Foundation Course II (PD)

Personality Development
Studies for Leadership

Foundation Course
Personality Development
Studies for Leadership
Foundation Course
Sovik Mukherjee
St. Xavier’s University, Kolkata

Personality Development Studies For
Leadership
Foreword
We come across, year after year, a large number of students with excellent
academic accomplishments passing out of the institutions of higher education
in the country, but feeling dismal without having proper jobs because they
haven’t learned the life skills needed for facing the selection process for jobs.
There are many others who do not know how to deal with life issues and end
up inflicting harm to themselves and to others at the sight of slightest problems.
Life skills are a perfect blend of knowledge and behaviour, attitudes and work
ethics to respond effectively to demands and challenges of daily life.
All this tell us that we induct in our university curriculum personality
development studies comprising life skills, such as leadership, interpersonal
relationship, communication and team building, stress, conflict and time
management, performance appraisal and motivation for training our students
in character formation and to develop their capacity for acquiring emotional
intelligence quotient along with technical skills and academic specialisation.
The course is to help our students function fully and successfully in
different domains of life, and to empower them to be compassionate leaders
and pro-active collaborators on the path of progress in whatever career they
pursue in life. Life skills training in institutes of higher education have gained
importance in recent times encouraged by the demands of competitive work
culture in organisations in an ever expanding global society.
Through relevant readings, case discussions, and introspective exercises, the
students will gain a broader and deeper understanding of organisational culture
and dynamics, the role of the leader in an organization and his / her pro-active and
compassionate nature of influence. During the course, the students will explore
and identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats related to career
competitions, and will begin to develop a leadership style that is uniquely theirs.
I thank Professor Sovik Mukherjee for carefully compiling the Syllabus for
the Second Section of the Foundation Course based on ‘Personality Development’.
Rev. Fr. Dr. John Felix Raj, S.J.

Vice Chancellor,
St. Xavier’s University, Kolkata.
Contents
Personality Development Studies For Leadership ........................... v

Foreword .......................................................................................... v
1. Leadership ........................................................................................1
2. Interpersonal Relations ...................................................................10
3. Communication in Organisations ...................................................20
4. Stress Management.........................................................................28
5. Group Dynamics and Team Building .............................................44
6. Conflict Management .....................................................................53
7. Motivation ......................................................................................61
Bibliography ...................................................................................75
ANNEXURE A: ...............................................................................76
ANNEXURE B: ...............................................................................92
ANNEXURE C:.............................................................................105
Chapter 1
Leadership
1.1 Introduction
Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in
managerial operations. If there is any single factor that differentiates between
successful and unsuccessful organisations, it could be considered as dynamic
and effective leadership. Perhaps, it would be a valid assumption to state that
the major cause of most business failures would be ineffective leadership. All
managers, in a way, are business leaders, even though management primarily
relies on a formal position and power to influence people whereas leadership
stems from a social influence process. However, management is an integral
component of technical as well as social processes.
A question which many a novice in Management ask and experts echo is
whether “Manager” and “Leader” are synonymous terms. Are the functions of
the ‘Manager’ the same as those of the Leader? Are the two roles the same? Or,
are they different? If they are – are there or rather aren’t there areas of functional
similarities? To what extent do they differ in direction and/or magnitude?
Before attempting to answer the million dollar question “Are all leaders,
managers or are all managers, leaders? It will be prudent to clarify the concepts
of leadership and management.
An extremely simplistic yet profoundly meaningful definition of leadership
states it as the “Phenomenon of one person influencing the thinking or action
or both of another person or groups of persons”.
Management has been defined in various ways by different authors. In fact,
there exists almost as many definitions for management as there are authors
on the topic. There is neither the scope nor the need to examine the various
definitions of management in this discussion. However, two of them may be
considered. One of the earliest universally accepted definitions of management
considered it as the “process of getting things done through and by people”.
One of the modern definitions of management describes it as “the process of
ensuring effectiveness and efficiency in achieving goals or objectives”.
From the above discussion, it is clear that whenever one influences the
thinking or action or both of another person or a group, he/she is a leader and the
phenomenon of leadership exists. This is so irrespective of what the “influence”
aims or achieves. Even if the followers are “influenced” for some antisocial
activities, the phenomenon involved is leadership and the one exhibiting it is a
leader. Managers have to influence their “people” for achieving organisational
objectives, which, we assume, to be morally right and legally straight. So, all
managers have a leadership role to play. But all that every leader does may not
be very “Managerial”. In short, all managers are leaders, but all leaders need
not necessarily be managers. It should be remembered that this statement is
made considering the roles of “leaders” and “managers” and not with reference
to any individual with a managerial title or acceptance as a leader.
1.2 Categories of leaders

Based on the functions they perform, leaders can be classified into:
1. Entrepreneurial
2. Administrative and
3. Political
1. Entrepreneurial Leaders: As the term indicates, these are leaders
who build organisations, these institution builders perform the tasks
of initiation and structuring. They organize the required resources
and put them in to effective and efficient use to create institutions of
various sizes, nature and scope etc. Entrepreneurial leaders are highly
motivated self starters who can get along reasonably well with a wide
range of people with whom they can co-operate and from whom they
can get co-operation. They will not be dispirited with setbacks and will
not take “no” for an answer.
2. Administrative leaders: These are leaders whose performance will
be at its peak when they are put in charge of running organisations
they work for the maintenance and growth of the organisations, they
plan, organize, staff, direct and control the organisations which may be
Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 2

expected to “safe” in their hands. They ensure that right men occupy
right positions and that tasks are carried out effective and efficiently.
They undertake environmental scanning and do SWOT (Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, based on which they
define and redefine the mission of their organisations, set targets and
objectives and formulate policies and strategies. They have a clear idea
of what the organisation should be at present and where it should be in
the future.
3. Political leaders: By “political leaders” we mean those who act
as representatives or spokesmen of their groups and strive for the
redressal of the grievances of their groups in general and its members in
particular. Many of them act on an ‘ad hoc’ basis not being very visible
normally but appearing on the scene all of a sudden when a problem
crops up, the tackling of which requires their attention. They may even
leave the scene once the issue has been settled.
1.3 Discussion on Leader Categories

In every individual, all kinds of leadership skills may be present but their
relative concentrations vary. The implication for the top management is that
organisational success depends on allocating tasks and responsibilities to
individuals based on their talents and capabilities. The message for the individual
is that one should identify where his/her predominant leadership skills lie and
as far as possible try to seek tasks which are in tune with them. When there is
little scope for choosing tasks in accordance with ones leadership endowments,
developing skills required for the tasks at hand become imperative.
1.4 Leadership Styles

Based on “how” a leader performs his/her tasks, various leadership styles can
be identified, viz.
1. autocratic (authoritarian and
2. democratic
3. laissez faire (free rein)
The basis for the above classification is two fold, viz.,
Leadership / 3
1. mode of decision making
2. manner of implementation
1. Autocratic leadership style: As the term suggests, this is a leader-
centred style where followers are reduced to insignificance. The
autocratic leadership style itself has two variations, viz., authoritarian
and paternalistic.
a) Authoritarian leadership style: The authoritarian leader takes all
decisions by himself/herself and will try to implement them even
resorting to the use of force or coercion. The authoritarian leader is
only concerned about the “tasks” but not the “people” with whom
the tasks have to be achieved. If his/her followers/subordinates
approach him/her with a problem, they face in implementing the
leaders decisions or carrying out his/her orders, the leader takes
the stand, I am not bothered about your problems. “You expedite
and report” style.
b) Paternalistic leadership style: Leaders who exhibit this style
assume the parental role for themselves. They also take all
decisions like the authoritarian leaders, but when it comes to
implementation they resort to tact and diplomacy rather than force
and coercion. The paternalistic leader considers his followers as
immature children incapable of making decision and needing
about the task as well as the people. If subordinates approach a
paternalistic leader with their problems, they can expect empathic
understanding and consideration. The paternalistic leader may be
expected to sit with the subordinates to sort out their problems and
help them reach or identify solutions.
2. Democratic leadership style: The style of leadership which recognises
and respects every member of the group or team as an individual with
capabilities, rights and responsibilities and a potential contributor to
the group processes including task achievements, is called democratic
leadership style. Where democratic leadership style is followed, decision
making and implementation are consultative and participative processes.
It should be appreciated that the situation is not akin to one, where say, in
a group of 100, what 51 people suggest is accepted and the opinions and
suggestions of the remaining 49 are rejected mercilessly. That at best be

termed majocracy. Where democratic leadership style is practised, one is
free to express his/her opinions as everybody’s opinions and their right to
express them is respected. A member gets an opportunity to understand
why his/her suggestions are not accepted as the group’s decision, even
when that is the case. The ultimate group decision is everybody’s. When
one had a say in the making of a decision, a high level of commitment may
be expected to be exhibited by the group members for its achievement.
3. Laissez faire or free rein leadership style: Whether one follows autocracy
or democracy as a leadership style, the leader will be performing the basic
functions of providing direction and control to the group. The autocratic
and democratic leaders differ only in the manner in which they perform
the direction and control functions. Apart from this, there are leaders
who follow a policy of “no intervention” in group processes. Their style
is called “Laissez faire” or “free rein”. There are behavioural scientists
who even object to considering this as “leadership” as the “leader” does
not discharge the basic functions of direction and control. However, one
may find many in leadership positions practising this style.
1.4.1 Discussion on Leadership Styles
To decide on the “best leadership style” one has to enumerate the merits and
demerits of each, evaluate their effectiveness and efficiency and more than
anything else, see whether they deliver the goods”. Analysis of the various
leadership styles conclusively proves that there does not exist something as the
“best” leadership style. If there existed one, it should have proved successful
under all circumstances. It can be observed that different leadership styles
produce the best results under different conditions and circumstances. That
which results in the most favourable and desirable outcome under any particular
circumstances is the “right” leadership style in that context. The success of
the manager depends on his/her ability to identify the “right” leadership style
in any given situation and then exhibit enough flexibility and adaptability to
practice that style.
Sources of Leader’s Influence on Followers :

What provides a leader with the capacity to influence followers? Why will
subordinates respond to the influence attempts of a leader by doing that the
leader intends or wishes them to do? In other words, what is the source of the
Leadership / 5
leader’s power over subordinates? Five distinct sources of leader power or
influence have been identified. Any particular leader may have at his or her
disposal any combination of these different sources of power.
1. Reward Power refers to the leader’s capacity to reward followers. To the
extent that a leader possesses and controls rewards that are valued by
subordinates, the leader’s power increases. Rewards at a leader’s disposal
fall into two categories. Rewards such as praise, recognition and attention
are sources of personal power possessed by the leader as an individual.
In addition, a leader also usually controls certain organisational rewards,
such as pay raises, promotions and other perquisites. These are sources
of power that depend upon the leader’s position in the organisation.
2. Coercive power is the flip side of reward power and refers to the leader’s
capacity to coerce or punish followers. Sources of coercive power also
break down into personal and positional components. Leaders personally
possess coercive power to the extent that followers experience criticism
or lack of recognition from their leader as unpleasant or punishing. In
addition, leaders possess coercive power to the extent that their position
permits them to administer organisational sources of punishment (such
as demotion, with holding of pay increases or firing) to followers.
Legitimate power refers to the power a leader possesses as a result of
occupying a particular position or role in the organisation. In every
organisation, certain types of requests and directions issued by leaders
to subordinates are viewed to be legitimate and valid. Subordinates
are obligated to comply with such requests because of the norms,
policies, and procedures accepted as legitimate by all members of the
organisation. Legitimate power is clearly a function of the leader’s
position in the organisation and is completely independent of any of the
leader’s personal characteristics.
3. Expert power refers to power that a leader possesses as a result of his
or her knowledge and expertise regarding the tasks to be performed by
subordinates. Subordinates are most likely to respond positively to a
leader’s attempts to influence their behaviour if they view the leader as
a competent and in possession of knowledge and information regarding
effective task performance that they themselves lack. The possession
of expert power by a leader obviously depends upon the personal

characteristics of the leader (i.e., his or her personal expertise) and is
not determined by the formal position that the leader occupies in the
organisation.
4. Referent power is dependent upon the extent to which subordinates
identify with, look up to and wish to emulate the leader. The more that
subordinates admire and identify with the leaders, the greater the leader’s
referent power over subordinates. Referent power, like expert power, is
totally dependent upon the personal characteristics of the leader and does
not depend directly upon the leader’s formal organisational position.
Leadership as Mutual Influence :

The very term leadership naturally serves to draw our attention to leaders
themselves and focuses our interest on the ways in which leaders influence
their followers. As a result, research on leadership has tried to understand
how different types of leaders and different types of leader behaviours cause
follower to react in different ways.
An important contribution of recent research on leadership has been to
point out the short sightedness of this view of leader-follower relations. While
it is no doubt true that leaders can and do influence their followers, it is also
true that leaders and followers engage in interaction with one another, which
necessarily implies the existence of mutual influence. In other words, not only
is it true that leaders influence followers, but it is equally true that followers
influence leaders.
1.5 Constraints on Leadership Behaviour

In thinking about leadership as mutual influence process we are taking in to
account the fact that the behaviour of subordinates has a casual influence upon
the behaviour of the leader. In other words, leaders do not decide how they
are going to behave in total isolation from their subordinates. Leader must
select and adjust their leadership style in light of how their subordinates
are performing and responding. But acknowledging that the behaviour of
subordinates can influence how leaders behave raises the question of what
other factors may be influencing and constraining what leaders do. In fact, it
turns out that leaders are far from totally free and unencumbered in choosing
their leadership style.
Leadership / 7
1.6 Subordinate Behaviour
As was pointed out in our discussion of leadership as a mutual influence
process, the evidence is quite clear that the performance of subordinates has
a critical casual impact upon that a leader does and how he or she behaves
toward followers.
Characteristics of Subordinates:
In addition to what subordinates do and how they perform, other identifiable

traits, or characteristics, of subordinates may influence the leader’s behaviour
as well as the behaviour of the subordinates themselves. For example, a leader
may behave differently toward males and females, older and younger people,
and those with similar as opposed to different personal backgrounds from his
or her own.
Characteristics of the Leader:
The leader’s abilities and personal characteristics obviously influence and

constrain what the leader does and how he or she behaves toward subordinates.
On the ability side, task relevant knowledge and skill, as well as supervisory skills
and sensitivities, will have an important impact. In terms of trait, personality
characteristics such as assertiveness, dominance, and self-confidence all have
an influence on the leadership behaviour.
Leaders as Superiors:
How leaders treat their subordinates is strongly influenced by how the

leaders themselves are treated by their own immediate superiors. Superiors
serve both as role models for the leadership behaviour of individuals toward
their own subordinates and as sources of rewards and punishments. Leaders
with immediate superiors who preach, practice, and reward a participative
management style, for example, are unlikely to treat their subordinates in a
directive and authoritarian fashion.
Leaders as Peers:
As in almost all thing, peers have an important influence upon how leaders
behave. Peer pressure has a potent homogenising impact upon leadership
behaviour in an organisation. Other managers in an organisation are likely to

exert both direct and indirect pressure on individual leaders to behave toward
their subordinates in a fashion that is consistent with that practiced by other
managers at that level in the organisation.
Organisational Policies, Norms and Climate:
Some organisations are characterised by a very open, democratic, and

participative management style. Such an organisational climate and policy ill
obviously influence a leader to behave as a participative manager. Very different
leadership behaviours would be expected in an organisation characterised by a
very closed and authoritarian policy of management.
Nature of Subordinates – Tasks:
The nature of the tasks that subordinates are performing also influences the
behaviour of leaders toward subordinates. A very vague and ambiguous task
such as developing the design of a new product from scratch is bound to elicit
different types of leadership behaviour than is a highly structured and routine
task such as producing a particular number of units on an assembly line.
Questions for Discussion

1. What are the different leadership styles? How would position the
different leadership styles?
2. Write 7 strategies that you can adopt as a team leader to ensure proper
team work.
3. How do one measure their own performance as a team leader?
4. How will you motivate your team mates to work after the scheduled
hours if required?
5. Discuss about the mutual influence in leadership.
Leadership / 9
Chapter 2
Interpersonal Relations
2. 1 Introduction
All of us are social beings and interact with others in the process of satisfying
our human needs and achieving our goals. In management, irrespective of your
level, you have to interact with others – peers, superiors and subordinates.
And most importantly, in some organisations, with general public. You
may have to communicate with people of different sexes, ages, education,
skills, personalities and temperaments. Ability to understand the nature and
dynamics of interactions with others will help an individual to become more
effective communicator – which means more positive respect for self better
performance and achievement of organisational goals, more satisfied and
committed employees, effective relationships with superiors and peers, more
satisfied consumers or clients.
What is Transactional Analysis (T/A)? What does T/A do? What does T/A
not do? What are the dynamics of T/A? How can I become more effective with
the use of T/A?
2.2 What is Transactional Analysis?

