Elements of Mechanical Engineering

(EME)

21ME25

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Acharya Institute of Technology

Bengaluru
 MODULE-I

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical engineering is the art of using problem-solving techniques and applying them to the
design and manufacturing of an object. Essentially, a mechanical engineer uses creative design and
analytical knowledge to turn a concept into something real.

If mechanical engineering is something you are passionate about, consider earning a Bachelor of
Science in Mechanical Engineering from Grand Canyon University. Continue reading to learn about
the importance of mechanical engineering and how GCU’s program explores the science in depth:

Why is Mechanical Engineering Important?

Without mechanical engineering, we would not have things like engines, generators, elevators or
even air conditioning. While we might not even realize it, we most likely use something that has
been mechanically engineered every day.

Mechanical engineering plays a critical role in manufactured technologies, from cars to airplanes to
refrigerators. It enables you to do many daily activities with ease, as it brings helpful technologies to
our modern society. It is one of the most important subdivisions of engineering, because without it,
many of the technologies we use every day would not be available.

Four Emerging Trends in Energy Sector that Help Industry to Improve Efficiency Post
Pandemic
Similar to other industries, the impact of COVID-19 has created enormous challenges for the energy
sector too. While, on the other hand, energy transition also got various remarkable opportunities.
However, the challenges are always on the high end of the scale. According to the experts, during this
time, renewable energy has proven to be more resilient compared to the other sectors.
As per the data , between 1Q19 and 1Q20, the global consumption of renewable energy increased by 1.5
percent across all industries. And, it was expected that by the end of 2020, it will have more than
doubled. But, Instead , drastically reduced transportation, aviation, and general economic activity,
correctively decreased energy demand by 3.8 percent in the first quarter of 2020. Emissions have fallen
by 5%.
Above all these, rather than just be a part of the energy transition discussion, the pandemic has forced the
entire sector to make it happen swiftly in order to survive the unusual circumstances. Also, emphasize
the industry to accept the situation and instantly implement new emerging trends in energy sector.
Embracing technology trends in renewable energy not only helps the whole industry to remain active
during this uncertain period but also allows them to improve their work effectiveness. And post-
pandemic these trends will be going to play crucial roles and turn into best practices.

Four Emerging Trends in Energy Sector that will Help the Industry Post Pandemic
Once the pandemic is under control, demand and emissions may easily return to pre-pandemic levels.
Hence, keeping work efficiency at a high level will be a primary focus. And to accomplish this goal
energy sector has to shift its working strategy into a new direction and that is “emerging trends in
renewable energy”.
By taking the support of emerging trends, the energy sector can improve efficiency post-pandemic. Let's
see which are the 4 emerging trends in renewable energy that will be a pacesetter for the energy industry.

1) Renewable
Renewable is one of the emerging trends in energy sector. This Renewable energy trend helps to
safeguard the environment by emitting little to no harmful pollutants. The fundamental premise of
renewable energy is to obtain it from a consistent source in the environment, such as the sun, wind, or
geothermal sources. The source is then converted into useful power or fuel.
A variety of technologies that address various facets of generating power and heat from renewable
sources is one of the latest technology trends in renewable energy. This involves lowering the cost of
building renewable infrastructure and enhancing the efficiency of power generation.
2) Internet of Energy (IoE)
In the traditional method, during the time of construction, the electric power system uses the central
architecture and this poses a number of obstacles to the industry. And here IoE comes into the frame. It
helps to recognize some of the challenges and accordingly propose the best efficiency and optimal design
to build an energy system.
Technology trends in the energy industry refer to automate the power infrastructure in order to
manufacture and produce energy.
Benefits:

 Reduce insufficiency
 Make the transmission of energy more productive
 Reduce the expenses
  Decrease in the wastage of energy

3) Energy Storage
Energy storage is one of the effective energy industry emerging trends. Energy storage permits steady
pricing by proactively maintaining demand from consumers.
In response to shifting energy demands and technological advancements, the energy storage business has
evolved, adapted, and innovated during the last century. Energy storage systems offer a diverse set of
technological solutions for improving our power supply to build more resilient energy infrastructure and
save money for utilities and customers.
The many methods of energy storage can be classified into five categories based on their technology:

 Batteries
 Thermal
 Mechanical
 Pumped hydro
 Hydrogen

It has the potential to save consumers money while also improving dependability and resilience,
integrating power sources, and reducing environmental impacts.
4) Blockchain
Blockchains or distributed ledgers are emerging technology trends in the energy industry that has drawn
significant interest from energy supply firms, startups, financial institutions, governments, technology
developers, and the academic community.
Blockchain technology proposes to combine all energy stakeholders under a single decentralized system.
Electricity producers, metering operators, distribution network operators, and traders potentially avail
from utilizing smart contracts. These agreements ensure that all energy-related transactions are routed
through a safe and immutable network, reducing the risk of losses. Blockchain also has the ability to
achieve some degree of equity between energy generators and consumers.
Therefore, we could say that Blockchain has the potential to transform the energy sector.
Conclusion:
It has been estimated that after the pandemic the demand and consumption of power will dramatically
increase. Thus, during that pressurize period along with meeting consumer demand business has to
consider the factors that will improve the efficiency. And the best practice to implement the above 4
emerging trends in energy sector.
At KCS , we take pride in being ahead of the curve in predicting trends of the industry and meet our
clients’ needs. Hence, we supply effective and result-oriented solutions to our clients by keeping the
future of upcoming technology enhancement in mind. These solutions are entirely flexible in adopting
new and emerging green technology.
Major 14 Trends Shaping the Future of Manufacturing in 2021

Advances in technology are changing the way nearly every industry operates. As manufacturers look to
stay competitive in the marketplace, they are constantly searching for the latest and greatest inventions,
strategies, and systems. As you research what’s next for your facility, you might want to consider the
following trends that we think are influencing manufacturing.
1. Accessible Automation

Automation in the manufacturing world is not entirely new, but widespread adoption of the practice is.
New technologies have made automation more accessible to more manufacturers and are changing the
way companies operate. “Automation for all” is the next step in the industry.
Automation is made possible with easy-to-use robotics solutions, user-friendly Manufacturing Process
Management (MPM) systems, and human-robot collaboration. With manufacturing automation,
organizations are reducing costs, optimizing workflows, and increasing their bottom line.

Why Robots for Workers

2. Mobile Robotics

According to the Robotic Industries Association, robotics shipments were up 41% over 2018, especially
in non-automotive workplaces.

One of the primary drivers of this manufacturing trend is autonomous mobile robots (AMRs). While
robots used to mean ultra-sophisticated technology that required trained roboticists, new robotics
technology is making automation attainable for companies of all sizes.
Waypoint’s easy-to-use AMRs are the future of manufacturing and are reinventing the way workers
operate within the industry. Vector & MAV3K can navigate on their own, can be set up using
Dispatcher, Waypoint’s intuitive robot software, are available in many different payloads, and can be
customized to fit most applications. Waypoint AMRs are allowing manufacturers of all sizes to deploy
robots tailor-made for their applications.

3. Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is helping manufacturers connect and monitor the various components of
their operations, gaining insight never before possible. This connectedness gives manufacturers valuable
data that enable them to change, optimize, and improve every facet of their manufacturing process.

Using smart sensors and cloud connectivity powered by the internet, IoT is propelling the advancement
of the industry. Companies are improving safety, saving money, streamlining manufacturing, and even
creating new products with IoT capabilities.
Just how valuable is IoT for manufacturers? Forbes projects that globally, more than $267 billion will be
invested in IoT by 2020, with 50% of that focused on manufacturing, transportation, and logistics.

4. Enterprise Resource Planning

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) technology has been in the manufacturing industry for years but is
now getting widespread usage with the availability of cloud-based SaaS options that are easier to deploy
and more affordable for small businesses. ERP systems help manufacturers automate different areas of
operations under one comprehensive system. This universal touchpoint then gives manufacturers the
insight they need to oversee the entire manufacturing operation and make improvements and adjustments
where needed.

5. Universal Connectability

Technologies and innovations in the manufacturing space were traditionally billed as a one-size-fits-all
solution. Your operations had to fit the mold of the technology, which limited manufacturers’ options
and made certain capabilities unavailable to them. New manufacturing trends are seeing that balance flip.
What we are calling “universal connectability” is the idea that technologies are now being made to
connect with any device or system. System-agnostic solutions like Waypoint’s omnidirectional
AMRs can be fit to any manufacturing setup, as the device itself and its operating technology can work
with a wide variety of operations. Essentially, technology and manufacturing advancements can now be
tailor-made to your operations, without the cost of a fully custom solution.

6. Industry 4.0

A term created to describe the current trend in manufacturing toward “smart factories,” Industry 4.0 is
shorthand for the fourth industrial revolution. Many of the trends on this list contribute to and make
Industry 4.0 possible.
The widespread adoption and understanding of the latest manufacturing tech – IoT, the cloud, advanced
computers, robotics, and the human workforce – all work together to empower Industry 4.0. Companies
 looking to stay relevant, competitive, and thrive in the marketplace must take advantage of the
technological advancements that have sparked the fourth revolution in the manufacturing industry.

7. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning

Because companies have access to more data than ever before, tools that enable them to make the most
of that data, like artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, are having a major impact on
manufacturing. AI doesn’t mean walking, talking robots, but instead refers to a computer system’s ability
to recognize trends and infer logical conclusions that can help manufacturers make data-driven decisions.

AI and machine learning can help improve many aspects of a manufacturing operation, such as:
 Inventory Management
 Supply Chain Visibility
 Warehousing Cost Reduction
 Asset Tracking
 Forecasting Accuracy
 Transportation Cost Reduction
 And more

8. Predictive Maintenance

Made possible by IoT, AI, and machine learning, predictive maintenance is helping manufacturers avoid
downtime by catching issues before they arise.
Adding predictive maintenance technology to a manufacturing operation can save on both maintenance
costs and downtime while extending the expected life of machinery. McKinsey & Company projects that
predictive maintenance programs will reduce costs by about 20% for maintenance and cut unplanned
machine outage by 50%.

9. Supply Chain Technology

Overall supply chain operation is being impacted by advances in high mix, low volume (HMLV)
manufacturing. Effectively managing the supply chain is vital for manufacturers looking to save on
costs, while delivering products to customers when they want it, how they want it.

Manufacturing trends are seeing companies invest in technologies that touch every step of the
manufacturing process; procurement, inventory, assembly, logistics, transportation, and sales are all
impacted by new technologies. For example, adding sensors or barcodes to items allows companies to
scan and track parts throughout the process, helping companies quickly see where improvement can be
made.

