THE MOLE-FORMULAE AND

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Prepared by:
Tr. Stephen Omondi Oketch
0711410583/0714839279
©Edited 2023
 TOPIC 2: THE MOLE-FORMULAE AND
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (40 LESSONS)
MOLE
 The mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance.
 The number of particles e.g. atoms, ions, molecules, electrons, cows, cars are all measured in terms of
moles.
 Mole can be defined as a substance is the amount which contains as many elementary units as there are
atoms in 12.0 g of carbon – 12 isotope.
 The mole is abbreviated as mol.
 Moles should be calculated into 4 decimal places.
 The number of particles in one mole is called the Avogadro’s Constant. It is denoted “L”.
 One mole contains 6.023 X 1023 particles which is equivalent to Avogadro’s Constant.
Molar mas
 It is the mass of one mole of a substance.
 The molar mas of:
i. An element has mass equal to relative atomic mass /RAM(in grams)of the element e.g
 Molar mass of carbon(C)= relative atomic mass = 12.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of carbon = 1 mole =12.0 g
 Molar mass of sodium(Na) = relative atomic mass = 23.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium = 1 mole =23.0 g
 Molar mass of Iron (Fe) = relative atomic mass = 56.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Iron = 1 mole =56.0 g

ii. A molecule has mass equal to relative molecular mass /RMM (in grams) of the molecule. Relative
molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements making the molecule.
 The number of atoms making a molecule is called atomicity. Most gaseous molecules are diatomic (e.g.
O2, H2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) noble gases are monoatomic (e.g. He, Ar, Ne, Xe),Ozone gas(O3) is triatomic
e.g.
a) Molar mass Oxygen molecule(O2) =relative molecular mass =(16.0x 2)g =32.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen molecule = 1 mole = 32.0 g
b) Molar mass chlorine molecule(Cl2) =relative molecular mass =(35.5x 2)g =71.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of chlorine molecule= 1 mole = 71.0 g
iii. A compound has mass equal to relative formular mass /RFM (in grams)of the
molecule. Relative formular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of
the elements making the compound. e.g.
a. Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass =[(1.0 x 2 ) + 16.0]g =18.0g .
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule = 1 mole = 18.0 g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule has:
2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms
b. Molar mass sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = relative formular mass =[(1.0 x 2 ) + 32.0 +
(16.0 x 4)]g =98.0g.
6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = 1 mole = 98.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) has:
2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sulphur atoms
4 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms
c. Molar mass sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = relative formular mass
=[(23.0 x 2 ) + 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =106.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = 1 mole = 100.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) has:
1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium atoms
1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
3 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms

 Moles is given by=

Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles in 0.23g of sodium atoms. (Na=23.0)

Moles=

.
= =0.01 moles

2. Calculate moles present in 1.23g of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid. (H=1.0, S=32.0,
0=16.0)

Moles =

Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x16)] = 98.0g

.
=0.0126mol
3. Calculate the number of atoms present in:
i. 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric (VI)acid (L= 6.0 X 1023, S=
32.0, 0 = 16, H=1.0)
Solution
Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x16)] = 98.0g

Moles= → =0.0023mol

1 mole = 6.0 X 1023 atoms

0.0023 moles= ?
6.0 X 1023
= 1.38 X 1021 atoms
Alternative

Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x16)] =

98.0g
98.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
0.23 g=?
6.0 x 10 23
= 1.38 X 1021 atoms
4. Find the mass of 0.2 moles of calcium carbonate (Ca = 40, C =
12, O = 16)
RAM of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 48
= 100
Mass = moles X molar mass
= 0.2 X 100
= 20g
 Empirical and molecular formula (E.F)
 The empirical formula of a chemical compound is a representation of the simplest whole
number ratio between the elements comprising the compound.
 Practically the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the following
examples.
Experiment: To determine the empirical formula of copper oxide
Procedure:
Weigh an empty porcelain boat(M1). Weigh the porcelain boat containing black copper (II) oxide
again (M2). Place the contents in combustion tube as shown in figure below. Pass a stream of
hydrogen gas through the tube for a few minutes to ensure all the air is driven out. This can be
confirmed by collecting the gas in an inverted ignition tube at the jet and testing it with a lighted
splint.
When the collected gas burns quietly, it is safe to light the jet. Heat the black copper (II) oxide and
record your observations. Continue heating the tube until there is no further change. Remove the
source of heat but keep the hydrogen gas flowing. When the tube has cooled, turn off the hydrogen
supply. Carefully remove the porcelain boat with the residue from the combustion and weigh (M3).
 Discussion