“Transactional Analysis (T/A) is one of the tools developed by behavioural
scientists which is used for analysis of transactions” or understanding of
communications that occur between people. It is a rational approach to
understanding behaviour and is based on the assumption that any person can
learn to trust himself or herself, think rationally, make independent decisions,
and express feelings.
“Transactional Analysis” is a tool but also a complete theory of personality,
containing techniques of psychotherapy for personal and social growth. A
“transaction” means any exchange or interaction that occurs between two or
more persons.
Transactional analysis concerns itself with the kinds of communication
– both verbal and non-verbal – that occur between people. The emphasis of
Transactional Analysis is upon positive communication.
Transactional Analysis is widely utilised as a consultation method in
educational programmes, social institutions, business, hospitals, churches,
government organisations, and other organisations. The late Eric Berne,
M.D., the principal innovator and developer of Transactional Analysis, began
experimenting with his ideas by applying them to group psychotherapy, but
more recently it is widely used in family, couples and individuals work.
2.2.1 What does Transactional Analysis do or not do?
Transactional Analysis increases understanding of self and others. It decreases

tendency to be critical of self and others. Transactional Analysis helps reduces
stress, frustration and anxiety levels!
A few hours exposure to Transactional Analysis is not necessarily going to
result in any person being transformed in to a happy and an effective person.
Transactional Analysis does not erase all human relations difficulties. All
emotional problems won’t be solved with a brief training period and traditional
way of doing things that may be non-productive. Lot will depend upon the
trainer. There are several who present themselves as experts.
These people do more harm than good. Many companies have successfully
incorporated Transactional Analysis training in to their overall personnel
development programmes. These organisations represent private and public
sector industries. State Governments, police systems, educational institutions,
municipalities, and professional associations. The benefits which an
organisation derives from Transactional Analysis are better process diagnosis;
clearer problem analysis; reduced non-communication: new tools for selecting
people for entry and promotion; and less psychological pollution.
2.3 Structural Analysis

According to Transactional Analysis theory, everyone’s personality has three
parts, called ego states. These ego states are named Parent, Adult, and Child.
When we capitalize these words, we are talking about ego states rather than
real parents, adults or children. Structural analysis involves analysing the
Interpersonal Relations / 11
personality to discover the nature of our ego states. You can use structural
analysis to better understand who you are and how you got that way. It will
help you learn about the various sources of thoughts, feelings and opinions in
your personality. Knowing your personality better can add to your effectiveness
on the job.
i) The Parent Ego State
Every one develops a Parent ego state when as children they absorb
certain attitudes and ways of behaving from parental figures. When you
feel, think, or act as you saw your parents (or other authority figures)
act when you were little, you are in your Parent ego state. While in your
Parent, you may act in either a controlling, sometimes critical way or in a
nurturing, sometimes loving way. Here are some examples of statements
you are likely to make while in your Parent.
• Controlling Parent : “Nobody can leave until this report is finished”
• Nurturing Parent: “I’m sorry you’re not feeling well today. Would
you like to go over to the nurse’s office and get some help? I’ll take
care of your station”.
While in our Parent we respond automatically almost as if a tape recording
were playing in our heads and directing our words and actions. For this
reason, we often use the phrase “Parent tapes” to refer to:
• dialogue from Parent figures stored in our heads, and
• automatic responses we make while in our Parent ego state
ii) The Adult Ego State
Although we respond automatically when in our Parent, we respond
analytically when in our Adult. Whenever you are gathering information,
reasoning things out, estimating probabilities, and so on, you are in your
Adult ego state. While in this ego state you are cool and collected: you
make decisions unemotionally. You just want the facts. The Adult ego
state has nothing to do with age. Little children have Adult ego states
too! For example, when four-year-old Kristi says, “I bet Jeff is home
– I see his car,” she is using her budding Adult, since she is calmly
estimating probabilities on the basis of facts.

iii) The Child Ego State
Yes, even though you’re an adult, you have a Child inside you. While
in your Child ego state, you feel and act like the little person you once
were. Your Child has all of the feelings and impulses of a newborn. It
also includes your mental recordings of your:
• early experiences
• reactions to these experiences, and
• learned view of yourself and other people
Free or Natural Child (FC or NC):
This is the source of our spontaneity, energy and curiosity, with all our potential
for life. It represents the way we are when we are born – natural, loving,
carefree, adventurous and trusting – with all our capacities for leading a joyful
and meaningful existence. This part of us knows no rules and consequently
operates without regard for others and is unconcerned about their reactions.
Witness the behaviour of the twelve- month-old exploring its environment! Of
course, it would be impossible to maintain the structure of a society on such a
basis, and without some adaptations.
Adapted Child:
As suggested, it does not seem possible to live in a continuous Free Child

state and live with other people at the same time. From an early age, we make
adaptations to help us get along with and get attention from authority figures,
most notably our own parents. Some of these may develop in line with general
practice in our society, eg., specific modes of eye and body contact; saying
‘please’, ‘thank you’ and ‘sorry’ at the appropriate times; not making personal
comments about others in public.
Note how uncomfortable we often feel with those who have not adapted to
these culturally agreed ways of behaving. Many more adaptations are unique
to the particular family and its situation, and are important in marking us out as
individuals. Some examples that create problems in adulthood and are relevant
to organisations are compliance, procrastination and rebellion.
Compliance :
Some individuals learn when they are young that the way to get along is
always to say ‘yes’. Their problem in adulthood is saying ‘yes’ when their
better judgement, experience and knowledge suggests that arguing the point
and asserting themselves would be more appropriate. Some personal and
organisational disasters might have been avoided if some people had not been
so compliant in the past. (Of course, some people in power want nothing better
than for others to do exactly what they are told!)
Procrastination :
Some people learn when they are young that a good way to get attention is to
procrastinate. Consider these examples from family life:
‘Look, put that doll down, tie your shoe laces up and let’s get going. You’re
making us late again!’
If a child decides on this basis that delaying gets attention, in adulthood
the individual may still be indulging in this behaviour. Unquestionably, being
late is a good way to get attention in organisations (albeit negative) and it may
use up more energy, money and time than it is worth (clock cards, counseling
interviews, disciplinary interviews etc).
Rebellion :
Many children only get attention when they are ‘naughty’. Such individuals in
adulthood may continue this behaviour by seeking bosses and/or institutions
(eg., banks, local government, the police) to constantly fight and rebel against.
Little Professor :
Another functional aspect of the Child ego state is frequently introduced and used,
although its relationship to the other two is unclear. This is the Little Professor,
the intuitive part of us that senses things about other people in a flash. This part
of us has those brilliant, non-logical insights giving us solutions to problems that
typify some of the major breakthrough in the growth of scientific knowledge.
2.4 Transactions and its Analysis

Transactional analysis is related with the way in which individuals interact
with each other. It explains the mechanism that takes place when people are

having conversation or are trying to exchange their thoughts, feelings and
ideas with each other. Thus, Transactional Analysis essentially refers to the
analysis of interactions between people. According to Transactional Analysis,
transactions is stimulus plus response (S+R). If two or more people encounter
each other, sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication
of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called the “transactional
stimulus”. Another person will then say or do something which is in some way
related to the stimulus, and that is called transaction response. Transactional
Analysis involves the study of the social transactions between people and it
deals with determining which part of the multiple-natured individual is being
activated Parent, Adult or Child.
2.5 Transactions and its Types

Normally there are three types of transactions:
1. Complementary Transactions;
2. Crossed Transactions;
3. Ulterior Transactions:
a) Duplex;
b) Angular
1. Complementary Transactions
A transaction is complementary when communication continues on
parallel lines between individuals and the lines of stimulus and response
are parallel. Thus, the message transmitted from one ego-state elicits
an expected and appropriate response from the proper ego-state of the
other individual. The transactions are complementary because both are
acting in the perceived and expected ego-states. Usually, in such a case,
both individuals are satisfied, everyone feels OK and the communication
is complete. Complementary transactions can take place between A-A,
P-C, P-P and so on.
2. Crossed Transactions
The lines of stimulus and Response cross each other in case of crossed
transactions. Whenever the stimulus and response cross on the P-A-C
transactional diagram, communication stops.
Transactions become uncomplimentary. The message sent by one ego-
state is responded to from an incompatible, unexpected ego- state of
another person. The inappropriate response generates feelings of hurt
and anger and the individuals, instead of coming closer, divert from
each other. Crossed transactions are the source of much interpersonal
conflict in an organisation. They inhibit free flow of ideas, free thinking,
creativity and social interactions. Crossed transactions have many
possible dysfunctional consequences for the organisation.
3. Ulterior Transactions
The ulterior type of transactions are most complex because the
communication has double meaning as more than ego-states are
involved in them. When ulterior message is sent, the literal and intent
meanings are not one and the same. Ulterior message is often disguised
in a socially acceptable way. On the surface level, the communication
has a clear Adult message, whereas it carries a hidden message on the
psychological level. Ulterior transactions like crossed transactions are
undesirable as they damage interpersonal relationships.
2.6 Strokes
You’ve seen that transactions can be open, blocked, or ulterior. It’s also important
to recognize that whenever two people are transacting, they are exchanging
“strokes”. What are strokes? To help you understand that term, let’s look at an
important discovery made by Rene Spitz. Spitz found that keeping infants fed
and in a clean environment was not enough. Such infants became weak and
almost seemed to shrivel up if they were not cuddled and stroked. Infants who
are touched very little may become physically and mentally retarded; those
not touched at all seem to “give up” and die. Before Spitz discovered this,
doctors often puzzled at the high death rate in orphanage nurseries. Today in
such nurseries “grandmothers” and “grandfathers” volunteer to come in and
just cuddle infants.
In Transactional Analysis language, the term “stroke” refers to the giving
of some kind of recognition to a person. This may or may not involve physical
touching. As we grow from infancy into childhood and then adulthood, we do
not entirely lose our need for stroking. Part of our original need for physical
stroking seems to be satisfied with symbolic stroking. We no longer need

constant cuddling, but we still need attention. When we receive a stroke, we
may choose to feel either good or bad. If we choose to feel good, we might
think of the stroke as a “warm fuzzy” (or positive stroke). On the flip side, if we
choose to feel bad, we can think of it as a “cold prickly” (or negative stroke).
Since we have a basic need for strokes, we will work hard to get them.
For example, ignored children will engage in all sorts of creative acts to get
stroked. Often such children quickly learn that they can get strokes by:
• talking in a loud, whiny, high-pitched voice,
• spilling milk on a clean table cloth, and
• injuring themselves
A child who carries out one of these actions is likely to get a cold prickly
(negative stroke). But it seems to make no difference to a stroke-deprived child.
To such a child, any kind of stroke is better than none at all: a cold prickly is
better than nothing! The same is true for adults who work in a stroke-deprived
environment.
2.7 Life positions

Another way of looking at relationships between people is through the concept
of ‘life position’, sometimes referred to as the basic position or existential
position. A person’s life position at any given time expresses in some way
just how that individual is relating to others in terms of thinking, feeling and
behaving. There are four basic life positions, shown below referred to as the
OK corral.
Examples of Life Positions
The idea of life positions can be demonstrating the following examples.

1. ‘Hey, we did a good job there’, says the boss.
‘Yes, things ar really going well for us now’, says the subordinate (I’m
OK, you’re OK)
2. ‘Your work is not up to the standard I need in this department!’ says the
boss (I’m OK, you’re not OK)
3. ‘I wish I could keep on top of things the way you can’, says the subordinate
(I’m not OK, you’re OK)
4. ‘Well, I don’t know what to do and you don’t know what to do. What a
mess!’ says the boss. (I’m not OK, you’re not OK)
Characteristics of the Life Positions
I’M OK, YOU’RE OK (I + U+)

This is sometimes referred to as the get on with position. People occupying
this position are optimistic, confident and happy about work and life. They use
time constructively, doing the things they most want to. They exchange strokes
freely with those they meet, accepting the significance of other people, and
decline to put themselves or others down. They are assertive in reaching their
aims, i.e., they state and elaborate their own views and needs rather than attack
other people’s views and needs. Their dominant working style with others
is collaboration and mutual respect, sharing authority and responsibility and
listening constructively, even if they disagree. The problems they encounter
in work and life are faced and dealt with as constructively as possible. They
are likely to ‘succeed’ in life within the limits they’ve set themselves, finding
satisfaction with work and relationships, and tend to live long, healthy lives.
I’M OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I+ U-)

This is sometimes referred to as the get rid of position. It is characterised by
feelings of anger, fury and hostility. Others are seen as inferior, unworthy,
incompetent, wrong and not to be trusted. Behaviour to others is characterised
by such things as spite, victimisation, trapping, condescension, abuse and
disregard. They may devote much time to the destruction of the sense of self-
worth of others. As well as putting others down, they over-inflate their own
self-worth, deny personal problems and find it difficult to give positive strokes.
At work they are highly competitive and climb over others at whatever cost to
achieve power and status. In wider social terms this is the life position of those
who exploit their fellow man, or of those who take dogmatic views, believing
theirs to be the only right course. In extreme cases they are homicidal (You are
so “not OK”, there’s no point to your living’)
I’M NOT OK, YOU’RE OK (I- U+)

This is referred to as the get away from position and is typified by feelings
such as sadness, inadequacy, stupidity or a sense of being ugly. In this position,

people experience themselves as inferior or powerless in relation to others.
They put themselves down and find it difficult to accept positive strokes, even
being suspicious of them. In relation to work, they undervalue their potential
and skills and they avoid or withdraw from difficult situations and problems.
In life generally, they don’t succeed, are unhappy, often ill and/or depressed
and in extreme cases commit suicide (I’m so useless I may as well not live’)
I’M NOT OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I- U-)

This is also referred to as the get nowhere position and is accompanied by
feelings of confusion or aimlessness and pointlessness. Their attitude is ‘Why
bother, what’s the point?’ and they frequently waste time. They do nothing very
much in life, and in extreme cases become alcoholics or drug addicts, or go
crazy, possibly committing murder or suicide.

1. What is ego state? Describe the 3 ego states.
2. Write about the ego state model for Transactional Analysis.
3. Describe personal style, work style, management style with reference
to an incident you have come across
4. What qualities according to you, make a perfect colleague/team mate?
Explain in brief.
5. Discuss about the different life positions and relevance in your life.
Chapter 3
Communication in Organisations
3.1 Introduction
Organisations, large and small, commercial and not-for-profit, religious and
educational – are all structured to facilitate the achievement of objectives. The
communication process in an organisation connects superiors, subordinates,
members of the peer group and the external environment. The top man’s job
is almost solely communication as he has the main task of linking and relating
the organisation with the environment.
In the absence of communication, human beings will have to exist as
individuals never benefiting from the sharing of emotions, experiences,
knowledge etc. Without communication, which has undisputed primary in the
affairs of human race, man will not be able to unit to overcome limitations and
ensure achievements.
Communication involves the transfer or rather exchange of ideas,
information, understanding, feelings, emotions etc. between individuals. It
can be defined as “who says what and why to whom through which channel
with what effect”. Though this is a reasonably comprehensive definition of
communication, it is a process oriented one. It should be stated in this context
that the concept of communication is common understanding between the
involved parties – whom we shall refer to as the Sender and Receiver – about
what is being communicated which we shall term as Message. “Message”
may denote anything ranging from ideas to data to statistics to emotions and
feelings.
3.2 The Importance of Communication

Studies have been conducted on the amount of time spent on communication by
people from different walks of life. It is found that the group that has to spend
least time for the process of communication is the shop floor level workers in
manufacturing organisations. Even in their case, 40 to 60% of time is spent on
communication. As a person’s position in the organisational echelon is higher
and higher, the time required to be spent on communication is more and more.
The head of any organisation may be expected to spend more than 80% of his/her
time on some form of communication or the other. What this means is that how
effectively, efficiently, creatively and productively that person communicates
will decide his overall effectiveness, efficiency, creativity and productivity to
a corresponding extent. The communication process in any organisation is so
vital for the achievement of its objectives. How a communication system is
managed in an organisation i.e., how effective it is, has a profound impact on
the ultimate effectiveness of the total organisation.
There exists numerous studies which have confirmed the impact of
communication, organisational productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. In
one such study, the reasons for wide variations in productivity among twenty
seven branches of a package – delivery organisation, were explored.
3.3 The ABCs of Communication

Like any other process, communication also has its ABCs and it is interesting
to note that the ABCs of communication are:
A. Attractiveness
B. Brevity
C. Clarity
3.4 The Process of Communication

Whatever is being communicated is called ‘Message’. The person from whom
the message originates – the one who initiates the process of communication
– is called the Sender. The person for whom the communication is meant is
called the Receiver. Communication cannot take place in a vacuum. It has to
have a medium or channel. After receiving the message the ‘Receiver’ will
react or respond to the sender when provision for that exists. This part of the
communication process may be termed Feedback. When there is no provision
for ‘Receiver to Sender Feedback’, it may be called one-way communication.
This, in most cases, may increase the distortion between the intended
message and the one that is received. There are various barriers to effective
Communication in Organisations / 21
communication which may affect the process at any stage and they can be
collectively designated by the term ‘NOISE’. The following model will
illustrate the process of communication.
Figure 3.1 : Process of Communication
Communication Categories : The following are the communication

categories :
• Effective and Impressive

• Effective but Unimpressive
• Ineffective but Impressive
• Ineffective and Unimpressive
Needless to mention, the best of the above lot is the first category and the
last one is the worst. It should be one’s aim to make his/her communication
effective and attribute each is present while the other is lacking. If a choice is to
be made between the second and third categories, definitely the preference must
be for the second one. In other words, if we have to prioritize, effectiveness
has primacy.
3.5 Barriers to Effective Organisational Communication

There are many barriers that can impede the process of communication resulting
in a communication breakdown. Some of the common barriers to effective
communication are described below. However, it should be remembered that
the list is not exhaustive.

1. Transmission Alterations: This refers to the changes that the original
message undergoes when it passes through various people. The greater
the differences between the people involved with respect to various
factors like cultural background, social class, educational level, age
group, experience etc. the greater will be the alterations that the
message undergoes. One effective way to overcome the barrier – or at
least reduce its ill effects – would be to ask the receiver to repeat what
he/she has understood. This will provide the sender with an opportunity
make corrections to the perceived message if found necessary. When
one has the role of the receiver and if the sender is not making any effort
on the lines suggested above, the receiver may take the initiative for
making the required clarification.
2. Physical Limitations: The difference between perception and reality
may be termed perceptual error. Our sensory limitations – those of
sight, sound, touch, taste and smell-restrict perceptual clarity.
3. Inattention: This is related to the receiver, care should be taken to give
proper attention to the message. When in sender’s role, one should start
communicating only after ensuring required level of attention on the
part of the receivers. Despite physical proximity with the sender, the
receiver’s level of attention may come down or his/her thoughts may
take side excursions while the sender is talking. The sender should
recognize this as a natural and normal phenomenon and make efforts
to regain receivers’ attention at periodic intervals.
4. Selective Listening: When receivers tend to “block out” information,
especially when it is contradictory to what one believes, it results in
selective perception. It is a common practice for people to ignore or
distort information that conflicts with ones prescribed notions.
5. Mistrust of the Source: Over a period of time, we develop various
levels of trust, confidence or faith in the words of the sender. It may be
termed source credibility. To be an effective communicator, one should
develop himself/herself as a credible source of information.
6. Exaggeration: People may resort to exaggeration to dramatize ones
presentation or to make it more attractive, humorous etc. However, in
the long run, one who is known to exaggerate always looses credibility.
7. Distortion: Distortion of the original message may occur due to various
factors. Distortion may be accidental or intentional. In earlier case, the
end result is undesirable and harmful.
8. Uniqueness: No two phenomena, no too things, no two human beings
are exactly alike. Because of the uniqueness of individuals, their
experiences, and as a result of this, their perceptions differ.
9. Badly Expressed Messages: Badly expressed messages may be the
result of inadequate preparation, inadequate control over the medium,
mannerisms of the sender etc. Even a wrong punctuation can result in
badly expressed messages which may not convey any meaning or may
convey an unintended message.
10. Unclarified Assumptions: When one hears, sees or reads something
he/she may make certain assumptions, which have no relation with
reality. When one makes decisions or takes action based on wrong
assumptions, the result will be disastrous.
11. Abstractions: In abstracting – the process of leaving something out
to derive meaning – people give differential emphasis to different
factors. Because of this, different people, when bombarded with the
same stimulus or set of stimuli, may give different responses based on
different conclusions.
12. Absentmindedness: Mental pre-occupation resulting in
absentmindedness can be a very important barrier to effective
communication. When in the role of the receiver, one should safeguard
himself/herself from it and when in the sender’s role, should watch for
signs of absentmindedness on the part of the receiver and take steps to
ensure proper attention and involvement.
13. Time Pressure: People in positions of authority and responsibility may
not have enough time to communicate with everybody. Time Pressure
can result in improper and insufficient communication. Time pressure
may even lead to short-circuiting which means people being left out of
the formal channel of communication, who normally would have been
included.