10. Mobile Manipulators

Think of mobile manipulators as the marriage of a robotic arm and an AMR, essentially a fully mobile,
self-navigating robot arm that can perform a variety of operations. Robotic arms were traditionally
stationary automation tools, helping manufacturers in just one step of the assembly process. But with
new-found mobility, they are being used to automate other key areas of manufacturing and can be
optimized for collaboration with the human workforce (more on this later). Mobile manipulation is an
area where Waypoint is developing collaborative robots for the workforce.

11. Additive Manufacturing

This is the official industry term for what is better known as 3D printing. Using computer-aided-design
(CAD) software, manufacturers can now custom build parts and products one layer at a time for their
customers. Don’t just assume that additive manufacturing is making entire, complete products – this
process is also ideal for creating models, prototypes, molds, lost-wax castings, or components of final,
finished products.
Additive manufacturing is a fast-growing trend in the industry as it is first and foremost a significant
time and cost-saving tool. We are seeing this manufacturing trend growing at an accelerating rate,
especially in the metal fabrication industry and among manufacturers who build with metal components.
New selective laser sintering (SLS) technology for 3D printing metals enables companies to build metal
products in-house and realize significant cost savings by eliminating toolings costs and dramatically
shortening product development time. Most exciting is that 3D printing enables cost effective mass
production of metal parts that were previously impossible to make.

12. Collaborative Robots (Cobots)

The addition of robotics and automation to the manufacturing industry has sparked concerns about
possible negative impact on the workforce. What manufacturing trends are showing is just the opposite –
robots and people working together, collaboratively, in factories and warehouses can get more work
done, faster and more safely.
Known as cobots, robots are now being built for the human workforce to use as a valuable tool that helps
improve overall efficiency in the workplace. AMRs are uniquely tailored to this working partnership, as
they can be programmed to consistently perform non-value-added work, like moving heavy products,
while people focus on skilled labor.

13. Automated Picking

Speaking of cobots, one of the most common uses of cobot systems in a logistics setting is for picking. In
traditional order fulfillment roles, the physical act of walking to pick product accounts for 50% of the
entire process, eating up valuable time and money.
Automated picking is achieved when a robot is used to travel throughout the warehouse grabbing the
correct product, leaving people to do more skillful work in the fulfillment process. These advances in
manufacturing and logistics are improving efficiency – where a human worker could pick between 60
and 80 orders an hour, an automated system can pick up to 300 in the same time frame, according
to Westernacher Consulting.

14. Workforce Attraction, Retention, & Training

It is no secret in manufacturing that companies struggle to find skilled, qualified employees. There is
even a workforce shortage in the industry, and Deloitte has projected that nearly half of the 4.6 million
manufacturing jobs that will be needed over the next 10 years will not be filled. That’s 2.3 million open
positions.
Top 10 Automotive Industry Trends in 2021
1. Autonomous Vehicles (AV)

Autonomous vehicles or self-driving vehicles aim to minimize the need for human drivers and look
poised to transform everyday transportation. Fleets of AVs expand the scope of last-mile deliveries,
reduce downtime, and aim to make public transportation relatively safer. For example, by reducing
accidents caused due to driver fatigue or negligence. AVs are equipped with advanced recognition
technologies, such as AI-enhanced computer vision to identify obstacles along the route.

2. Connectivity

Nowadays, vehicles come with a tamper-proof digital identity that differentiates them from other
vehicles in the network. This enables easy tracking of vehicular data for various use cases such as
insurance, driver safety, predictive maintenance, and fleet management. Sharing vehicular data helps not
just the individual customer, but overhauls the entire mobility ecosystem.

3. Electrification
The depleting fossil fuel reserves and the harm to the environment caused by their use call for promoting
the use of electric vehicles (EVs). For greater adoption, EVs need to address issues such as high price,
poor battery, inadequate charging infrastructure, fleet electrification, as well as powering renewable
energy-based charging grids.

4. Shared Mobility

With connected vehicles, new business models have come up that focus on shared mobility as an
alternative to traditional vehicle ownership. This enables mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) and discourages
unused vehicles. Such solutions meet the requirements of a city or a business without adding new
vehicles, thus reducing waiting time for fleets and pollution caused by petrol or diesel vehicles.

5. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence technologies such as machine learning, deep learning, and computer vision find
applications in robotic automation within the automotive industry. These guide self-driving cars, manage
fleets, assist drivers to improve safety and improve services such as vehicle inspection or insurance. AI
also finds applications in automotive manufacturing, where it accelerates the rate of production and helps
reduce costs.

6. Big Data & Data Analytics

In the age of big data, advanced data analytics informs various decisions throughout the lifecycle of a
vehicle. Data gathered from vehicles enables predictive maintenance, informs managers about their
fleets, and alerts concerned authorities in case of accidents. Moreover, customer automotive data finds
applications in driving sales, optimizing supply chains, and enhancing product design for newer vehicles.

7. Human-Machine Interface
As self-driving cars and connected cars transform the automotive landscape, it will fundamentally
change how drivers interact with vehicles. Human-machine interfaces (HMI) use voice-based or haptic
feedback to operate vehicles. These expand the scope of how and what aspects of a car that users control.
Consequently, such interfaces make the driving experience safer and more enjoyable. Another form of
HMI includes smart virtual assistants who help drivers and riders interact with the vehicles and other
service providers.

8. Blockchain

Blockchain finds multiple applications in the automotive industry. These include sharing vehicle data
over a secure network for connectivity and shared mobility solutions such as ride-hailing, urban
transportation, and deliveries. Moreover, it finds application in verifying the supply chain of spare parts
or making sure that the raw materials and spare parts are sourced exclusively from legal and trusted
sources.

9. Additive Manufacturing

3D printing helps the automotive industry in three primary ways. Firstly, it enables rapid prototyping
with 3D printed models that accelerate the design and testing phases of production. Secondly, it allows
manufacturers to print spare parts to match their requirements. Lastly, additive manufacturing of
composite materials leads to automotive parts that are lighter, stronger, and more durable.

10. Internet of Things (IoT)

In the automotive industry, IoT enables secure communication between vehicles as well as vehicles and
infrastructure components. The technology improves road safety, solves traffic congestion, and reduces
pollution and energy expenditure with better fleet management. Startups and emerging companies
develop advanced sensing technologies to gather more data about the vehicle as well as allow the vehicle
to understand its surroundings. The technology also automates payments for fuel and tolls.

Discover all Automotive Technologies & Startups

Additive manufacturing near production sites, AI-based automated inspections, the use of big data to
inform design and production, and human-machine interfaces are reinventing the manufacturing
processes for automotive players. The push for electric cars and driverless cars is strengthened by
advancements in machine learning and IoT. These also enable new business models in shared ownership
of vehicles, analytics-driven maintenance, safety improvements, and insurance. Further, startups and
emerging companies develop solutions that enable vehicles to securely communicate and transact over a
network.

The Automotive Industry Trends & Startups outlined in this report only scratch the surface of trends that
we identified during our in-depth research. Among others, hybrid vehicles, robotics, and automotive
sensor technologies will transform the sector as we know it today. Identifying new opportunities and
emerging technologies to implement into your business early on goes a long way in gaining a
competitive advantage. Get in touch to easily and exhaustively scout relevant technologies & startups
that matter to you.

Most 5 promising trends in the aerospace industry that you must know about:

1)Invention of Zero-fuel Aircrafts

Both civil and commercial sectors of the aerospace industry are looking into the concept of zero-fuel
aircrafts. It is possible to use such a technology for the purpose of agriculture, aerial photography, 3D
mapping, and wildlife safety. The concept has also gained traction in the cyber industry by opening up
the possibility of providing internet access to remote locations. The reason these zero-fuel aircrafts are
gaining popularity is because they run on solar energy. The photovoltaic panels attached to a zero-fuel
aircraft use solar energy to run its engines. These aircrafts are designed to be lightweight so as to be a
success. The global aerospace and defence industry is currently looking to further research and develop
zero-fuel aircraft, which will drive market growth.

2) Advancements in Manufacturing Materials:

Aircraft manufacturers have benefited greatly due to advancements in material science. Graphene and
carbon nanotubes are some of the newest materials used in aerospace technology to improve the
efficiency of airplane wings. Graphene and carbon nanotubes make aircrafts more lightweight and fuel
efficient. MIT and NASA have created a “morphing” wing in their manufacturing department to enhance
the manufacturing process and more efficient. Specialised robots are used to assemble lightweight
subunits in this “morphing” wing to speed up the manufacturing process.
3) Advancements in Space Propulsion Technology

For years space research agencies have strived towards pushing the boundaries of long-term space
missions. Over the last several years NASA has been working on developing a plasma-based rocket
propulsion technology for space rockets. This technology is beneficial to the aerospace industry at large
because it aims at reducing fuel consumption in spacecrafts. Another advantage of the plasma-based
rocket propulsion technology is that it could enable long-term space missions in the future. With time
there have been many breakthroughs in the propulsion system technology which are said to be extremely
beneficial to the aerospace industry.

4) Implementation of Smart Automation:

The aerospace manufacturing industry is extremely specialised and incorporates complex processes to
manufacture spacecrafts and aircrafts. However, with enormous advancement in technologies has further
simplified and expedited the manufacturing process. Advancements have reached a stage where
engineers are able to gauge the size of the bolt required to fit a particular part and the amount of torque
required by simply scanning the metallic surface through a tablet or a specialised smart glass. This
information is then used by an automated robotic arm to perform the necessary tasks.

5) Implementation of 3D Printing:

Manufacturing and production in any sector is a time-consuming process, and this stands true for the
aerospace industry as well. There is an enormous need for speedy and accurate manufacturing in today’s
world. To combat delayed and slow manufacturing processes, the aerospace industry has moved towards
3D printing as a solution to the problem. 3D printing has vastly improved the manufacturing process in
the aerospace industry. Companies can now use 3D printing to manufacture thousands of parts in a short
duration of time, a trend that doesn’t seem to be slowing down. There is a constant need for spare parts
that need replacing, and 3D printing offers the right solution for this demand. 3D printing is also said to
help cut downtime taken to manufacture, cost of manufacturing, and the weight of the final product.

The Future is Now

Innovation is the key to any industry that is rapidly changing. The aerospace industry is a very appealing
choice for students who are interested in constant, hands-on innovation. However, to attain that level of
expertise which can transform a student into an employable professional in the aerospace industry you
need to pick the right college to pursue aerospace engineering. Many aerospace engineering colleges in
India lack the facilities required to produce professional aerospace engineers.
 The Emerging Technology Trends in Maritime Industry

the Future Technologies of Maritime?

Regulatory changes and compliance are having a profound impact on the maritime industry, this is for
certain. But what technologies are the leaders investing in for a sustainable and viable future of
maritime?

