GRADE 11

Chapter: BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
1. PLASMA
➢ Straw colour. Viscous fluid
➢ Nearly 55% of blood and 90-92% of plasma is water.
➢ Contains-Proteins namely
1. Fibrinogen -function- (Clotting of blood)
2. Albumin (Osmotic balance)
3.Globulins (Defense Mechanism)
➢ And also Contains minerals like
➢ Na+, Ca+, mg+, HCO3-,cl- etc…
➢ Glucose, amino acid, lipids etc…
➢ Factors for Clotting of blood.
Plasma without clotting factors is called Serum.

2. FORMED ELEMENTS
RBC (ERYTHROCYTES)
o 5-5.5 million of RBC’s /mm3.
o Formed from bone marrow in adults.
o Nucleus absent in most of the mammals
o Red coloured, due to the presence of iron-containing pigment haemoglobin.
o Normal health man-12-16 gms of Hb/100ml of blood.
o Hb helps in the transportation of respiratory gases.
o Average life span of RBC -120 days.
o After which they destroyed in the spleen (Graveyard of RBC)
WBC (LEUCOCYTES)
o Nucleated
o Colorless due to the lack of haemoglobin
o 6000-8000/mm3 of blood.
o Short-lived.
Two types of WBC
❖ GRANULOCYTES
o Presence of granules in the cytoplasm.
o Granulocytes includes Neutrophil, Eosinophi and Baophil
1. NEUTROPHILS
o Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the total WBCs
o Phagocytic cells.
o Destroy foreign organisms entering the body.
o Nucleus multilobed, 2-7 lobes.
 2. BASOPHILS
o Secrete histamine, heparin, and serotonin and are involved in
inflammatory reactions.
o Nucleus is bi or trilobed
o Basophils are the least (0.5-1 per cent) among WBCs.

3. EOSINOPHILS
o Resist infections and also associated with allergic reactions.
 Nucleus bilobed
o Constitute 2-3 per cent of total WBCs
AGRANULOCYTE
o Clear cytoplasm without granules
Includes 1. Monocyte 2.Lymphocyte
1. MONOCYTE
• Phagocytic cells.
• Kidney-shaped nucleus.
• Constitute 6-8 per cent of total WBCs
2. LYMPHOCYTE
• Two types
– T. lymphocyte
– B. lymphocyte
• Large nucleus
• Responsible for immune response
• Constitute 20-25 per cent of total WBCs

PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
• Produced from megakaryocytes (Special cells in born marrow)
• 1,5 lakhs- 3,5 lakhs/cm³
• Helps in the clotting of blood
BLOOD GROUPS
• ABO grouping
• Based on the presence or absence of antigen present on the surface of RBC there are 4 types of
blood groups. They are A,B, AB and O
The plasma of different blood groups contains two natural antibodies.

O’ group blood
• Antigen is absent in o group blood
• Can be donated to persons with any other blood group
Hence ‘O’ group individuals are called ‘universal donors’

‘AB’ group
Antibodies are absent in the AB blood group
Can accept blood from any other blood group persons called ‘universal recipients.
Rh GROUPING
Rh positive (Rh +ve)-
In this group, the surface of RBC has Rh antigen

Rh negative (Rh -ve).-Rh antigen is absent

An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens.
Therefore, the Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.

ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FOETALIS (Rh INCOMPATIBILITY )

Rh incompatibility (mismatching) between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother and with Rh+ve
blood of the foetus. Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother
in the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by the placenta.

During the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to
small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus. In such cases, the mother starts preparing
antibodies against Rh in her blood

In case of subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the
blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs. This could be fatal to the foetus or could
cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the baby. This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis

Blood Clotting
This is a mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.
A clot or coagulum is formed by a network of fibrins in which dead-formed elements of blood are
trapped.
or

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
➢ Contains Lymph
➢ Lymph vessels (Lymphatics)
➢ Water and other substances are filtered out from the blood plasma to the intercellular
spaces of the cells, to form the interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
➢ Exchange of nutrients & gases occurs through this fluid.
➢ Contains all the elements of blood except RBC, platelets and some proteins.
➢ A network of lymphatic vessels collects this fluid and drains it back to the major veins.
➢ The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph.
➢ Lymph is a colorless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes which are responsible for the
immune responses of the body.
➢ Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc
➢ Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
 CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
The circulatory patterns are of two types – open or closed.
Open Circulatory System- blood pumped by the heart passes into open spaces called
sinuses.
Eg Arthodpodas and Molluscs.
Closed Circulatory System- blood is always circulated through a closed network of blood
vessels. more advantageous as the flow of fluid can be more precisely regulated.
Eg.-Annelids and chordates.
Chambered Heart: All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered heart.
• Fishes - 2-chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle.
• Amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles) - a 3-chambered heart with two atria and a single ventricle,
But in crocodiles 4 Chambered
• Birds and mammals - 4-chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM includes
➢ Muscular chambered heart,
➢ A network of closed-branching blood vessels and
➢ Blood