3.6 Improving Communication Skills
Remember the old addage, “Reading make a full man”, writing an exact man
and conference a ready man” and practice it to be a wise communicator.
Though there are various forms of communication, more often than not,
we communicate orally. Oral communication involves:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3.7 Improving Organisational Communication

There is no magic formula for ensuring effective organisational communication
as it is too complicated a process. However, organisational communication
can be bettered. An awareness of the barriers to effective communication will
help in two ways: (1) Avoiding the barriers or reducing their ill effects in ones
communication (2) anticipating communication malfunctions in others which
helps to overcome many a barrier in communication.
In ones effort to become a better communicator, he/she must not only
strive to be understood but also to understand. The task is two fold. First, the
message must be improved. So should be the understanding of what other
people are trying to communicate to them. Some techniques that will aid in the
accomplishment of these tasks are discussed below:
1. Receiver Orientation: To improve communication, one should speak
the language of the receiver. Care should be taken to use words and
usages that suit the listeners intelligence and background.
2. Attention to the ABCs: As a guiding principle for effective
communication it should always be remembered to give proper
attention to the ABCs viz., attractiveness, brevity and clarity.
3. Appropriateness: Appropriateness in communication means a lot of
things. There should not be too much or too little of communication.
It should not be too formal or too informal. It should sound serious or
humorous depending on the topic being discussed, the nature of the
receiver, time availability etc.
4. Use of Humour: Communication process is akin to the functioning of
machinery with moving parts which requires lubrication for smooth
friction-free operation. An effective ‘lubricant’ for the process of
communication is humour. However, care should be taken to use it
judiciously to avoid unintended or negative results.
5. Use of Right Appeal: The effectiveness of communication will
be greatly enhanced when the right appeal is used. The skill of the
communicator lies in identifying the right appeal for each situation and
then using it.
6. Repetition: The universally acknowledged principle of learning viz.,
repetition can greatly contribute to communication effectiveness.
Repetition will ensure that even if one part of the message is not
understood, there are other parts, which will carry the same meaning.
7. Effective Timing: A host of message compete for peoples attention
simultaneously. Many are not even decoded or received just because of
the impossibility of taking them all in. Messages are best understood
and received when they face least competition from other messages.
Improper timing can result in distortions and value judgements which
are harmful.
8. Simplifying Language: Many people, especially teachers and trainers
have the habit of resorting to technical jargon that transforms simple
concepts into complex puzzles. Complicated language is a very
important barrier to effective communication. It has to be recognized
that effective communication involves transmitting understanding as
well as information.
9. Effective Listening: Effective listening is as important to communication
as effective speaking. Managers must not only seek to be understood
but also to understand. By proper listening, one can encourage other to
express true feelings, hopes, aspirations and emotions. More than just
listening, ‘listening with understanding’ is what is required.
The above discussion attempted to convey the basics in the process of
communication and means and techniques for effective communication. The
principles described apply to oral and written communication and is equally
significant whether communication is vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Some
of the techniques suggested for improving communication may find difficulty
in being translated in to action for want of time. However, it is hoped that the

discussion has thrown enough light on the challenge of effective communication
and its requirements. Managers have to be effective in both transmission and
reception. They must communicate effectively in their endeavour to understand
and be understood, which will go a long way in improving their effectiveness
and efficiency as managers.

1. Write about the essentials and barriers to effective communication.
2. How will you handle a situation where you have to work under someone
who is not good in communication?
3. Explain any one model of communication.
4. How do you ensure good communication within your work group?
5. How will you improve the communication within your organisation as
a team leader?
Chapter 4
Stress Management
4.1 Introduction
Many people think they understand stress. In reality, however, stress is complex
and often misunderstood. To learn how job stress truly works, we must first
define it and then relate it to the individual in the workplace.
4.2 Stress Defined

Although stress has been defined in many ways, a common ground of most
definitions is that stress is caused by a stimulus, that the stimulus can be either
physical or psychological and that individual respond to the stimulus in some
way. Here, then we define stress as a person’s adaptive response to a stimulus
that places excessive psychological or physical demands on that person.
Let us look at each component of this definition. First is the notion of
adaptation. As we discuss shortly, people adapt to stressful circumstances in
any of several different ways. Second is the role of the stimulus. This stimulus
is generally called a stressor. That is, a stressor is anything that induces stress.
The definition also notes that stressors can be either psychological or physical.
Finally, the demands placed on the individual by the stressor must be excessive
for stress to result. Of course, what is excessive for one person may be perfectly
tolerable for another.
4.3 The Cost of Stress

A study by a mental health charity in the UK revealed that the most stressful
thoughts in people’s minds are work-related. Mental health conditions are the
second biggest cause of absences from work and result in the loss of 15.4
million work days annually in the UK.
Recent research in the international retail sector suggests that one in
every ten work hours is lost to ‘unplanned time off’. The estimated cost to the
global economy due to depression and anxiety is US$ 1 trillion per year in lost
productivity.
In light of these statistics, it is alarming that 42.5% of the employees in the
private sector of corporate India suffer from depression or some form anxiety
disorder. That’s almost every second person. Studies indicate that two-thirds
of people who have suffered from depression face prejudice at work or while
applying for new jobs. The World Health Organization estimates that India
will suffer economic losses amounting to a staggering 1.03 trillion dollars from
from mental health conditions between 2012 and 2030.
In India, mental health issues are even bigger taboo than in the West. The
stigmas attached to mental illnesses ensure that people sweep things under the
carpet and suffer in silence instead of speaking out and seeking help. Studies
shockingly show that 71% of Indians still use terminology associated with
stigma and prejudice to describe mental illnesses.
4.4 Stress and the Individual

Much of what we know about stress today can be traced to the pioneering work
of Dr. Hans Selye identified what he called general adaptation syndrome and
the notions of eustress and distress.
4.5 General Adaptation Syndrome ?

According to this view, we each have a normal level of resistance to stressful
events. Some of us can tolerate a great deal of stress, while others can handle
much less, but everyone has a basic threshold at which stress starts to affect us.
The GAS begins when a person first encounters a stressor. The first stage
is called alarm. At this point, the person may feel some degree of panic, may
wonder how to cope, and so forth. For example, suppose a manager is assigned
a lengthy report to write overnight. His first reaction may be, “How will I ever
get this done by tomorrow?”
If the stressor is too extreme, the person may simply be unable to cope
with it at first. In most cases, however, the individual gathers his or her strength
(physical or emotional) and resists the negative effects of the stressor. For
example, the manager with the long report to write may calm down, call home
to say he’s working late, role up his sleeves, order out for dinner, and set to
work. Thus, at stage 2 of the GAS, the person is resisting the effects of the stressor.
Stress Management / 29
In many cases, the resistance phase may end the GAS. If, for example, the
manager is able to complete the report earlier than expected, he may drop it in
his briefcase, smile to himself, and reach home tired but happy. On the other
hand, prolonged exposure to a stressor, without resolution, may bring on phase
3 of the GAS i.e. exhaustion.
At this stage, the person literally gives up and can no longer fight the
stressor. The manager, for example, might fall asleep at his desk at 3.00 a.m
and not get the report finished.
4.6 Distress and Eustress :

The effects of all stress need not be detrimental. For example, receiving a
bonus and then having to decide what to do with the money can be stressful.
So, getting a promotion, gaining recognition, getting married, and similar
“good” things. Selye called this type of stress eustress.
Of course, there is also negative stress. Called distress, this is what most
people think of when they hear the word stress. Excessive pressure, unreasonable
demands on our time, bad news, so on and so forth, all fall in to this category.
For purposes of simplicity, we will continue to use the simple term stress.
It is important to remember throughout the discussion, though, that stressor can
be either positive or negative. It can motivate and stimulate us, or it can lead to
any number of dangerous side effects.
4.7 Individual Differences

It is also important to note the effects of individual differences on stress. We
have already noted, for example, that people differ in their normal levels of
resistance to stressors.
Cultural differences are also important. For example, as detailed more fully
in international Perspective research by Cary Cooper suggests that American
executives may have less stress than executives in many other countries,
including Japan and Brazil.
Other research suggests that women are perhaps more prone to experience
the psychological effects of stress, whereas men may report more physical
effects. Finally, it has also been suggested that people who see themselves
as being very complex are better able to handle stress than are people who

have a simpler view of themselves. We should add, though, that the study of
individual differences in stress is still in its infancy; it would be premature to
draw rigid conclusions about how different types of people handled stress.
4.8 Sources of Job Stress

Individuals will experience stress when they face new or threatening factors
in their work environments. While individuals will vary, of course, in what
they experience as stressful there are some aspects of work that systematically
create job stress for employees.
One major source of job stress is the job itself. The way the job is designed,
the amount of time pressure an individual faces, and the expectations others
have of a person at work can all lead to job stress. Interpersonal relationships
are a second source of job stress. How much contact an individual has with
coworkers and bosses, how much time he or she deals with clients or consumers,
and how pleasant in personal lives can spill over into the work environment,
adding further tension to an already stressful work situation.
1. Job characteristics
A major source of job stress is a person’s role in the organisation. A role is simply
the set of expectations that other people in the organisation have an individual
in his or her job. Supervisors, co-workers, customers, suppliers, and inspectors
all of these people expect an individual to behave in certain predictable ways.
Often, the expectations others have of an employee are unclear, in conflict,
or too high for the employee to meet within the time allotted, and he or she
experiences stress.
a) Role Ambiguity
In order for people to perform their jobs well in organisations, they need
to know their job objectives, what they are expected to do and not do,
and what the scope and responsibilities of their jobs are. When there is a
lot of uncertainly surrounding job definitions or job expectations, people
experience role ambiguity.
With the recent increase in mergers and acquisitions among major
corporations, for instance, more and more employees are often unsure
who is to perform which job duties. Employees wonder if they are
duplicating other people’s work, and are uncertain about whom they
should be reporting their problems to. All this role ambiguity is anxiety-
arousing to employees, and they consequently experience job stress.
b) Role Conflict
Often employees discover that different groups of people in an
organisation have widely varying expectations of them and that they
cannot meet all these expectations. This inconsistency of expectations
associated with a role is called role conflict. There are two general types
of role conflict in organisations.
The first type is inter-sender role conflict: two different groups have
expectations of an individual that are incompatible or inconsistent.
For example, admissions of clerks in hospitals are expected by public
relations officers to be pleasant, sympathetic and helpful to incoming
patients and their families but are also expected by the comptroller’s
office to get detailed insurance and financial information. It is difficult
for admissions clerks to achieve both goals simultaneously.
The second type is intra-sender role conflict: One group has
incompatible or inconsistent expectations of another. The plight of
air traffic controllers is a good illustration of such conflict. Air traffic
controllers are under order from the Federal Aviation Administration
to properly space all air craft traffic. Nevertheless, control tower
supervisors encourage air traffic controllers to ignore some of these
regulations because aircraft traffic would get too heavy if all rules were
followed to their letter. However, if a near-miss or an error occurs, the
controllers are disciplined by these same supervisors for not following
the regulations. Air traffic controllers are receiving inconsistent messages
from their bosses (ignore regulations; follow regulations) and experience
tremendous stress as a result. In one year alone at Chicago’s O’Hare
Airport, seven controllers experienced such acute hypertension that they
had to be carried out of the control tower on a stretcher.
c) Role Overload
Role Overload is a situation in which employees feel they are being
asked to do more than time or ability permits. Working under time
pressure is especially stressful. People are anxious when they have a
lot to do before some deadline; as time runs out, a feeling of impending
disaster increases.
Two particularly interesting studies have been conducted on the impact
of role overload on job stress. One study was done with tax accountants
approaching the April 15 tax deadline, the other was done with medical
students before an impending examination in the US way back in the
late 2000s. In both studies, physiological symptoms of stress increased
dramatically prior to the time deadline, and decreased sharply after the
deadline had passed. The general adaptation syndrome does activate
itself as the threat of time deadlines draws near and the body returns to
equilibrium after the threat is over.
d) Role Under load
Most frequently, employees experience stress from having to respond
to the role expectations of too may people. For some jobs and some
workers, though stress comes from role underload. Role underload is the
condition in which employees have too little work to do too little variety
in their work. Salespeople in a store with no customers, sanding around
all day with nothing to do could be said to experience role underload.
Assembly line workers also generally experience role underload; rarely
do they perform more than one or two tasks day after day.
Ironically, role underload can lead to many of the same problems as role
overload; low self-esteem; increased frequency of nervous symptoms
and complaints; increased health problems. One of the most disturbing
outcomes of role underload is passivity.
Workers with role underload report they feel both physically and
psychologically weary; even when they are not at work, they do not
show much interest in social activity or physical exercise.
2. Interpersonal Relationships
A second major source of stress in organisations is poor interpersonal

relationships with others, namely supervisors, coworkers or clients. When
interpersonal relationships at work are unpleasant, employees develop a
generalised anxiety, a diffuse feeling of dread about upcoming meetings and
interactions. Three aspects of interpersonal relationships at work, in particular,
have a negative impact on job stress.
1. amount of contact with others
2. amount of contact with people in other departments
3. organisational climate
a) Amount of Contact with Others
Jobs vary in terms of how much interpersonal contact is built into them.
Some job, like security guard or research scientist, involves relatively
little interactions with others. In contrast, jobs like administrative
assistant or waitress require constant human interaction. While most of
these interactions proceed smoothly, over time people become burned
out and a feel a need for privacy. Too much prolonged contact with other
people can cause stress.
This stress is exacerbated when the people we come into contact with
are in distress themselves. For this reasons, employees in the “helping
professions” - health care, social service, education and law-report the
highest levels of stress. The client’s stress rubs off on people who are
acting in the helping capacity. It is ironic that doctors have the highest
rate of alcoholism of any of the professions and that psychiatrists have
the highest rate of suicide.
b) Amount of Contact with people in other Department
Having contacts with people outside one’s own departments creates a
special sort of stress. People in other departments do not always have an
adequate understanding of jobs outside their own areas. As a result they
are more likely to make requests that cannot be honored or set deadlines
that cannot be met.
In hospitals, for example, employees in service departments like X-ray
and pharmacy report high amounts of stress. The X-ray technicians and
pharmacists report that doctors and nurses from the medical and surgical
units make unreasonable demands on them and set very unrealistic
deadlines for their services. Two X-ray technicians on call all night, for
instance, cannot respond to all calls for service quickly when always has
to be on duty in the emergency room.
c) Organisational Climate
Finally, the overall psychological climate of the organisation can create
stress, when day-to-day life in an organisation is marked by unfriendly

distant, or hostile exchange, employees are continually tense. They have
little trust in each other and do not express their true concerns and desires.
They are unsupportive of each other and spend little time helping each
other with problems.
3. Personal Factors
Frequently, employees’ personal lives have a marked effect on their lives at

work. If things are going well personally, they are more likely to be upbeat and
optimistic. They have more energy and patience for dealing with problems at
work. On the other hand, if employees are having some personal problems,
they might be more tense or distracted when they go to work. Little problems
at work make them angry and irritable. Their nerves may already be a little
frayed; it takes less to get them upset.
Three factors in particular, influence how much stress people bring from
their personal lives to the work setting: 1) their career concerns, 2) their
geographical mobility and, 3) the rate of change in their personal lives.
One major career concern that can cause stress is lack of job security. With
the exception of some unionised employees, very few workers in America have
job security and in recessions, even those employees enjoy few guarantees.
Even top-level managers can lose their jobs on short notice. When the economy
worsens or the profits of the firm go flat, people become especially worried
about how they could support themselves if they lost their jobs.
4.9 Consequences of Job Stress
1. Physical Health
Job stress has a substantially negative impact on physical health. First, job
stress increases the frequency of minor physical ailments. People who
are experiencing stress are more likely to have headaches, stomachaches,
backaches, and chest pains.29
Second, job stress has a major impact on contributory factors to major
illnesses. People under stress are more likely to have a quickened heartbeat and
greater difficulty breathing. Blood pressure rises with stress, as do cholesterol
levels. All of these factors make the body more susceptible to major illnesses
like heart disease.
Indeed, the research quite strongly suggests that people who undergo
prolonged periods of stress are more likely to suffer more major physical
illnesses. In particular, stress is a major contributor to ulcers, arthritis, drug
and alcohol abuse, and heart disease. Some researchers suggest that managers
with high levels of stress may be twice as prone to heart disease, five times
as prone to a second heart attack, and twice as prone to fatal heart attacks as
low-stress managers.
Finally, and not surprisingly in light of the evidence presented above, job
stress influences longevity. There is strong evidence that job stress shortens
one’s life. Job Stress not only makes bodies more susceptible to major illnesses,
but also contributes directly to life-threatening diseases.
Even the courts have been making worker compensation awards on the
basis of stress-induced disabilities. Courts have rules that in stress cases, “the
central consideration isn’t the actual work environment, but how the employee
reacts to it.” Employers can be held liable if the illness has been “aggravated,
accelerated, precipitated, or triggered” by the conditions of the job.
2. Psychological
Stress has a marked impact on mental as well as physical health. Probably

the most noticeable impact job stress has on people psychologically is that
it increases their anxiety. Anxiety is a vague sense of apprehension and
foreboding. People may not know exactly how to put their finger on what’s
bothering them, but they feel vulnerable to people and events in their work
environments. They worry more about how they will deal with potential threats
that may not even materialize.
Stress also increases frustration. When people are blocked from behaving
the way they would like to behave or from getting what they want, they are said
to be frustrated. When people get passed over for a promotion, for instance,
they feel frustrated. They can’t do the job they want, and they can’t obtain the
status and rewards they desire. There are several ways in which individuals
respond to frustration.
One response to frustration is passivity. If a person constantly fails at a job
despite increased efforts, or keeps on getting the bad breaks, he or she is likely
to give up or become disinterested. When you read in the newspapers about
unemployment among those “actively seeking employment,” for instance,

these figures exclude those workers who have not looked for a job in six
months. These workers are so frustrated by constant rejection that they have
withdrawn from the work force and have stopped looking for work altogether.
Another response to frustration is aggression. Aggressive employees strike
out at those around them. If employees feel aggressive toward their supervisors
and coworkers, they may snipe at them in meetings. They may become irritable,
losing their temper over relatively unimportant matters. They may become
more negative, finding fault with everyone and everything.
A third response to frustration is depression. When people are frustrated
at work, they often become sad. They may become pessimistic and lose their
self-confidence and self-esteem. Individuals may start to avoid social contacts
and feel lonelier. For instance, sometimes people will become depressed if they
do not win some special award or recognition they had hoped for. They blame
themselves for their failure and feel helpless to control events around them.
Most people have suffered from acute depression occasionally. Individuals
may be really depressed after getting poor performance evaluations, or getting job
rejection letters, or breaking up a marriage. Generally, after a short while, they are
like their “old selves” again, with confidence renewed. However, if the depression
does not self-correct and becomes chronic, more serious problems can ensue.”
A fourth response to frustration, although much rarer, is suicide. For a
variety of reasons, an individual may feel unable to cope with all the negative
aspects of his or her life and decide to end it. Unfortunately, the occurrence
of suicide has increased over the past decade, particularly among executives.
3. Performance
Stress may also have a negative impact on individual performance. Stress

can lead to increased turnover and absenteeism, for instance. Turnover and
absenteeism allow workers to withdraw from unpleasant environments.
In addition, stress has been frequently associated with industrial sabotage.
Workers sometimes create mechanical failures on the assembly line to give
themselves a break from the monotony and stain of their work. Job stress also
has an impact on individual productivity.
4. Decision Making
Stress also impedes effective decision-making. When people are feeling stress,
they are more likely to procrastinate and to avoid having to make decisions.
They have more trouble concentrating and often forget important pieces of
information. They are less likely to seek out new information that could help
them make better decisions. As a result, the quality of the decisions they make
suffers.
For example, when individuals are trying to decide which job offers to
accept, they frequently feel stress. While there are several good opportunities
that lie ahead, there is also much uncertainty about what these jobs are really
like. The costs of a wrong decision can be high. Moreover, often these decisions
have to be made within a few days’ time. As a result of this stress, many people
delay making the decision until the last moment; they keep on trying to put it
out of their minds. They have trouble concentrating on the information they
already have, and feel too distracted to search out additional data on their
options. As a result, individuals often make bad job decisions when they are
operating under high stress.
4.10 Coping with Job Stress

