J Forensic Sci, 2019

doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.14172
CRITICAL REVIEW Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com

CRIMINALISTICS

Vandana Prasad,1 M.Sc.; Sally Lukose,2 Ph.D.; Prashant Agarwal,1 Ph.D.; and Lalit Prasad,3 Ph.D.

Role of Nanomaterials for Forensic

Investigation and Latent Fingerprinting—A
Review

ABSTRACT: The imminent nanotechnology and progressive instrumentations together have vast applications in the field of forensic science.
Few prominent examples are gold nanoparticles for improvising the efficiency of polymerase chain reaction and atomic force microscopy for
examining ink and bloodstains. Characteristics like distinct ridge details of fingerprints could be obtained by applying different nanoparticles
such as silver, zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, gold (with silver physical developer), europium, fluorescent carbon, and amphiphi-
lic silica on a range of object surfaces, and among all, gold is most commonly used. Fingerprint is considered noteworthy evidence in any
crime scene, and nano-based techniques hold immense future potential in fingerprint investigations. Therefore, this paper focuses on the appli-
cations of nanoparticles in developing and detecting the latent fingerprints.

KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic investigation, latent fingerprint, nano-techniques, nano-forensics, nano-fingerprinting

Nanotechnology is the field of science that deals with the Considering the progress of nanotechnology in forensic inves-
study of materials in the nanometer scale (1). Additionally, the tigation, some of the major roles of nanotechnology and its
domain can also be defined as the synthesis of matter on an applications in various fields of forensic science are summarized
atomic level, with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nm. in Fig. 1.
The use of nanoscience and nanotechnology has been known Since nanotechnology is advancing with time, the instrumenta-
since the 4thcentury. Gold was the first introduced nanoparticle, tions which were earlier used in other fields to study nanomateri-
which was applied as a coating agent on the Lycurgus cup als have also been upgraded to suit the needs of forensic
developed by the Roman workers. Currently, nanotechnology science. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been updated in
has vast applications in different fields including electronics, this manner. The instrument has provided a valuable contribution
drug development/analysis, and construction. Products as diverse to the field over the recent years. Therefore, nanotechnology pro-
as nano-coated waterproof shirts and nanotransistors on com- vides a new perspective in the field of forensic science for
puter chips have been developed (2). From ancient to the recent examining the evidences in any crime scene (1,3).
times, it has been perceived that nanoscience plays an important This paper presents a literature review on the major role of
role in different areas of science. Thus, in the present era, nano- nanotechnology in the development and detection of latent fin-
materials have fueled a boom in many aspects of science and gerprints. Besides, it gives an overview on the applications of
technology. nano-based materials in the development of latent fingerprints
In addition to its vital applications in several other fields, nan- along with numerous techniques and instrumentations applied in
otechnology also has a significant impact on forensic science. forensic analysis by nanoscience. The paper also discusses the
This field is referred to as nano-forensics and is the latest inno- future aspects of nano-based techniques in the field of forensic
vation in the field of forensic science. The evolution of nano- science.
sensors and nano-devices for identifying anonymous evidences
which are challenging to identify by using the current techniques
Forensic Applications of Nanotechnology
is one of novel applications.
Forensic applications of nanotechnology have been discussed
in the following major headings:
1
Forensic Science Department, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Gal-
gotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. Nanotechnology and Questioned Documents
2
Forensic Science Department, College of Traffic Management, IRTE,
Faridabad, Haryana, India. To study the forensic materials, a new advanced AFM which
3
Chemistry Department, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias works at the nanoscale was introduced in forensics (1). This
University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Corresponding author: Lalit Prasad, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected] instrument is a type of microscope which can analyze ink cross-
Received 11 April 2019; and in revised form 30 May 2019, 25 July 2019; ing by scanning the surface of documents through which the pat-
accepted 26 July 2019. tern of pen strokes and 3-D surface morphology can be

© 2019 American Academy of Forensic Sciences 1

2 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

determined. Further, it can provide important information on the

Nanotechnology for Bloodstain Age Determination
alignment of lines formed by ball pen ink and ribbon dye (1,3).
In Fig. 2, the depth of ink crossing, amplitude, and phase images The AFM has also been used on a range of other forensically
of the ink on paper are depicted (1). By using this instrumenta- important purposes such as the age determination of dry blood-
tion, ink crossing can be clearly determined to assist further stains. The age estimation of dry bloodstains by AFM is done
forensic investigation. on the basis of changes in erythrocyte elasticity, which are tested
by recording the force–distance curves. By calibrating this curve,
the age of a bloodstain can be estimated, which helps in further
criminal investigations (1,3).

