CALCULUS REFERENCE 3/18/03 10:49 AM Page 1

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CALCULUS REFERENCE SPARK

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THEORY
DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
�
antiderivatives: f (x) dx = F (x) + C if F � (x) = f (x).
TM

f (x+h)−f (x)
Definition: f � (x) = lim
SPARKCHARTS
h→0 h FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS � x
DERIVATIVE RULES Part 1: If f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b], then the area function F (x) = f (t) dt
a
1. Sum and Difference: dx d
f (x) ± g(x) = f � (x) ± g � (x) is continuous and differentiable on the interval and F � (x) = f (x).
� �

2. Scalar Multiple: dxd

cf (x) = cf � (x) Part 2: If f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x),
� �
� b
3. Product: dx
d
f (x)g(x) = f � (x)g(x) + f (x)g � (x)
� �
then f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) .
Mnemonic: If f is “hi” and g is “ho,” then the product rule is “ho d hi plus hi d ho.” a
�
(x)g � (x) APPROXIMATING DEFINITE INTEGRALS
� �
f (x)
4. Quotient:d
dx g(x)
= f (x)g(x)−f
(g(x)) 2
1. Left-hand rectangle approximation: 2. Right-hand rectangle approximation:
Mnemonic: “Ho d hi minus hi d ho over ho ho.” n−1 n
� �
5. The Chain Rule Ln = ∆x f (xk ) Rn = ∆x f (xk )
• First formulation: (f ◦ g)� (x) = f � (g(x)) g � (x) k=0 k=1

• Second formulation: dxdy

= dudy du
3. Midpoint Rule: n−1
xk + xk+1
� � �
dx
Mn = ∆x f
6. Implicit differentiation: Used for curves when it is difficult to express y as a function 2
k=0
of x. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Use the chain rule
dy
= y � and solve for y � . 4. Trapezoidal Rule: Tn = ∆x
f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
� �
carefully whenever y appears. Then, rewrite dx 2
Ex: x cos y − y 2 = 3x. Differentiate to first obtain dx
dx
cos y + x d(cos
dx
y) dy
− 2y dx = 3 dx
dx
,
5. Simpson’s Rule: Sn = ∆x
f (x0 )+4f (x1 )+2f (x2 )+· · ·+2f (xn−2 )+4f (xn−1 )+f (xn )
� �
cos y−3
and then cos y − x(sin y)y � − 2yy � = 3. Finally, solve for y � = x sin y+2y
. 3

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
· COMMON DERIVATIVES
1. Properties of Integrals � � �
1. Constants: d
dx
(c) =0 • Sums and differences: f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
� �

2. Linear: d
dx
(mx + b) = m � �
• Constant multiples: cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx
3. Powers: d
dx
(xn ) = nx n−1 (true for all real n �= 0) � b � a
• Definite integrals: reversing the limits: f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
4. Polynomials: d
dx
(an xn + · · · + a2 x + a1 x + a0 ) = an nx
2 n−1
+ · · · + 2a2 x + a1 a b
� p � b � b
5. Exponential • Definite integrals: concatenation: f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a p a
• Base e: d
dx
(ex ) =e x
• Arbitrary base: d
dx
(ax ) = a ln a
x
• Definite integrals: comparison: b b
6. Logarithmic
� �
If f (x) ≤ g(x) on the interval [a, b], then f (x) dx ≤ g(x) dx.
• Base e: d
dx
(ln x) = 1
x
• Arbitrary base: d
dx
(log a x) = 1
x ln a a a