As we have pointed out before, it is not true that employees do not want
any stress at work. Indeed, there is substantial evidence that employees are
energized and motivated by moderate amounts of stress. However, most people
want to reduce their stress to the point where they feel they have some control
over what is going on around them.
In this, section, we will be looking at a variety of ways in which individuals
cope, or deal, with stress at work. The first set of these coping strategies are
work-focused. Employees can decrease stress by directly changing their own
work habits or the work environments they are in. The second set of these
coping strategies are emotion-focused. These strategies do not directly change
the work environment per se, but rather help employees adjust to the stress
more easily.
1. Work-Focused Coping Strategies :
Role Clarification
Probably the most direct way in which individuals can cope with stress is by
trying to clarify or change the role expectations of others. If employees feel

their job assignments are unclear, they can ask their supervisors for clarification
of what is expected. If they feel that they are getting conflicting signals from
their managers (for instance, “I don’t care how you get this done, just get it
done” but “Don’t step on any toes”) they can confront their managers about the
lose-lose situations they find themselves in. One overlooked coping strategy in
this area is changing the constraints put upon a job assignment. If a job is due in
two days and there is no way it can be accomplished even by working twelve-
hours days, it is rational to ask for more time or help when the assignment is
initially given.
Time Management
Another way of coping with stress is to manage time more effectively. People
can learn to get better organized so that they can do their work more efficiently
and fritter away less time needlessly. For example, managers often waste time
by answering all calls and letters as they come in. Instead, they could put off
unimportant activities until slack periods and try to do their most important
work in the morning when they are feeling fresh.
Delegation
A third way of coping with job stress is to delegate some responsibilities to
others. Managers can let subordinates gather some of the data they need, or
represent them at some meetings. Secretaries can take care of many of the
bureaucratic details managers don’t need to attend to personally. Delegation
can directly decrease work demands put upon the manager-and often the tasks
the manager delegates to subordinates are seen as challenging by those who
receive them.
Search for More Information and Direct Task Help

Some employees may think it is a sign of weakness to ask for more information
or some initial assistance when given an unfamiliar task. It is not uncommon,
for instance, to see new employees work three times longer on a job than
necessary rather than admit they are not sure what they are doing. It is much
more efficient, effective and anxiety-reducing to get some help before getting
lost.
Co-operative work Strategies
Sometimes an effective way of dealing with too much work is to co-operate
with other people in the same situation. For instance, in preparing major reports,
dividing the work and sharing information can help employees complete their
projects faster and with much less effort. People worry, of course, that they will
be taken advantage of they will work hard, but others will not. However, more
often than not, people will realize it is in their own best interest to share the
load and will co-operate enthusiastically.
Departure from the job

Finally, it is important to note that sometimes the stress on a job is too great,
and that not much can be done to relieve it. The organisation may be greatly
understaffed, and the person greatly overworked. An employee might be in a
job for which he or she is simply not well trained. Whatever the reason, it is not
a sign of weakness to leave a job before one gets physically sick or emotionally
depressed.
2. Emotion Focused Coping Strategies :
Reduced Perfectionism
One of the biggest sources of stress in people’s lives is the attempt to live up to
the impossible standards they set for themselves. People expect themselves to
perform consistently at high levels, even when they are trying to get too much
done in too little time. They expect themselves to be efficient “machines” at
work even when they are ill or pre-occupied with personal problems. Sometimes
a good way of dealing with stress is to accept less than one’s very best every
once in a while. Not that people should become lazy or lackadaisical, but rather
they should realize that not every performance can be stellar, and the world will
not stop turning if they are not perfect every time.
Employees also have fantasies about what the perfect job or perfect
manager would be like. They imagine there are saintly, compassionate,
competent supervisors out in the world and they feel ill-used because they
don’t have them. However, their managers have neither the same stresses they
have, probably nor, an expecting ideal behaviour from them inevitably leads
to disappointment. There is no perfect boss and there not perfect job. Learning

to live with a little less is not compromising standards. It is dealing with the
job more realistically.
Increased Social Support

A very effective way of coping with job stress is to seek out social support from
others. When people feel stressed, it helps to have friends and colleagues who
are supportive. Friends can provide an outlet for blowing off steam; they can
support lagging self-confidence or self-esteem; they can be confided in about
personal and work-related problems.
Increased Tolerance of Ambiguity

Through out school, most people receive clear homework assignments,
objective tests, and frequent feedback. The work world is not like that. Most
of the problems managers work on is ill-defined: little feedback is received; the
criteria for success are much fuzzier. Certainly it makes sense to try to reduce
role ambiguity wherever possible. However, employees can never obtain the
role clarity they had as students, and they might be better off becoming more
tolerant of ambiguity.
Relaxation Techniques
Relaxation techniques are another type of emotion-focused coping device.
When individuals can’t change the stressful work situation, they can
sometimes cope with it more effectively if they are claimer. Some researchers
have found that people experience a “relaxation response” if: (1) they are in
a quiet environment’ (2) they close their eyes; (3) they get into a comfortable
position; and (4) they keep on repeating a simple sound to block out work-
related thoughts. While the research in this area is still relatively new and
sketchy, there is some evidence that such a “relaxation response” can decrease
muscle tension, heart rate, blood pressure, and rate of breathing.
Health Maintenance
Researchers in the area of job stress have advocated increased health
maintenance for those in high stress jobs. Proper diet, proper exercise, and
enough sleep can keep he body in better shape for dealing with stress. When
employees are tired and run down, they are much more likely to let their jobs
get on their nerves. They eat too much junk food, drink coffee to keep them
going and consider walking to the vending machine as sufficient exercise.
People are much more likely to get physically sick or emotionally depressed if
they are out of shape, over tired, or poorly nourished.
3. Organisational Programmes to Manage Stress:

Before concluding this chapter, we also want to look briefly at some programmes
organisations are using to help their employees better deal with stress. While
a wide variety of stress programmes have been experimented with, three types
of programmes have become the most widespread.
Probably the most frequently used organisational stress management
programme is health maintenance. The Sun Valley Health Institute in Idaho,
for instance, runs four-day programmes that not only monitor employees’
current health, but also emphasize to participants what changes are needed in
their diets and exercise routines. Many companies, such as Xerox, Kinberly
Clark, Weyerhaeuser, Pepsi-Cola and Rockwell International, have invested
large sums of money in gym facilities staffed with full time physical education
and health care personnel.
Another type of stress management programme that organisations are
experimenting with is Supervisor training. For instance, organisations like
American Express have systematically trained managers to be more effective
in delegating, authority and including subordinates in decisions that affect
their work assignments and workloads. Other organisations, such as First
Union National Bank of North Carolina, have used leadership training to
teach managers better counseling skills. Central to many of these supervisory
training programmes is an emphasis on preventing job stress. Managers are
trained to give better performance appraisals to listen to employees’ problems
more effectively and to communicate job assignments and instructions more
clearly.
Third, some organisations have also sponsored individual stress reduction
workshops for their employees. These programmes have run the gamut from
bio-feedback, sensitivity groups, and transcendental meditation to career
counseling, time management, and interpersonal skills workshops, Kaiser-
Permanent a health maintenance organisations to California; runs a four-
day stress management programme for its staff. In lecturers and seminars,
participants are given a basic understanding of the causes of stress and its

consequences for their well-being. Then, participants are given materials to
help them identify the major sources of stress in their own lives, and some
strategies for dealing with that stress more effectively.
The future of such stress management programmes, ironically, it itself
uncertain. In recent years, a thriving industry has sprouted to teach corporations
and their employees at rates as high as $ 2,700 per person how to deal with stress.
Unfortunately, some charlatans have been drawn to the area, casting doubt
upon the many good stress programmes also available. One company active
in stress management, Drilcota Texas tool manufacturer, has discontinued its
programme because if found that much of the stress of its employees was
personal, and better handled outside the company. IBM, a company otherwise
noted for its generous employee policies, has no psychological counseling
programme for employees, labelling such programmes “deadly paternalism”.
In the final analysis, then, the management of stress lies by necessity
with the individual. Even if organisations continue to remain active in stress
management programmes, ultimately it is the individual who has to be
responsible for his or her own well-being.

1. Write briefly about the causes and impacts of stress.
2. Discuss any 5 stress management techniques according to you.
3. How will you identify that your team mate is suffering from stress? As
a leader what would you suggest as a cure?
4. Suggest the most relevant work-focused copying strategies.
Chapter 5
Group Dynamics and Team Building
5.1 Group Dynamics
5.1.1 Introduction
Human beings are always found in groups in organisations. No institution is

an exception. It is very evident that even though an individual’s needs and
motivations do not change, the existence of groups influence the behaviour of
individuals in organisations. Organisational behaviour is neither the sum nor
the product of individual’s behaviour.
The group is a very significant element in the phenomenon of Organisational
Behaviour.
Marvin E Shaw in ‘Group Dynamics’ defines a group as “two or more
employees who interact with each other in such a manner that the behaviour
and/or performance of a member is influenced by the behaviour and/or
performance of other members”.
5.1.2 Types of Groups
In any organisation, most of the individuals will be members of groups based

on their position in the organisation. Such groups are termed formal groups
e.g., staff of a particular department. When individuals have opportunities for
reasonably continuous associations, they tend to form groups whose activities
are not dictated by organisational requirements. Such groups may be termed
informal groups. E.g. Junior officers of various departments. It should be borne
in mind, that this classification is based on the manner of formation of groups
in organisations. The general attributes and nature of both groups are more or
less the same.
5.1.3 Objectives of Group Formation
The most important reason for group formation is the satisfaction of needs.
In ‘Perspectives on Group Processes’, Gratton Kemp describes a group as
an instrument for satisfaction of individual needs. It may be observed in
this context that the security, social, esteem and self-actualization needs of
employees find satisfaction in group affiliations.
Physical closeness and mutual appreciation, perception of commonly
shared objectives, interests or attitudes also facilitate group formation. So is
attraction to group goals, which an individual finds personally beneficial.
The importance of financial reasons of group formation cannot be
overemphasized. Here the group members’ common interest is increased
economic benefits.
5.1.4 Leadership of groups
In the case of formal and informal groups the phenomenon of leadership is of

great importance. Leadership is said to exist, when, one person influences
the thinking or action or both of another person or group of persons. The
individual exhibiting the phenomenon is the leader. The leader of a formal group
has access to de jure power and so can reward or punish individual members
to ensure compliance with norms, commands, stipulations etc. The leader of
the informal group who is devoid of any de jure power will have to rely on de
facto power and, will, by and large, be a respected and accepted member of
the group. The members expect the informal leader to be their spokes-person
who will work for the redressal of grievances of the group in general and its
members in particular. The members expect the leader to maintain the group
as a sound functional unit on a long term basis. The members may replace the
informal leader if found necessary. So, irrespective of whether the group is
formal or informal, the leader has to possess required knowledge and skills and
exhibit the right attitudes to facilitate group task achievement.
It will be prudent to identify and enumerate issues and processes found
in groups. These should be of interest to those in administration as they can
greatly affect level and quality of group performance.
Group Dynamics and Team Building / 45

5.1.5 Group Processes and Issues
Cohesiveness : By cohesiveness is meant the extent to which individual

members of a group are attracted to each other and value their group affiliation.
The factors contributing to greater group cohesiveness are:
1. Similarity of traits, orientations, attitudes, value systems etc.
2. Physical proximity and interaction
3. Perception of group affiliation as beneficial
4. Existence of an outside threat
5. Smaller group size
As its impact on the behaviour of members is great, a cohesive group
is a powerful social force in any organisation. A cohesive work group is
very handy for managers when the group identifies its objectives with those
of the organisation. When this is not the case, the person in charge has the
responsibility to identify the factors that contribute to the group opposition to
the organisational objectives and take the required corrective action. This is
because a non-cohesive work group creates administrative problems as there is
lack of group pressure for excellence in job performance and task achievement.
Norms : The standards stipulating how an individual member of the group
should conduct himself or herself are called norms. Norms have very strong
influence on the behaviour of individual members of a group. One may trace the
development of group norms through the informal interaction of its members.
There may be occasional instances of deviant behaviour. However, more often
than not, group pressure will be sufficient to bring the behaviour of the deviant
member into conformity with group norms. In extreme cases of incessant deviant
behaviour, the group may excommunicate the errant member. Managers can, in
all normal circumstances, except members to adjust their behaviour so that it is
in tune with the group norms. Problems will arise when the group norms are in
conflict with the organisational objectives. Managers should take it up as their
responsibility to ensure that there exists a supplementary and complimentary
relationship between the goals of the organisation and the norms of the groups
that comprise it.

5.1.6 Decision making in groups
When autocratic leadership style is practised, the leader takes all decisions
in a group. In the case of democratic leadership style decision making is
a consultative and participate process. Though the general belief is that
involvement and participation in decision making will ensure acceptance of
and commitment to those decisions, research studies have not always been
supportive of it. Moreover, in practice extreme autocracy or democracy in
decision making is also very rare. It should also be remembered that the manager
will ultimately be responsible for the decisions, no matter how they were made.
Another factor which managers should consider is that the quality of group
decisions depends on factors like the complexities of the problem, access to
data, knowledge skill and attitude of group members, organisational culture,
the members’ perception of their involvement in the process etc. Members
of many professions are highly independent. The success of the manager or
administrator depends on his/her skill to identify which leadership style suits
the organisation best and then exhibiting it.
5.1.7 Intragroup relations in a work team
Many people are excellent individuals but bad team players. The success of
institutions depends more on effective team playing and synergy than individual
excellence. Because of basic human nature and more because of the socialization
process that one has undergone, people exhibit various behaviours, harbour
certain feelings and emotions and experience various states of mind which
are negative or unproductive to effective group functioning and performance.
Some of these are:
• “I have done my work; let me withdraw”. This state of mind signifies an
inability to perceive a group task as a group task.
• Being a blocker to group activity though many a time it is unintentional.
• Consuming more than ones due share of resources, thus depriving others
of even their legitimate share.
• Satisfaction with limited achievements.
• Collecting resources.
• Hard but unproductive work.

• Frustration at task non-achievement leading to disregard for organisational
relations/norms etc.
• Dissatisfaction with existing leadership and desiring better alternatives
• Always wanting to be the leader
• Feeling of alienation with ones immediate work group e.g. “I wish I had
joined XYZ organisation”.
• Contempt for colleagues
One has to consider all of the above when engaged in team building and
management.
The leader should take it up as his responsibility to ensure that these negative
feelings, behaviours etc. cease to exist or at least that their ill effects are kept
to the minimum.
5.1.8 Intergroup relations in organisation & relationship between

organisations in society
The filed of intergroup dynamics has baffled many a behavioural scientist.

While the various sections/groups of an organisation are only sub systems
of the organisational system, hardly is this fact recognized and appropriate
behaviour exhibited in practice. The various subsystems of the organisation will
pull it in different directions with the ultimate result of the whole organisation
crumbling and perishing. When the various subsystems of the organisation get
opportunities for interaction they can use it productively for the organisation
and also benefiting themselves in the process. This will necessitate the
exhibition of traits such as:
1. mutual trust
2. co-operation
3. collaboration
4. understanding, etc.
However, in reality one finds that in majority of such situations, the traits
exhibited by the involved groups are just the opposite :
1. mistrust
2. conflict

3. confrontation
4. misunderstanding etc.
Occasions are many where groups block achievements of their groups
even when doing so will prevent their own task achievements and they are
aware of it also. The reason for this sad state of a affairs is that because of
basic human nature and more because of ones socialization process many have
developed the deep rooted concept of ‘WIN-LOSE’, which advocates that to be
‘successful’, one has to ensure the ‘failure’ of the other party. By extension, this
will also mean that if the other party is ‘winning’, you have to be a looser. No
one will willingly opt to lose. But when ones concept is that of ‘WIN-LOSE’,
the decisions made and actions taken with the hope and expectation of ensuring
ones ‘success’, will only ensure the other party’s failure. In ensuring the failure
of the other, both parties will be successful. What is basically needed for healthy
productive and effective intergroup dynamics is a shift in ones basic concept
frown WIN-LOSE to WIN-WIN which will mean discontinuance of traits like
mistrust, conflict, confrontation, misunderstanding etc. and substituting them
with trust, co-operation, collaboration, understanding etc.
5.2 Team Building

In recent years, teams have emerged as the most important group phenomenon
in orgaizations. The term “team” is not new to organisations, and teamwork
has been stressed throughout the years. For example, the well-known quality
guru Joseph Juran first took his “Team Approach to Problem Solving” to the
Japanese in the1950s and then in the 1980 to the United States. Today, teams
are becoming increasingly popular. Recent estimates of the prevalence and
type of teams among Fortune 1000 companies are as follows.
1. Almost all use project teams (diverse managerial/professional
employees working on projects for as defined, but typically extended,
period of time).
2. A large majority (87 percent) use parallel teams (employees working on
problem-solving or quality teams in parallel to the regular orgnisational
structure)
3. About half use permanent work teams (self-contained work units
responsible for manufacturing products or providing services).

After first defining what is meant by a team and critically analysing self-
managed teams found in today’s organisations, the ways to train self-managed
teams and make them effective are discussed.
5.2.1 The Nature of Teams
Although the term “team” is frequently used for any group, especially to get
individuals to work together and to motivate them, some team experts make
a distinction between teams and traditional work groups. For example, the
authors of a recent book on the use of teams for creating high-performance
organisations note that the difference between a work group and a team relates
to performance results.
They go on to note these specific differences between work groups and
teams:
1. The work group has a strong, clearly focused leader, the team has
shared leadership roles.
2. The work group has individual accountability; the team has individual
and mutual accountability.
3. The work group’s purpose is the same as the organisation’s the team
has a specific purpose.
4. The work group has individual work-products; the team has collective
work products.
5. The work group runs efficient meetings; the team encourages open-
ended, active problem-solving meetings.
6. The work group measures effectiveness indirectly (for example,
financial performance of the overall business); the team measures
performance directly by assessing collective work-products.
7. The work group discusses, decides and delegates; the team discusses,
decides and does real work.
The point is that teams do go beyond traditional formal work groups by
having collective, synergistic (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts)
effect.

5.2.2 The Effectiveness of Teams
Although there has been considerable testimonial evidence of the value of

self-managed teams, supporting research and documented experience are now
starting to emerge. To date, both the research and practice literature has been
quite favourable to self-managed teams. For example, a comprehensive meta-
analysis covering seventy studies concluded that self-managed teams had a
positive impact on productivity and specific attitudes related to the team, but
not on general attitudes, absenteeism, or turnover. This finding on the impact
on productivity is impressive, and recent studies also find a more favourable
impact on attitudes as well, but there are still practical problems to overcome.
For example, a in-depth interview survey of 4500 teams at 500 organisations
(Luthans, 2004) uncovered a host of individual and organisational factors
behind team ineffectiveness. Individual problems included the following:
1. Team members aren’t willing to give up past practices or set aside
power and positions.
2. Not all team members have the ability, knowledge, or skill to contribute
to the group. Team function slows because some members shoulder
more responsibility than others.
3. As team members, workers often face conflicts or challenges to their
own personal beliefs. What works for the group often does not work for
the individual.
Organisational-level problems uncovered b y this survey included
compensation and reward systems that still focused solely on individual
performance; thus there was little incentive for teams to perform well.
5.2.3 How to Make Teams More Effective
For teams to be more effective, they need to overcome some of the real problems
that some, if not most, are currently experiencing. Most suggested guidelines
revolve around training and evaluation systems. Five key areas of the team that
should be closely monitored and periodically measured : (1) team mission (2)
goal achievement (3) empowerment (4) open, honest communication and (5)
positive roles and norms. By controlling such key functions, self managed teams
can be effective and contribute to the performance goals of the organisation.