 The empirical formula is determined indirectly by breaking down copper oxide into copper
and oxygen using a suitable reducing agent such as Hydrogen gas, ammonia gas or carbon (II)
oxide.
 In this experiment black copper (II) oxide is reduced to reddish brown metallic copper using
hydrogen gas. The oxygen combines with hydrogen to form water.
 Before heating, hydrogen gas was passed through the tube to remove any traces of air.
 If air combined with hydrogen gas in presence of heat, an explosion may result.
 Metallic copper was cooled in a stream of hydrogen to prevent re-oxidation of the hot metal
by air. Laboratory gas can be used as the reducing agent in place of h hydrogen gas. Other
reducing agents such as carbon and metals more reactive than copper can remove ox y gen
from copper(II) oxide but they are normally not used because it would be difficult to isolate
the copper.
Sample results
1. Calculate the mass of copper (II) oxide used.
Mass of copper(II)Oxide=Mass of boat before heating(M2) - Mass of empty boat(M1)
=19.1g - 15.6g
= 3.5g
2. Calculate the mass of;
i. Oxygen
Mass of oxygen= Mass of boat before heating (M2) - Mass of boat after heating (M3)
19.1g - 18.4g= 0.7 g
ii. Copper
Mass of copper = Mass of boat before heating (M2) - mass of oxygen
3.5 g - 0.7 g = 2.8 g
 Empirical formula;

Element Cu O
Composition by mass 2.8 0.7
Molar mass 64 16
Moles . .
=0.04375 =0.04375

Divide by the smallest to 0.04375 =1 0.04375

=1
get whole numbers 0.04375 0.04375
Mole ration 1 1

Therefor E.F = CuO

 Worked examples
1. When a sample of a hydrocarbon(X) was analysed, it was found to contain 12 g of carbon and 4 g of
hydrogen. Work out the empirical formula of this hydrocarbon (R.A.M of C = 12, H = 1)
Solution

Element C H
Composition by mass 12 4
Molar mass 12 1
Moles =1 =4

Divide by the smallest 1 4

=1 =4
to get whole numbers 1 1
Mole ration 1 4
Therefore empirical formula (E.F) of the hydrocarbon (X) is CH4
2.When another compound containing carbon and hydrogen was analysed, it
was found to contain 75% of carbon and 25% of hydrogen. Find its simplest
formula. (R.A.M of C = 12 H = 1).

Element C H
Composition by mass % 75 25
Molar mass 12 1
Moles =6.25 =25

Divide by the smallest =1 =4

Mole ration 1 4
Therefore, the empirical formula is CH4 .
3.A compound was found to contain 3.2 g of copper, 0.6g of
carbon and 2.4 g of oxygen. Find its empirical formula (Cu =
64, C = 12, O = 16).

Therefore, the empirical formula of the compound is CuCO3

4.14.82 g of a hydrocarbon contains 12.26 g of carbon. Find the simplest formula of this hydrocarbon.
A hydrocarbon has H and C atoms. If C = 12.26 g, the rest is hydrogen.
∴ a mass of H = (14.82 – 12.26) g
= 2.56 g carbon.

Note: We do not round off 2.5 to 3. To get a whole number, multiply both ratios by a certain factor to get
whole numbers.
In this case, we multiply both sides by 2.
∴ Ratio of moles will be 1.0 ´ 2 = 2 and 2.5 ´ 2 = 5
∴ The empirical formula is C2 H5
5. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing, 43.4% sodium,11.3%
carbon and the rest is oxygen. (Na = 23, C = 12, 0 = 16)

Oxygen = 100 – (43.4 + 11.3) = 45.3%

Therefore, the empirical formula of this compound is Na2 CO3 .