Nanotechnology for Enhancement of PCR Efficiency

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a method of producing
several copies of a single DNA. Recent studies have found that
gold nanoparticles have the ability to increase the efficiency of
PCR. When 0.7 and 13 nm AuNPs were added to the PCR mix-
ture, the reaction time was reduced; however, the heating/cooling
thermal cycle rates were amplified. Hence, marked improve-
ments in PCR efficiency are attributed to the gold nanoparticles
(1,3–6).

Nanotechnology and Fingerprints

The use of nanoparticles has recently shown a great potential
FIG. 1––Forensic nano-techniques combine the technologies and
approaches of nanotechnology to improve the science of crime detection and
in producing the next generation of fingerprint development
analysis. techniques known as nano-fingerprints. One of the most

FIG. 2––(A) The optical micrograph of ink passage scan area. (B) The 3D height image shows deposition of the two inks: first by the red stamp ink and sec-
ond by the blue ballpoint ink. (C) The scan area height, Z-sensor, amplitude, and phase images (1).
 PRASAD ET AL. . FORENSIC SCIENCE, LATENT FINGERPRINT, NANOTECHNIQUES 3

important evidences found at the crime scene is fingerprints citrate ion were applied on the fingerprint before the treatment
since they are recognized as generalized proofs of human iden- with Ag-PD solution (13,14) as shown in Fig. 3 (15). A brief
tity (7–9). description of the comparative work is given in Table 1.
Fingerprints may be latent, patent, or plastic in nature.
• Patent fingerprints are those that are easily visible to the Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)
naked eye and can be developed on the object by foreign
substances such as blood, paint, and grease. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) play a significant role in the
• Plastic fingerprints are those that are formed by the pressure development of latent fingerprints because of their inert nature,
of skin friction on soft objects such as soap, clay, putty, wax, high selectivity and sensitivity, and attributes, which enable the
and glue. storage of the developed fingerprints for a prolonged period of
• Latent fingerprints are those that are not visible to the naked time (16). Owing to these properties, the gold nanoparticles were
eye and are transferred to the surface through bodily secre- used to enhance the visibility of the latent fingerprints by multi-
tions and contaminants found on the fingers. These are the metal deposition (MMD) which involves a two-step sol–gel
preeminent forms of fingerprint evidence encountered in the method. The fingerprint-bearing surface was immersed in the
crime scene; yet, they are the most challenging ones to iden- solution of gold nanoparticles (stabilized in citrate ion medium)
tify (7,10). followed by the addition of silver physical developer (Ag-PD)
solution (7,16). Characterization was done by using UV-Vis
Fingerprints contain bodily secretions and contaminations
spectrophotometer as shown in Fig. 4 (17). The gold nanoparti-
from the surroundings (7,11). Secretions from the three types of
cles bind to the fingerprint residue and catalyze the precipitation
sweat glands, namely eccrine, apocrine, and sebaceous, may be
of silver ions to metallic silver (8,15,17). Thus, a silver image of
present in latent fingerprints (7). The choice of technique for
the latent fingerprint is obtained because of the electrostatic
latent fingerprint development depends on the content of the
interaction between the negatively charged gold nanoparticles
latent fingerprint as well as on the nature of the surface.
and the positive charged fingerprint residue as shown in Fig. 5
Currently, a myriad of techniques, such as iodine fuming, nin-
(18).
hydrin, silver nitrate, and cyanoacrylate, are being used to
However, the application of the MMD method is limited
develop the latent fingerprints (7). However, in the case of addi-
because it requires the object bearing the fingerprints to be
tionally aged prints, the environment might have contaminated