5.2.4 The use of Cross-Functional Teams
Over the last few years, emphasis on team training has remained high. However,
to increase effectiveness, the focus has also shifted to the use of cross-functional
teams made up of individuals from a host of different departments or functional
specialities.
To improve co-operation within cross-functional teams, organisations
have found that they need to carry out five steps. These include (1) choosing
the membership carefully (2) clearly establishing the purpose of the team (3)
ensuring that everyone understands how the group will function (4) conducting
intensive team building up front so that everyone learns how to interact
effectively and (5) achieving noticeable results so that morale remains high
and the members can see the impact of their efforts.
In promoting cross-functional teams throughout an organisation, there
are three steps that have been found to be extremely helpful. First, clear and
specific goals have to be established so that the group is focused on a particular
objective, such as increasing productivity or reducing time to market. Second,
hiring, promotion and performance appraisal criteria have to be determined so
that members can be carefully selected and the people on the teams understand
how their performance will impact on their evaluations and promotions. Third,
compensation systems must be carefully crafted so that people are equitably
rewarded for their efforts. In other words, the effective use of cross-functional
teams must draw from other areas of the field of orgnisational behaviour
discussed in this text (e.g., goal setting, socialization and reward systems).

1. Describe the process of building a good team according to you.
2. List 10 ice breaker questions and explain in 3 lines the impact of
question on your team mate.
3. Explain the concept of social cohesion. Describe an incident you faced
that describes the importance of social cohesion.
4. Discuss about different group dynamics techniques and objectives.
5. Describe briefly about the use of cross-functional teams.

Chapter 6
Conflict Management
6.1 Introduction To Conflict

Conflict is difficult to define, because it occurs in many different settings. The
essence of conflict seems to be disagreement, contradiction, or incompatibility.
Thus, CONFLICT refers to any situation in which there are incompatible
Goals, Cognitions, or Emotions within or between individuals or groups that
lead to opposition or antagonistic interaction. The definition recognizes three
basic types of conflict:
Goal conflict is situation in which desired end states or preferred outcomes
appear to be incompatible. Cognitive Conflict is a situation in which ideas or
thoughts are inconsistent. Affective Conflict is a situation in which feelings
or emotions are incompatible; that is, people literally become angry with one
another.
Conflict is very common in organisational settings. This is not necessarily
a negative feature; the resolution of conflict often leads to constructive problem
solving.
Conflict exists in many forms other than the form that can result from
competition, and managers should understand the different ways of conflict
resolution. Thus examines conflict from a variety of view points. It first
considers the positive and negative aspects of conflict. Next, it discusses the
levels of conflict that can occur within organisations. Finally, it identifies some
of the basic strategies for managing conflict.
6.2 Levels of Conflict
Intrapersonal Conflict
The five levels of conflict are intrapersonal (within an individual), interpersonal

(between individuals), intragroup (within a group), intergroup (between
groups), and intraorganisational (within organisations). Intrapersonal Conflict,
which occurs within an individual, often involves some form of goal conflict
or cognitive conflict. Goal conflict exists for individuals when their behaviour
will result in outcomes that are mutually exclusive or have compatible elements
(both positive and negative outcomes).
• Approach-approach conflict is a situation in which a person has a choice
between two or more alternatives with positive outcomes; for example, a
person can choose between two jobs that appear to be equally attractive.
• Avoidance - avoidance conflict is a situation in which a person must
choose between two or more alternatives, and they all have negative
outcomes. For example, employees may be threatened with punishment
in the form of demotion unless they do something they dislike spend
much time travelling on their job, for example.
• Approach-avoidance conflict is a situation in which a person must decide
whether to do something that had both positive and negative outcomes,
for example, being offered a good job in a bad location.
Interpersonal Conflict :
Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals rather than one

individual. Two managers competing for the same promotion, two executives
maneuvering for a larger share of corporate capital - examples of conflict
between individuals are legion and quite familiar.
Reasons
1. Personality differences: Some people have difficulty in getting along

with each other. This is purely a psychological problem and it has
nothing to do with their job requirements or formal interactions.
2. Perceptions: Varied backgrounds, experiences, education and training
result in individuals developing different perceptions of similar realities;
the result being an increase in the likelihood of interpersonal conflict.
3. Clashes of values and interests: Conflict that so commonly develops
between engineering and manufacturing personnel shows how
differences in values might underlie conflict. Members of the engineering
department might place a premium on quality, sophisticated design

and durability while members of the manufacturing department might
value simplicity and low manufacturing costs.
4. Power and status differences: As pointed out by Abraham Zalenznik,
“Organisations are political structures”. They operate by distributing
authority and setting a stage for the exercise of power. Similarly status
inconsistencies lead to conflict.
5. Scarce resource: Interpersonal conflict is almost automatic anytime
there is scarcity. Conflicts over scarce resources are exceedingly
common in organisations. Where the scarcity is absolute (the resource
level cannot be enhanced) it is very difficult to manage interpersonal
conflicts. For example if three qualified individuals i.e. for superior
positions in the organisation and there is only one such position,
interpersonal conflict may develop to an unmanageable level.
Intra-group Conflict:
A group experiencing intragroup conflict, may eventually resolve it, allowing

the group to reach a consensus. Or the group may not resolve the conflict,
and the group discussion may end in disagreement among the members. A
study of a large number of groups engaged in business and governmental
decision making, tried to identify some the conditions that lead to (1) the
successful resolution of conflict (consensus or (2) the failure to resolve conflict
(disagreement). This study showed that conflict within groups is not a simple,
single phenomenon. Instead, intragroup conflict seems to fall into two distinct
categories : (1) substantive conflict and (2) affective conflict.
Substantive conflict refers to conflict based on the nature of the task or
to “content” issues. It is associated with intellectual disagreements among
the group members. In contrast, affective conflict derives primarily from
the group’s interpersonal relations. It is associated with emotional responses
aroused during interpersonal clashes.
Inter-Group Conflict :
An organisation is a collection of individuals and groups. As the situation and

requirements demand, the individuals form various groups. The success of
the organisation as a whole depends upon the harmonial relations among all
interdependent groups, even though some intergroup conflicts in organisations
Conflict Management / 55
are inevitable. The idea is to study intergroup behaviours within an organisation
so that any conflict can be recognized and dealt with by the management.
Intra-Organisational Conflict :
Four types of intra-organisational conflict exist: (1) vertical conflict (2)

horizontal conflict (3) line- staff conflict and (4) role conflict. Although these
types of conflict can overlap, especially with role conflict, each has distinctive
characteristics.
Vertical Conflict: Vertical conflict refers to any conflict between levels
in an organisation; superior- subordinate conflict is one example. Vertical
conflicts usually arise because superiors attempt to control subordinates and
subordinates.
Horizontal Conflict: Horizontal Conflict refers to conflict between
employees or departments as the same hierarchical level in an organisation.
Line-Staff Conflict: Most organisations have staff departments to assist the
line departments. The line-staff relationship frequently involves conflict. Staff
managers and line managers typically have different personal characteristics.
Staff employees tend to have a higher level of education, come from different
backgrounds, and are younger than line employees. These different personal
characteristics are frequently associated with different values and beliefs, and
the surfacing of these different values tends to create conflict.
6.3 Managing Conflict

Except in very few situations where the conflict can lead to competition and
creativity so that in such situations the conflict can be encouraged, in all other
cases where conflict is destructive in nature, it should be resolved as soon after
it has developed as possible, but all efforts should be made to prevent it from
developing.
Preventing Conflict
Some of the preventive measures that the management can take, according to
Edgar Schein are :
a) Goal structure: Goals should be clearly defined and the role and
contribution of each unit towards the organisational goal must be clearly

identified. All units and the individuals in these units must be aware of the
importance of their role and such importance must be fully recognized.
b) Reward System: The compensation system should be such that it does
not create individual competition or conflict within the unit. It should be
appropriate and proportionate to the group effort and reflect the degree
of interdependence among units where necessary.
c) Trust and communication: The greater the trust among the members of
unit, the more honest and open the communication among them would
be. Individuals and units should be encouraged to communicate openly
with each other so that they can all understand each other, understand
each other’s problems and help each other when necessary.
d) Co-ordination: Co-ordination is the next step to communication. Properly
co-ordinated activity reduce conflict. Wherever there are problems in co-
ordination, a special liaison office should be established to assist such
co-ordination.
Resolving Behavioural Conflict
Various researchers have identified five primary strategies for dealing with
and reducing the impact of behavioural conflict. Even though different authors
have given different terminology to describe these strategies, the basic content
and approach of these strategies remain the same. These are:
1. Ignoring the conflict. In certain situations, it may be advisable to
take a passive role and avoid it all together. From the manager’s
point of view, it may be especially necessary when getting involved
in a situation would provoke further controversy or when conflict is
so trivial in nature that it would not be worth the manager’s time to
get involved and try to solve it. It could also be that the conflict is
so fundamental to the position of the parties involved that it may be
best either to leave it to them to solve it or to let events take their own
course. The parties involved in the conflict may themselves prefer to
avoid conflict, specially if they are emotionally upset by the tension and
frustration created by it. People may intrinsically believe that conflict
is fundamentally evil and its final consequences are never good. Thus
people may try to get away from conflict causing situations.
2. Smoothing: Smoothing simply means covering up the conflict by
appealing for the need for unity rather than addressing the issue of
conflict itself. An individual with internal conflict may try to “count his
blessings” and forget about the conflict. If two parties have a conflict
within the organisation, the supervisor may try to calm things down
by being understanding and supportive to both parties and appealing
them for co-operation. The supervisor does not ignore or withdraw
from the conflict nor does he try to address and solve the conflict but
expresses hope that “everything will work out for the best of all.” Since
the problem is never addressed, the emotions may build up further and
suddenly explode. Thus smoothing provides only a temporary solution
and conflict may resurface again in the course of time. Smoothing is
more sensitive approach than avoiding in that as long as the parties agree
that not showing conflict has more benefits than showing conflicts, the
conflict can be avoided.
3. Compromising: A compromise in the conflict is reached by balancing
the demands of the conflicting parties and bargaining in a give and take
position to reach a solution. Each party gives up something and also
gains something. The technique of conflict resolution is very common in
negotiations between the labour unions and management. It has become
customary for the union to ask for more than what they are willing to
accept and for management to offer less than what they are willing to
give in the initial stages. Then through the process of negotiating and
bargaining, mostly in the presence of arbitrators, they reach a solution
by compromising. This type of compromise is known as integrative
bargaining in which both sides win in a way. Compromising is a useful
technique, particularly when two parties have relatively equal power,
thus no party can force its viewpoints on the other and the only solution
is to compromise. It is also useful when there are time constraints. If
the problems are complex and many faceted, and the time is limited to
solve them, it might be in the interest of conflicting parties to reach a
compromise.
4. Forcing: As Webber puts it, “the simplest conceivable resolution is the
elimination of the other party – to force opponents to flee and give up
the fight – or slay them.” This is technique of domination where the
dominator has the power and authority to enforce his own views over

the opposing conflicting party. This technique is potentially effective in
situations such as a president of a company firing a manager because
he is considered as a trouble-maker and conflict creator. This technique
always ends up in one party being a loser and the other party being a
clear winner. Many professors in colleges and universities have lost
promotions and tenured re-appointments because they could not get
along well with their respective chairpersons of the departments and
had conflicts with them. This approach causes resentment and hostility
and can backfire. Accordingly, management must look for better
alternatives, if these become available.
5. Problem solving: This technique involves “confronting the conflict”
in order to seek the best solution to the problem. This approach
objectively assumes that in all organisations, no matter how well
they are managed, there will be differences of opinions which must
be resolved through discussions and respect for differing viewpoints.
In general, this technique is very useful in resolving conflicts arising
out of semantic misunderstandings. It is not so effective in resolving
non-communicative types of conflicts such as those that are based on
differing value systems, where it may even intensify differences and
disagreements. In the long run, however, it is better to solve conflicts
and take such preventive measures that would reduce the likelihood of
such conflicts surfacing again.
If there is a single contributory factor that helps in reducing and eliminating
negative conflict, it is “trust”. Our ability to trust each other has great impact
on our working lives, on our family interactions and our achievement of
personal and organisational goals. In order to create trust and be trustworthy,
it is necessary to avoid aggressive behaviours and at the same time develop
supportive behaviours where people are respected for what they are or what
they believe in and are treated equally without bias or prejudice. In case, a
conflict develops at any level, it should be resolved with mutual benefit in
mind.
1. What is conflict management according to you? Write about inter group
and intra-organisational conflict.
2. What are the different tools for Conflict Management? How would you
use them for effective conflict management?
3. In context to the previous question cite an incident where you have
managed conflict.
4. Discuss the inter-group and intra-group conflict.

Chapter 7
Motivation
7.1 Introduction & Relevance

People differ by nature, not only in their ability to perform a specific task
but also in their will to do so. People with less ability but stronger will are
able to perform better than people with superior ability and lack of will. Hard
work is crucial to success and achievement. This belief was underscored
by Albert Einstein when he said that “genius is 10% inspiration and 90%
perspiration.”This will” to do is known as motivation.
The force of motivation is a dynamic force setting a person into motion
or action. The word motivation is derived from motive which is defined as an
active form of a desire, craving or need which must be satisfied. All motives
are directed towards goals and the needs and desires affect or change your
behaviour which becomes goal oriented. For example, if you ordinarily do
not want to work overtime, it is quite likely that at a particular time, you may
need more money (desire) so you may change your behaviour, work overtime
(goal oriented behaviour) and satisfy your needs.Viteles defines motivation as
follows:
“Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension

or disequilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal directed
pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium, by satisfying the need.”
Motivated people are in constant state of tension. This tension is relieved
by drives towards an activity and outcome that is meant to reduce or relieve
such tension. The greater the tension, the more activity will be needed to bring
about relief and hence higher the motivation.
7.2 Sources of Motivation

Experts in the organisational behaviour field have a divided opinion as to
whether workers are motivated by factors in the external environment such as
rewards or fear or whether motivation is self generated without the application
of external factors. It is quite well understood that under the same set of external
factors all workers are not equally motivated. Some of these motivational
sources are:
a) Positive Motivation: Positive motivation involves proper recognition
of employee efforts and appreciation of employee contribution towards
the organisational goal achievement. Such motivations improve the
standards of performance, lead to good team spirit and pride, a sense
of co-operation and a feeling of belonging and happiness. Some of the
positive motivators are:
• Praise and credit for work done.
• A sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.
• Delegation of authority and responsibility to subordinates.
• Participation of subordinates in the decision making process.
b) Negative or Fear Motivation: This motivation is based upon the use of
force, power, fear and threats. The fear of punishment or unfavourable
consequences affects the behavioural changes. Some examples of
negative motivation include the fear of failing in the examination, and
fear of being fired or demoted. Fear of failure in the examination induces
motivation in many students to work harder and pass the course. Similarly,
fear of being fired keeps the workers in line with the organisational rules
and regulations as well as do a satisfactory job.
While the fear of punishment and actual punishment has resulted
in controlling individual misbehaviour and has contributed towards
positive performance in many situations and is necessary and useful in
many other situations such as disciplining a child or handling a riot, it
is not recommended or considered as a viable alternative in the current
business and industrial environment. This is based upon the trend and
changes in the workforce including higher level of employee education
and extensive employee unionization.
However, punishment or fear of it is still the most common technique
of behaviour modification or control in today’s life. When a child
misbehaves, he is still spanked. If a worker does not behave according to
the way the organisation wants him to behave, he is fired. If a person does

not behave as the society and law wants him to behave, he is punished
by arrest and jail. All religions threaten punishment in the life hereafter
if a person does not behave according to God’s and religious rules.
Does the punishment system work? Does it change behaviour? Does the
prison system reform the criminal? Does spanking make a “good” child?
This area has received considerable attention and has become highly
controversial. It has been proposed that while punishment has immediate
and short- term effect in affecting and changing behaviour, the long term
effects are highly questionable. A driver who gets fined for running a red
light where he is supposed to stop may vow never to do it again at that
time, but as the time passes, he will do it again.
In the context of organisational behaviour, no worker likes to be
criticized, or threatened with employment termination. Specifically, if
the worker is punished for an occasional undesired behaviour, it will
have a negative effect on his morale, make him bitter with a hostile state
of mind, affecting negatively his social interaction as well as his sense
of loyalty, perhaps resulting in poor performance and productivity and
quality.
c) Extrinsic Motivation: This type of motivation is induced by external
factors which are primarily financial in nature. It is based upon the
assumption that the behaviour with results in positive rewards tends to
be repeated. However, the reward for the desired behaviour should be
sufficiently powerful and durable so that it improves the probability of
occurrence of desirable behaviour. Money is probably the most important
incentive for positive behaviour since money can be used for a number
of other resources.
These financial incentives and rewards have been a subject of debate
whether they really motivate the employees or simply move them to
work and perform. These include higher pay, fringe benefits such as
retirement plans, stock options, profit sharing scheme, paid vacation,
health and medical insurance, sympathetic supervision and people
oriented company policies.
d) Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic Motivation stems from feelings of
achievement and accomplishment and is concerned with the state of
self-actualization in which the satisfaction of accomplishing something
Motivation / 63
worthwhile motivates the employee further so that this motivation is
self-generated and is independent of financial rewards. For example,
there are many retired doctors who work free in the hospital because it
gives them a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction. Mother Teresa’s
work in the slums of Calcutta, India, not only motivates the people who
work with her but also many others who simply hear about her work and
then want to join the team.
Similarly, Peace Corps workers work in uncomfortable environments at
a minimal pay. Some of the intrinsic motivators and praise, recognition,
responsibility, esteem, power, status, challenges and decision making
responsibility.
7.3 Theories of Motivation
1. Maslow’s Model:
Maslow’s “needs hierarchy theory” is probably the most widely used theory
of motivation in organisation. Abraham Maslow suggested that people have
a complex set of exceptionally strong needs and the behaviour of individuals
at a particular moment is usually determined by their strongest need. He
developed his model of human motivation in 1943, based upon his own clinical
experience and formulated his theory of hierarchical needs by asking the same
question, “What is it that makes people behave the way they do?” and made
a list of answers from which he developed a pattern. His theory is based upon
two assumptions. First, that human beings have many needs that ar3e different
in nature ranging from the biological needs at the lower level which is the
level of survival, to psychological needs at the upper extreme which is the
level of growth. Second that these needs occur in an order of hierarchy so that
lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs arise or become
motivators. Mahatma Gandhi, the Indian leader, once remarked that “even God
cannot talk to a hungry man except in terms of food.”10 Similarly, there is a
quotation from the Holy Guru Granth sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhs in India
when a holy man says to god. “Take your rosary beads away. I cannot worship
and meditate on you when I am hungry.” This means that if the people’s basic
needs which are biological in nature are unsatisfied, then their total attention
will be focused upon these needs and it will not be possible to communicate
with them about other matters.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid
with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-
actualization and transcendence at the top. In other words, the theory is that
individuals’ most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to
achieve higher level needs. However, it has been pointed out that, although
the ideas behind the hierarchy are Maslow’s, the pyramid itself does not exist
anywhere in Maslow’s original work.
The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what
Maslow called “deficiency needs” or “d-needs”: esteem, friendship and love,
security, and physical needs. If these “deficiency needs” are not met – with the
exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a
physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Maslow’s
theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the
individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or
higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term “metamotivation” to describe
the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive
for constant betterment.
The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running
at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of
Maslow’s hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about
these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as “relative”, “general”, and
“primarily”. Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need
at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain need “dominates” the human
organism as discussed.
1. Physiological needs
The physiological needs form the foundation of the hierarchy and tend to have
the highest strength in terms of motivation. These are primarily the needs
arising out of physiological or biological tension and they are there to sustain
life itself and include the basic needs for food, water, shelter and sex. Sexual
need and desire is not to be confused with love which is at the third level.
Once these basic needs are satisfied to the degree needed for the sufficient
and comfortable operation of the body, then the other levels of needs become
important and start acting as motivators.
Motivation / 65
2. Security and Safety needs
Once the physiological needs are gratified, the safety and security needs become
predominant. These are the needs for self-preservation as against physiological
needs which are for survival. These needs include those of security, stability,
freedom from anxiety and a structured and ordered environment. These safety
and security needs are really provisions against deprivation of satisfaction of
physiological needs in the future. It also involves a sense of protection against
threats and danger of losing the job in the future. In a civilized society such
as ours, a person is usually protected from threats of violence or extremes
in climate or fear of material safety, so that the safety and security needs
dwell upon economic and job security, life and medical insurance and other
protective measures to safeguard the satisfaction of physiological needs in the
future which may be unpredictable.
3. Love and social needs
After the needs of the body and security are satisfied, then a sense of belonging
and acceptance becomes prominent in motivating behaviour. These needs
include the needs for love, friendship, affection, and social interaction. We look
for an environment where we are understood, respected and wanted. That is
one reason for “polarization” where people of similar background and beliefs
tend to group together. “Love thy neighbor” has perhaps a profound meaning.
4. Esteem needs
This need for esteem is to attain recognition from others which would induce
a feeling of self- worth and self-confidence in the individual. It is an urge for
achievement, prestige, status and power. Self-respect is the internal recognition.
The respect from others is the external recognition and an appreciation of one’s
individuality as well as his contribution. This would result in self-confidence,
independence, status, reputation and prestige. People then would begin to
feel that they are useful and have some positive effect on their surrounding
environment.
5. Self-actualization needs
This last need is the need to develop fully and to realize one’s capacities and
potentialities to the fullest extent possible, whatever these capacities and

