This study established a complex lake-river network coupled with a one- and two-dimensional
water quality model under human interference. The research was based on socio-economic,
demographical, climatic and hydrological data from 2007 at Ge Lake (Lake Tai region).
Chemical oxygen demand, ammonium-N, total nitrogen and total phosphorus were selected
as water quality indicators. The study analysed the water environment evolution rules as
affected by human activities and interference. The results showed that ammonium-N and COD
were mainly derived from domestic waste and industrial point sources; TN was primarily
sourced from domestic waste and agricultural non-point sources; TP was largely derived from
domestic and aquaculture pollution.
In view of the lakes in the region that were included in the river network, this study established
a water environment holding capacity calculation model; the research findings are fairly
adaptive to wider application in terms of water resource conservation and environmental
management. The study also introduced a new angle for dynamic water-holding capacity
modelling research. This approach can be integrated into pollutant control and environmental
monitoring technologies in order to achieve the overall health of the water environment.
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7.2. Modelling water quality and quantity according to the influence of cascade reservoirs
and inter-basin water diversion projects on the middle and lower Han River [24]
7.2.1. Overview: the middle and lower Han River watersheds
At a length of 1531 km, the Han River is the largest tributary of the Yangtze River. The
middle- and lower-Han rivers begin at the downstream end of the Danjiangkou Reser‐
voir and flows for about 650 km before joining the Yangtze River at Wuhan City (see Figure
10). The total area of the drainage basin is about 63 800 km2. The river's reaches have been
extensively dammed since the 1950s and its course has been highly regulated by a series
of coupled reservoirs, among which Danjiangkou Reservoir is the largest; also contribu‐
ting to this is the water source for the Middle Route Project (MRP) for the South-to-
North Water Diversion (SNWD) Project, about 9.5 billion m3 of water will be extracted from
the Danjiangkou Reservoir and supplied to northern China annually, amounting to about
30% of the current annual downstream discharge. In order to mitigate the project’s effects,
the Yangtze-Hanjiang Water Diversion Project (YHWD) is supposed to transfer water from
the upstream of the Yangtze River to the downstream of the Hanjiang River near Qian‐
jiang City with a maximum capacity of 500 m3/s.
The cascade reservoirs and the inter-basin water diversion projects, i.e. the MRP and the
YHWD, lead to profound and complex effects in the middle and lower Hanjiang River
Figure 10. Location map for the middle and lower Han River Basin.
7.2.2. Application
7.2.2.1. Model set-up
A coupled one-dimensional hydrodynamic- and water-quality model was developed in a bid