bathed in an aqueous solution of the gold nanoparticles. There-
them. In such situations, the fingerprints may suffer from
fore, the method is not suitable for developing the prints on sur-
reduced reactivity to detection from the above-mentioned meth-
faces such as walls and floors at the scene of crime or for any
ods (12). Therefore, over the past few generations, nano-tech-
object too large to be soaked in a desktop bath. The details of
niques have been chiefly used for the development of latent
the comparative work are furnished in Table 1.
fingerprints in order to better identify them (1,19). Furthermore,
the method offers the opportunity to develop new fingerprint
techniques with superior properties including enhanced selectiv- Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs)
ity, improved contrast with the background, and increased sensi-
According to literature survey, ZnO has amazing properties
tivity.
such as wide band gap (3.37 eV), high excitation binding energy
The different types of nanoparticles and their applications in
(60 MeV), which allows its transition even at room temperature,
the identification of latent fingerprints are discussed in the fol-
and an additional adhesive property that facilitates interaction
lowing sections.
with the lipids and proteins in the fingerprint residue at ambient
temperatures (8,19,20). ZnO nanoparticles were used in the form
of a nano-powder for developing the aged latent fingerprints on
Silver Nanoparticles
nonporous surfaces. The developed fingerprint exhibited distin-
As per literature, metallic silver has an affinity for the organic guishable ridge details which fluoresced under UV light as por-
constituents of the fingerprint residue. Based on this concept, sil- trayed in Fig. 6 (22). Researchers from the Sydney University
ver nanoparticles have been used as a reagent in the silver physi- recently reported that ZnO nano-powders (20 nm) not only pro-
cal developer (Ag-PD) method since 1970 for the visualization duce clear prints but also naturally fluoresce in UV light under
of latent fingerprints on porous paper surfaces. The Ag-PD wet conditions (21). Other researchers have also documented that
method involves an oxidation–reduction couple in which an iron nanostructured zinc oxide produces a good fluorescent image of
salt reduces an aqueous solution of silver nitrate to metallic sil- the latent fingerprints when illuminated by long-wave UV light
ver. The silver nanoparticles (1–200 nm) formed during the reac- (22,23). A new combination of nano-powder consisting of ZnO-
tion interact with the organic constituents of the fingerprint SiO2 has been found to be effective in developing the latent fin-
residue and enable the visualization of the impression as a dark gerprints on various nonporous surfaces (8,20). Information on
gray or black silver image on the paper surface. The fingerprint the comparative work is given in Table 1.
development is due to the presence of electrostatic force of
attraction between the positively charged fingerprint residues and
Silica Nanoparticles (SiO2-NPs)
negatively charged silver colloids (12,13). Other researchers
have also reported that Ag-PD method is suitable for the identifi- The use of silica nanoparticles (SiO2-NPs) serves as a novel
cation of latent fingerprints on porous items, especially when method of improving the detection of latent fingerprints because
visualization on articles which have been deliberately or acciden- of their ease of synthesis and their ability to coat dyes, which
tally moistened is involved (13) Table 1. prevents photo-decomposition (10). Owing to their coating abil-
Nonetheless, the method has one drawback, that is, the Ag- ity, the nanoparticles were functionalized with dye particles to
PD solution alone yields poor visibility of the fingerprints. To recognize the fingerprint residues, where the outer shell of SiO2-
overcome this problem, gold nanoparticles stabilized with a NPs was functionalized to create interaction with organic
4 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