potentialities may be. This is the highest level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy
and is activated as a motivator when all other needs have been reasonably
fulfilled. At this level, the person seeks challenging work assignments that
allow for creativity and opportunities for personal growth and advancement.
This need is for soul searching and is inner-oriented. A self-actualized
person is creative, independent, content, spontaneous and has a good perception
of reality, and he is constantly striving to realize his full potential. Thus, “what
a man ‘can’ be, ‘must’ be.”
Maslow’s model is a general model in which all needs interact with each
other to some degree. Needs are not necessarily linear, nor is the order of needs
so rigid. The relative dominance of many needs is variable and is continuously
shifting. For example, a self-actualized person may shift his priority to social
needs and love needs instead of prestige and status, if suddenly there occurs
a vacuum due to loss of a loved one. Similarly, a person may not go to the
higher need, even when his lower needs are satisfied. It is also likely that a
well-prepared elite person may decide to enter a commune where there is
overwhelming emphasis on love and affection rather than climb the corporate
ladder.
6. Transcendence
In his later years, Abraham Maslow explored a further dimension of motivation,

while criticising his original vision of self-actualization. By this later theory,
one finds the fullest realization in giving oneself to something beyond oneself
— for example, in altruism or spirituality. He equated this with the desire to
reach the infinite. “Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive
or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather
than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to
other species, to nature, and to the cosmos”.
Criticism
Although recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human

needs, the hierarchy proposed by Maslow is called into question as needs are
very subjective. Unlike most scientific theories, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
has widespread influence outside academia.
Motivation / 67
As Uriel Abulof argues, “The continued resonance of Maslow’s theory
in popular imagination, however unscientific it may seem, is possibly the
single most telling evidence of its significance : it explains human nature as
something that most humans immediately recognize in themselves and others.”
Still, academically, Maslow’s theory is heavily contested.
2. ERG Theory
The ERG need theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a refinement of

Maslow’s needs hierarchy.12 Instead of Maslow’s five needs, ERG theory
condenses these five needs into three needs. These three needs are those of
Existence, Relatedness and Growth. The E, R and G are the initials for these
needs.
1. Existence needs: These needs are roughly comparable to the
physiological and safety needs of Maslow’s model and are satisfied
primarily by material incentives. They include all physiological needs
of Maslow’s model and such safety needs which are satisfied by
financial and physical conditions rather than interpersonal relations.
These include the needs for sustenance, shelter and physical and
psychological safety from threats to people’s existence and well-being.
2. Relatedness needs: Relatedness needs roughly correspond to social
and esteem needs in Maslow’s hierarchy. These needs are satisfied by
personal relationships and social interaction with others. It involves
open communication and honest exchange of thoughts and feelings
with other organisational members.
3. Growth needs: These are the needs to develop and grow and reach the
full potential that a person is capable of reaching. They are similar to
Maslow’s self-actualization needs. These needs are fulfilled by strong
personal involvement in the organisational environment and look for
new opportunities and challenges.
A rough similarity between ERG theory and Maslow’s theory is as
follows:
Maslow ERG
Self-actualization
Growth
Self-esteem (upper level)

Self-esteem (lower level)
Relatedness
Social
Safety
Existence
Physiological
ERG theory differs from Maslow’s theory in proposing that people may
be motivated by more than one kind of need at the same time. While Maslow
proposes that in the hierarchy of needs, a person will satisfy the lower level
needs before he moves up to the next level of needs and will stay until it
is satisfied. ERG theory suggests that if a person is frustrated in satisfying
his needs at a given level, he will move back to the lower level needs. For
example, assume that a manager’s existence needs are fully satisfied and he
looks for more challenging tasks to satisfy his self-esteem needs. If his efforts
are frustrated in meeting these challenges, he will move back to existence
needs and may ask for more material benefits.
3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Since the lower level needs in Maslow’s model are generally satisfied by the
business, societal and legal systems, they are no longer strong motivators.
Studies conducted by Harvard psychologist David Mcclelland13 concluded
that from the organisational behaviour point of view, the most prominent need
is the need for achievement, power and affiliation. The primary motive is the
“achievement motive” and is defined as a “desire to succeed in competitive
situations based upon an established or pereived standard of excellence.”
Individuals with a strong “need for achievement” (known as n Ach), ask
for, accept and perform well in challenging tasks which require creativity,
ingenuity and hard work. They are constantly preoccupied with a desire for
improvement and look for situations in which successful outcomes are directly
correlated with their efforts so that they can claim credit for success. They take
moderate and calculated risks and prefer to get quick and precise feedback on
their performance. They set more difficult but achievable goals for themselves
because success with easily achievable goals hardly provides a sense of
achievement: They desire greater pleasure and excitement from solving a
complex problem than from financial incentives or simple praise.
Motivation / 69
The “need for power” (n Pow) is the desire to affect and control the behaviour
of other people and to manipulate the surroundings. Power motivation when
applied positively results in successful managers and leaders who prefer
democratic style of leadership. Power motivation, applied negatively tends to
create arrogant autocratic leadership. The individuals who are high in “n Pow”
are described by Litwin and Stringer as follows:
“They usually attempt to influence others directly--by making suggestions,

by giving their opinions and evaluations and by trying to talk others into
things. They seek positions of leadership in group activities; whether they
become leaders or are seen only as “dominating individuals” depends on
other attributes such as ability and sociability. They are usually verbally
fluent, often talkative, sometimes argumentative.”
These individuals tend to be superior performers and show high degree of
loyalty to the organisation. They are more mature, with a strong sense of justice
and equity and are willing to sacrifice their own self interests for the sake of
organisational interests.
The “need for affiliation” (n Aff) is related to social needs and reflects
a desire for friendly and warm relationships with others. Individuals tend
to seek affiliation with others who have similar beliefs, backgrounds and
outlook on life. This results in the formation of informal groups and informal
organisations. It is evident in social circles also that people mix with people
of their own kind. Individuals with high “n Aff” tend to get involved in jobs
that require a high amount of interpersonal contacts and relations such as jobs
in teaching and public relations. From organisational behaviour point of view,
these individuals are highly motivated to perform better in situations where
personal support and approval are tied to performance. They tend to avoid
conflict and exhibit strong conformity to the wishes of their friends.
4. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Fredrick Herzberg and his associates developed the two-factor theory in the
late 1950s and early 1960s. As part of a study of job satisfaction, Herzberg
and his colleagues conducted in-depth interviews with over 200 engineers and
accountants in the Pittsburgh area. The researchers felt that a person’s relation
to his work is a basic one and that his attitude towards work would determine
his organisation related behaviour. The respondents were required to describe

in detail the type of environment in which they felt exceptionally good about
their jobs and the type of environment in which they felt bad about their jobs.
It seems natural to believe that people who are generally satisfied with their job
will be more dedicated to their work and perform it well as compared to those
people who are dissatisfied with their jobs. If the logic seems justified then it
would be useful to isolate these factors and conditions that produce satisfaction
with the job and those factors which produce dissatisfaction.
The basic questions that were asked in the survey were the following two:
1. What is it about your job that you like? and
2. What is it about your job that you dislike?
Based upon these answers it was concluded that there are certain
characteristics or factors that tend to be consistently related to job satisfaction
and there are other factors that are consistently related to job dissatisfaction.
Herzberg named the factors that are related to job satisfaction as motivational
factors, which are intrinsic in nature and factors related to job dissatisfaction
as maintenance or hygiene factors which are extrinsic in nature. These factors
are described in detail as follows.
1. Hygiene Factors.
Hygiene factors do not motivate people. They simply prevent dissatisfaction

and maintain status quo. They produce no growth but prevent loss. The absence
of these factors leads to job dissatisfaction. The elimination of dissatisfaction
does not mean satisfaction and these factors simply maintain a “zero level
of motivation.” For example, if a person indicated “low pay” as a cause of
dissatisfaction that would not necessarily identify “high pay” as a cause of
dissatisfaction.
• Wages, Salary and other types of employee benefits.
• Company policies and administration rules that govern the working
environment
• Interpersonal relations with peers, supervisors and subordinates. Cordial
relations with all will prevent frustration and dissatisfaction.
• Working conditions and job security. The job security may be in the form
of tenure or it could be supported by a strong union.
Motivation / 71
• Supervisor’s technical competence as well as the quality of his
supervision. If the supervisor is knowledgeable about the work and is
patient with his subordinates and explains and guides them well, the
subordinates would not be dissatisfied in this respect.
All the hygiene factors are designed to avoid damage to efficiency or
morale and these are not expected to stimulate positive growth.
The word “hygiene” is taken from the medical field, where it means taking
steps to maintain your health but no necessarily improve it. For example
brushing your teeth helps prevent cavities but does not improve the condition
of your teeth. Similarly, hygiene factors in this theory of motivation prevent
decay but do not encourage growth.
Hawthorne experiments were highly conclusive in suggesting that
improvements in working conditions or increments in financial benefits do
not contribute to motivated performance. A new plant or upgraded facilities at
a plant seldom motivate workers if the workers do not enjoy their work and
these physical facilities are not substitute for employee feelings of recognition
and achievement.
2. Motivational Factors
These factors are related to the nature of work (job content) and are intrinsic to
the job itself. These factors have a positive influence on morale, satisfaction,
efficiency and higher productivity. Some of these factors are:
• The job itself, to be motivated, people must like and enjoy their jobs.
They become highly committed to goal achievement and do not mind
working late hours in order to do what is to be done. Their morale is high
as evidenced by lack of absenteeism and tardiness.
• Recognition. Proper recognition of an employee’s contribution by the
management is highly morale boosting. It gives the workers a feeling of
worth and self esteem. It is human nature to be happy when appreciated.
Thus, such recognition is highly motivational
• Achievement. A goal achievement gives a great feeling of
accomplishment. The goal must be challenging, requiring initiative and
creativity. An assembly line worker finishing his routine work hardly

gets the feeling of achievement. The opportunities must exist for the
meaningful achievement; otherwise workers become sensitized to the
environment and begin to find faults with it.
• Responsibility. It is an obligation on the part of the employee to carry
out the assigned duties satisfactorily. The higher the level of these duties,
the more responsibility the worker would feel and more motivated he
would be. It is a good feeling to know that you are considered a person
of integrity and intelligence to be given a higher responsibility. It is a
motivational factor that helps growth.
• Growth and advancement. These factors are all interrelated and are
positively related to motivation. Job promotions, higher responsibility,
participation in central decision making and executive benefits are all
signs of growth and advancement and add to dedication and commitment
of employees.
The Herzberg’s two-factor model is tied in with Maslow’s basic model
in that Maslow is helpful in identifying needs and Herzberg provides us with
directions and incentives that tend to satisfy these needs. Also, the hygiene
factors in Herzberg’s model satisfy the first three levels of Maslow’s model
of physiological needs, security and safety needs and social needs and the
motivational factors satisfy the last two higher level needs of esteem and self-
actualization.
The primary condition of any motivation at any job is that the employee
must like and enjoy his job. If the employees are highly dissatisfied with
their jobs, their morale would be very low which would adversely affect their
motivation. There are certain indicators that reflect job dissatisfaction. These
are: Employee unrest, excessive absenteeism and tardiness, excessive and
short-term turnover, destructive union activity, desire of employee to retire
early and so on. Management must continuously monitor the work environment
to see signs of any of the above indicators and take necessary corrective action.
On the other hand, motivation is closely tied with job satisfaction so
that management must take steps and offer privileges which would make
the employees happy with their jobs. Some of these privileges and benefits
include equitable wages and salaries, timely promotion, participative style of
management, good working conditions, team spirit and so on.
Motivation / 73
While all these organisational and work related factors are important
contributors and catalysts for motivational processes, the most important
factor is the person himself. His own attitude towards life in general would
determine his attitude towards his job. People with generally negative attitudes
about life and pessimists always complain about everything including the job.
Accordingly, in addition to providing a health work environment, management
must ensure that the employee is happy with himself and has a positive outlook
on life.

1. Discuss the different types of motivation. Write about the any two
motivational theories of motivation.
2. With regards to the previous question write the relevance of the two
motivational theories in the context to the present day world.
3. Write about a book/ author who has motivated you in life and how.
4. How would you motivate yourself after continuous failure?
5. ‘It’s the least efforts that make the greatest difference’- Write about an
incident where you felt the above statement holds true.

Bibliography
Aswathappa, K., & Reddy, G. S. (2009). Organisational behaviour (Vol. 20). Mumbai:
Himalaya Publishing House.
Beck, R. C. (2003). Motivation: Theories and principles, 4/e. New Delhi : Pearson
Education India.
Bennis, W.G., and J. Goldsmith. (1997). Learning to Lead. Reading, MA : Addison-
Wesley.
Blair, G. M. (1992). Personal time management for busy managers. Engineering
Management Journal, 2(1), 33-38.
Bloom, G., Stevens, D., & Wickwire, T. (2003). Expert coaches’ perceptions of team
building. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(2), 129-143.
Brooks, I. (2009). Organisational behaviour: individuals, groups and organisation.
New Delhi : Pearson Education India.
Conger, J.A. (1992). Learning to Lead: The Art of Transforming Managers Into
Leaders. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
Deb, T. (2009). Performance appraisal and management. New Delhi : Excel Books
India.
Dyer Jr, W. G., Dyer, J. H., & Dyer, W. G. (2013). Team building: Proven strategies for
improving team performance. New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons.
Grote, D., & Grote, R. C. (1996). The complete guide to performance appraisal. New
York : Amacom Books.
Hess, S. A. (2014). Digital media and student learning: Impact of electronic books on
motivation and achievement. New England Reading Association Journal, 49(2),
35-39.
Kotter, J.P. (1990). A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs From Management.
New York : Free Press.
Miner, J. B. (1994). Role motivation theories. Sussex : Psychology Press.
Murphy, K. R., & Cleveland, J. N. (1995). Understanding performance appraisal:
Social, organisational, and goal-based perspectives. London : Sage.
Sharma, U. (2009). Stress management through ancient wisdom and modern science.
New Delhi : Excel Books India.
Spilkin, M. L., & Bethlehem, D. (2003). A conversation analysis approach to
facilitating communication with memory books. Advances in Speech Language
Pathology, 5(2), 105-118.
Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. (2008). Comprehensive guide to
interpersonal psychotherapy. New York : Basic Books.
ANNEXURE A:
TIME MANAGEMENT
A1.1 Personal Time Management for
Busy Managers
by Gerard M. Blair
Time passes, quickly. This article looks at the basics of Personal Time
Management and describes how the Manager can assume control of this basic
resource.
The “Eff” words

The three “Eff” words are [concise OED]:
• Effective - having a definite or desired effect
• Efficient - productive with minimum waste or effort
• Effortless - seemingly without effort; natural, easy
Personal Time Management is about winning the “Eff” words: making
them apply to you and your daily routines.
What is Personal Time Management?

Personal Time Management is about controlling the use of your most valuable
(and undervalued) resource. Consider these two questions: what would happen
if you spent company money with as few safeguards as you spend company
time, when was the last time you scheduled a review of your time allocation?
The absence of Personal Time Management is characterized by last minute
rushes to meet dead-lines, meetings which are either double booked or achieve
nothing, days which seem somehow to slip unproductively by, crises which
loom unexpected from nowhere. This sort of environment leads to inordinate
stress and degradation of performance: it must be stopped.
Poor time management is often a symptom of over confidence: techniques
which used to work with small projects and workloads are simply reused with
large ones. But inefficiencies which were insignificant in the small role are
ludicrous in the large. You can not drive a motor bike like a bicycle, nor can you
manage a supermarket-chain like a market stall. The demands, the problems
and the payoffs for increased efficiency are all larger as your responsibility
A1.1 Personal Time Management for Busy Managers / 77

grows; you must learn to apply proper techniques or be bettered by those who
do. Possibly, the reason Time Management is poorly practiced is that it so
seldom forms a measured part of appraisal and performance review; what many
fail to foresee, however, is how intimately it is connected to aspects which do.
Personal Time Management has many facets. Most managers recognize a
few, but few recognize them all. There is the simple concept of keeping a well
ordered diary and the related idea of planned activity. But beyond these, it is a
tool for the systematic ordering of your influence on events; it underpins many
other managerial skills such as Effective Delegation and Project Planning.
Personal Time Management is a set of tools which allow you to:
• eliminate wastage
• be prepared for meetings
• refuse excessive workloads
• monitor project progress
• allocate resource (time) appropriate to a task’s importance
• ensure that long term projects are not neglected
• plan each day efficiently
• plan each week effectively
and to do so simply with a little self-discipline.
Since Personal Time Management is a management process just like any
other, it must be planned, monitored and regularly reviewed. In the following
sections, we will examine the basic methods and functions of Personal Time
Management. Since true understanding depends upon experience, you will be
asked to take part by looking at aspects of your own work. If you do not have
time to this right now - ask yourself: why not?
Current Practice
What this article is advocating is the adoption of certain practices which will
give you greater control over the use and allocation of your primary resource:
time. Before we start on the future, it is worth considering the present. This
involves the simplistic task of keeping a note of how you spend your time
for a suitably long period of time (say a week). I say simplistic since all you

have to do is create a simple table, photocopy half-a-dozen copies and carry
it around with you filling in a row every time you change activity. After one
week, allocate time (start as you mean to go on) to reviewing this log.
Waste Disposal
We are not looking here to create new categories of work to enhance efficiency
(that comes later) but simply to eliminate wastage in your current practice. The
average IEE Chartered Engineer earns about 27,000 pounds per annum: about
12.50 pounds per hour, say 1 pound every 5 minutes; for how many 5 minute
sections of your activity would you have paid a pound? The first step is a
critical appraisal of how you spend your time and to question some of your habits.
In your time log, identify periods of time which might have been better used.
There are various sources of waste. The most common are social: telephone
calls, friends dropping by, conversations around the coffee machine. It would
be foolish to eliminate all non-work related activity (we all need a break) but
if it’s a choice between chatting to Harry in the afternoon and meeting the next
pay-related deadline ... Your time log will show you if this is a problem and
you might like to do something about it before your boss does.
In your time log, look at each work activity and decide objectively how
much time each was worth to you, and compare that with the time you actually
spent on it. An afternoon spent polishing an internal memo into a Pulitzer
prize winning piece of provocative prose is waste; an hour spent debating the
leaving present of a colleague is waste; a minute spent sorting out the paper-
clips is waste (unless relaxation). This type of activity will be reduced naturally
by managing your own time since you will not allocate time to the trivial.
Specifically, if you have a task to do, decide before hand how long it should
take and work to that deadline - then move on to the next task.
Another common source of waste stems from delaying work which is
unpleasant by finding distractions which are less important or unproductive.
Check your log to see if any tasks are being delayed simply because they are
dull or difficult.
Time is often wasted in changing between activities. For this reason it is
useful to group similar tasks together thus avoiding the start-up delay of each.
The time log will show you where these savings can be made. You may want
then to initiate a routine which deals with these on a fixed but regular basis.