6. When a 100 g of a sample of a hydrated salt was analysed, it was found to contain
25.6 g of copper, 12.8 g sulphur, 25.6 g of oxygen and the rest was water of
crystallisation. Calculate the empirical formula of the salt.
(R.A.M, Cu = 64, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1)
Note : Water, (H2O), is incorporated in the crystals as molecules. So we should
calculate the moles of water in the crystals as shown below.
Mass of water = 100 – (25.6 + 12.8 + 25.6) = 36 g

Therefore, the empirical formula of the hydrated salt is CuSO4 . 5H2 O

7. Compound A contain 5.2% by mass of Nitrogen .The other elements present are Carbon,
hydrogen and Oxygen. On combustion of 0.085g of A in excess Oxygen,0.224g of
carbon(IV)oxide and 0.0372g of water was formed. Determine the empirical formula of A
(N=14.0, O=16.0 , C=12.0 , H=1.0)
Element N C H O
Composition by 0.00442 0.0611 0.0041 0.0154
mass
Molar mass 14 12 1 16

Moles 0.00442 0.0611 0.0041 0.0154

=0.00509 =0.0041 =0.00096
0.00442
=0.00032
Divide by the 0.00032 0.00509 0.0041 0.00096
=1 =15.9062 =12.8125 =3
smallest 0.00032 0.00032 0.00032 0.00032
5
Mole ration 1 16 13 3

Empirical formula = C16H13NO3

 Molecular formula

 Molecular formulas give the kind and number of atoms of each element present in a
molecular compound.
 We get the molecular formula by multiplying the empirical formula by a whole number, n.
Molecular mass = (Mass of empirical formula)n, where n is a whole number.

Worked examples
1. A hydrocarbon was found to contain 92.3% carbon and the remaining Hydrogen. If the
molecular mass of the compound is 78, determine the molecular formula(C=12.0, H =1.0)
Mass of Hydrogen = 100 – 92.3 => 7.7% of Oxygen

Element C H
Composition by mass % 92.3 7.7
Molar mass 12 1
Moles . .
=7.7 =7.7

Divide by the smallest =1 =1

Mole ration 1 1
Empirical formula is CH =6
Molecular mass = (Mass of empirical formula)n, n=6
(CH)n= 78 M.F=(CH)6
(12+1)n=78
13n=78 =C6H6
2.A compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contain 54.55%
carbon, 9.09% and remaining 36.36% oxygen. If its relative
molecular mass is 88, determine its molecular formula
(C=12.0, H =1.0, O= 16.0)
3. A hydrocarbon burns completely in excess air to form 5.28 g of carbon (IV)
oxide and 2,16g of water. If the molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 84,
determine its molecular formula.
 Molar solution
 A molar solution is defined as an aqueous solution that contains 1 mole (gram-molecular
weight) of a compound dissolved in 1 liter of a solution. In other words, the solution has a
concentration of 1 mol/L or a molarity of 1 (1M).
 The concentration of a solution is usually expressed in number of moles dissolved in 1000 cm3 ,
that is 1 cubic decimeter (dm3 ) of solution.

1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 = 1 litre.

Note
 The total volume of the solute plus water must be equal to 1000 cm3 . This is why a 1 dm3
volumetric flask is used.
 When one mole of a solute is dissolved in water and the volume of the solution is made up to 1
dm3 the solution is said to be a molar solution. A concentration of one mole per cubic decimeter
is often written as 1 mol/dm3 or 1 mol dm–3 or 1M. Concentration expressed this way is
sometimes referred to as the molarity of a solution, abbreviated as M. Therefore, a molar
solution contains 1 mole of solute per dm3 solution.
 Concentration of solutions
 Concertation of a solution is a known amount of a solute contained in a given volume.