TABLE 1––A comparative study of the methods in nanomaterials.

S No. Nanoparticles Size Merits Demerits Ref.

1. Silver nanoparticles The size of the silver The physical developer (Ag-PD) The technique is expensive, time- (12,13)
nanoparticles ranges from 1 technique has the ability to develop consuming, and less stable. The
to 200 nm fingerprints on surfaces that have been fingerprint processing procedure is
exposed to intense sunlight for several destructive and leaves permanent
hours. Besides, it can lift the stains on the documents
fingerprints impinged on moist items
2. Gold nanoparticles The average size of the gold The gold nanoparticles significantly It is not useful for finding prints on (14)
nanoparticles is 2–3 nm improve the intensity and clarity of the surfaces such as walls or floors at
(spherical shape) developed prints when compared with the crime scene or on any object
the use of Ag-PD alone that is too large to be soaked in a
desktop bath
3. Gold nanoparticles The diameter of AuNPs on SND method yields good results It is not useful for finding prints on (17)
the histogram is 2.5 nm (distinct ridge details) in a single step surfaces such as walls or floors at
when using the gold nanoparticle the crime scene or on any object
solution on porous surfaces. However, too large to be soaked in a desktop
the MMD method requires multiple bath
bath steps in narrow pH
4. ZnO nano-powder The mean particle size The method works well for developing The method is less effective to (22)
calculated through TEM fresh as well as aged fingerprints develop fingerprints on porous
images for the ZnO nano- deposited on nonporous surfaces surface
powder is 1–3 lm
5. Silicon oxide The average diameter of The silica nanoparticles (SiO2-NPs) The technique is not suitable for the (24)
nanoparticles SiO2 NPs is 70
2 nm have a unique coating ability and aid development of fingerprints on
in the visualization of fingerprint nonporous surfaces
residues deposited on nonporous
surfaces
6. Gold nanoparticles Gold nanoparticles of 16 nm The technique has shown promising The technique is expensive and (25)
were formulated by using results for enhancing fingerprints that time-consuming
the Turkevich method in are over a week old
which citrate ions act both
as a reductant and as a
stabilizing agent
7. Aluminum oxide The size of the nanoparticles The aluminum oxide nano-powder is The technique is expensive and (29)
nanoparticles ranges from 30 to 60 nm stable over prolonged periods of time. time-consuming
Moreover, the ingredients of the
combination are eco-friendly
8. Gold nanoparticles – The technique improves fingerprint The technique is less applicable to (30,31)
(AuNPs) attached analysis as it enables the detection of nonporous substrates
with a bifunctional prints in moist conditions as well
reagent
9. Eu3+-doped Al2O3 The average size is 36.38 nm The method promotes good contrast of The method is not applicable to (32)
nanocrystalline the latent fingerprints on nonporous porous surfaces
powder surfaces under UV light
10. Fluorescent starch- The size ranges from 10 to The method is easy and eco-friendly. The method is less effective for (33)
based carbon 40 nm The composition exhibits a unique UV developing aged fingerprints
nanoparticles fluorescence property which is useful
in the development of latent
fingerprints
11. Electrodeposited The size of the AuNPs The technique is applicable for the The technique is inappropriate for (35)
metal nanoparticles ranges from 10 to 100 nm enhancement of both sebaceous and porous substrates
eccrine fingerprints on conducting
substrates. This method is suitable for
both smooth and rough metallic
surfaces
12. Amphiphilic silica Three sizes of amphiphilic The technique is useful for developing The method is not applicable for the (37)
nanoparticles silica nanoparticles (250, latent prints on smooth nonporous development of latent fingerprints
550, and 700 nm) are used objects on porous objects
13. Nanoplasmic imaging The average size of the The method enables rapid, simple, and The method is less effective for (38)
of latent fingerprints AuNPs is about 50 nm nondestructive visualization of latent eccrine (amino acid and inorganic
and identification of fingerprints and drug metabolites salt) fingerprints
cocaine metabolites (cocaine)
by using gold
nanoparticles

compounds of latent fingerprints such as amino acids and pro- fingerprints by gold nanoparticles by the multimetal deposition
teins to enhance the latent fingerprint image on a wide range of method. To determine the electrostatic mechanism, the finger-
object surfaces (23). print-bearing object surface (aluminum foil) was immersed in a
A study has reported the electrostatic mechanism between the solution of carboxyl-functionalized silica nanoparticles. The neg-
silica nanoparticles and the fingerprint residue, which is similar atively charged silica nanoparticles interacted with the positively
to the interaction taking place during the detection of latent charged amine groups of the fingerprint residue and formed an
 PRASAD ET AL. . FORENSIC SCIENCE, LATENT FINGERPRINT, NANOTECHNIQUES 5

FIG. 3––Shows the comparison of two halves of sebaceous secretion of the

fingerprints on paper surface, developed by Ag-PD (top) and by AuNP-C18
followed by Ag-PD (bottom) (15).
FIG. 6––Ten-day-old fingerprint on glass surface developed by using ZnO
nano-powder. Illumination 350-nm, detection 570-nm long-pass filter. Cred-
its: reproduced with permission from Springer Nature, J Mater Sci, An eval-
uation of nanostructured zinc oxide as a fluorescent powder for fingerprint
detection, Choi MJ, McBean KE, Ng PHR, McDonagh AM Andrew, May-
nard PJ, Lennard C, Roux C, 2008. 43,732–737, Copyright (2019).

amines (20,24). Photon correlation spectroscopy (PSC) was used

to characterize the SiO2-COOH NPs, and an average diameter of
70
2 nm was observed as shown in Fig. 7 (24). A mechanism
of electrostatic interaction between SiO2-COOH NPs and the fin-
gerprint residue was thus observed, which is similar to the one
between AuNPs and the fingerprint residue as shown in Fig. 8
(24). The details of the comparative study are given in Table 1.