to assess water quality and quantity in the middle- and lower-Han rivers as a result of the
impact of the operation of the cascade reservoirs and inter-basin water diversion projects. The
systematic model includes numerical descriptions of the hydrodynamic and pollutant
transport processes, the loads of different water users, stream-aquifer interactions, as well as
the operations of cascade reservoirs and inter-basin water transfer projects (see Chapter 2).
7.2.2.2. Division of the study basin
The middle and lower Han rivers were divided into five reaches with 157 sections and the area
outside the river was divided into 18 sub-hydrological units. A schematic illustration of the
watershed is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Schematic illustration of the basin.
7.2.2.3. Model calibration and validation
1. Parameters
Manning’s roughness coefficient n1d took on the values of 0.03 to 0.055 according to a
hydrological report from the Department of Water Resources of Hubei Province.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
The value of the longitudinal dispersion coefficient ranged from 0.05 to 1 m2/s, according to
the national standard of the Technical Guide and Standard of Environmental Impact Assess‐
ment issued by China's Ministry of Environmental Protection. The degradation coefficients of
pollutants are shown in Table 5.
Pollutant CODMn NH3-N TP
Degradation coefficient 0.25-0.3 0.33-0.35 0.06-0.09
Table 5. Degradation coefficients of different pollutants (d-1).
2. Calibration and validation
The monitoring data of hydrodynamics and water quality from 2005 were used for calibrating
the model. CODMn, NH3-N and TP were chosen as water-quality indexes. The hydrodynamics
and water quality were simulated along five monitoring sections using data from 2006 to 2007
to validate the model. The average relative deviations of the water levels between the simulated
values and the measured values were within 1% of each other. The average relative deviations
of the computed CODMn, NH3-N and TP concentrations vs. the measured values were less than
20%. The model could therefore accurately simulate hydrodynamic conditions and water
quality.
30.0
Measured
28.0
Simulated
water level (m)
26.0
24.0
22.0
20.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
day
Figure 12. Hydrodynamic validation results of typical control cross-section 3.
7.2.3. Results
The long-term series of hydrological data from 1956 to 1998 were analysed to evaluate the long-
standing trends in water quantity and quality of the middle and lower Han rivers. Two
hydrological conditions were involved: the existing hydrological conditions prior to starting
inter-basin water division projects and future hydrological-hydrodynamic conditions consid‐
ering the cascade reservoirs and inter-basin water diversion projects (after initiating the
projects).
5
Measured
Simulated
4
C O D ( m g /l)
0.8
N H4 - N ( m g /l)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.4
T P ( m g / l)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
day
Figure 13. Water-quality validation results of typical control cross-section 3 (calculated and measured concentration of
CODMn, NH3-N and TP).
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7.2.3.1. Analysis of water quantity
Based on the daily water demand/supply balance calculation, the discharge volume along the
stream of the middle and lower Han rivers was analysed. Six sections in the middle and lower
reaches were selected as control sections for six major cities along the river. Sections 1, 3, 5, 6,
8 and 13 respectively, represented the conditions of Danjiangkou, Xiangfan, Jingmen, Shayang,
Qianjiang and Wuhan reaches.
Table 6 shows the average annual discharges of the six control sections prior to and following
the projects. According to the calculated results, the problem of water deficiency will be serious
for the middle reaches of the Han river in the future, as the operation of the MRP will signif‐
icantly decrease stream discharge. As shown in Tables 7 and 8, operation of the cascade
reservoirs and the MRP will significantly impact the hydrological/hydrodynamic conditions
of the middle and lower Han rivers. The average water level will be decreased by 0.23 to 0.39
m in the river reaches downstream of Danjiangkou Reservoir, except for section 3 and section
6, which are controlled by the operation of Cuijiaying Reservoir and Xinglong Reservoir.
Control section Before the projects (m3/s) After the projects (m3/s) Reduction
1 1161.6 811.3 -350.3

3 1292.7 912.7 -380.0
5 1518.0 1157.2 -360.8
6 1497.8 1139.3 -358.5
8 1341.5 1195.2 -146.3
13 1277.0 1140.0 -137.0
Table 6. Comparison of the average annual discharge of the control sections before/after the SNWD and YHWD
projects.
12000
Befor the projects
10000 After the projects
Dicharge (m 3/s)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Figure 14. Calculated daily discharge of section 1 before/after the projects.

12000
Befor the projects
Dicharge (m 3/s)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
12000
Befor the projects
Dicharge (m 3/s)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Control section Before the projects (m) After the projects (m) Reduction
1 87.23 86.85 -0.38