Preparation of molar solution

Procedure
Weigh accurately 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide pellets into a 250cm3 volumetric flask. Using a wash
bottle add about 200cm3 of distilled water. Stopper the flask. Shake vigorously for three minutes.
Remove the stopper for a second then continue to shake for about another two minutes until all the
solid has dissolved. Add more water slowly upto exactly the 250 cm3 mark.
Sample questions.
1.Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide pellets present in:
(i) 4.0 g.
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g

Moles=
.
= =>0.1 moles
(ii) 250 cm3 solution in the volumetric flask.
Moles in 250 cm3 = 0.1 moles
(iii) one decimeter of solution.
NB:Moles in decimeters = molarity
cm3
Molarity =

= 0.4 M/ 0.4 moles/littre/0.4 mol/dm3

 Theoretical sample practice

1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing:

(i) 4.0 g sodium hydroxide dissolved in 500cm3 solution
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g
Mole s=
.
= =>0.1 moles
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎cm3
Molarity =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟎.𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 0.2M or 0.2 mole/dm3
𝟓𝟎𝟎
(ii) 5.3 g anhydrous sodium carbonate dissolved in 50cm3 solution.
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3) = 106 g

Moles=
.
= =>0.05 moles

𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎cm3
Molarity =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 1.0M or 1.0 mole/dm3
𝟓𝟎
(iii) 5.3 g hydrated sodium carbonate decahydrate dissolved in 50cm3 solution.
Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2O = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3 + 20 x 1 + 10 x 16) =286g.
Moles=
.
= =>0.0185 moles

𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎cm3
Molarity =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟓𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎
= 0.37 M/ 0.37 moles/littre/0.37 mol/dm3
2. Calculate the mass of :
25 cm3 of 0.2M sodium hydroxide solution(Na =23.0.O =16.0,
H=1.0)
Moles =
.
=0.005 moles
Mass = molar mass X moles
Molar mass NaOH = 40g
Moles = 40 x 0.005
=0.2g
3. Calculate the volume required to dissolve :
(a)(i) 0.25moles of sodium hydroxide solution to form a 0.8M solution

volume (in cm3)=

.
= 312.5 cm3
.
(ii) 100cm3 was added to the sodium hydroxide solution above. Calculate the
concentration of the solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = C2 x (312.5 + 100)
C2 = 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = 0.6061M
3. How much water must be added to 5 cm3 of 6.0 M HCl to dilute the acid to
0.1M?
C1 = 6.0M
V1 = 5.0 cm3
C2 = 0.1M
V2 = ?
C1 V1 =
C2 V2
 Stoichiometry of chemical reactions
 Stoichiometry of chemical reactions means balancing chemical equations.
 A stoichiometric equation in chemistry is just a normal balanced chemical
equation.
 In order to solve problems on stoichiometry of chemical reactions, the
following should be done:
• Writing of correct chemical equations.
• Writing correct state symbols of reactants and products.
• Writing correct ionic equation.
 When we heat an equal mixture of iron filings and sulphur, the two elements
combine forming a new substance called iron(II) sulphide.

From the equation, we can see that one mole of iron atoms in the solid state reacts with one mole of
sulphur atoms in the solid state to produce one mole of iron(II) sulphide also in the solid state.
 Ionic equations
 An ionic equation represents a chemical change by means of ions. However, symbols
and formulae of insoluble elements and compound sometimes appear in ionic
equations.
Precipitation of lead(II) iodide
 When the potassium iodide solution was added into the lead(II) nitrate solution a yellow
precipitate of lead(II) iodide was formed. The precipitate was rinsed to wash away any
soluble salt on it.
Note: How were the ions swapped? Lead(II) ions, (Pb2+) exchanged nitrate (NO3 – ) ions for
iodide ions, (I– ) and the two formed a yellow precipitate (ppt) PbI2 . Potassium, (K+ ) and
nitrate ions, (NO3 – ) remained free in the solution just as they were before mixing. They
have not changed. Such ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions.
When we write an ionic equation, we omit the spectator ions. So the ionic equation in the
above reaction between Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) and KI(aq) is as follows:
Some possibilities during ionic changes
include:
1. Formation of a precipitate.
2. Evolution of a gas.
3. Formation of water
 Knowledge of solubility rules and the state of the reactants and the products is useful.
Solids, liquids and gases do not have free ions. But when we dissolve ionic substances
the ions are set free.

Steps to follow in writing ionic equations.