FIG. 4––UV-Vis absorption spectrum of stabilized AuNPs (17).

Gold Nanoparticles as Molecular Recognition Reagents
In the natural world, there are many examples for the
enhancement of weak interactions between ligands and receptors
amide linkage owing to the electrostatic interaction between the by using multivalent or polyvalent interactions, such as the link-
carboxyl and the amine groups. The formation of the amide link- age of viruses to the cell surface. Based on such observations,
age was further favored by introducing a carbodiimide (N-ethyl- the gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were functionalized with multi-
N0 -(3 dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) hydrochloride) ple anti-cotinine antibodies for augmenting the interaction
combined with N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) group to activate between the antibody and the cotinine antigen present within the
the carboxyl group and make it readily interact with the primary latent fingerprint deposit (25). Antibody-functionalized

FIG. 5––(a) Optical laser scanner image of the latent fingerprint on glass surface enhanced by the MMD technique. The black and white lines represent the
ridges and furrows. (b) A high-resolution scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) image (3–2 mm) of the sample with a scan rate of 300 mm/sec. The
SECM image area corresponds approximately to the rectangle region marked (inside black line) in (b), and the brown and white lines represent the ridges and
furrows (18).
6 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

FIG. 9––Shows the schematic illustration of the antibody-nanoparticle con-

FIG. 7––Graph shows the pH-dependent growth of both hydrodynamic jugate. The nanoparticles are linked by a bifunctional linker and protein A,
diameter and zeta potential of an aqueous solution of silica nanoparticles which acts as a biological linker to orient the antibodies in the correct man-
functionalized with -COOH groups (24). ner to the nanoparticle. Credits: reproduced with permission from Wiley-
VCH Verlag GmbH and Co. KCaA, Angew Chem Int Ed, Intelligent finger-
nanoparticles were prepared by depositing protein A, which is a printing: simultaneous identification of drug metabolites and individuals by
biological linker used to attach the anti-cotinine antibody to the using antibody-functionalized nanoparticles, Leggett R, Lee-Smith EE, Jick-
ells SM, Rusell DA, 2007;46 (22): 4100–4103, Copyright (2019).
gold nanoparticle surface (7,10,12,16,25) as shown in Fig. 9
(25).
The antibody-functionalized gold nanoparticles were employed
to develop the latent fingerprint deposited on the surface of a
microscope glass slide. The fingerprint thus developed showed
third level of ridge detail owing to the bond formation between
the functionalized anti-cotinine antibody and the cotinine antigen
present in the sweat of the fingerprint (7,26,27) as shown in
Fig. 10 (27). Therefore, antibody-coated gold nanoparticles can
reveal a great deal about an individual, identify the metabolites
present in the fingerprint residue, and even help in reducing the
time spent on testing drug. A brief representation of the compar-
ative work is provided in Table 1.
Other researchers have also reported that gold nanoparticles
can be used as reagents in a novel immunoassay multimetal
deposition (iMMD) method. The conventional MMD was com-
bined with immunoassay technique for the visualization of latent
fingerprints and for the detection of sweat components (protein FIG. 10––Detection of cotinine in a fingerprint using anti-cotinine/gold
and polypeptide) in fingerprints. The iMMD method was first nanoparticle conjugates and a secondary antibody fragment tagged with
evaluated on the basis of visualization of latent fingerprint by Alexa 546 dye. The fluorescence images shown in (a) and (b) are of the
same fingerprint section but at two magnifications. The black dots visible
using an ink containing human immunoglobulin G (hIgG). The along the ridge pattern (readily seen in b) are the pores from which the
fingerprint-inked hIgG depicted third level of ridge details. Later, sweat is secreted. The scale bars in (a) and (b) correspond to 2 and 1 mm,
the technique was applied to visualize sweat fingerprints through respectively (27).