Doing Subordinate’s Work
Having considered what is complete waste, we now turn to what is merely
inappropriate. Often it is simpler to do the job yourself. Using the stamp
machine to frank your own letters ensures they leave by the next post; writing
the missing summary in the latest progress report from your junior is more
pleasant than sending it back (and it lets you choose the emphasis). Rubbish!
Large gains can be made by assigning secretarial duties to secretaries: they
regularly catch the next post; they type a lot faster than you. Your subordinate
should be told about the missing section and told how (and why) to slant it. If
you have a task which could be done by a subordinate, use the next occasion
to start training him/her to do it instead of doing it yourself - you will need
to spend some time monitoring the task thereafter, but far less that in doing it
yourself.
Doing the work of Others

A major impact upon your work can be the tendency to help others with theirs.
Now, in the spirit of an open and harmonious work environment it is obviously
desirable that you should be willing to help out - but check your work log and
decide how much time you spend on your own work and how much you spend
on others’. For instance, if you spend a morning checking the grammar and
spelling in the training material related to you last project, then that is waste.
Publications should do the proof-reading, that is their job, they are better at it
than you; you should deal at the technical level.
The remaining problem is your manager. Consider what periods in your
work log were used to perform tasks that your manager either repeated or
simply negated by ignoring it or redefining the task, too late. Making your
manager efficient is a very difficult task, but where it impinges upon your
work and performance you must take the bull by the horns (or whatever) and
confront the issue.
Managing your manager may seem a long way from Time Management but
no one impacts upon your use of time more than your immediate superior. If a
task is ill defined - seek clarification (is that a one page summary or a ten page
report?). If seemingly random alterations are asked in your deliverables, ask
for the reasons and next time clarify these and similar points at the beginning.
If the manager is difficult, try writing a small specification for each task before

beginning it and have it agreed. While you can not tactfully hold your manager
to this contract if he/she has a change of mind, it will at least cause him/her to
consider the issues early on, before you waste your time on false assumptions.
External Appointments
The next stage of Personal Time Management is to start taking control of your
time. The first problem is appointments. Start with a simple appointments
diary. In this book you will have (or at least should have) a complete list of all
your known appointments for the foreseeable future. If you have omitted your
regular ones (since you remember them anyway) add them now.
Your appointments constitute your interaction with other people; they
are the agreed interface between your activities and those of others; they are
determined by external obligation. They often fill the diary. Now, be ruthless
and eliminate the unnecessary. There may be committees where you can
not productively contribute or where a subordinate might be (better) able to
participate. There may be long lunches which could be better run as short
conference calls. There may be interviews which last three times as long as
necessary because they are scheduled for a whole hour. Eliminate the wastage
starting today.
The next stage is to add to your diary lists of other, personal activity
which will enhance your use of the available time. Consider: what is the most
important type of activity to add to your diary? No:- stop reading for a moment
and really, consider.
The single most important type of activity is those which will save you time:
allocate time to save time, a stitch in time saves days. And most importantly of all,
always allocate time to time management: at least five minutes each and every day.
For each appointment left in the diary, consider what actions you might
take to ensure that no time is wasted: plan to avoid work by being prepared.
Thus, if you are going to a meeting where you will be asked to comment on
some report, allocate time to read it so avoiding delays in the meeting and
increasing your chances of making the right decision the first time. Consider
what actions need to be done before AND what actions must be done to follow-
up. Even if the latter is unclear before the event, you must still allocate time to
review the outcome and to plan the resulting action. Simply mark in your diary
the block of time necessary to do this and, when the time comes, do it.

Scheduling Projects
The most daunting external appointments are deadlines: often, the handover of
deliverables. Do you leave the work too late? Is there commonly a final panic
towards the end? Are the last few hectic hours often marred by errors? If so,
use Personal Time Management.
The basic idea is that your management of personal deadlines should be
achieved with exactly the same techniques you would use in a large project:
• check the specification - are you sure that you agree on what is to be
delivered
• break the task down into small sections so that you can estimate the time
needed for each, and monitor progress
• schedule reviews of your progress (e.g. after each sub-task) so that you
can respond quickly to difficulties
Like most management ideas, this is common sense. Some people,
however, refute it because in practice they find that it merely shows the lack of
time for a project which must be done anyway. This is simply daft! If simple
project planning and time management show that the task can not be done,
then it will not be done - but by knowing at the start, you have a chance to do
something about it.
An impossible deadline affects not only your success but also that of
others. Suppose a product is scheduled for release too soon because you agree
to deliver too early. Marketing and Sales will prepare customers to expect the
product showing why they really need it - but it will not arrive. The customers
will be dissatisfied or even lost, the competition will have advanced warning,
and all because you agreed to do the impossible.
You can avoid this type of problem. By practicing time management, you
will always have a clear understanding of how you spend your time and what
time is unallocated. If a new task is thrust upon you, you can estimate whether
it is practical. The project planning tells you how much time is needed and the
time management tells you how much time is available. There are four ways
to deal with impossible deadlines:
• Get the deadline extended
• Scream for more resources

• Get the Deliverable redefined to something practical
• State the position clearly so that your boss (and his/her boss) have fair
warning
If this simple approach seems unrealistic, consider the alternative. If
you have an imposed, but unobtainable, deadline and you accept it; then the
outcome is your assured failure. Of course, there is a fifth option: move to a
company with realistic schedules.
One defence tactic is to present your superior with a current list of your
obligations indicating what impact the new task will have on these, and ask
him/her to assign the priorities: “I can’t do them all, which should I slip?”.
Another tactic is to keep a data base of your time estimates and the actual time
taken by each task. This will quickly develop into a source of valuable data and
increase the accuracy of your planning predictions.
There is no reason why you should respond only to externally imposed
deadlines. The slightly shoddy product which you hand-over after the last
minute rush (and normally have returned for correction the following week)
could easily have been polished if only an extra day had been available - so
move your personal deadline forward and allow yourself the luxury of leisured
review before the product is shipped.
Taking this a step further, the same sort of review might be applied to the
product at each stage of its development so that errors and rework time are
reduced. Thus by allocating time to quality review, you save time in rework;
and this is all part of project planning supported and monitored by your time
management.
Finally, for each activity you should estimate how much time it is worth and
allocate only that amount. This critical appraisal may even suggest a different
approach or method so that the time matches the task’s importance. Beware of
perfection, it takes too long - allocate time for “fitness for purpose”, then stop.
Monitoring Staff
Your Personal Time Management also affects other people, particularly your
subordinates. Planning projects means not only allocating your time but also
the distribution of tasks; and this should be done in the same planned, monitored
and reviewed manner as your own scheduling.

Any delegated task should be specified with an (agreed) end date. As a
Manager, you are responsible for ensuring that the tasks allocated to your
subordinates are completed successfully. Thus you should ensure that each task
is concluded with a deliverable (for instance, a memo to confirm completion)
- you make an entry in your diary to check that this has arrived. Thus, if you
agree the task for Tuesday, Wednesday should have an entry in your diary to
check the deliverable. This simple device allows you to monitor progress and
to initiate action as necessary.
Long term Objectives

There are many long term objectives which the good Manager must achieve,
particularly with regard to the development, support and motivation of his/her
work-team. Long term objectives have the problem of being important but not
urgent; they do not have deadlines, they are distant and remote. For this reason,
it is all too easy to ignore them in favour of the urgent and immediate. Clearly
a balance must be struck.
The beauty of Time Management is that the balance can be decided
objectively (without influence from immediate deadlines) and self-imposed
through the use of the diary. Simply, a manager might decide that one hour a
week should be devoted to personnel issues and would then allocate a regular
block of time to that activity. Of course if the factory is on fire, or World War
III is declared, the manager may have to re-allocate this time in a particular
week - but barring such crises, this time should then become sacrosanct and
always applied to the same, designated purpose.
Similarly, time may be allocated to staff development and training. So
if one afternoon a month is deemed to be a suitable allocation, then simply
designate the second Thursday (say) of each month and delegate the choice of
speakers. The actual time spent in managing this sort of long term objective is
small, but without that deliberate planning it will not be achieved.
Once you have implemented Personal Time Management, it is worth using
some of that control to augment your own career. Some quiet weekend, you
should sketch out your own long term objectives and plan a route to them. As
you would any long term objective, allocate time to the necessary sub-tasks
and monitor your progress. If you do not plan where you want to go, you are
unlikely to get there.

Concluding Remarks
Personal Time Management is a systematic application of common sense
strategies. It requires little effort, yet it promotes efficient work practices by
highlighting wastage and it leads to effective use of time by focusing it on your
chosen activities. Personal Time Management does not solve your problems; it
reveals them, and provides a structure to implement and monitor solutions. It
enables you to take control of your own time - how you use it is then up to you.
Reference
Blair, G. M. (1992). Personal time management for busy managers. Engineering
Management Journal, 2(1), 33-38.

A 1.2 Basics of Time and Stress
Management
(The following information was excerpted from the guidebook, “Nuts-and-

Bolts Guide to Leadership and Supervision.”) by Carter McNamara
The role of leader can be very stressful! Management studies have
suggested that these roles include a very wide mix of activities, most of which
cannot always be controlled or even predicted.
New managers and supervisors - especially supervisors - are almost
overwhelmed with the demands of the job. They were probably promoted to
be in charge of people, mostly because of their success in a previous role that
was focused on developing a particular product or service. Suddenly, they’re
faced with being in charge of people, which is much less predictable and has
much less control than the supervisor had before. Consequently, the ability
to manage time and stress is absolutely critical to the success of the roles of
manager and leader.
The two topics of time management and stress management are often
addressed together because they are so closely interrelated.
Myths About Stress and Time Management

• Myth #1: All stress is bad. No, there’s good and bad stress. Good stress
is excitement, thrills, etc. The goal is to recognize personal signs of bad
stress and deal with them.
• Myth #2: Planning my time just takes more time. Actually, research
shows the opposite.
• Myth #3: I get more done in more time when I wisely use caffeine, sugar,
alcohol or nicotine. Wrong! Research shows that the body always has to
“come down” and when it does, you can’t always be very effective then
after the boost.
• Myth #4: A time management problem means that there’s not enough
time to get done what needs to get done. No, a time management problem
is not using your time to your fullest advantage, to get done what you
want done.

• Myth #5: The busier I am, the better I’m using my time. Look out! You
may only be doing what’s urgent, and not what’s important.
• Myth #6: I feel much harried, busy, so I must have a time management
problem. Not necessarily. You should verify that you have a time
management problem. This requires knowing what you really want to
get done and if it is getting done or not.
• Myth #7: I feel OK, so I must not be stressed. In reality, many adults
don’t even know when they’re really stressed out until their bodies tell
them so. They miss the early warning signs from their body, for example,
headaches, still backs, twitches, etc.
Major Causes of Workplace Stress

1. Not knowing what you want or if you’re getting it - poor planning.
2. The feeling that there’s too much to do. One can have this feeling even
if there’s hardly anything to do at all.
3. Not enjoying your job. This can be caused by lots of things, for example,
not knowing what you want, not eating well, etc. However, most people
always blame their jobs.
4. Conflicting demands on the job.
5. Insufficient resources to do the job.
6. Not feeling appreciated.
Biggest Time Wasters

1. Interruptions. There will always be interruptions. It’s how they’re
handled that wastes time.
2. Hopelessness. People “give in”, “numb out” and “march through the
day”.
3. Poor delegation skills. This involves not sharing work with others.
Common Symptoms of Poor Stress and Time Management

1. Irritability. Fellow workers notice this first.
2. Fatigue. How many adults even notice this?
A 1.2 Basics of Time and Stress Management / 87

3. Difficulty concentrating. You often don’t need to just to get through the
day!
4. Forgetfulness. You can’t remember what you did all day, what you ate
yesterday.
5. Loss of sleep. This affects everything else!
6. Physical disorders, for example, headaches, rashes, tics, cramps, etc.
7. At worst, withdrawal and depression.
Wise Principles of Good Stress and Time Management

1. Learn your signs for being overstressed or having a time management
problem. Ask your friends about you. Perhaps they can tell you what
they see from you when you’re overstressed.
2. Most people feel that they are stressed and/or have a time management
problem. Verify that you really have a problem. What do you see,
hear or feel that leads you to conclude that you have a time or stress
problem?
3. Don’t have the illusion that doing more will make you happier. Is it
quantity of time that you want, or quality?
4. Stress and time management problems have many causes and usually
require more than one technique to fix. You don’t need a lot of
techniques, usually more than one, but not a lot.
5. One of the major benefits of doing time planning is feeling that you’re
in control.
6. Focus on results, not on busyness.
7. It’s the trying that counts - at least as much as doing the perfect
technique.
Simple Techniques to Manage Stress

There are lots of things people can do to cut down on stress. Most people
probably even know what they could do. It’s not the lack of knowing what to
do in order to cut down stress; it is doing what you know you have to do. The
following techniques are geared to help you do what you know you have to do.

1. Talk to someone. You don’t have to fix the problem, just report it.
2. Notice if any of the muscles in your body are tense. Just noticing that
will often relax the muscle.
3. Ask your boss if you’re doing OK. This simple question can make a lot
of difference and verify wrong impressions.
4. Delegate.
5. If you take on a technique to manage stress, tell someone else. They can
help you be accountable to them and yourself.
6. Cut down on caffeine and sweets. Take a walk instead. Tell someone
that you’re going to do that.
7. Use basic techniques of planning, problem solving and decision
making.
Concise guidelines are included in this guidebook. Tell someone that
you’re going to use these techniques.
8. Monitor the number of hours that you work in a week. Tell your boss,
family and/or friends how many hours that you are working.
9. Write weekly status reports. Include what you’ve accomplished last week
and plan to do next week. Include any current issues or recommendations
that you must report to your boss. Give the written status report to your
boss on a weekly basis.
10. “Wash the dishes”. Do something you can feel good about.
Simple Techniques to Manage Time

There never seems to be enough time in the roles of management and
supervision. Therefore, the goal of time management should not be to find
more time. The goal is set a reasonable amount of time to spend on these roles
and then use that time wisely.
1. Start with the simple techniques of stress management above.
2. Managing time takes practice. Practice asking yourself this question
throughout the day: “Is this what I want or need to be doing right now?”
If yes, then keep doing it.

3. Find some way to realistically and practically analyze your time. Logging
your time for a week in 15-minute intervals is not that hard and does not
take up that much time. Do it for a week and review your results.
4. Do a “to-do” list for your day. Do it at the end of the previous day. Mark
items as “A” and “B” in priority. Set aside two hours right away each day
to do the important “A” items and then do the “B” items in the afternoon.
Let your answering machine take your calls during your “A” time.
5. At the end of your day, spend five minutes cleaning up your space. Use
this time, too, to organize your space, including your desktop. That’ll
give you a clean start for the next day.
6. Learn the difference between “Where can I help?” and “Where am I
really needed?” Experienced leaders learn that the last question is much
more important than the former.
7. Learn the difference between “Do I need to do this now?” and “Do I need
to do this at all?” Experienced leaders learn how to quickly answer this
question when faced with a new task.
8. Delegate. Delegation shows up as a frequent suggestion in this guide
because it is one of the most important skills for a leader to have.
Effective delegation will free up a great deal of time for you.
9. If you are CEO in a corporation, then ask your Board for help. They are
responsible to supervise you, as a CEO. Although the Board should not
be micro-managing you, that is, involved in the day-to-day activities
of the corporation, they still might have some ideas to help you with
your time management. Remember, too, that good time management
comes from good planning, and the Board is responsible to oversee
development of major plans. Thus, the Board may be able to help you
by doing a better themselves in their responsibilities as planners for the
organization.
10. Use a “Do Not Disturb” sign! During the early part of the day, when
you’re attending to your important items (your “A” list), hang this sign
on the doorknob outside your door.
11. Sort your mail into categories including “read now”, “handle now” and
“read later”. You’ll quickly get a knack for sorting through your mail.

You’ll also notice that much of what you think you need to read later
wasn’t really all that important anyway.
12. Read your mail at the same time each day.
That way, you’ll likely get to your mail on a regular basis and won’t
become distracted into any certain piece of mail that ends up taking too
much of your time.
13. Have a place for everything and put everything in its place.
That way, you’ll know where to find it when you need it. Another
important outcome is that your people will see that you are somewhat
organized, rather than out of control.
14. Best suggestion for saving time - schedule 10 minutes to do nothing.
That time can be used to just sit and clear your mind. You’ll end up
thinking more clearly, resulting in more time in your day. The best
outcome of this practice is that it reminds you that you’re not a slave to
a clock - and that if you take 10 minutes out of your day, you and your
organization won’t fall apart.
15. Learn good meeting management skills.
Meetings can become a terrible waste of time. Guidelines for good
meeting management are included later in this section.
Role of “Gumption”
Everything good usually starts with gumption. It’s picking yourself up, deciding
that you could be happier, that you want to be happier - and then doing one
small thing to get you started and keep you going. Boredom and blaming are
the opposite of gumption. Stress and time management start with gumption.
It’s the trying that counts. Poor time and stress management often comes from
doing the same thing harder, rather than smarter.
Reference
McNamara, C. (2002). Nuts-and-bolts Guide to Leadership and Supervision in
Business. Authenticity Consulting, LLC.