1. Write a balanced chemical equation of the reacting substances.
2. From the equation check for the substances which dissolve thereby setting ions free.
3. Write down the ions in the equation separately.
4. Cross out the common ions that appear on both sides of the equation.
 Example
1. A student warmed copper(II) sulphate solution in a beaker. The student added 2.52 g of
iron filings into the solution, stirring well until the reaction was complete.
(a) What observation did the student make?
(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
(c) The student filtered the solution, rinsed the residue with distilled water and dried it. The
mass of the residue was 2.86 g. Calculate the amount of residue that could be formed if
the student used 1 mole of iron. (Fe = 56).
Solution
(a) The solution turned from blue to pale green because iron displaced copper
from the solution. A brown solid was deposited at the bottom of the beaker.
2. Copper(II) oxide is reduced by heating with excess hydrogen to form copper metal. What
mass of copper(II) oxide will react with hydrogen to produce 8 g of copper? (Cu = 63.5; O
= 16).
3. When excess carbon(IV) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide solution, aqueous
sodium carbonate is formed. If excess water is evaporated and the saturated solution
allowed to cool , crystals of Na2 CO3 . 10H2 O can be formed. Find the mass of crystals that
would be formed from 5 g of aqueous sodium hydroxide in excess water. (Na = 23.0; C =
12.0; O = 16.0; H = 1.0)
Solution
 Volumetric analysis/Titration
 Volumetric analysis/Titration is the process of determining unknown concentration of
one reactant from a known concentration and volume of another.
 Reactions take place in simple mole ratio of reactants and products.
 Knowing the concentration/ volume of one reactant, the other can be determined from
the relationship:
=

M1 = Molarity of 1st reactant

M2 = Molarity of 2nd reactant
V1 = Volume of 1st reactant
V2 = Volume of 2nd reactant
n1 = number of moles of 1st reactant from stoichiometric equation
n2 = number of moles of 2nd reactant from stoichiometric equation
The solution of known concentration is referred to as a standard
solution.
Apparatus used in Titration Experiment
 They include the pipette, the burette and conical flask.

How to file the titration table

1. Fill the table with realistic values that is values from 0cm3- 50cm3
2. Fill the table consistent number of decimal place that is if you
choose to use 1 decimal place then use in through out the table
like wish to 2 decimal places. But when using 2 decimal places
then the last digit should be either 0 or 5.
3. The titer values to be averaged should be in the range of ±0.2.
Choice of indicators
 Back titration
 It is a titration analysis which involves the reaction of a given amount
of a sample with a given volume of a solution of concentration (or
Molarity) is excess, the excess is titrated against a standard solution.
Example
You are provided with
• Solution M, which is 0.5 M hydrochloric acid.
• Solution N, containing 5.3 g of a metal carbonate, X2 CO3 dissolved in
250 cm3 distilled water in a volumetric flask.
• Indicator-methyl orange.
• Titration apparatus.
(Na = 23; C = 12; O = 16)
You are required to determine the,
(a) concentration (molarity) of solution N in
(i) moles per dm3
(ii) g dm–3
(b) relative atomic mass (R.A.M) of X
Pipette 25 cm3 of solution N and transfer into a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of the
indicator. Get 3 concordant values get 3 concordant values i.e values that are close to each
other. Suppose you obtained values as in the following Table
Calculate the average volume of solution M used. Show how you get your answer.

Write the chemical equation for the reaction

Calculate the moles of the acid used.

Calculate the concentration of X2 CO3.
Calculate the mass of the carbonate.
Note: We have expressed the concentration of X2 CO3 solution N, in mol dm–3 and g/dm3 .
calculate the R.A.M of X.
 2.
You are provided with:
(i)an impure calcium carbonate labeled M
(ii)Hydrochloric acid labeled solution N
(iii)solution L containing 20g per litre sodium hydroxide.
You are required to determine the concentration of N in moles per litre and the % of calcium carbonate in
mixture M.
Procedure 1
Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate with
dilute hydrochloric acid solution N and record your results in table 1. (4mark)
Sample Table 1
(a) Calculate the average volume of solution N used.