FIG. 8––Results obtained after application of SiO2-COOH NPs at pH 6. For the right half, EDC/NHS is used to mediate the reaction. On the right shows the
bond formation between -COOHl groups present on SiO2 NPs surface and amine groups found in the fingerprint secretion. The amide linkage is mediated by
the use of EDC/NHS (24).
 PRASAD ET AL. . FORENSIC SCIENCE, LATENT FINGERPRINT, NANOTECHNIQUES 7

two secreted polypeptides, namely epidermal growth factor

Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Attached to a Bifunctional
(EGF) and lysozyme. A spot test was performed by incubating
Reagent
them with AuNPs/anti-EGF or AuNPs/anti-lysozyme conjugates
and subsequently treating them with silver staining solution. A new bifunctionalized AuNPs-based technique consisting of
Clear visualization of EGF and lysozyme was achieved by the two steps was developed for the detection of latent fingerprints
new method (28). on porous paper surfaces. In the first step, the fingerprint-bearing
paper surface was immersed in a bifunctional reagent-attached
gold nanoparticle solution for 5 min followed by treatment of
Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles (AL2O3– NPs)
the fingerprint with physical developer for enhancing the con-
A nontoxic, eco-friendly nano-powder was developed for the trast. The bifunctional reagent used in the technique was com-
identification of latent fingerprints. The nano-powder was syn- posed of an active polar head, such as tetrabutylammonium
thesized by using eco-friendly binders such as aluminum oxide bromide (TOAB), which has a high affinity toward the cellulose
nanoparticles coated with a naturally colored dye (eosin yellow) attached to the long chain of an active tail consisting of a sulfur
and hydrophobic seed extract. The seed extract of Cyamopsis group acting as a stabilizer. The arrangement is picturized in
tetragonoloba (guar bean) acted as a hydrophobic substance Fig. 11 (30). The mechanism of latent fingerprint development
which repelled the water molecules and enabled the fine parti- by using bifunctional reagent-attached gold nanoparticles can be
cles of the powder to adhere to the oily constituents of the explained as follows: When the gold nanoparticles are encapsu-
latent fingerprints (29). Development of latent fingerprints using lated with a bifunctional reagent, they are accumulated on the
nano-powder not only provides clear visibility on various por- paper surface containing the fingerprints, with the paper itself
ous and nonporous surfaces but also identifies the faded latent acting as a surface and the fingerprint acting as a veil (30,31).
fingerprints. Details of the comparative work are given in Thus, the whole process depends on the sebaceous secretion of
Table 1. the fingerprints, which are effectively concealed underneath the

FIG. 11––Synthesis of 1 and 2. (a) CH3CN, 85°C, 18 h, N2. (b) CH2Cl2, SOCl2, reflux. (c) CH2Cl2, RT. (d) Toluene, 24-h stirring, RT. TOAB, tetraoctylam-
monium bromide (30).
8 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

paper, and the gold nanoparticles lead to the development of ordinary luminescent powders owing to its intense luminescence
latent prints as shown in Figs 12 and 13 (30). A brief sketch of property (32). A brief scheme of the comparative work is given
the comparative work could be found in Table 1. in Table 1.

Eu3+-Doped Al2O3 Nanocrystalline Powder Fluorescent Starch-based Carbon Nanoparticles

The advancements in material science, specifically in lumines- Fluorescent carbon nanoparticles (CNP) have exerted a great
cent materials such as rare earth (RE) ion-doped materials, have impact on the production of several biochemical devices such as
received remarkable attention in the world of luminescence as sensors, biological probes, photovoltaics, and solar cells (33).
such materials exhibit good quantum efficiency and photochemi- CNPs have been used for the detection of latent fingerprints
cal stability (32). In this category, Al2O3 (aluminum oxide) is a owing to their eco-friendly nature and biocompatibility. How-
well-known material displaying properties such as high melting ever, CNPs lose their luminescent property readily in solid state;
point, chemical inertness, and photochemical stability, which therefore, it is challenging to prepare them in the form of a fluo-
makes it one of the best host matrices for RE ions (32). For rescent powder. Incorporating a minor amount of carbon
developing latent fingerprints, a rare earth ion Eu3+-doped a- nanoparticles in the starch powder provides a noticeable color
Al2O3 nanocrystalline powder was developed. The Al2O3: Eu3+ durability. Based on the above concept, CNP-based fluorescent
nanocrystalline powder structure, as well as the phase of the starch powder was synthesized for the detection of latent finger-
powder, was ascertained by X-ray diffractometry in which the prints. The CNPs were characterized by TEM, XRD, and solid-
rhombohedral crystallite phase of a-alumina was observed. For state fluorescence spectroscopy. The TEM image confirmed their
the identification of particle size, field emission-scanning elec- spherical shape, with an average diameter of 10–40 nm. The
tron microscope (FE-SEM) was used. The latent fingerprints XRD pattern showed two peaks, including a broad one at 20°
developed using the Al2O3: Eu3+ nano-powder on various sur- indicating amorphous carbon and another sharp one at 27.4° sug-
faces were visualized under UV light. It was observed that the gesting carbon nitride phases. The Fourier transform infrared
prints displayed good contrast on different substrates such as (FTIR) spectrum was obtained to detect the ligands attached to
stainless steel plate, aluminum foil, glass slide, stainless steel the surface of the CNPs. The fluorescent starch powder was used
bowl, and highlighter pen. Thus, Al2O3:Eu3+ can serve as the as a fluorescent labeling mark for the detection of latent finger-
best option for fingerprint development in comparison with prints on glasswares (33). The fingerprint developed using CNP-
based fluorescent starch powder showed good ridge details
which fluoresced under UV light. An outline of the comparative
work is presented in Table 1.