According to the Global Marine Technology Report 2030, two technology landscapes will shape the
future of commercial shipping with a significant impact on ship design and ship operation: the first
technology arena originates from within the industry, as intense competition encourages technology
sophistication and operational efficiency in order to gain commercial advantages. The second technology
area comes from other sectors, as maturing technology is ripe for transfer to ship system design and
operation to enhance safety, as well as financial and commercial performance.
Shipbuilding

Design freedom, efficient customisation, waste reduction and managing virtual inventory will drive the
development for future shipbuilding technologies.

Apart from the breakthrough in products’ operational efficiency, environmental impact is a major driver
in adopting new shipbuilding technologies. For instance, 90% of raw materials may be in traditional
subtractive manufacturing methods. By contrast, the introduction of additive manufacturing deposits
materials only where they are required.
Propulsion and Powering

Ship propulsion and power generation will be a significant area of technological development. It is not
only the scope of applicable technology, which includes future engines, alternative fuels, propulsion
energy-saving devices, renewable sources of energy, hybrid power generation, and emissions abatement
technology.

It is also, and perhaps more importantly, the scale of future environmental challenges for commercial
shipping which makes propulsion and powering a key technological theme. Notably vessels are claiming
20% reducing in fuel costs with hybrid propulsion whilst significantly reducing emissions.
Smart Shipping
10% of the new buildings will be smart ships - arguably, smart ships are not a revolution but an
evolution.

Today’s concept of unmanned machinery spaces may be considered another manifestation of the smart
ship, as are data-driven services such as vessel performance monitoring and weather routeing – the
modern smart ship will integrate a variety of connected technologies to improve operational efficiency,
ship management, regulatory compliance, decision making, environmental responsibilities and also
improve safety and maintenance of vessel and crew through communication networks.
Big Data and Analytics

IT infrastructure will be upgraded to retrieve, store, and process data in real time.

Archived data can be stored either onboard a ship or onshore, thanks to the support of communication
technologies. Furthermore, cognitive systems will act as data interpreters for humankind. These systems
will combine machine learning and natural language processing to offer an intuitive interface between a
person and a machine.
Advanced Materials

Developing advanced materials for ship applications will be a critical component of improving future
ship performance. New features will be introduced, and multi-functional materials can be created.

A new generation of machinery will emerge with enhanced performance. Inherent smart features can be
designed for corresponding applications; these may include self-cleaning and self-repairing materials,
which would have a myriad of benefits when it comes to safety and maintenance.
Robotics

There are three new types of robots that will be in use by 2030. The first will be a learning robot, the
second will be a practical robot (one that can handle an asset), and the third type will be a mini-robot,
useful for inspections in harsh, dangerous environments. These robotics will leverage: cognition,
versatility, imitation, sense and adaptability.
The development of these types of robots is very closely linked to the development of other technologies,
like sensors and remote controls. These solutions require system response times (including network
delays) of less than a few milliseconds.
Sensors

The utilisation of sensors will represent a powerful opportunity for improvements in the efficiency and
safety of vessels and associated equipment’s. Sensors and the data they generate will have enormous
potential within the commercial shipping sector. Real-time monitoring and analysis strategies will be the
key to improving the commercial shipping sector.

The capture of vessels’ top-quality data by means of robust and reliable sensors will open up new ways
of optimising vessels’ life cycles. One outcome will be to make possible the ability to extend the life
cycle of a vessel following top-standard operational criteria. This technology will provide data which
will need to be properly transferred, stored and analysed.
Communications

Today, ships generate, collect and transmit an ever-increasing volume of data. To achieve efficient data
transfer, wireless communications have been widely adopted for many years. Marine very high
frequency (VHF) installations, satellites and WiFi are just a few examples. Using a higher frequency
band will be capable of transferring multiple signals at a higher data transmission speed.

With the integration of 5G, WiFi and new generation satellites, as well as conventional marine
radiocommunication networks, we will see transformation everywhere. Stakeholders will be able to
monitor live audio and high definition (HD) or 3D video collected onboard. Radio-frequency
identification (RFID) tags will support through-life asset management, including the tracking status of
cargoes, as well as structural and machinery components.

Contribution of Mechanical engineers to the GDP

Make in India is an ambitious initiative launched by government of India to attract manufacturing
enterprises from abroad as well as domestic origin to set up manufacturing units in India to enhance the
share of manufacturing in our GDP from current 15 percent to 25 percent by 2025. Manufacturing being
one of the highest employments generating sector has been of current focus though capacity up-
gradation, skill development and industrial development. To achieve this target, government of India has
 adopted a mix of policies for ease of doing business in India though good governance, decreasing red-
tapism and scaling up infrastructural development to multiply the role of mechanical engineering. Make
in India being led by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion, Ministry of commerce and
Industry, Govt. of India. The initiative is expected to create 100milion new Mechanical Jobs in India by
2022. This initiative will promote innovators and creators by upgrading infrastructure and using state-of-
art technology to bring a vibrant intellectual property regime in the country. India is the 4th largest base
for new businesses in the world and home to over 3100 tech start-ups, most of them belonging to the
MSME sector. The economy is set to increase its base to 11500 tech start-ups by 2022 as the industry
would get a huge boost from Make in India. Now this financial crisis period Some of the govt policy
have been take up for boosting of Make in India,

 Major FDI policy reforms have been made in a number of sectors, such as defence, Construction
development, Pensions, Broadcasting, Pharmaceutical and civil aviation.
 Foreign investors can invest in India either on their own or as a joint venture, as may be required in a few
sectors.
 Barring a few reserved sectors 100% FDI is allowed through the automatic route in several sectors,
without the need of government approval, namely Automobile, Food Processing, Construction etc.
 In Union budget 2016-17, the government has emphasized the need to increase manufacturing as a % of
GDP.
 The Central and State governments have sector specific policies,
incentives and subsidies to promote manufacturing.
 Increased allocation in the budget to improve infrastructure, which is critical in facilitating future growth.

Manufacturing is an important activity to promote economic growth and development. Nations that
export manufactured products tend to generate higher marginal GDP growth which supports higher
incomes and marginal tax revenue. The field is an important source for engineering job opportunities.
Among developed countries, it is an important source of well-paying jobs for the middle class to
facilitate greater social mobility for successive generations on the economy. Industrial development is a
driver of structural change which is key in the process of economic development. Research suggests that
economic development requires structural change from low to high productivity activities and that the
industrial sector is a key engine of growth in the development process. In many cases of high, rapid, and
sustained economic growth in modern economic development have been associated with
industrialisation, particularly growth in manufacturing production. Many economists agree that rapid
manufacturing-led growth is what India needs and must seek to promote. Though the country has had
 rapid services-led growth for a decade or so, economists have tended to view this as not very stable.
Historically, manufacturing has led the growth process at early stages of development not just in today’s
developed countries of Europe and North America but also in late-developers of Asia such as Japan,
South Korea and Taiwan, and most recently in the People’s Republic of China. And no country in the
world has achieved high-income status without developing manufacturing to a point where it accounts
for a high share (around 30 per cent) of GDP. The economic logic of this historically observed pattern of
development is also well understood. On the supply side, manufacturing production is characterized by
increasing returns to scale and rapid productivity growth. Manufacturing can also stimulate non-
manufacturing activities significantly. On the demand side, the income elasticity of demand is higher for
manufactures than for non-manufactures at relatively low levels of per capital income. And manufactures
are eminently tradable, so that external demand can play an important role in supporting manufacturing
growth. There are around 300,000 mechanical engineers in India, who have been serving in different
industries. Role of mechanical engineering can never be neglected. If we talk about the percent-wise
breakup of mechanical engineers employed in different industries, then the below table clarifies:

 Transportation equipment manufacturing 12%

 Scientific research and development services 7%
 Machinery manufacturing 13%
 Computer and electronic product manufacturing 7%
 Architectural, engineering, and related services 22%
Steam Formation

Figure 1.12 Formation of Steam

tsup = Superheated temperature

Figure 1.13 Temperature – Enthalpy diagram

Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils or evaporates, the generators
known as boilers. Water will be taken at atmospheric pressure and temperature and converted into
steam by the application of heat. As the steam continuously generated, its pressure gradually
increases and is supplied from boilers to the engines or turbines at constant pressure.

The process of generation of steam can be represented through a temperature – enthalpy

diagram as shown in the figure 1.13.
Consider 1 kg of water at 00 C taken in a cylinder with a pressure P applied by a weight

‗w‘ on a free frictionless piston as shown in the figure 1.12(i). When it is heated keeping the
pressure constant, its volume increases with increase of temperature, until it reaches a point B in
the graph (figure 1.13) when steam begins to form. This temperature (ts) at which steam begins
to form is called the saturation temperature. The saturation temperature is different for
different pressures and it increases with rise of pressure. The saturation temperature at
atmospheric pressure of 1 bar is 1000 C.
Further addition of heat, initiates the evaporation of water while the temperature remains
at the saturation temperature because the water will be saturated with heat and any further
addition of heat changes only the phase from the liquid phase to gaseous phase. When steam
begins to form at saturation temperature, some water particles may be present in it
figure1.12(iii). If the steam contains water particles in suspension, it is called wet steam. This
evaporation will be continue at the same saturation temperature untill the whole water is
completely converted into steam as shown in figure 1.12 (iv). This point is represented by point
C on the graph (figure 1.13). At the saturation temperature if the steam contains no water
particles, it is dry saturated steam. This constant pressure and temperature heat addition
process is represented by horizontal line BC on the graph (figure 1.13).

If the dry saturated steam is further heated beyond point ‗C‘ (figure 1.13), at the same
pressure the temperature of steam rises above the saturation temperature. The steam which is at
a temperature greater than saturation temperature is called superheated steam. This
superheating is represented by the inclined line CD on the graph (figure 1.13).

Thus, during the formation there are three states of steam namely wet steam, dry steam
and superheated steam.
Different Stages of Steam
The steam generated can exist in three forms
i) Wet steam
ii) Dry saturated stem
iii) Superheated steam

Wet Stem
Wet steam is defined as two phase mixture of entrained water molecules and stem in thermal
equilibrium at saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure.

Dry saturated stem

A saturated steam at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure and having no
water molecules entrained in it is defined as dry saturated steam

Superheated Steam
When a dry saturated steam is heated further at the given constant pressure, its temperature rises
beyond its saturation temperature. The steam in this state is said to be superheated.

Dryness fraction
Dryness fraction of steam is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam actually present in a wet
steam to the total mass of wet steam‖.
Massof dry steamin wet steam
Dryness fraction, x 
Total massof wet steam

mg
x
mf  mg

Where, mg — Mass of dry steam.

Mf— Mass of suspended water molecules. (x should always be less than 1)

Enthalpy of Steam
 Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy and product of pressure and volume.
h = U + PV

(i) Enthalpy of Water:

The total amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water which is initially at
00 C to its saturation temperature, at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of water. It
is also called sensible heat. It is denoted by ‗hf‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg
.