3 58.67 62.78 4.11
5 40.04 39.65 -0.39
6 33.47 36.35 2.88
8 29.5 29.27 -0.23
11 24.29 24.03 -0.26
Table 7. Comparison of the average annual water level of the control sections before/after the SNWD and YHWD
projects.
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Control section Before the projects (m/s) After the projects (m/s) Reduction
1 0.73 0.59 -0.14
3 0.9 0.31 -0.59
5 1.11 0.97 -0.14
6 0.69 0.32 -0.37
8 0.74 0.72 -0.02
11 0.67 0.64 -0.03
Table 8. Comparison of the average annual flow velocity of the control sections before/after the SNWD and YHWD
projects.
7.2.3.2. Analysis of water quality
The results showed that the middle-lower reaches of the Han river will have similar trends of
water-quality degradation. The average concentration of CODMn in the river was 2.61 mg/L,
NH3-N 0.52 mg/L and TP 0.16 mg/L with existing hydrological-hydrodynamic conditions; with
future operation of the cascade reservoirs and inter-basin water diversion projects, the average
concentration of CODMn will increase by 55% to 4.04 mg/L, NH3-N by 48% to 0.78 mg/L and TP
by 46% to 0.24 mg/L.
Following the completion of the projects, the water quality will be degraded to Class IV. This
result indicates that the operation of the YHWD project will be unable to mitigate water-quality
deterioration in the lower Han River. The model simulations indicated that the dual effects of
the projects, i.e., increasing the nutrient concentration and decreasing the flow velocity, could
induce an environment favourable for algal growth. Thus, large-scale blooms likely occurred,
even if only in the middle reaches of the river.
Sections CODMn NH3-N TP
Before the After the Before the After the projects Before the After the
projects projects projects projects projects
1 2.08 3.09 0.14 0.22 0.03 0.04
2 3.18 4.67 0.75 1.09 0.14 0.20
4 3.04 4.47 0.68 1.00 0.15 0.22
5 2.97 4.38 0.61 0.91 0.16 0.23
6 2.65 3.99 0.54 0.82 0.16 0.23
7 2.62 3.95 0.53 0.81 0.16 0.23
8 2.38 4.04 0.47 0.73 0.16 0.24
9 2.30 3.89 0.45 0.70 0.15 0.24
10 2.17 3.65 0.42 0.65 0.17 0.24
11 2.47 3.94 0.48 0.71 0.17 0.25
12 2.51 3.86 0.48 0.68 0.17 0.25
13 2.49 3.83 0.47 0.68 0.17 0.25
14 2.66 3.92 0.47 0.67 0.18 0.26
15 2.47 3.98 0.47 0.67 0.18 0.26
Table 9. Comparison of the simulated water quality of the main sections before/after the SNWD and YHWD projects.
16 After the projects Before the projects
12
COD (mg/l)
1.5
NH4-N (mg/l)
0.5
0.3
0.2
TP (mg/l)
0.1
0
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Figure 17. Calculated daily concentrations of COD, NH3-N and TP of section 4 before/after the projects
7.2.4. Conclusions
A combined water-quantity-quality model was applied to simulate the current and future
characteristics of water quantity and water quality in the middle and lower Han rivers. The
simulation results showed that the implementation of the MRP and the operation of cascade
reservoirs will exacerbate the problems of water pollution and water deficiency in the middle
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
and lower reaches of the river. This model can assist water resource managers to make the
right decisions about water improvement measures.
7.3. East Lake experimental research survey and typical environmental processes
7.3.1. The natural environment
East Lake is constituted by Guozheng Lake, Hou Lake, Miao Lake, Shuiguo Lake, Tangling
Lake and others. Its geological structure is complex; the length of East Lake is 11.5 km and its
average width 2.9 km. East Lake is connected to the Yangtze River via the Castle Peak port.
East Lake lies in Wuchang, which is the political, cultural and information centre of Hubei
Province.
7.3.2. The non-point source water quality model
We built the non-point source model based on the digital elevation map (DEM). On the basis
of hydraulics and the water quality model, we established the East Lake three-dimensional
hydrodynamic and water quality model equation (see Chapter 2).This scenario was based on
2006 calibration results. After removing the point sources, we used the non-point source data
to simulate the water quality status of East Lake from 2007 to 2010.
7.3.2.1. Division of the study basin
East Lake was divided into five reaches and the quantity of grid measured as 47 x 62; a
schematic illustration of the watershed is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18. The division map for East Lake.

7.3.2.2. Correlation parameters
According to the measured data of East Lake from 2000 to 2005, we calibrated parameters,
such as roughness coefficient, nitrogen degradation coefficient, organophosphate degradation
coefficient in this study.
7.3.2.3. Computational conditions and pollution load input values
Using the measured results of water level and water quality from 2006 as initial conditions for
control within the model, we calculated the changing process of flow, water level, water
temperature, as well as the water quality of TP, TN, NH4, DO.
Through a survey about the pollution circumstances of East Lake, we confirmed 22 outlets
surrounding the main point source and 61 non-point source outlets. Their positions are shown
in Figure 19.
Figure 19. The source of pollutants map for East Lake.
7.3.2.4. Model validation
In this research, we used measured data of East Lake from 2006 to verify the model.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
Figure 20. Location map of East Lake.
The model was verified as follows:
1. Results for Miao Lake verification are shown in Figures 21 to 24 below:
Figure 21. Verification chart for Miao Lake temperature.

Figure 22. Verification chart for Miao Lake DO.
Figure 23. Verification chart for Miao Lake TN.
Figure 24. Verification chart for Miao Lake TP.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
2. The verification results for Tangling Lake are shown in Figures 25 and 26 below:
Figure 25. Verification chart for Tangling Lake temperature.
Figure 26. The verification chart for Tangling Lake DO.
Figure 27. The verification chart for Tangling Lake TN.