Electrodeposition of Metal Nanoparticles

The technique refers to depositing one metal on the other by
electrolysis (34). The electrodeposition of metal nanoparticles
was introduced for the visualization of latent fingerprints. The
AuNPs were electrodeposited on the Ag-NPs to view the latent
fingerprints on a nonporous surface. The surface morphologies
of both the nanoparticles (AuNPs and Ag-NPs) were character-
ized by FE-SEM. It was observed that the process is efficient in
developing the latent fingerprints on nonporous coin substrates
(35). The work is comparatively described in Table 1.

Amphiphilic Silica Nanoparticles

“Amphiphilic” denotes the presence of both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic characteristics in a single compound (36,42). On
the basis of this concept, a powder containing amphiphilic silica

FIG. 12––Development of latent fingerprint by bifunctional reagent fol- FIG. 13––A fresh sebaceous fingerprint (after immersion in water for
lowed by Ag-PD (30). 5 min and drying under air) developed by treatment with 2(above fig), fol-
lowed by Ag-PD (30).
 PRASAD ET AL. . FORENSIC SCIENCE, LATENT FINGERPRINT, NANOTECHNIQUES 9

FIG. 14––Evolution of nanoparticles in the field of forensic fingerprinting.

nanoparticles was proposed for latent fingerprint detection. For sensing of the cocaine metabolites. A cocaine-specific DNA
developing latent fingerprints, amphiphilic silica nanoparticle aptamer was cut into two pieces and attached to different
powders were made using 4-(chloromethyl) phenyltrichlorosi- AuNPs. The DFM images of cocaine-loaded latent fingerprints
lane. The synthesized powder was characterized by SEM, FTIR depicted true-green to red color changes owing to the surface
spectrometer, X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS), and X-ray plasmon resonance of the gold nanoparticles. Thus, a quantita-
powder diffraction (XRD). It was inferred that the material has tive method was exploited to identify the cocaine loading in
affinity toward the amino acids present in the fingerprint residue latent fingerprints. Subsequently, for the visualization of latent
owing to its amphiphilic nature, which results in a clear visibility fingerprints, 10 lL solution of cocaine was drop-casted on the
of the fingerprint on the nonporous surface ((43,37)). Details of fingerprint and air-dried. The dried latent fingerprint cast was
the comparative study are provided in Table 1. collected and incubated with the aptamer-bound AuNPs. The
DFM image of the latent fingerprint revealed second- and third-
level ridge characteristics (38). Details of the comparative study
Nanoplasmic Imaging of Latent Fingerprints and
are provided in Table 1.
Identification of Cocaine Metabolites using Gold
Nanoparticles
Evolution of Nanoparticles in the Field of Forensic
A novel nanoplasmonic spectroscopic method was demon-
Fingerprinting
strated for imaging latent fingerprints and identifying cocaine
metabolites in latent fingerprints by using gold nanoparticles as In the early 1970s, some information was available on the
a probe. Dark-field microscopy (DFM) was employed for high- detection of latent fingerprints with nanoparticles. During the
resolution imaging of the latent fingerprints and the cocaine 1980s, nanoparticles such as silver and gold were used in the
metabolites. The method comprised of two steps. Cocaine identi- common silver physical developer technique for the visualization
fication in the latent fingerprints was initially done for which of latent fingerprints on porous paper surfaces. However, during
gold nanoparticles were used as a probe for the aptamer-based these two decades, the nanoparticles were not utilized much for
10 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

the detection of latent fingerprints. From 2006 to 2016, nanopar- References

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