(ii) Enthalpy of Evaporation:

The total amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water which is initially at its saturation
temperature to dry saturated steam at the same saturation temperature and at the given constant
pressure is called enthalpy of evaporation. It is also called the latent heat of vaporization of
steam. It is denoted by ‗hfg‘ and is expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘.

(iii) Enthalpy of dry saturated steam:

The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of dry saturated steam from 1 kg of water
which is initially at 00 C and at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of dry saturated
steam. It is denoted by ‗hg‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘. Enthalpy of steam is equal to the sum of
enthalpy of water (hf) and enthalpy of evaporation (hfg).
Thus it can be expressed as hg = hf + hfg kJ / kg

(iv) Enthalpy of Wet Steam:

Enthalpy of wet steam is defined as the ―total amount heat of required to generate 1 kg of water
which is initially at 0˚C to 1 kg of wet steam at the specified dryness fraction‖. It is denoted by
‗hw‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘

Enthalpy of wet steam, hw = hf +x hfg kJ / kg

Where, x = dryness fraction of steam
(v) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam:
The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of superheated steam at the stated
superheated temperature from 1 kg of water which is initially at 0 0 C and at a given constant
pressure is called the enthalpy of superheated steam. It is denoted by ‗hsup‘ and expressed in ‗kJ
/ kg‘.
It can be determined by using the equation

hsup = hg + Cp (tsup – ts) kJ / kg

The difference between the superheated temperature (tsup) and the saturation temperature (ts) is
called the degree of superheat.

Specific Volume
The volume of a unit mass of steam at a given pressure is called the specific volume of steam. It
is expressed in m3 / kg.
As steam exists in three states, the specific volume is considered for all the three states.

(i) Specific volume of saturated steam:

It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg of water at saturation temperature at a given
pressure. It is denoted by vf

(ii) Specific volume of dry saturated steam:

It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg of dry saturated steam at a given pressure. It is
denoted by ‗Vg‘ and expressed in ‗m3 / kg‘.

(ii) Specific volume of wet steam:

Wet steam contains two phase mixture of saturated water and vapour. Hence specific volume of
wet steam is defined as the volume occupied by the saturated water and vapour at a given
pressure. It is denoted by ‗Vw‘ and expressed in ‗m3 / kg‘.
Wet steam consists of saturated liquid in suspension. If in 1 kg of wet steam there is ‗x‘
kg of dry steam, then ‗(1 – x)‘ kg will be the saturated liquid. Therefore specific volume of wet
steam vw = xvg + (1–x) vf m3/ kg
Since ‗(1–x) vf‘ is too small quantity it is neglected. Hence
Specific volume of wet steam, Vw = xVg m3 / kg

(iii) Specific volume of the superheated steam: It is defined as the volume occupied by 1kg of
superheated steam at a given pressure and superheated temperature. It is denoted by ‗Vsup‘ and
expressed in ‗m3 / kg‘
Since superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas, its specific volume can be
 determined by using Charles law as follows:
vg v sup

Ts T sup

T sup
V sup  Vg
Ts
where, vg —Specific volume of dry saturated steam at pressure ‗p‘
Ts —Saturation temperature, K
Tsup —Specified superheated temperature, K
vsup — Specific volume of superheated steam at pressure ‗p‘

Density of Steam
It is the mass of steam per unit volume of steam at a given pressure and temperature. It is the
reciprocal of specific volume.
Density of Wet steam = ρw = 1/ xVg
Density of dry steam = ρg = 1/ Vg
Density of superheated steam = ρsup= 1/ Vsup
Internal Energy of Steam
When water vaporizes and gets converted into steam there is a considerable increase in its
volume. Thus some amount of external work is done during vaporization. This external work
can be expressed as product of pressure and volume of steam. Thus the external work done, for
the three states of steam are as follows:
PVg for dry saturated steam
PVw for wet steam
PVsup for superheated steam

Internal energy of steam is the actual energy stored in steam which can be utilized for
doing external work. It is equal to the difference between the total heat of steam and the external
work done during vaporization. It is denoted by ‗U‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘. Thus,
Internal energy of dry saturated steam : Ug = hg – 100 PVg kJ / kgInternal energy of wet steam :
Uw = hw –100 PVw kJ / kgInternal energy of superheated steam : Usup = hsup – 100PVsup kJ / kg
Where ‗p‘ is in bars
Principal Application for Steam
Steam is used in a wide range of industries. Common applications for steam are, for example, steam heated
processes in plants and factories and steam driven turbines in electric power plants, but the uses of steam in
industry extend far beyond this.
Here are some typical applications for steam in industry:
 Heating/Sterilization
 Propulsion/Drive
 Motive
 Atomization
 Cleaning
 Moisturization
 Humidification

Steam for Heating:-

Steam is typically generated and distributed at a positive pressure. In most cases, this means that it is
supplied to equipment at pressures above 0 MPaG (0 psig) and temperatures higher than 100°C (212°F).
Heating applications for positive pressure steam can be found in food processing factories, refineries, and
chemical plants to name a few. Saturated steam is used as the heating source for process fluid heat
exchangers, reboilers, reactors, combustion air preheaters, and other types of heat transfer equipment.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

In a heat exchanger, steam raises the temperature of the product by heat transfer, after which it turns into
condensate and is discharged through a steam trap.
Steam for Propulsion/Drive:-

Steam is regularly used for propulsion (as a driving force) in applications such as steam turbines. The
steam turbine is a piece of equipment that is essential for the generation of electricity in thermal electric
power plants. In an effort to improve efficiency, progress is being made toward the use of steam at ever-
higher pressures and temperatures. There are some thermal electric power plants that use 25 MPa abs
(3625 psia), 610°C (1130°F) superheated, supercritical pressure steam in their turbines.
Superheated steam is often used in steam turbines to prevent damage to equipment caused by the inflow of
condensate. In certain types of nuclear power plants, however, the use of high temperature steam must be
avoided, as it would cause problems with the material used in the turbine equipment. Instead, high
pressure saturated steam is typically used. Where saturated steam must be used, separators are often
installed in the supply piping to remove entrained condensate from the steam flow.
Besides power generation, other typical propulsion/drive applications are usually for either turbine-driven
compressors or pumps, ex. gas compressors, cooling tower pumps, etc.
Generator Turbine

The driving force from the steam causes the fins to turn, which then causes the rotor on the attached power
generator to rotate, and this rotation generates electricity.
Steam as a Motive Fluid:-
Steam can also be used as a direct “motive” force to move liquid and gas streams in piping. Steam jet
ejectors are used to pull vacuum on process equipment such as distillation towers to separate and purify
process vapor streams. They are also used for continuous removal of air from surface condensers, in order
to maintain desired vacuum pressure on condensing (vacuum) turbines.
Ejector for Surface Condenser
High pressure motive steam enters the jet ejector through the inlet nozzle and is then diffused. This creates
a low pressure zone which entrains air from the surface condenser.
In a similar type of application, steam is also the primary motive fluid for secondary pressure drainers,
which are used for pumping condensate from vented receiver tanks, flash vessels, or steam equipment that
experiences stall conditions.

Steam for Atomization:-

Steam atomization is a process where steam is used to mechanically separate a fluid. In some burners, for
example, steam is injected into the fuel in order to maximize combustion efficiency and minimize the
production of hydrocarbons (soot). Steam boilers and generators that use fuel oil will use this method to
break up the viscous oil into smaller droplets to allow for more efficient combustion. Flares also
commonly use steam atomization to reduce pollutants in the exhaust.
Steam Assisted Flare

In flares, steam is often mixed in with the waste gas before combustion.
Steam for Cleaning:-
Steam is used to clean a wide range of surfaces. One such example from industry is the use of steam in
soot blowers. Boilers that use oil or coal as the fuel source must be equipped with soot blowers for cyclic
cleaning of the furnace walls and removing combusted deposits from convection surfaces to maintain
boiler capacity, efficiency, and reliability.
Boiler Tube Cleaning with Soot Blower

Steam released out of the soot blower nozzle dislodges the dry or sintered ash and slag, which then fall
into hoppers or are carried out with the combusted gasses.
Steam for Humidification:-
Many large commercial and industrial facilities, especially in colder climates, use low pressure saturated
steam as the predominant heat source for indoor seasonal heating. HVAC coils, often combined with
steam humidifiers, are the equipment used for conditioning the air for indoor comfort, preservation of
books and records, and infection control. When the cold air is heated by the steam coils, the relative
humidity of the air drops, and it must then be adjusted to normal levels with addition of a controlled
injection of dry saturated steam into the downstream air flow.
Steam Humidifier in Air Duct

Steam is used to humidify air within an air duct before the air is distributed to other regions of a building.
Energy Sources and Power Plants:
 Energy is defined as the capacity to do work
 Energy exists in various forms such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal
energy and chemical energy.
 Energy in the process of transfer from one body to another. After it has been transferred,
energy is always designated according to its nature.
 Energy can be converted from one form to another in various ways but the total amountof
energy remains constant before and after the transformation.

Various sources of energy

The various sources of energy are
(i) Fossil fuels
(ii) Nuclear energy
(iii) Hydal energy
(iv) Solar energy
(v) Wind
(vi) Tides
(vii) Geothermal energy
(viii) Bio-mass

Different sources of energy

The sources of energy are classified in the following two ways:
(a) Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy
(b) Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Conventionalenergysources

 Conventional sources of energy are the natural energy resources which are regularly used
for many years and are accepted as fuel to produce heat, light, food and electricity.
 The energy sources include firewood, fossil fuels
 Fossil fuel is the greatest conventional source, wherein fossil implies the remains of plants
and animals, that got buried under the earth and transformed into rocks over the years.
 These fossil fuels are coal, oil (petroleum), and natural gas.
 Conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy as the
accumulation or creation of conventional sources of energy takes years, once they are
exploited or consumed.

Non-conventional energy sources

 An alternative to conventional sources of energy is the non-conventional sources of energy,

that achieved popularity in recent years.
 The energy can be obtained from various sources such as the sun, wind, biological wastes,
hot springs, tides, etc. to generate heat and power.
 These are not only renewable sources of energy but are also pollution free. These sources
are present in abundance in nature, and they are constantly generated, so it cannot be
exhausted easily, and used again and again.

Difference between Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy

Conventional sources of energy Non- conventional sources of energy
These are widely used and economical These are rarely used and initial cost is high
Most of them are exhaustible Most of them are in-exhaustible
Most of them are pollute the environment Most of them are environment friendly
They are reliable (continuous supply of energy They are not reliable (continuous supply of
is possible) energy is not possible)
Energy transmission cost is high Energy transmission cost is low
Example: Fossil fuels, Hydel energy Example: solar, wind, tidal etc.

Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable sources of energy
The renewable sources of energy are defined as the energy sources which are continuously
produced in nature and are essentially inexhaustible or non-depletable. These energy sources
replenish themselves naturally in a relatively short time and therefore will always be available.
E.g. of renewable energy sources: direct solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydel
energy, ocean thermal energy, bio energy, geothermal energy, peat, fuel wood, fuel cells, solid
wastes, hydrogen energy etc.
Non-renewable sources of energy
The non-renewable energy sources are those natural resources that are available in
limited quantity and these resources cannot be renewed in short durations.
E.g. Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and petroleum products), nuclear fuels and heat traps

Difference between Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable sources of energy Non- Renewable sources of energy

These are in-exhaustible These are exhaustible
Freely available and environment friendly Not freely available & hazardous to
environment
Initial cost is high but maintenance cost is low Initial cost is low but maintenance cost is
high
Energy concentration varies from region to Energy concentration almost same in all
region region
Example: solar, hydel, wind, tidal etc. Example: Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels.

Fossil Fuels
 Fossil fuels are energy rich substances that have been formed from long buried plants
and microorganisms.
 Fossil fuels include solid, liquid and gaseous fuels
 Chemically fossil fuels consist largely of hydrocarbons, which are compounds ofhydrogen
and carbon.

1. Solid Fuels
Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories:
i) Natural fuels: wood, coal, etc.
ii) Manufactured fuels: charcoal, coke, etc.

Wood
 The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of
fuel which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. Charcoal is an
artificial fuel obtained from wood.
  Calorific value:18000KJ/kg

Charcoal
 It is obtained from destructive distillation of wood
 It burn rapidly with clear flame, producing no smoke and developing heat of about 6050
cal/kg.

Coal
 Coal is a combustible black or brownish black sedimentary rock
 The major chemical elements in coal are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
 There are two types one is Bituminous coal and Anthracite coal.
 Calorific value:27000KJ/kg

Coke
 It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid residue.
 Coke can be classified into two categories: soft coke and hard coke.
 Soft coke is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 600-650oC. It contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without
smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel.
 Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the
temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for
metallurgical process.
 Calorific value:28000KJ/kg

Advantages of solid fuels

i) They are easy to transport.
ii) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
iii) Their cost of production is low.
iv) They possess moderate ignition temperature.

Disadvantages of solid fuels

i) Their ash content is high.
ii) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
 iii) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
iv) Their cost of handling is high.

2. Liquid fuels
 All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products.
 The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% Carbon, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying
percentages of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
 The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for industrialas
well as for domestic purposes.
 The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and
finally heavy fuel oil.
 The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam. The use of liquid fuels in thermal
power plants has many advantages over the use of solid fuels
 Liquid fuels are generally found under the earth‘s surface by drilling wells in the earth‘s
crust
 Liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha, Lubricating oils,
etc.

Gasoline or Petrol
 It is a mixture of large number of hydrocarbons
 It is lightest and most volatile liquid mainly used as motor fuel
 It is obtained by fractional distillation from crude oil
 Calorific value:48000KJ/kg

Diesel
 The liquid fuel distilled after gasoline and kerosene
 These fuels are used in diesel engines
 It evaporate slowly when compared to petrol as it is heavier
 Calorific value:44800KJ/kg

Kerosene
 It is obtained from crude oil in the fractional distillation after obtaining petrol
 It is heavier than petrol and less volatile than petrol
 It is mostly used as domestic fuel for heating and lighting purpose
  Calorific value:46200KJ/kg

Advantages of liquid fuels

i) They possess higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
ii) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
iii) They are easy to transport through pipes.
iv) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
v) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
vi) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
vii) They require less furnace space for combustion.

Disadvantages of liquid fuels

i) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
ii) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
iii) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and
volatile liquid fuels.
iv) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying
apparatus are required.

3. Gaseous fuels
In recent years gaseous fuels are playing predominant role in industrial and domestic
applications

Natural Gas
 Methane is the main constituent of natural gas and accounting for about 95% of the total
volume along with other elements namely ethane, propane, butane and other gases
 It has high calorific value
 It mix with air readily and doesn‘t produce smoke
 It is lighter than air

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

  It mainly consists of butane
 Calorific value:50000KJ/kg
 On compression it easily changes to a liquid state and stored in cylinders
 In cylinder it will be in liquid form and while using it will convert into gaseous state
 The cost of LPG is less than that of petrol
 It causes less pollution to environment than petrol as it releases less amount of carbon
monoxide when compared to petrol
 It is extensively used as domestic fuel and in transportation

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

 It mainly consists of methane

 Calorific value:55000KJ/kg
 It is nontoxic, colourless and lighter than ai

Advantages of gaseous fuels

i) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, therebyeliminating
manual labour in transportation.
ii) They can be lighted at ease.
iii) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
iv) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
v) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
vi) They do not require any special burner.
vii) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

Disadvantages gaseous fuels

i) Very large storage tanks are needed.
ii) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.

Combustion and Combustion products

The term combustion refers to the exothermal oxidation of a fuel, by air or oxygen
occurring at a sufficiently rapid rate to produce a high temperature, usually with the appearance of
a flame.
As most of the fuels contain carbon or carbon and hydrogen, the combustion involvesthe
oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide and hydrogen to water. Sulphur, if present, is oxidised to
sulphur dioxide while the mineral matter forms the ash. Complex fuels like coal undergo thermal
decomposition during combustion to give simpler products which are then oxidised to carbon
dioxide, water etc.
e.g.: Coke on combustion gives carbon dioxide
Coal → Coke + Coal gas
C (coke) + O2 → CO2

Calorific Value of a Fuel

The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion
of unit weight of the fuel in air or oxygen, with subsequent cooling of the products of combustion
to the initial temperature of the fuel. It is expressed in kJ/kg.
The calorific value of a fuel depends upon the nature of the fuel and the relativeproportions
of the elements present, increasing with increasing amounts of hydrogen. Moisture if present
considerably reduces the calorific value of a fuel. The calorific value may be theoretically
calculated from the chemical composition of the fuel.

Applications of Fossil Fuels

i) Electricity generation: it can be produced in various power plants by using fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, gaseous fuels
ii) Heating: Oil and natural gases are commonly used for heating for domestic and
industrial applications
iii) Transportations: The petroleum products such as petrol, diesel and natural gases are
used in the transportation sector. All the major means of transportation depends on
fossil fuels
iv) Cooling applications: Cooling systems in the houses and industries are directly or
indirectly depends on the fossil fuels for energy
v) The by-products of the oil used to produce chemical, plastics, lubricants tras, waxes,
medicine
Hydel (Hydro) Energy Plant
 Figure 1.1: Hydro-power station
Hydro energy is considered as an indirect source of solar energy. The water from the earth‘s
surface gets evaporated by solar heat and forms as clouds, this inturn results in rainfall. The rain
water flowing as river can be stored in dam and released in a regulated way to through a penstock,
to drive the turbine. The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical
energy in water turbines. The mechanical energy produced by the water turbines is further
converted into electrical energy by the electric generators which are coupled to the water

turbines. After doing the useful work the water is discharged from the turbine to the river
through a water way to the tail race through draft tube.
Merits
i) These can be used for power generation in large scale
ii) Environmental friendly source of energy
iii) As water is natural resource, it is the energy available at free of cost
Demerits
i) It is expensive to built a dam
ii) By construction of dam, the nearby area may be flooded and this could affect nearby
wildlife and plants
iii) During summer the water may not be sufficient to produce electricityApplications
i) To generate electricity in power plants

Wind power plant

Wind energy is a renewable source of energy and available all around the globe in abundance. So to harness
this natural resource in the best possible way wind turbines are designed . The wind turbine can operate
from 15km/hr to 90km/hr of wind speed and are being vastly used all around the world. The wind power
plant are used for the generation of electricity in high wind area with the help of wind turbines.
Principle of Wind Turbine

All the wind turbines used today are horizontal axis machine with 3 bladed rotor spinning in a vertical plane.
Wind energy is used to rotate these blades, which are mounted at a height of almost 40 meters. Thus
converting kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is then converted to
electrical energy using generator.

Main Parts of Wind Turbine

It’s a horizontal axis machine with 2-3 rotor blades that spins in a vertical plane, these blades are mounted
on a hub and this hub is connected to a box called nacelle.

1. Nacelle–

It is named after the furring of an aircraft engine. It is a fible glass tube that contains the gearbox, brakes and
a generator. However for turbines generating upto 2MW/unit high voltage transformer is also placed in
nacelle itself. Also it has got direction and speed sensors mounted as back as possible on nacelle to prevent
them from the dirt coming from blades.

2. Gearbox-

A shaft connected to the hub directly goes into the gearbox and it increases its rpm to the required level .It is
the heaviest part in the nacelle.

3. Brakes–

Brakes are used when wind is blowing above critical level to same turbine from damage .Brakes is mounted
just behind the gearbox.

4. Generator-

It converts the energy of fast rotating shaft into electrical energy, and finally the high voltage transformer
converts it to high voltage to be ready to go in transmission lines.

5. Tower-

It‘s the cylindrical structure on which nacelle is mounted. For a sub megawatt turbine generating upto 400-
600 watts of power its height may vary from 25m to 45 meter. However the diameter of this cylinder
reduces as we go up the tower. The transmission cable from generator comes down inside this tower to the
high voltage transformer. Tower also has a ladder inside it with wooden platforms at different heights. The
platform connected to the nacelle is called the yaw platform.

6. Yaw Platform-

It is a steel platform at the top of the tower and helps the nacelle to yaw in the direction of the wind. It has
also got brakes in some high end wind turbines to maintain the direction of the nacelle

Working of Wind Power Plant

Blades of the wind turbine work as an airfoil of different cross-sections all along the length. When fluid (air)
moves over this airfoil it generates a lift force thus making the blade to rotate at its axis. The generator is
also connected to the rotor shaft starts rotating and produces electricity.

Now, we all know that rotating blades can get us electricity. But the wind speed keeps on changing with
time so we get a fluctuation in power. To overcome this, threshold velocity is decided at which turbine will
start rotating, below that brakes are used to prevent the blades from rotating. And for high wind velocity
brakes are applied to prevent turbine from damage
Motors and sensors are used to rotate the blades about their axis so that they can adjust according to the
varying direction of wind. And to extract maximum power out of wind. Blades are also rotated to stop the
turbine from rotating, means they are oriented in such a way that no lift will be generated even with the
blowing wind.

In a wind power plant, turbines are required to be interconnected to get the best out of them. They are
connected to each other by a medium voltage power collection system usually around 35.5 kV along
with a communication network, that helps them to communicate.
Advantages

 Air as fuel is free and inexhaustible.