7. Trigonometric
� �
2. Substitution Rule—a.k.a. u-substitutions: f g(x) g � (x) dx = f (u) du
� �
• Sine: d
dx
(sin x) = cos x • Cosine: d
dx
(cos x) = − sin x � �
• f g(x) g � (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C if f (x) dx = F (x) + C .
� �
• Tangent: d
(tan x) = sec 2 x • Cotangent: d
(cot x) = − csc 2 x
50395

dx dx

• Secant: d
dx
(sec x) = sec x tan x • Cosecant: d
dx
(csc x) = − csc x cot x 3. Integration by Parts
8. Inverse Trigonometric Best used to integrate a product when one factor (u = f (x)) has a simple derivative
and the other factor (dv = g � (x) dx) is easy to integrate.
• Arcsine: d
dx
(sin −1 x) = √ 1
1−x2
• Arccosine: d
dx
(cos −1 x) = − √1−x
1
2

�• Indefinite Integrals:
• Arctangent: d
(tan −1 x) = 1
1+x2
• Arccotangent: d
(cot −1 x) = − 1+x
1
2
� � �
ISBN 1-58663-896-3

dx dx
f (x)g � (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − f � (x)g(x) dx or u dv = uv − v du
9 781586 638962

• Arcsecant: d
dx
(sec −1 x) = √1
x x2 −1
• Arccosecant: d
dx
(csc −1 x) = − x√x12 −1
� b � b
• Definite Integrals: f (x)g � (x) dx = f (x)g(x)]a −
b
f � (x)g(x) dx
INTEGRALS AND INTEGRATION a a
√
DEFINITE INTEGRAL 4. Trigonometric Substitutions: Used to integrate expressions of the form ±a2 ± x2 .
� b
The definite integral f (x) dx is the signed area between the function y = f (x) and the
a
Expression Trig substitution Expression Range of θ Pythagorean
x-axis from x = a to x = b.
becomes identity used
• Formal definition: Let n be an integer and ∆x = For each k = 0, 2, . . . , n − 1, b−a
. �
n−1
n
a2 − x2 x = a sin θ a cos θ − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 1 − sin 2 θ = cos 2 θ
pick point x∗k in the interval [a + k∆x, a + (k + 1)∆x]. The expression ∆x f (x∗k )
�
dx = a cos θ dθ (−a ≤ x ≤ a)
k=0
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� b n−1 �
x2 − a2 x = a sec θ a tan θ 0≤θ< π
sec 2 θ − 1 = tan 2 θ
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is a Riemann sum. The definite integral f (x) dx is defined as lim ∆x f (x∗k ).

�
Copyright © 2003 by SparkNotes LLC.

2
n→∞
a k=0 dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ π≤θ< 3π
2
INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
A Barnes & Noble Publication
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

�
• Antiderivative: The function F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x) if F � (x) = f (x). x2 + a2 x = a tan θ a sec θ − π2 < θ < π
1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ
$3.95

2
dx = a sec 2 θ dθ
�
• Indefinite integral: The indefinite integral f (x) dx represents a family of
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of SparkNotes LLC.

APPLICATIONS
Printed the USA

GEOMETRY b
�
Volume of revolved solid (shell method): 2πxf (x) dx is the volume of the solid
� b� a
Area: f (x) − g(x) dx is the area bounded by y = f (x), y = g(x), x = a and x = b obtained by revolving the region under the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b
�
a
if f (x) ≥ g(x) on [a, b]. around the y-axis.
� b� �2 � b�
Volume of revolved solid (disk method):π f (x) dx is the volume of the solid swept Arc length:
� �2
1 + f � (x) dx is the length of the curve y = f (x) from x = a
a a
out by the curve y = f (x) as it revolves around the x-axis on the interval [a, b]. to x = b.
� b
�2 � �2
Volume of revolved solid (washer method): π f (x) − g(x) dx is the volume of
� � b �
2
a Surface area: 2πf (x) 1 + (f � (x)) dx is the area of the surface swept out by
the solid swept out between y = f (x) and y = g(x) as they revolve around the x-axis on a
revolving the function y = f (x) about the x-axis between x = a and x = b.
the interval [a, b] if f (x) ≥ g(x).