HEART
➢ Protected by double walled pericardium, enclosing the pericardial fluid.
➢ Four chambers, Two smaller atria and two larger ventricles.
1. Interatrial septum- separates the right and the left atria.
2. The interventricular septum separates the left and right ventricles.
3. Atrio-ventricular septum -separates the atrium and the ventricle on the same side.
➢ Tricuspid valve- present between the right atrium and the right ventricle Prevent the
backward flow of blood from the right ventricle to the right auricle.
➢ bicuspid or mitral valve -Present between the left atrium and the left ventricle – Prevent
the backward flow of blood from the left ventricle to the left auricle.
➢ semilunar valves valve present in the opening of ventricles into the pulmonary artery
and the aorta- prevent any backward flow to the ventricles
Conduction System of Heart.
➢ Sino-atrial node (SAN).- Specialised tissue called nodal tissue is present in the right upper
corner of the right atrium.
➢ atrioventricular node (AVN)- Another mass of nodal tissue in the left corner of the
atrioventricular septum
➢ Atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle)-From AVN, arises a bundle of nodal fibres called
atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle)
➢ AV bundle passes through the atrioventricular septa and immediately divides into a right
and left bundle.
➢ The Right and left bundle divides into minute fibres called purkinje fibres
 ➢ Purkinje fibres along with right and left bundles are known as bundles of HIS
➢ SAN generates action potential/electrical impulses.
➢ The nodal musculature can generate action potentials without any external stimuli, i.e.,
it is auto-excitable
➢ The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75 /min, and
is responsible for initiating the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. Therefore, SAN
is called the pacemaker.
HEART BEAT /CARDIAC CYCLE
• A contraction and a subsequent relaxation of the chambers of the heart constitute a heartbeat.
• The heart beats 72 times per minute
• Systole- Contraction of the chambers of the heart
• Diastole –relaxation of heart chambers.
The cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and ventricles.
The cardiac cycle has the following events.
1.Auricular systole 2.Ventricular Systole 3. Diastole

1. AURICULAR SYSTOLE /Atrial Systole:

➢ Auricles fill with blood.(The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava and the left atrium
receives blood from the pulmonary artery.
➢ The action potential is generated in SAN and Auricle contracts.
➢ Blood enters into ventricles
2. VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
➢ The action potential from SAN is conducted to the AVN then the AV bundle from where the bundle
of HIS. This causes Ventricular systole.
o The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed.
o Deoxygenated blood enters into the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle.
• Oxygenated blood enters into the aorta from the left ventricle.

3. DIASTOLE
➢ The auricles and ventricles relax simultaneously (joint diastole).
➢ Deoxygenated blood from different body parts(through vena cava) enters the right auricle
➢ Oxygenated blood from the lungs through pulmonary veins enters into Left auricle.
➢ Now the semilunar valves close and prevent backward flow of blood from the arteries to the
ventricles.
➢ This time all four chambers are in a relaxed state – Joint diastole
➢ Heart beat 72 times/minute.
➢ So the Duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
Stroke volume. -During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 ml of blood which is
called the stroke volume.
Cardiac output - the volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute
The stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate (no. of beats per min.) gives the cardiac output
Averages 5000 ml or 5 litres in a healthy individual.

Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by specialised muscles (nodal
tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic.
ECG (ELECTROCARDIOGRAM)
Graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle.
Name of Machine-ElectroCaradiograph.Obtaining graph - electrocardiogram.
• To obtain a standard ECG a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (one to each
wrist and to the left ankle) that continuously monitor the heart activity.

Each peak is identified with a letter from P to T

• Each peak represents a specific electrical activity of the heart
• P-wave - electrical excitation (depolarisation) of the atria, ie. contraction of atria.
• The QRS complex- depolarisation of the ventricles, ie. the ventricular contraction.
• The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of the systole.
• The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation).
• The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
1.PULMONARY CIRCULATION
• Right ventricle -----deoxygenated blood --------- pulmonary artery ...... lungs...... oxygenated blood ---------
pulmonary veins --------- left atrium.
• Function-Oxygenate the deoxygenated blood
2.SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION- left ventricle -----------Oxygenated blood ------- aorta arteries-arterioles
capillaries------- organs--------- deoxygenated blood --venules, veins and vena cava ----- right atrium.
• Function-Supply the oxygenated blood to different organs
Hepatic portal system
• A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and the liver called the hepatic portal
system.
• The hepatic portal vein carries blood from the intestine to the liver before it is delivered to the systemic
circulation.

Regulation of heart activity:

Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto-regulated by specialised muscles hence
the heart is called myogenic.
A special neural centre in the medulla oblongata can moderate cardiac function through the autonomic
nervous system (ANS).
ANS consists of two nerves- sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves, which contradict each other.
Stimulation of sympathetic nerves leads to stronger ventricular and atrial contraction which increases the
cardiac output. It also increases heart rate. In contrast to sympathetic action, parasympathetic stimulation
reduces the contraction of the atria and ventricles. This results in less cardiac output and heart rate.
Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output(Adrenalin and nor adrenalin)

DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
➢ (Normal blood pressure 120/80 mmHg ).120mmHg is systolic or pressure during
pumping of the ventricle. And 80mmHG is the diastolic pressure ie. Pressure during
resting.
➢ Arterial blood pressure above the normal level is called hypertension.
➢ In hypertension the systolic pressure is above 140 mmHg and diastolic pressure is above
90 mmHg. (140/90mmHg)
➢ It leads to heart disease and also affects vital organs like the brain and kidneys.
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE (CAD)
➢ It affects the vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle.
➢ Caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes the
lumen of arteries narrower.
ANGINA-Angina pectoris
➢ A symptom of acute chest pain appears when not enough oxygen is reaching the heart
muscle.
➢ It occurs in men and women of any age
➢ but is more common among the middle-aged and elderly.
➢ It occurs due to conditions that affect blood flow.

HEART FAILURE
➢ The heart cannot pump the blood effectively to meet the needs of the body.
➢ It is sometimes called congestive heart failure because congestion of the lungs is one of
the main symptoms of this disease.
Cardiac arrest
o The heart stops beating
Heart attack
When the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply.
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