 It is clean source of energy and does not pollute the environment.
 The cost of electricity is too low and the wind turbine could be used over more than 20 years
 It’s cheap as only the installation and maintenance cost is required.
 Wind energy is one of the fastest-growing sectors all around the globe so it is generating a lot of
employment in manufacturing, installation and maintenance.
Disadvantages

 It takes a lot of research and effort to decide the location where wind power plant has to be installed,
due to fluctuating pattern of wind.
 Its initial setup cost is too high as to setup a turbine you have to go through a survey to determine the
wind speed of the location. It all adds up to the cost.
 They are the greatest disadvantage to local bird population as they die due to collision with blades.
 Noise pollution is the one of the major disadvantage.
 Wind power plant is only useful to the countries with coastal or hilly areas.
Applications

 It is mostly used for electricity generation.

 It is also used for water pumping through multi blade turbine.

Solar Power Plant

Working Principle
The working principle is that we use the energy of photons to get the drift current flowing in the circuit
using reversed bias p-n junction diode (p-type and n-type silicon combination).
Main Components

1. Solar Panels

It is the heart of the solar power plant. Solar panels consists a number of solar cells. We have got around 35
solar cells in one panel. The energy produced by each solar cell is very small, but combining the energy of
35 of them we have got enough energy to charge a 12 volt battery.

2. Solar Cells

It is the energy generating unit, made up of p-type and n-type silicon semiconductor. It’s the heart of solar
power plant.

3. Battery

Batteries are used to produce the power back or store the excess energy produced during day, to be supplied
during night.

4. D.C. to A.C. Converter (Inverter)

Solar panels produce direct current which is required to be converted into alternating current to be supplied
to homes or power grid.
Working of Solar Power Plant

As sunlight falls over a solar cells, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of silicon. Electron
and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The electron travels from p-type
region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n junction. Further the diode is reversed biased
to increase this electric field. So this current starts flowing in the circuit for individual solar cell. We
combine the current of all the solar cells of a solar panel, to get a significant output.

Solar power plant have a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a large voltage output.
The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panels is stored in the Lithium ion batteries
to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.

Energy Storage

Storage of the energy generated by the solar panels is a important issue. Sometimes the unused energy
generated during daytime is used to pump water to some height, so that it could be used to generate
electricity using its potential energy when required or mainly at night time.

For current being Tesla is providing its industrial energy pack to store energy and currently it is lighting up
an entire island. Tesla has also made an offer to Australia that it could provide its battery pack for
emergency blackouts.

The cost of manufacturing of solar panels has decreased rapidly in last few years, same is said to be true
with the industrial energy pack (Lithium ion batteries), as the production and demand increases their cost is
going to decrease in coming few years.

Advantages of Solar Energy

 Most clean and renewable source of energy.

 It is available in abundance and endless.
 It provides electricity at low cost, as fuel is free.
 With new research in this sector we now have a good power storage solution.
 Keeping in mind the pollution and cost of fossil fuel, it’s becoming the most reliable source of clean
energy.
Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant
  It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.
 Initial cost of installation is too high.
 The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.
 Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce power.
 There is a problem if it is cloudy for few days.
 Their production causes pollution.
Applications

 Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.

 Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house especially in remote
areas.
Solar energy refers to the energy produced and radiated by the sun, i.e. sun‘s energy which
reaches the earth. Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy,
such as heat and electricity which can be utilized by man. The heat energy contained in the rays of
the sun is absorbed by a black surface.
The solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, the primary processes are
i) Heliochemical process: conversion of solar energy into chemical energy
ii) Helioelectrical process: conversion of solar energy into electrical energy
iii) Helioithermal process: conversion of solar energy into thermal energy

Heliochemical process
Is a photosynthesis process, which is the source of all fossil fuels and the food on ehich we
live today. The photosynthesis is a complex biochemical reaction in which the plants using the
solar energy synthesize to produce energy rich molecules of starch and cellulose and oxygen from
the inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water. Thus photosynthesis is a form of biological
conversion of solar energy into chemical energy called bioenergy which will be stored in plants.
The overall efficiency of this conversion process from solar energy to stored energy is very low.
Helio-electrical Process

Figure 1.3: Solar Cell

Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy can be achieved by the photovoltaic effect caused
by the solar radiations. Photo-voltaic effect can be observed in variety of materials but best
performance is given by semiconductors (like silicon).

Since silicon is a tetravalent material has four valence electrons. After doping with
pentavalent material (like arsenic, phosphorous) it forms N-type semiconductor and the same with
trivalent material (like boron) it forms P-type semiconductor. When P-N junction ofsemiconductor
is exposed to sunlight, a voltage around 0.5 volts is built up around the junction and current
depends on the exposed area of cell. By applying external load, current is made to flow through the
conductor, it will continue as long as the free electrons and holes are formed due to solar radiation.

Helio-Thermal Process

In the heliothermal process, the radiant solar energy falling on the surface placed on the earth in the
form of visible light is converted directly into thermal energy. the surfaces on which the solar rays
fall are called collectors.

Basically two types of collectors are used and they are flat plate (non concentrating)
collectors and Focusing (concentrating) collectors.
Flat plate collectors

Figure 1.4: Flat Plate collector

In flat plate collectors the incident solar radiation is absorbed by the collectors surface itself, which
are usually coated with black paint (usually electroplated), covered with transparent glass cover on
top and insulated all around to prevent the heat loss from thecollector surface. The black collector
surface gets heated up and then in turn transfers the heat to the fluid passing through the tubes
which are either welded or soldered or are integral part of thecollector plate. Flat plate collectors
are usually sloped and oriented in one particular direction and are capable of collecting both
diffuse and beam radiation. Since there are no moving partsin it, the repair and maintenance cost
is also nil or negligible. A maximum of 70°C can be easilyachieved using flat plate collectors and
are more popularly used in solar water heating applications and solar air heaters as they are
relatively cheaper as compared to the cost of concentrating collectors.

Focusing collectors
 Figure 1.5: Parabolic Focusing Collector

In focussing collectors a mirror or lens system is used to increase the intensity of solar
radiation. Generally parabolic reflectors of either cylindrical shape or spherical shape are employed
to focus the incident radiation. The focussing collectors intercept and concentrate only the
direct rays of the sun and hence they do not perform satisfactorily when the sky is cloud or
hazy. The focussing collectors require tracking systems to follow the path of the sun. The
concentrated narrow focussed beam is absorbed by a receiver placed at the focus of the reflector,
The focussing collector may be used for high temperature heating applications for industrial
purpose. A maximum of 150°C can be easily achieved using focussing collectors

Application of solar energy

i) Generating electricity using photovoltaic cells

ii) Water pumping and lighting
iii) Water distillation purpose in the coastal areas
iv) Solar furnaces
v) Heating the water domestic and industrial purposes
vi) Source of energy for satellites in the space

Benefits of solar energy

i) Renewable source of energy

ii) Non-polluting
 iii) Avoids global warming
iv) Reduce the use of fossil fuels
v) Generate local wealth and jobs

Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is the energy trapped inside each atom. Heavy atoms are unstable and
undergo nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactions are of two types

1. Nuclear fission…the splitting of heavy nucleus

2. Nuclear fusion…the joining of lighter nuclei

Fission: Fission may be defined as the process of splitting an atomic nucleus into fission fragments. The
fission fragments are generally in the form of smaller atomic nuclei and neutrons. Large amounts of
energy are produced by the fission process.

Fusion :Fusion is a nuclear reaction whereby two light atomic nuclei fuse or combine to form a single
larger, heavier nucleus. The fusion process generates tremendous amounts of energy. For fusion to
occur, a large amount of energy is needed to overcome the electrical charges of the nuclei and fuse them
together. Fusion reactions do not occur naturally on our planet but are the principal type of reaction
found in stars. The large masses, densities, and high temperatures of stars provide the initial energies
needed to fuel fusion reactions. The sun fuses hydrogen atoms to produce helium, subatomic particles,
and vast amounts of energy.
Comparison of fission and fusion

COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

The important components of a nuclear reactor are:

 1. Fuel rods

2. Control rods

3. Moderator

4. Reflector

5. Reactor vessel

6. Biological shielding

7. Coolant

Fuel Rod (Material): Natural Uranium with U235 contents (occurs in nature), Enriched Uranium with
more than 0.71 of U235 ,Pu239,Pu241 or Pu239(man made), U233 (man made). The finished fuel rods are
grouped in fuel assemblies, called fuel bundles.

A typical PWR has fuel assemblies of 200 to 300 rods each, and a large reactor would have about 150–250
such assemblies with 80–100 tonnes of uranium in all. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods
bundled 14 × 14 to 17 × 17. A PWR produces on the order of 900 to 1,500 MW. PWR fuel bundles are
about 4 meters in length. Refuelings for most commercial PWRs is on an 18–24 month cycle.
Approximately one third of the core is replaced each refueling.

Important properties of Fuel rods

• It should withstand high temperature

• It should have high corrosion resistance

• It should have good thermal conductivity

• It should not absorb neutrons

• It should withstand radiation effects

Controls rods: These are cylindrical shaped rods located centrally in the fuel rods which have the property
of absorbing neutrons. It keeps the chain-reaction under control. It can be lowered into the chamber to
absorb neutrons and to slowdown the reactions (and vice versa). Thus the rate of nuclear reactions can be
controlled with the help of control rods. Ex: Cadmium, Boron, Carbon, Cobalt, Silver, Hafnium, and
Gadolinium.
A good control rod should have the following properties
• Good capacity to transfer heat
• Stability at high temperature

• Good corrosion resistance

• Good strength and capacity to absorb neutrons at faster rate.

Moderator: Function of a moderator is to reduce the energy(velocity) of fast neutrons to thermal

neutrons(thermal energies). A process called moderation or thermalization in order to interact with the
nuclear fuel and sustain the chain reaction. In PWRs the coolant water is used as a moderator by letting the
neutrons undergo multiple collisions with light hydrogen atoms in the water, losing speed in the process.

Generally used moderators are: H2O, D2O( heavy water ), He( gas ), Be(beryllium) and C(graphite).

The important properties of a good moderator

• It should have high corrosion resistance

• It should have good thermal conductivity

• It should be stable under high temperature and pressure conditions

• It should successfully reduce the velocity of the fast moving neutrons • A solid moderator should have
machinability

Reflector: Function of the reflector is to minimize the neutron leakage by reflecting them back into the
reactor. Graphite and Beryllium are generally used as reflectors.
The important properties of good reflectors material are:
• It should have good thermal conductivity

• It should have good corrosion resistance

• It should have high stability under high temperature and pressure conditions

• It should not absorb neutrons

• It should have good reflectivity.

Reactor Vessel: It is a strong steel container in which the fuel rods,moderator,control rods and the reflector
are arranged properly. It forms a strong structural support for the reactor core.
Biological Shielding: This is a wall which surrounds the whole reactor system. It‘s mainly made of lead or
concrete. Its main purpose is to avoid radiation hazards caused by the escape of radio active radiation (like
neutrons, alpha, beta and gamma rays) from the reactor core due to the nuclear reaction. Of all these
radiation particles gamma rays are very hazards.
Important Properties of Good Biological Shielding
• It should have a high strength

• It should not allow radio active rays to pass through.