ANNEXURE B:
LESSON PLAN STRUCTURE

Orientation
Introduction to the course (10 minutes)

This session involves a detailed discussion pertaining to the aims and objectives
of the course in general. The introduction of the total content areas is also
attempted in this session. Students’ expectation out of this curriculum will also
be looked into by communicating with them what they are expecting out of the
course through a Q&A session.
Problem Identification (25 minutes)
Suggested methodology – Group interaction.
During this session the participants will be divided into specific number of
groups and each group will be given a hypothetical situation and they will
be expected to discuss the problems that they are facing in that hypothetical
organisation of theirs. Each group is to have a leader who is to present a
consolidated report of the problems faced by the members of his/her group.
Report presentation and discussion (20 minutes)

After the presentation of the reports by each of the leaders, in order to fulfill
the requirement of this session in Problem Identification, the faculty trainer
will be preparing a detailed list of all the problems cited. Given the list of
problems, the future course of action in terms of leadership, communication,
stress, motivation etc. will follow in the different modules.
Orientation / 93
Unit I: Leadership
Objectives
To impart knowledge, sharpen skills and orient attitudes of participants so that
they are capable of performing better in their roles as leaders based on the
situation.
Content
Leadership – importance and significance – the concept – leader vs. manager
– Are all managers, leaders – categories of leaders : entrepreneurial –
administrative – political. Leadership styles : autocratic (authoritarian and
paternalistic) – democratic – laissez faire. Leadership style – the concept
of situational leadership – identification of individual leadership styles and
construction of personal leadership style profiles. The differences between a
natural leader and imposed leader.
Methodology Suggested
Lecture
Group Discussion, Case Studies
Activities
The class will be divided into groups of 5 each and each one has to write
strengths and weaknesses of other members without discussing. The one who
has the most common strengths is a natural leader. Then the faculty will discuss
how others can work on developing their leadership skills.
Time Schedule
Lecture cum discussion on leadership concepts – 55 minutes

Activity – 55 minutes
Specific Instructions to the Faculty Trainer
During the initial discussion importance and primacy of leadership should

be highlighted. The concept of leader and manager should compared and

contrasted. It should be made clear that while categorisation of leadership is
based on what leaders do or what they are capable of doing best, identification
of leadership styles is based on how leaders perform the tasks of making
decisions and implementing decisions. Students can be asked to explain their
position in the context of the discussion.
Unit I: Leadership / 95
Unit II: Interpersonal Communication
Objectives
To create an awareness in the participants with regard to the different aspects of
interpersonal relations based on the ideas envisaged in Transactional Analysis
and their relative significance in the context of the functional effectiveness of
organizations.
Contents
Introduction, Analysis of different ego states, Analysis of Transactions,
Analysis of Strokes, Analysis of Life position.
Methodology
Lecture Method
Activity
Give a topic to the entire class. Each person should speak inline with the topic
and at the end the story created should be noted by a student and read out by
the faculty
Time Schedule
• 05 minutes Introduction
• 15 minutes Analysis of different ego states
• 10 minutes Analysis of Transactions
• 15 minutes Analysis of Strokes
• 10 minutes Analysis of Life position
• 55 minutes Activity

In this section, participants are to be provided with theoretical knowledge with
regard to nature, types and outcomes of various interpersonal relationships
in relation with transactional analysis, ego status, strokes, life positions. The

students should be made aware of the different types of transactions such as
complementary, crossed and ulterior transactions followed by stroking pattern
of the participants in the form of rewards (appreciations) and punishments. The
importance of Thanks Giving should be highlighted. For example: Apart from
saying ‘Sorry to keep you waiting’ one should say ‘Thank You for Waiting.
The faculty has to provide evaluative information regarding these concepts
to the participants and they should be encouraged to identify their positions
and understand merits and demerits. This should be briefed in the introduction
more technically as a part of communication in organisations.
Unit II: Interpersonal Communication / 97

Unit III: Communication in Organizations
Objectives
To empower participants to be better communicators by providing them with
relevant inputs and also sharpening their skills.
Contents
Introduction to Communication – Communication as a process – Communication
as a concept – Importance of Communication – Types of Communication
– Effective Communication - The A B Cs of Communication – Model for
Communication process – Communication categories – Barriers to effective
Communication. Methodology
Methodology
The methodology will include JAM sessions. The students will be given a
topic and be told to come and speak in front of the crowd. The best speaker
should be identified by the students itself through votes.
Time Schedule
Introduction and clarification of (lecture) 15 minutes
concepts
Barriers to Effective (story telling exercise 15 minutes
Communication and lecture)
Improving Communication 05 minutes
Exercise 40 minutes

In this section, students after having gained the knowledge on the details of
effective communication skills, are to be given a topic which is relatable to
them. And should not be related to any subject of the curriculum. They should
be given exactly a minute to speak on that. After that the Faculty member
should help the student identify the ways to improve the communication.

Unit IV: Stress Management
Objectives
The principal objectives of this unit are to familiarize the participants with the
knowledge regarding the various causes of stress, type of stresses and above
all the various stress management strategies.
Content
Introduction to Stress Management - Causes of Stress - Impact of Stress - Managing
Stress Methods (Lecture Methods), Group discussion and demonstration.
Time Schedule
• 10 minutes - Introduction
• 15 minutes - Causes of Stress
• 15 minutes - Impact of Stress
• 15 minutes - Managing Stress (through demo stress interview)

The following factors should be covered from the first topic, 1) What is
Stress?, 2) Relevance of Stress, 3) General Adaptation Syndrome. The second
part of the unit is aimed at analysing the Causes of Stress. This analysis will
be through a group discussion that why students feel that they are stressed
out. In this context a proper orientation is to be given on the impacts of
stress — (1) Decision Making (Indecision, Delay, Error), (2) Performance
(Absenteeism, Sabotage tendency, Productivity fall) (3) Behavioural Area
(Excessive smoking, Excessive in take off coffee or tea, Tremor, Drumming
Fingers, Nail Bitting, Body Movements, Accidents (4) Psychological (Poor
Memory, Poor Concentration, Sleep problems, Anxiety, Fear, Inability to
relax, Depression, Suicide, Anger (5) Psychosomatic (Hyper tension, Tension,
head-ache, Bronchial Asthma, Diabetes, Neuro Dermatitis among others).
**[A demo stress interview may be carried out by choosing a student from
the class] **Conducting this exercise depends on the trainer’s discretion. But
compulsorily, the students should be made to practice meditation and the one
who meditates the longest is the winner. Top three students gets a token of
appreciation.
Unit IV: Stress Management / 99
Unit V: Group Dynamics & Team
Building Objectives
Objectives
To improve the managerial capabilities of students through team building and
group dynamics.
Contents
Concept of team – concept of group – synergy – principles of intra-group
dynamics relevant in the context of team building and management. How to
build and manage effective teams.
Methodology
Lecture method and some group activities (the class will be divided into 5
groups, the entire class will be shown a movie/video clipping and asked to
critically review it.)
Time Schedule
Faculty trainer has to conduct the exercise of broken squares.
(Read the details at https://www.nafsa.org/professional-resources/browse-
by-interest/intercultural-activity-toolkit-broken-squares)

Unit VI: Conflict Management
Objectives
To familiarise participants with the importance, influence and methods of
managing conflict.
Content
Introduction to conflict – What is Conflict – Goal Conflict – Cognitive Conflict
and Emotional Conflict (affection). Levels of conflict – Intrapersonal Conflict
– Interpersonal Conflict – Intragroup Conflict – Inter-group Conflict – Intra-
Organisational Conflict. Managing Conflict and Conflict Resolution Styles.
Method
Lecture cum Demonstration,
Debate (Block & Tackle): In this activity the faculty member will be the
moderator. The student will be given a topic and should speak on it. After every
minute the student should itself be made to contradict it (Block) and then again
re contradict it. (Tackle)
Time Schedule
55 minutes - the class should be divided into groups of 5 each and given a
topic of presentation and the other groups should raise questions. The question
handling technique should be handled by the students and the faculty should
be guide them regarding the same
55 minutes - Activity Block & Tackle
Unit VI: Conflict Management / 101

Unit VII: Motivation
Objective
To make the participants aware of the multifaceted impact of the concept of
Motivation upon efficient organizational functioning
Contents
Introduction - Relevance and Types of Motivation - Theories of motivation -
Analysis of Motivation - Motivating the subordinate.
Methodology
Lecture Method
Questionnaire Method
Motivational speeches by the faculty trainer/ seniors. (Students relate more
to their faculties and seniors so they should share their stories.)
Time Schedule
Introduction & Types of Motivation 25 minutes
Activity: 30 minutes
Students should randomly be picked and told to come and share an negative
incident of their life which has resulted in positive motivation
Motivational speeches by Teachers to engage the students.

The session relating to this topic should cover informations relating to different
motivational concepts and the theories of Maslow, Herzberg, and so on. In
this session, students are to be provided with information pertaining to the
relevance of motivation to performance. They should also be made aware of
the different types of motivations such as Positive motivation, Negative or Fear
motivation, Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation etc. Through the use
of case analysis the participants should be made aware of the operation of the
different motivational concepts and experience sharing.

Time Management
Objectives
To impart relevant knowledge, sharpen the requisite skills and orient attitudes of
participants so that they become more efficient with regard to the management
of time.
Contents
The concept of time and time management – uniqueness of time as a
resource – the cost of time – importance of and need for time management –
causes of time mismanagement – urgency addiction and time management
matrix – hard work vs. smart work – demands on one’s time – different
time management styles – time cheaters and beaters – goal setting and
planning for long term time management – short term time management –
good ideas for time management – managing meetings effectively – steps
towards better time management.
Methodology
Methodology shall consist of lectures, exercises, discussions with video
demonstrations where students will get to hear from experts on how they
managed time. (Refer to G. M. Blair’s article)
Time Schedule
Introductory lecture covering basic concepts 25 minutes

Causes of time management 25 minutes
Smart work vs. hard work 10 minutes
Time cheaters and beaters 25 minutes
Experience sharing 25 minutes
Time Management / 103

Experience sharing by the faculty trainer concerned and from some students
should precede the discussion session on “steps towards better time
management”. The success and failures narrated during the experience sharing
should provide inputs/ideas for group discussion.
(*Go to the activity sheets section*)

ANNEXURE C:
ACTIVITY SHEETS
(Adopted from the Training Module of

Department of Personnel & Training,
Government of India)
Leadership Questionnaire
Directions
The following items describe aspects of leadership behaviour. Respond to each
item according to how you would most likely act if you were the leader of
a work group by circling the appropriate response given at the left of each
statement.
Code Response
A Always
F Frequently
O Occasionally
S Seldom
N Never
AFOSN 1. I would most likely act as the spokesman of the group
AFOSN 2. I would encourage overtime work
AFOSN 3. I would allow members complete freedom in their work
AFOSN 4. I would encourage the use of uniform procedures
AFOSN 5. I would permit the members to use their own judgement
in solving problems
AFOSN 6. I would stress being ahead of competing groups
AFOSN 7. I would speak as the representatives of the group
AFOSN 8. I would needle members for greater effort
AFOSN 9. I would try out my ideas in the group
AFOSN 10. I would let the members do their work the way they think
best
AFOSN 11. I would be working hard for a promotion
AFOSN 12. I would tolerate postponement and uncertainty
AFOSN 13. I would speak for the group if there were visitors
AFOSN 14. I would keep the work moving at a rapid pace
AFOSN 15. I would turn the members loose on a job and let them go
to it
AFOSN 16. I would settle conflicts when they occur in the group
AFOSN 17. I would get swamped by details

AFOSN 18. I would represent the group at outside meetings
AFOSN 19. I would be reluctant to allow the members any freedom
of action
AFOSN 20. I would decide what should be done and how it should
be done
AFOSN 21. I would push for increased production
AFOSN 22. I would let some members have authority which I could
keep
AFOSN 23. Things would usually turn out as I had predicted
AFOSN 24. I would allow the group a high degree of initiative
AFOSN 25. I would assign group members to particular tasks
AFOSN 26. I would be willing to make changes
AFOSN 27. I would ask the members to work harder
AFOSN 28. I would trust the group members to exercise good
judgement
AFOSN 29. I would schedule the work to be done
AFOSN 30. I would refuse to explain my actions
AFOSN 31. I would persuade others that my ideas are to their
Advantage
AFOSN 32. I would permit the group to set its own pace
AFOSN 33. I would urge the group to beat its previous records
AFOSN 34. I would act without consulting the group
AFOSN 35. I would ask that group members follow standard rules
and regulations
Leadership Questionnaire / 107

Leadership Scoring Sheet
For every statement for which your response is either of the two indicated
against each, you score one point. Mark each item by placing a √ if you score.
Task People
Orientation Orientation
Item No Response Item No Response
1 A or F 2 A or F
3 A or F 4 A or F
5 A or F 6 A or F
7 A or F 8 S or N
9 A or F 10 A or F
11 A or F 12 S or N
13 A or F 14 A or F
15 A or F 16 A or F
17 S or N 18 S or N
19 S or N 20 A or F
21 A or F 22 A or F
23 A or F 24 A or F
25 A or F 26 A or F
27 A or F 28 A or F
29 A or F 30 S or N
31 A or F 32 A or F
33 A or F 34 S or N
35 S or N
Total Score (total No of √ s) Total Score (total No of √ s)

Exploring Your Personality
Show how frequently you do each of the following behaviours by placing (√)
in the proper column opposite each item and assigning scores of your choice
and calculating a total score.
Frequency
Behaviour on the job Almost Rarely Some Freq- Very
Never times uently Freq-
uently
1. I give people reasons why my work isn’t done
2. I feel bad about something (about what someone
did or said to me, or about something I did or said)
3. I expect people to do what I say
4. I send out a questionnaire or carry out a survey to
get needed information
5. I do what my boss says to do even when it’s
difficult
6. I feel guilty about something (not getting a job
done on time, coming in late, working too hard, and
so on)
7. I play a hunch without bothering to gather factual
data.
8. I smile at other people (co-workers, subordinates,
customers, superiors, and so on)
9. I suggest that an ill person see the nurse or take
the rest of the day off.
10. I insist that things be done my way.
11. I hear a voice in my head saying something like:
“Those people should be ………..”
12. When I know something won’t be ready when I
want it, I repeatedly ask if it might possible be ready
ahead of schedule.
13. I find ways to make a boring task interesting.
14. I attend classes, programs, seminars, and so on,
to improve my job skills.
15. I have a feeling that something unusual is about
to happen before it happens.
16. I plan ways to do things that might be
considered harmful, illegal, or unethical.
17. I say (or think) things like: “What would you do
without me?”
18. I do a little dance step when walking into a
friend’s office or work area.
Exploring Your Personality / 109

19. I correct subordinates when they fail to perform
up to standard
20. I cleverly figure out how to get my own way at
someone else’s expense
21. I keep calm when in an emotionally charged
atmosphere.
22. I gather necessary information and then use my
sixth sense to make an accurate interpretation
23. I help out co-worker in an emergency
24. I insist that others take care of themselves-for
example, that they wear a coat on a windy day or
carry an umbrella if it looks like ran.
25. I slyly work out a way to avoid doing a job
that’s been assigned to me.
26. I set people straight when they aren’t doing their
job properly
27. I set standards for proper performance.
28. I put people down without thinking.
29. I take a stretch break and really enjoy the feeling
of loosening up my muscles and relaxing
30. I say “please” and “thank you”.
Reference:
Jongewardm, D. & Seyer, P C. Choosing Success (Transactional Analysis on the job)
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1978.

Communicating Effectively
(Speaking)
1. Are you careful to watch for signs of misunderstandings in your

listener?
2. Do you choose words that fit the listener’s intelligence and backgrounds?
3. Do you think out directions before giving them?
4. Do you breakdown orders in to small enough packages?
5. If your listener does not ask questions about a new idea you are
presenting, do you assume that he/she understands it?
6. Do you speak distinctly? Control distractions as far as possible?
7. Do you “bale” your thoughts before speaking so that you won’t ramble?
Do you put the listener at ease?
8. Do you encourage questions?
9. Do you assume that you know what the other person has in his/her
mind? Or do you ask questions to find out?
10. Do you distinguish between facts and opinions?
11. Do you stiffen up the opposition by contradicting his/her/their
statements?
12. Do you influence your listeners to be “Yes Sir”, “Yes Madam” or “Yes
friend” people?
Note : Following the questions asked and the answers given in terms of Yes/
No/May Be, a scoring structure can be designed to calculate how good a person
speaks.
Communicating Effectively / 111

Rating Scale for Assessing
Performance of Presentations
Name of Presenter: ……………………………………………........................

Attribute
Rating
Excellent (5) Good (4) So So (3) Poor (2) Bad (1)
01. Correctness of Language
02. Clarity of words
03. Clarity of thought
04. Logical sequence of ideas
05. Speed
06. Audibility
07. Voice modulation
08. Use of pauses
09. Body posture
10. Facial Expression
11. Eye contact with audience
12. Gestures
13. Mannerisms (Visual & Vocal)
14. Confidence
15. Manners

Time Management:
Cheaters vs. Beaters
Time cheaters come in all shapes and sizes. They can be physical and mental,
created by you or imposed upon you by other people. The important thing is to
become aware of them and then you can learn to deal with them.
Time Cheater Is this me? Time Beater
I spend too much time Learn to be firm, say I don’t mean

talking to people who won’t to be rude but I must get on with my
go away work
I get side tracked easily and Make action plans, stick to them and
lack self discipline reward yourself for good time keeping
My colleagues/friends Set aside times when you don’t want
interrupt me all the time. to be disturbed.
I take on too much work Learn to say “No” politely but firmly.
Time runs out! I am always When you make your plans, allow
rushed and late extra time for unexpected surprises!
I get panicky and try to do Prioritise!
everything at once.
I spend ages looking for You need to organize your work
letters and files space. Use filing and sorting systems.
Staff interrupt with questions Learn to delegate effectively
about work I have assigned.
I spend too much time Learn about conducting meetings
in meetings that don’t effectively.
accomplish anything
Time Management: / 113

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Personality Development

Studies for Leadership

St. Xavier’s University, Kolkata

Rev. Fr. Dr. John Felix Raj, S.J.

Personality Development Studies For Leadership ........................... v

1.2 Categories of leaders

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 2

1.3 Discussion on Leader Categories

1.4 Leadership Styles

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 4

1.4.1 Discussion on Leadership Styles

Sources of Leader’s Influence on Followers :

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 6

Leadership as Mutual Influence :

1.5 Constraints on Leadership Behaviour

In addition to what subordinates do and how they perform, other identifiable

Characteristics of the Leader:

The leader’s abilities and personal characteristics obviously influence and

How leaders treat their subordinates is strongly influenced by how the

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 8

Organisational Policies, Norms and Climate:

Some organisations are characterised by a very open, democratic, and

Nature of Subordinates – Tasks:

Questions for Discussion

2.2 What is Transactional Analysis?

2.2.1 What does Transactional Analysis do or not do?

Transactional Analysis increases understanding of self and others. It decreases

2.3 Structural Analysis

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 12

Free or Natural Child (FC or NC):

As suggested, it does not seem possible to live in a continuous Free Child

2.4 Transactions and its Analysis

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 14

2.5 Transactions and its Types

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 16

2.7 Life positions

Examples of Life Positions

The idea of life positions can be demonstrating the following examples.

Characteristics of the Life Positions

I’M OK, YOU’RE OK (I + U+)

I’M OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I+ U-)

I’M NOT OK, YOU’RE OK (I- U+)

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 18

I’M NOT OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I- U-)

Questions for Discussion

3.2 The Importance of Communication

3.3 The ABCs of Communication

3.4 The Process of Communication

Figure 3.1 : Process of Communication

Communication Categories : The following are the communication

• Effective and Impressive

3.5 Barriers to Effective Organisational Communication

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 22

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 24

3.7 Improving Organisational Communication

Personality Development Studies for Leadership: Foundation Course / 26

Questions for Discussion

4.2 Stress Defined

4.3 The Cost of Stress

4.4 Stress and the Individual