(b) How many moles of sodium hydroxide are contained in 25cm3of solution L.
Molar mass of NaOH=40g
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝒈/𝒍)
Molarity=
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝟐𝟎
= 0.5M
𝟒𝟎
Moles =
.
=0.0125moles
(c)Calculate:
(i)the number of moles of hydrochloric acid that react with sodium
hydroxide in (b)above.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH : HCl from stoichiometric equation= 1:1
Moles HCl =Moles NaOH => 0.0125 moles
(ii)the molarity of hydrochloric acid solution N.
molarity=
.
=1.9231M
.
Procedure 2
Place the 4.0 g of M provided into a conical flask and add 25.0cm3 of the dilute hydrochloric acid
to it using a clean pipette. Swirl the contents of the flask vigorously until effervescence stop.Using
a 100ml measuring cylinder add 175cm3 distilled waterto make up the solution up to
200cm3.Label this solution K.Using a clean pipettetransfer 25.0cm3 of the solution into a clean
conical flask and titrate with solution L from the burette using 2-3 drops of methyl orange
indicator.Record your observations in table 2.

(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used(1mk)

 (b)How many moles of sodium hydroxide are present in the average volume of
solution L used?
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑿 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Moles=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎.𝟓 𝑿 𝟐𝟒.𝟓
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 0.01225 moles.
(c) How many moles of hydrochloric acid are present in the original 200cm3 of solution K?
Mole ratio NaOH: HCl = 1:1 => moles of HCl = 0.01225 moles
.
Moles in 200cm3 =
( )
=0.49moles
(d)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were contained in original 25 cm3 solution N used

0riginal moles =
 .
=
=0.04807 moles
(e)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were used to react with calcium
carbonate present?
Moles that reacted = original moles –moles in average titre
=0.04807moles -0.01225 moles
= 0.03582 moles
(f)Write the equation for the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid.
(g)Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate that reacted with hydrochloric
acid.
From the equation CaCO3(s):2HCl(aq) = 1:2
 Moles CaCO3(s) = 1 /2moles HCl
= 1 /2 x 0.03582 moles
= 0.01791 moles
(h)Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in 4.0g of mixture M (Ca=40.0,O =
16.0,C=12.0)
Molar mass CaCO3 = 100g
Mass CaCO3 = moles x molar mass => 0.01791moles x 100g
= 1.791g
(i)Determine the % of calcium carbonate present in the mixture

Redox titration.
 A titration process where oxidation and reduction takes place at the same
time is an example of a redox reaction.
 In redox titration the commonly used oxidising agents are acidified solutions of the
following compounds.

 They are referred to as acidified KMnO4 and K2 Cr2 O7 respectively. The acid used is
sulphuric acid. Hydrochloric acid is not used because it could be oxidised to chlorine.

Experimental example
You are provided with solutions P and Q.
Solution P is acidified potassium manganate(VII)
Solution Q was prepared by dissolving 23.5 g of ammonium iron(II) sulphate,
(NH4 )2 Fe(SO4 )2 . 6H2 O, per dm3 .
You are required to standardize i.e find the concentration of solution P.
Procedure
1. Fill the burette with solution P.
2. Adjust the volume to exactly zero mark.
3. Pipette 25.0 cm3 of solution Q, and transfer into a 250 cm3 conical flask.
4. Titrate solution P against solution Q until a permanent pink colour just
appears.
5. Record your results in a table as shown below. 6. Repeat the procedure two
more times.
Note: The values in Table 2.17 below are just sample results. You may get different values
when you perform the experiment. Make sure you are accurate.
(a) Average any two readings that are within ± 0.2 of each other. Show your
working.
 Example 2
You are provided with:
Acidified Potassium manganate(VII) solution A
0.1M of an iron (II)salt solution B
8.5g of ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) crystals(NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O solid C
You are required to
(i)standardize acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(ii)determine the value of x in the formula (NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution A. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution B into a conical flask. Titrate
solution A with solution B until a pink colour just appears. Record your results to
complete table 1.
1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used

2. How many moles of:

(i)solution B were present in 25cm3 solution.

(iii) solution B in moles per litre.

 Procedure 2
Place all the solid C into the 250cm3 volumetric flask carefully. Add about
200cm3 of distilled water. Shake to dissolve. Make up to the 250cm3 of solution
by adding more distilled water. Label this solution C. Pipette 25cm3 of solution C
into a conical flask, Titrate solution C with solution A until a permanent pink
colour just appears. Complete table 2.