Figure 28. Verification chart for Tangling Lake TP.
The verification charts show that the maximum error of simulated calculation was less than
20% when compared to the measured concentration. The relative error in about 96% of samples
was less than 10%. Results showed that the model was able to meet the requirements of
simulation research.
7.3.2.5. Model application
The simulation results showed that the management of point sources will improve the water
quality of East Lake, but that the effect will not be obvious in the short-term. The management
of non-point source pollution should also be strengthened.
We conducted our research by including two study lakes. The results showed that the water
quality of Miao Lake improved significantly, while Tang Ling Lake’s did not.
Figure 29. Water quality simulation of Miao Lake.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60119
Figure 30. Water quality simulation of Tangling Lake.
7.3.3. Conclusion
The present research established a three-dimensional layered water hydrodynamic numerical

model of East Lake. Using the measured data of hydrology and water quality from 2006, we
completed the model parameters for calibration and validation. Then, we analysed the water
quality and drew the following conclusion: the water quality of East Lake region must be
improved. Factors such as non-point source and sediment need to be considered in the overall
consideration.
8. Conclusion
The watersheds water environment system model established in this study has a solid
theoretical basis and was successfully applied in the water environment response and
simulation analysis of Tai Lake, the middle and lower Han rivers and East Lake.
1. We established a two-dimensional interfaced complex model of the river-lake network

coupled with water quality, which was applied to the river network of Lake Tai using a
series of conditions related to social economy, population, meteorological and hydrolog‐
ical factors measured in 2007. The research findings are fairly adaptive to wider applica‐
tion in terms of water resource conservation and environmental management.
2. We used the coupled water-quantity-quality model to simulate the current and future
characteristics of water quantity and water quality for the middle and lower Han rivers.
The model can assist administrators decision-making concerning water improvement
measures.
3. Based on the hydraulic and water quality models, we created a three dimensional
hydrodynamic and water quality model that can be successfully applied to the simulation
of non-point source pollution, thereby providing a scientific tool for water environment
management work.
Author details
Wanshun Zhang*
Address all correspondence to: [email protected]
School of Resources and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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Applying Numerical Models for Water Environments in

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

1.1. Research background

1.2. Research progresses

1.2.1. Non-point source model

1.2.2. Water dynamics and quality model

1.2.2.1. Dynamic river network water and quality model

1.2.2.2. Lakes and reservoirs: water dynamics and quality model

2. Non-point source model

2.1. Runoff-yield model

QW 1 = Qpl' + Qgl' (2)

The flow equation for the sub-valley can be presented as:

Fill the depression, in the form of incremental is:

where Pe is net rainfall (mm) and Sd is maximum filling depression (mm).

when F < Fs:

2.2. The pollution-generation model

The cumulative equation can be represented as:

Lsi = fij × Lij (9)

The pollutant washing index equation can be represented as:

DLij = Lij éë1 - exp ( - k3i R ) ùû (10)

3. River network water dynamics and water quality model

Continuity equation is,

The momentum equation is,

The pollutants diffusion equation can be presented as:

where Ci is pollutant concentration, Hj is j river channel water level, uj is j river channel, E is

The river network node equation can be presented as:

4. Lake water dynamics and water quality model

X direction momentum equation is:

¶hu ¶huu ¶hvu ¶z gn2 h u2 + v 2 u

Y direction momentum equation is:

¶hv ¶huv ¶hvv ¶z gn2 h u2 + v 2 v

The pollutants diffusion equation can be presented as:

¶hCi ¶huCi ¶hvCi ¶ ¶C ¶ ¶C

5. One-dimensional and two-dimensional model coupling method

Figure 1. One-dimensional and two-dimensional models of connection.

Water connection condition:

Traffic connection conditions:

Water connection conditions:

6. Numerical dispersion and solving

apj p = å anbjnb + Sjp (25)

where ap and anb are the relevant coefficients, respectively.

The velocity correction equation can be presented as:

7.1.1. The Lake Tai basin overview

7.1.1.1. Natural environment conditions

7.1.1.2. Social and economic situation

7.1.2. Analysis and evaluation of water quality of Ge Lake

7.1.2.1. Water quality at Ge Lake

Period NH3-N COD TN TP Water quality

Table 1. Water quality evaluation results for Ge Lake in 2010.

7.1.2.2. The analysis of varying water quality in Ge Lake

7.1.3. Ge Lake water quality model

7.1.3.1. Drainage generalization

Figure 3. The typical river network profile in Ge-Lake.

7.1.3.2. Rate of model and validation