CONTINUED ON OTHER SIDE

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 CALCULUS REFERENCE 3/18/03 10:49 AM Page

MOTION
�
• Price elasticity of demand: ( ) = − px(p)
x (p)

1. Position (t) vs. time t graph: • Demand is elastic if ( ) 1. ercentage change in leads to larger percentage

POSITION
• The slope of the graph is the velocity: � (t) = v(t). change in x( ). Increasing leads to decrease in revenue.
• The concavity of the graph is the acceleration: • Demand is unitary if ( ) = 1. ercentage change in leads to similar percentage
��
(t) = a(t). change in x( ). Small change in will not change revenue.
2. Velocity v(t) vs. time t graph: • Demand is inelastic if ( ) < 1. ercentage change in leads to smaller
• The slope of the graph is the accleration: v � (t) = a(t). percentage change in x( ). Increasing leads to increase in revenue.

VELOCIT
• Formula relating elasticity and revenue: R� ( ) = x( ) 1 − ( )
� �
• The (signed) area under the graph gives the
displacement�(change in position):

TM
CONSUMER AND PRODUCER SURPLUS

SPARKCHARTS
(t) − (0) = v( ) d • Demand function: = (x) gives price per unit
0 p p = S(x)
3. Acceleration a(t) vs. time t graph: ( ) when x units demanded.

ACCELERATION
• The (signed) area under the graph gives the change • Supply function: = S(x) gives price per unit
in velocity:
� ( ) when x units available.
v(t) − v(0) = a( ) d • Market e uilibrium is x units at price . consumer
surplus
( x, p)
0
(So = (x) = S (x).) p producer
p = D(x)
• Consumer surplus: surplus

PRO A ILITY AND STATISTICS x

x x
CS = 0 (x) dx − x = 0
( (x) − ) dx 0 x
1 • Producer surplus:
� b
• Average value of f (x) between a and b is f = f (x) dx .
b−a a PS = x −
x
S(x) dx =
x
( − S(x)) dx
0 0
CONTINUOUS DISTRI UTION FORMULAS
LORENT CURVE
and are random variables.
The Lorentz Curve L(x) is the fraction of income
• Probability density function f (x) of the random variable satisfies:
received by the poorest x fraction of the population.
y
y = L(x)
1. f (x) ≥ 0 for all x 1
1. Domain and range of L(x) is the interval [0, 1]. completely
∞ equitable
2. −∞
f (x) dx = 1. 2. Endpoints: L(0) = 0 and L(1) = 1 distribution

• Probability that is between a and b: (a ≤ ≤ b) = ab f (x) dx 3. urve is nondecreasing: L� (x) ≥ 0 for all x
• Expected value (a.k.a. expectation or mean) of : ( ) = ∞
= −∞ xf (x) dx 4. L(x) ≤ x for all x
• Coefficient of Ine uality (a.k.a. ini Index):
• Variance: a ( ) = ∞ � �2 �2
2
= −∞ x − (x) f (x) dx = ( ) − 2
( )
�
x
� 1
L=2 x − f (x) dx . 0
� �
• Standard deviation: a ( )= 1
�
0

• Median m satisfies −∞ f (x) dx = ∞ f (x) dx = 12 . The quantity L is between 0 and 1. The closer L is to
1, the more equitable the income distribution.
• Cumulative density function (F (x) is the probability that is at most x):
x
F (x) = ( ≤ x) = −∞
f (y) dy SU STITUTE AND COMPLEMENTATRY COMMODITIES
• oint probability density function g(x, y) chronicles distribution of and . Then and are two commodities with unit price and , respectively.
f (x) =
∞
g(x, y) dy . • The amount of demanded is given by f ( , ).
−∞
• The amount of demanded is given by g( , ).
• Covariance: o ( , ) = ∞
= −∞ −∞
∞
( ) y− ( ) f (x, y) dx dy
� �� �
x−
1. and are substitute commodites (Ex: pet mice and pet rats) if f 0 and g
p
0.
o ( , )
• Correlation: ( , )= =� 2. and are complementary commodities (Ex: pet mice and mouse feed)
a( ) a( ) f g
if < 0 and p < 0.
COMMON DISTRI UTIONS
1. Normal distribution (or Bell curve) with mean
1 x µ 2
and 95
68
FINANCE
variance :
f (x) = √ e− 2σ2
2π • (t): the amount after t years.
• ( − ≤ ≤ − ) = .3 • 0 = (0): the original amount invested (the principal).
• : the yearly interest rate (the yearly percentage is 100 ).