1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used

2. How many moles of:
(i)solution A were present inin the average titre.
.
Moles of A=
=0.0005 moles
(ii)solution C in 25cm3 solution given the equation for the reaction:
MnO4 - (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) → Mn2+ (aq) + 5Fe3+ (aq) +
4H2O(l)
Mole ratio MnO4 - (aq): 5Fe2+ (aq) = 1:5

(iii) solution B in 250cm3

 .
Moles of B in 250cm3 =
=0.001 moles
3. Calculate the molar mass of solid C and hence the value
of x in the chemical formula (N H4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
(N=14.0, S=32.0, Fe=56.0, H=1.0 O=16.0)
( /)
Molar mass=
.
=
.
= 8500g
(N H4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O = 8500g
284 + 18x =8500
X=
=454.4444
=454 (whole number)
 Multiple titration)
You are provided with:
(i)sodium L containing 5.0g per litre of a dibasic organic acid
H2X.2H2O. (ii)solution M which is acidified potassium
manganate(VII)
(iii)solution N a mixture of sodium ethanedioate and ethanedioic
acid
(iv)0.1M sodium hydroxide solution P
(v)1.0M sulphuric(VI)
You are required to:
(i)standardize solution M using solution L
(ii)use standardized solution M and solution P to determine the % of
sodium ethanedioate in the mixture.
Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution M. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask. Heat
this solution to about 70oC(but not to boil).Titrate the hot solution L with solution M until
a permanent pink colour just appears .Shake thoroughly during the titration. Repeat this
procedure to complete table 1.

(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)

(b)Given that the concentration of the dibasic acid is 0.05molesdm-
3.determine the value of x in the formula H2X.2H2O (H=1.0,O=16.0)

(c) Calculate the number of moles of the dibasic acid H2X.2H2O.

.
Moles =
=0.0125 moles

(d)Given the mole ratio manganate(VII)(MnO4 - ): acid H2X is 2:5, calculate the
number of moles of manganate(VII) (MnO4 - ) in the average titre.
(e)Calculate the concentration of the manganite (VII) (MnO4 - )
in moles per litre.
Procedure 2
With solution M still in the burette ,pipette 25.0cm3 of solution N into a conical
flask. Heat the conical flask containing solution N to about 70oC.Titrate while hot
with solution M. Repeat the experiment to complete table 2.

I II III
Initial burette reading (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of N used (cm3) 12.5 12.5 12.5

(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)

(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of manganate(VII)ions are contained in the average
volume of solution M used?

(ii)The reaction between manganate(VII)ions and ethanedioate ions that

reacted with is as in the equation:

Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions that reacted with

manganate (VII) ions in the average volume of solution M.
(iii)Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions contained in 250cm3
solution N.
 Procedure 3
Remove solution M from the burette and rinse it with distilled water. Fill the burette with
sodium hydroxide solution P. Pipette 25cm3 of solution N into a conical flask and add 2-3
drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate this solution N with solution P from the burette.
Repeat the procedure to complete table 3. Sample Table 2.

(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)

(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of sodium hydroxide solution P were contained in the
average volume?

(ii)Given that NaOH solution P reacted with the ethanedioate ions from the
acid only and the equation for the reaction is:

Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioic acid that were used in the reaction
(iii)How many moles of ethanedioic acid were contained in 250cm3 of solution N?

(iii)Determine the % by mass of sodium ethanedioate in the micture (H=

1.0,O=16.0,C=12.0 and total mass of mixture =2.0 g in 250cm3 solution)
Molar gas volume and Atomicity of Gases
 The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of the gas at standard
temperature and pressure.
 One mole of gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p) i.e
at O˚C (273K) and 1 atmosphere pressure. Because of this, the volume occupied by 1
mole of a gas is known as the molar volume i.e molar gas volume.
(a) At r.t.p = 24 dm3
(b) At s.t.p = 22.4 dm3

Calculations involving molar volume

Whenever gases are involved in a reaction, we need to remember that:

• they have mass and volume.
• 1 mole occupies 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p and 24 dm3 at r.t.p.
1. How many moles of hydrogen gas are there in 24 cm3 of hydrogen at r.t.p?
(molar gas volume at r.t.p = 24 dm3 ).