• It should be stable under high temperature and pressure.

Coolant: A Coolant is used to remove the heat and maintain the temperature of the fuel
within acceptable limits. Coolants are used both in primary and secondary circuits (cycles) in
nuclear reactors. Sometimes the moderator and the coolant are the same material (e.g. water). The
commonly used coolants are water, heavy water, inert gasses(helium,CO2),air,sodium,bismuth and
potassium

Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when used to generate
electricity. Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy. The most
common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain
reactions in a nuclear reactor. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu.
 Figure 1.6 Nuclear Energy Conversions
The basic nuclear generating station energy cycle is shown in Figure. Fuel containing fissile
material (Uranium) is fed to the reactor where fission takes place. The energy liberated appears in
the form of heat, which is used to boil water in heat exchanger or steam generator. The steam
produced from the boiling water spins a turbine-generator set, where the heat is converted first to
kinetic energy and then it will converts to mechanical energy in the turbineand to electricity by
the generator.

Application of Nuclear energy

i) Generate electricity in nuclear power stations
ii) Military operations in developing nuclear weapons
iii) Medical field for radiotherapy, sterelization of medical products
iv) Food preservation and agricultural fields.

Bio-Fuels
Biofuels are energy sources made from living things, or the waste that living things produce. It is
considered to be a source of renewable energy. Biofuels are combustible fuels created from
biomass. There are two main types of biofuels one is ethanol and another biodiesel.

Biofuels are grouped by categories like first, second and third generations. First generation biofuels
are produced from food crops. For ethanol the feedstock includes sugarcane, corn and maize. For
biodiesel the feedstock are naturally occurring vegetable oil such as soybean, Jatropha and canola.
Second generation biofuels are produced from cellulose material such as wood, graces and inedible
parts of plant. The third generation biofuels are produced using lipid production from Algae.

Advanced biofuels is used to describe the relatively new technological field of biofuel production
that uses waste such as garbage, animal fat and spent cooking oil to produce liquid fuels.

Ethanol
Ethanol can be produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation
of sugar cane. Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed
with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15%
bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this
means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of
ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at
roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased
thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and
ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmosphericpollution emissions.

Advantages

 Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource

 Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum, producing less carbon (soot) and carbon
monoxide
 The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could reduce carbon dioxide emissions,
provided that a renewable energy resource was used to produce crops required to obtain
ethanol and to distil fermented ethanol

Disadvantages

 Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion (per mole, per unit of volume, and per unit of mass)
that petroleum
 Large amounts of arable land are required to produce the crops required to obtain ethanol,
leading to problems such as soil erosion, deforestation, fertiliser run-off and salinity. 

 Major environmental problems would arise out of the disposal of waste fermentation
 liquors.
 Typical current engines would require modification to use high concentrations ofethanol

Biodiesel

It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to
fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs).
Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soyabean, jatropha, mahua, mustard,
flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel
(B100) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel

Advantages of biodiesel fuel

i) An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to utilize

this surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
ii) One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than petroleum
diesel.
iii) The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
iv) Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended with other
energy resources and oil.
v) It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is another biodiesel
fuel advantage over other alternative fuels.
vi) The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.

Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel

i) At present, Biodiesel fuel is bout one and a half times more expensive than petroleum
Diesel fuel.
ii) It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops; plaus there is the energy of
sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.
iii) As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected in the fuel filter,
thus clogging it. So, filters have to be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel
use.
iv) Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of the
biodiesel fuel disadvantages.
 Application of Biofuels
i) As an alternative fuel for automobiles
ii) Cooking purpose
iii) Lubrication in place of conventional oils
iv) In Power plants to generate electricity
v) In marine industry to run the ships

THERMAL POWER STATIONS

Introduction
➢ Thermal energy is the major source of power generation in India. More than 60% of electric power is
produced by steam plants in India. India has large deposit of coal (about 170 billion tonnes), 5th largest in
world. Indian coals are classified as A-G grade coals.
➢ In Steam power plants, the heat of combustion of fossil fuels is utilized by the boilers to raise steam at
high pressure and temperature. The steam so produced is used in driving the steam turbines or sometimes
steam engines couples to generators and thus in generating electrical energy.
➢ Steam turbines or steam engines used in steam power plants not only act as prime movers but also as
drives for auxiliary equipment, such as pumps, stokers fans etc.
➢ Steam power plants may be installed either to generate electrical energy only or generate electrical
energy along with generation of steam for industrial purposes such as in paper mills, textile mills, sugar
mills and refineries, chemical works, plastic manufacture, food manufacture etc.
➢ The steam for process purposes is extracted from a certain section of turbine and the remaining steam is
allowed to expand in the turbine. Alternatively the exhaust steam may be used for process purposes.
➢ Thermal stations can be private industrial plants and central station.
Advantages and Disadvantages Of A Thermal Power Plant
Advantages:
▪ Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
▪ It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
▪ The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
▪ The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages:
▪ It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of the causes of
global warming.
▪ The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).
▪ Requires long time for errection and put into action.
▪ Costlier in operating in comparison with that of Hydro and Nuclear power plants.
▪ Requirement of water in huge quantity.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a Thermal power plant.

Selection of site for thermal power plant
• Nearness to the load centre: The power plant should be as near as possible to the load centre to the centre
of load .So that the transmission cost and losses are minimum. This factor is most important when Dc
supply system is adopted. However in the case of AC supply when transformation of energy from lower
voltage to higher voltage and vice versa is possible power plants can be erected at places other than that of
load provided other conditions are favorable.
• Water resources: For the construction and operating of power plant large volumes of water are required
for the following reasons
(i) To raise the steam in boiler.
(ii) For cooling purpose such as in condensers
(iii) As a carrying medium such as disposal of ash.
(iv) For drinking purposes.

This could be supplied from either rivers or underground water resources. Therefore having enough water
supplies in defined vicinity can be a factor in the selection of the site.
 a. Availability of Coal: Huge amount of coal is required for raising the steam. Since the government
policy is to use the only low grade coal with 30 to 40 % ash content for power generation purposes, the
steam power plants should be located near the coal mines to avoid the transport of coal & ash.
b. Land Requirement: The land is required not only for setting up the plant but for other purposes also
such as staff colony, coal storage, ash disposal etc.
Eg: For 2000MW plant, the land requirement may be of the order of 200-250 acres. As the cost of
the land adds up to the final cost of the plant, it should be available at a reasonable price. Land
should be available for future extension.
c. Transportation Facilities: The facilities must be available for transportation of heavy equipment and
fuels e.g near railway station.
d. Labour supplies: Skilled and unskilled laborers should be available at reasonable rates near the site of
the plant.
e. Ash Disposal: Ash is the main waste product of the steam power plant and with low grade coal, it may be
tones per day , some suitable means for disposal of ash should be though of. It may be purchased
by building contractors, or it can be used for brick making near the plant site. If the site is near
the coal mine it can be dumped into the disused mines. In case of site located near a river,sea or
lake ash can be dumped into it.
f. Distance from populated area: The continuous burning of coal at the power station Produces smoke,
fumes and ash which pollute the surrounding area. Such a pollution due to smoke is dangerous for the
people living around the area. Hence, the site of a plant should be at a considerable distance from the
populated area.
Major Components of a Thermal Power Plant
a. Coal Handling Plant
b. Pulverizing Plant
c. Draft or Draught fan
d. Boiler
e. Ash Handling Plant
f. Turbine and Generator
g. Condenser
h. Cooling Tower And Ponds
i. Feed Water Heater
j. Economiser
k. Super heater and Reheater
l. Air pre heater
 m. Alternator with Exciter
n. Protection and control equipment
o. Instrumentation

Tidal Power Plants

The periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea which are carried by the action of the sun and moon on
water of the earth is called the 'tide'.

• Tidal energy can furnish a significant portion of all such energies which are renewable in nature. The large
scale up and down movement of sea water represents an unlimited source of energy. If some part of this vast
energy can be converted into electrical energy, it would be an important source of hydropower.

• The main feature of the tidal cycle is the difference in water surface elevations at the high tide and at the
low tide. If this differential head could be utilized in operating a hydraulic turbine, the tidal energy could be
converted into electrical energy by means of an attached generator.

Tidal power: When a basin exists along the shores with high tides, the power in the tide can be
hydroelectrically utilized. This can be realized by having a long dam across the basin and locating two sets
of turbines underneath the dam. As the tide comes in water flows into the basin one set of turbines. At low
tide the water flows out of the basin operating another set of turbines.

Components of Tidal Power Plants .

The following are the components of a tidal power plant:
1. The power house.
2. The dam or barrage to form pool or basin.
3. Sluice ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.
1. Power house: the turbines, electrical generator and other auxiliary equipments are the main component of
a power house

2. Dam or Barrage:The function of dam to form a barrier between the sea and basin or between one basin
and the other in case of multiple basins.

3. Sluice ways: the sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin
during the low tide , as per operational requirement. These are gate controlled devices.
It is generally convenient to have the power house as well as the sluice-ways in alignment with the dam.

Advantages and Limitations of Tidal Power Generation

Advantages:
1. Tidal power is completely independent of the precipitation (rain) and its uncertainty, besides being
inexhaustible.
2. Large area of valuable land is not required.
3. When a tidal power plant works in combination with thermal or hydro-electric system, peak power
demand can be effectively met with.
4. Tidal power generation is free from pollution.

Limitations:
1. Due to variation in tidal range the output is not uniform.
2. Since the turbines have to work on a wide range of head variation (due to variable tide range) the plant
efficiency is affected.
 3. There is a fear of machinery being corroded due to corrosive sea water.
4.It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.
5. As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal power plant is costly.
6. Sedimentation and silteration of basins are the problems associated with tidal pow plants.
7. The power transmission cost is high because the tidal power plants are located away from load centres.

The first commercial tidal power station in the World was constructed in France in 19' across the mouth of
La Ranee Estuary. It has a high capacity of 240 MW. The avera tidal range at La Ranee is 8.4 m and the
dam built across the estuary encloses an area 22 km2.

Principles of Turbo- Machines

A turbo machine device in which energy transfer takes place between a flowing fluid and a rotating
element due to dynamic action and results in change of pressure and momentum of fluid .