illiams
• ( −2 ≤ ≤ +2 )= .
2. -s uare distribution: with mean and variance 2 : INTEREST
1

Illustration: att aniels an .

ν x
f (x) = ν � � x 2 −1 e− 2 • Simple interest: (t) = 0 (1 + )
22

Series Editor: Sarah riedberg

σ
2
• Compound interest

riter: Anna edvedovsky

• amma function: (x) = ∞ x−1 −
t e dt -2 -1 1 2
• Interest compounded m times a year: (t) = 0 1 +

Design: an . illiams
0
� �

• Interest compounded continuously: (t) = 0 e

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MICROECONOMICS
EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES
COST
The effective (or true) interest rate, , is a rate which, if applied simply (without
• Cost function C(x): cost of producing x units.
compounding) to a principal, will yield the same end amount after the same amount of time.

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• Marginal cost: C � (x)
• Interest compounded m times a year: = 1+ −1
� �
• Average cost function C(x) = (x) : cost per unit when x units produced.
�
x
• Interest compounded continuously: =e −1
• Marginal average cost: C (x)

3
If the average cost is minimi ed, then average cost marginal cost. PRESENT VALUE OF FUTURE AMOUNT
• If C �� (x)

20593 38963
0, then to find the number of units (x) that minimi es average cost, solve The present value (PV ) of an amount ( ) t years in the future is the amount of principal
(x)
for x in x = C � (x). that, if invested at yearly interest, will yield after t years.
�−
• Interest compounded m times a year: PV = 1 +
�
REVENUE PROFIT
• Demand (or price) function (x): price charged per unit if x units sold. • Interest compounded continuously: PV = e−
• Revenue (or sales) function: R(x) = x (x) PRESENT VALUE OF ANNUITIES AND PERPETUITIES
• Marginal revenue: R� (x) resent value of amount paid yearly (starting next year) for t years or in perpetuity:
• Profit function: (x) = R(x) − C(x) 1. Interest compounded yearly
• Marginal profit function: � (x) • nnuity paid for t years: PV =
�
1 − (1+1 )t
�
7

If profit is maximal, then marginal revenue marginal cost.

• erpetuity: PV =
• The number of units x maximi es profit if R� (x) = C � (x) and R�� (x) < C �� (x). 2. Interest compounded continuously
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND • nnuity paid for t years: PV = (1 − e− ) = r −1 (1 − e− )
• Demand curve: x = x( ) is the number of units demanded at price . • erpetuity: PV = = r −1

IOLOGY EXPONENTIAL MALTHUSIAN GRO TH RESTRICTED GRO TH A K A LEARNING LOGISTIC GRO TH MODEL
EXPONENTIAL DECAY MODEL CURVE MODEL P
In all the following models d
= 1−
� �
d
= d
= ( − ) d
• (t): si e of the pop- d
P
d P
P0 > k
ulation at time t • Solution: • : long-term • : the carrying k
r>0 k k
(t) = 0 e P0 > A < P0 < k
• 0 = (0), the si e of asymptotic value of A capacity 2 P0 <
2
the population at time • If 0, this is P0 • Solution: P0 < A
• Solution: 0 t
t=0 exponential r<0 (t) = +( 0 − )e−
growth if < 0, 0 t (t) =
• : coefficient of rate of 0 t
� �
1+ −
e−
exponential decay.
growth.

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