2. What volume in cm3 does 0.01 moles of oxygen occupy at s.t.p?

3 In an experiment, a student collected 510 cm3 of a gas X at s.t.p. The mass of
the gas was 1g.
 Atomicity is the number of atoms which form a molecule of an element .
Gay Lussac’s law
Gay Lussacs law states that “when gases react they do so in simple volume
ratios to each other and to their gaseous products at constant temperature
and pressure”.
Gay Lussac’s law thus only apply to gases.
Given the volume of one gas reactant, the other gaseous reactants can be
deduced thus:
Examples.
(a) 1 volume of hydrogen reacts with 1 volume of chlorine to produce 2 volumes
of hydrogen chloride.
(b) 2 volumes of hydrogen reacts with 1 volume of oxygen to produce 2
volumes of steam.

(c) 1 volume of nitrogen combine with 3 volume of hydrogen to produce 2

volumes of ammonia
2. 300 cm3 of ethene were mixed with 120 cm3 of oxygen and the mixture
exploded.

After the reaction was complete, what was the volume of the remaining gas.
(volumes are at room temperature and pressure).
3. Calculate the volume of Oxygen required to completely react with 50cm3
of Hydrogen.

4. Calculate the volume of air required to completely reacts with 50cm3 of

Hydrogen.(assume Oxygen is 21% by volume of air)
4.If 5cm3 of a hydrocarbon CxHy burn in 15cm3 of Oxygen to form 10cm3 of
Carbon(IV)oxide and 10cm3 of water vapour/steam, obtain the equation for
the reaction and hence find the value of x and y in CxHy.
5.100cm3 of nitrogen (II)oxide NO combine with 50cm3 of Oxygen to form
100cm3 of a single gaseous compound of nitrogen. All volumes measured at
the same temperature and pressure. Obtain the equation for the reaction and
name the gaseous product.
6.When 15cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was burnt in 100cm3 of Oxygen ,the
resulting gaseous mixture occupied70cm3 at room temperature and pressure.
When the gaseous mixture was passed through, potassium hydroxide its volume
decreased to 25cm3.
(a)What volume of Oxygen was used during the reaction.(1mk)
Volume of Oxygen used =100-25 =75cm3√ (P was completely burnt)

(b)Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon(2mk)

Revision questions
1. 1.0g of dibasic acid HOOC(CH2)xCOOH was dissolved in 250cm3 solution. 25.0
cm3 of this solution reacted with 30.0cm3 of 0.06M sodium hydroxide
solution. Calculate the value of x in HOOC(CH2)xCOOH. (C=12.0,H=1.0,O=16.)
2. 20.0cm3 of 0.05 M acidified potassium manganate(VII)solution oxidized
25.0cm3 of Fe2+(aq) ions in 40.0g/l of impure Iron (II)sulphate(VI) to Fe3+(aq)
ions. Calculate the percentage impurities in the Iron (II)sulphate(VI).

3. 9.7 g of a mixture of Potassium hydroxide and Potassium chloride was

dissolved to make one litre solution.20.0cm3 of this solution required
25.0cm3 of 0.12M hydrochloric acid for completed neutralization. Calculate
the percentage by mass of Potassium chloride.(K=39.0,Cl= 35.5)
4. A certain carbonate, GCO3, reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according to
the equation given below:
5. 46.0g of a metal carbonate MCO3 was dissolved 160cm3 of 0.1M excess hydrochloric acid and
the resultant solution diluted to one litre.25.0cm3 of this solution required 20.0cm3 of 0.1M
sodium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the atomic mass of ‘M’ .

6. 25.0cm3 of a mixture of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in an aqueous salt was acidified with sulphuric(VI)acid then
titrated against potassium manganate(VI).The salt required 15cm3 ofe0.02M potassium manganate(VI)
for complete reaction. A second 25cm3 portion of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion salt was reduced by Zinc then
titrated against the same concentration of potassium manganate(VI).19.0cm3 of potassium
manganate(VI)solution was used for complete reaction. Calculate the concentration of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion
in the solution on moles per litre.
 THE END OF THE TOPIC
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