Example: Turbine, centrifugal compressors, centrifugal pumps

The turbomachine is used in several applications, the primary ones being electrical power generation,
aircraft propulsion and vehicular propulsion for civilian and military use. The units used in power
generation are steam, gas and hydraulic turbines, ranging in capacity from a few kilowatts to several
hundred and even thousands of megawatts, depending on the application. Here, the turbomachines drives the
alternator at the appropriate speed to produce power of the right frequency. In aircraft and heavy vehicular
propulsion for military use, the primary driving element has been the gas turbine.
In power-generating turbomachines, fluid energy (decrease in enthalpy) is converted into mechanical energy
which is obtained at the shaft output, whereas in power-absorbing turbomachines, mechanical energy which
is supplied at the shaft input is converted to fluid energy (increase in enthalpy). The power-transmitting
turbomachines are simply transmitting power from input shaft to an output shaft. That means, these devices
act merely as an energy transmitter to change the speed and torque on the driven member as compared with
the driver.

Again power-generating and power-absorbing turbomachines are classified by the direction of the fluid flow
as: (i) axial flow, (ii) radial flow and (iii) mixed flow. In the axial flow and radial flow turbomachines, the
major flow directions are approximately axial and radial respectively, while in the mixed flow machine, the
flow enters axially and leaves radially or vice versa. A radial flow machine may also be classified into radial
inward flow (centripetal) or radial outward flow (centrifugal) types depending on whether the flow is
directed towards or away from the shaft axis.

Power generating/ Developing turbomachine is one which converts fluid energy in the form of kinetic
energy or pressure energy into mechanical energy in terms of rotating shaft.

Example: Turbines

Power absorbing turbomachine is one which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy.
Example: Compressors, fans, pumps and blowers

Principal components of turbomachine

1. Rotor is a rotating element carrying the rotor blades or vanes. Energy transfer occurs between the
flowing fluid and the rotating element due to the momentum exchange between the two.
2. Stator is a stationary element carrying the guide vanes or stator blades. Usually control the direction
of fluid flow during the energy conversion process.
3. Shaft is transmitting power into or out of the machine depending upon the particular machine

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

Introduction

A prime mover is self-moving device which converts the available natural source of energy
into mechanical energy of motion to drive the other machines. The various types of prime
movers which convert heat energy produced by the combustion of fuels into mechanical energy
are: steam engines, steam turbines, gas turbines and internal combustion engines.

A hydraulic turbine or water turbine is a hydraulic prime mover that converts the energy of
falling water into mechanical energy in the form of rotation of shaft. The mechanical energy
in turn is converted into electrical energy by means of an electric generator.

Classification of Water Turbines

Water turbines classified based on the following factors:

1. Type of energy available at the inlet of the turbine

a) Impulse turbine- The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy.
Example- Pelton Wheel.
b) Reaction turbine- Both pressure energy and kinetic energy is available at the inlet of the
turbine. Example- Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine.
2. Head at the inlet of the turbine
a) High head turbine- Head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges from several
hundred meters to a few thousand meters. Example- Pelton wheel.
b) Medium head turbine- Head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges from 50
mts to 400 mts. Example- Francis turbine.
c) Low head turbine- Head of water at the inlet will be less than 50 mts. Example- Kaplan
turbine.
3. Based on the direction of flow of water through the runner.
a) Tangential flow turbine- Water flows along the tangent to the runner. Example- Pelton
wheel.
b) Axial flow turbine- Water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner.
Example- Kaplan turbine.
c) Radial flow turbine- Water flows in a radial direction through the runner. Example- Old
Francis Turbine.
d) Mixed flow turbine- Water flows radially into the runner and leaves axially. Example-
Modern Francis turbine.

Specification of Hydraulic Turbine

Hydraulic Turbines are specified by the following criteria:

 1. Water head
2. DC/AC power rating
3. Efficiency and working life of power generator
4. Dimensions related to height, weight, length and width.

Pelton Wheel

The Pelton wheel is the most commonly used type of impulse turbine. It works under high head
and requires small quantity of water. Figure 3 shows a schematic sketch of a Pelton wheel. The
water from a high head source is supplied to the nozzle provided with a needle, which controls the
quantity of water flowing out of the nozzle. The pressure energy of water is converted into
velocity energy as it flows through the nozzle. The jet of water is issuing out of the nozzle at high
velocity impinges on the curved blades known as Pelton cups, at the centre as shown in the
adjoining figure.

The impulsive force of the jet striking on the Pelton cups sets up the Pelton wheel to rotate in the
direction of the impinging jet. Thus the pressure energy of the water is converted into mechanical
energy. The pressure inside the casing of the turbine will be at atmospheric pressure.

Figure 3: Pelton Wheel

 Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine is a medium head reaction turbine in which water flows radially
inwards. Figure 4 shows a simple schematic representation of the Francis turbine. It consists
of a spiral casing enclosing a number of stationary guide blades fixed all around the
circumference of an inner ring of moving vanes forming the runner which is keyed to the
turbine shaft.

Water at high pressure enters through the inlet in the casing and flows radially inwards to the
outer periphery of the runner through the guide blades. From the outer periphery of the runner
the water flows inwards through the moving vanes and discharges at the centre of the runner at
lower pressure.

During its flow over the moving blades it imparts kinetic energy to the runner to set it into
rotational motion. To enable the discharge of water at lower pressure, a diverging conical tube
called draft tube is fitted at the centre of the runner. The other end of the draft tube is immersed
in the discharging side of the water known as tail race.

Figure 4: Francis Turbine

Kaplan Turbine

The Kaplan turbine is a low head, reaction turbine in which water flows axially. Figure 5
shows a simple schematic representation of a Kaplan turbine. All the parts of turbine are similar
to that of the Francis turbine except the runner and the draft tube. The runner of the Kaplan
turbine resembles with the propeller of the ship, hence sometimes the Kaplan turbine is also
called propeller turbine.

The water at high pressure enters the turbine casing through the inlet and flows over the guide
blades. The water from the guide blades strikes the runner blades axially imparting the kinetic
energy to set it into rotational motion. The water discharging at the centre of the runner in
the axial direction into the draft tube which is in L- shape having its discharging end immersed
into the tail race.
Figure 5: Kaplan Turbine

Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pump makes use of the centrifugal force of a rotary element known as impeller to impart
energy to the liquid. It is the most widely used hydraulic pump for various applications. The details
of the centrifugal pump are shown in figure 6 and is briefed as follows:

Construction
Impeller is the principle rotating part of the pump. It is a wheel provided with a series of backward
curved blades (vanes). The impeller is mounted on a shaft, which is connected to the shaft of the
electric motor. Volute casing is an airtight chamber surrounding the impeller it is designed with its
cross section gradually increasing so that the velocity of the flow decreases resulting in an increase in
the pressure of the fluid.

Figure 6: Centrifugal Pump

Suction pipe is a circular pipe with its upper end connected to the centre of the impeller, which is
known as eye of the impeller. The lower end of the suction pipe is immersed in the sump or reservoir
from where the liquid is to be lifted up. The lower end of the suction pipe is fitted with a foot valve
and a strainer as shown in the figure. The strainer avoids the entry of any foreign material into the
suction pipe, while the foot valve is a non-return or one-way valve that opens only in the upward
direction so as to prevent the suction pipe draining out when the pump is stopped. The foot valve also
helps in priming of the pump.

Delivery pipe is also a circular pipe with its lower end connected to the outlet of the pump while the
upper end is connected to the tank, where the liquid is to be pumped or stored. In the delivery pipe, a
control valve known as delivery valve is provided for regulating the fluid flow. The delivery valve is
closed prior to starting and stopping the pump in order to prevent any possible black flow from the
delivery pipe and consequent damage to the pump assembly.

Operation

In operation, when the electric motor is switched-on, the impeller rotates creating a suction at the
suction pipe. Due to suction created, the water from the sump starts flowing into the casing through the
eye of the impeller. The centrifugal force created by the rotating impeller acts on the water causing it
to flow radially outward and towards the outlet of the casing. As the water flows through the casing,
its velocity reduces due to the increasing cross-sectional area of the casing. The decrease in velocity
increases the pressure of the water flowing through the casing. The pressure reaches to the maximum
at the outlet of the pump. The water flows through the delivery pipe into the overhead tank.
It is important to note that when the fluid is discharged to the delivery, a partial vacuum is created near
the eye of the impeller, which in turn causes the liquid from the sump which is at atmospheric pressure
to rush through the suction pipe to replace the fluid that is being discharged. Thus the water is pumped
continuously from the sump to the tank through the delivery pipe.

Advantages of centrifugal pump

1. Suitable for all types of fluids.

2. Simple and compact
3. Delivers uniform flow. Output flow is study and consistent.
4. Can be mounted horizontally or vertically.
5. Easy maintenance.

Disadvantages of centrifugal pump

1. Relatively poor suction power. When the pump end is dry, the rotation of the impeller, even at high
speeds is not sufficient to lift liquid into the pump. The pump must be primed before pumping can
begin.

2. Develops cavitation resulting in structural failure of impeller blades.

3. Not suitable for air or gases.

4. Magnetic resonance in centrifugal pump results in small loss of energy.

Applications of centrifugal pump

Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used in industry, agriculture, municipal (water
and waste water plants), power generation plants, petroleum and many other industries.

Cavitation

Cavitation in centrifugal pump refers to the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles and its
subsequent collapse in the low pressure region around the impeller. Cavitation can be identified by
a clear audible noise and vibrations caused by the violent collapse of vapour bubbles.
Cavitation occurs when the velocity of liquid increases to the point where the consequent pleasure drop
reaches the pressure of vaporization of the liquid. When this happens, vapour pockets or bubbles form
in the liquid and then later collapse when subjected to higher pressure at some other point in the flow.
The collapse of the vapour bubbles creates high energy shock waves inside the liquid, which then travel
and strike the impeller causing significant damage to the impeller blades and the pump housing.

The power consumption for pump operation increases and also there is a decreased flow and pressure.
As such, Cavitation must be prevented for positive results and effective functioning of the pump.
Following are precautionary measures taken in order to avoid cavitation in pumps.

1. Lower the temperature of water

2. Ensure suitable liquid level in the suction side.
3. Buy suitable impeller design, like increasing the diameter of the eye of the impeller or using an
impeller inducer.
4. The net positive suction head available shall be higher than then the net positive suction head
required by the pump.
5. Checking for clogged filters /strainers and blockages in pipe.

Priming

Priming is the process of filling liquid into the casing, suction pipe and delivery pipe up to the
delivery valve before starting the pump. Priming is required in order to remove the air trapped in the
pump, thereby reducing the risk of pump damage during start up. Centrifugal pump must not be
operated until it has been filled with liquid.

Need for priming- Theoretically speaking, the pressure developed inside the pump is directly
proportional to the density of liquid in it. However, in case if any air is trapped in the pump and the
impeller is allowed to rotate, the pressure energy cannot be developed as the density of fluid is less due
to presence of air. In simple words, the presence of air in the pump creates a small negative pressure at
the suction pipe that prevents suction of water from the water sump. In order to eliminate the trapped
air, the pump is filled with liquid before starting it. When filled with liquid, the pump is said to be
primed.