The Activities, Roles, and Relationships of Successful First-Generation College

Students

Cynthia Demetriou, Judith Meece, Deborah Eaker-Rich, Candice Powell

Journal of College Student Development, Volume 58, Number 1, January

2017, pp. 19-36 (Article)

Published by Johns Hopkins University Press

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0001

For additional information about this article

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/646660

Access provided by The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (3 Feb 2017 13:47 GMT)
The Activities, Roles, and Relationships of
Successful First-Generation College Students
Cynthia Demetriou   Judith Meece   Deborah Eaker-Rich   Candice Powell

This qualitative study describes the experiences colleges and universities in the United States
of 16 successful first-generation college students fail to graduate within 6 years of enrollment
(FGCS) utilizing a theoretical lens, informed (Saenz, Hurtado, Barrera, Wolf, & Yeung,
significantly by bioecological systems theory 2007). A recent study of FGCS enrolled in
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979), which guided our 4-year colleges and universities found that after
qualitative analyses of interview transcripts to 4 years, 75.3% of FGCS failed to earn a degree
examine the activities, roles, and relationships of (DeAngelo, Franke, Hurtado, Pryor, & Tran,
these students as they approached the finish line of 2011). As the numbers of FGCS attending
college graduation. We responded to an omission colleges and universities in the United States
in the literature on FGCS experiences: although increase, there is an urgent need for research
researchers have examined the struggles of first- on the retention of these students.
generation and low-income students, few studies This study examines FGCS undergraduate
have focused on the experiences of successful retention using qualitative data collected
students. We offer a developmental paradigm through interviews with successful students
for appreciating undergraduate retention. from low-income families at a large, public
Recommendations from this investigation support research university in the southern United
the development and implementation of proactive States. Guided by a developmental theoretical
retention and degree-completion strategies from framework, this investigation describes the
a strengths-based perspective. essence of interactions among individuals and
their environment. Data collected through
Undergraduate retention and graduation are student reflections were explored to appreciate
issues requiring critical attention from public the experiences of successful FGCS on their
universities across the nation (Bowen, Chingos, paths to undergraduate degree completion.
& McPherson, 2009). Degree attainment for A theoretical lens, informed significantly by
first-generation college students (FGCS) in bioecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner,
the United States is especially important to 1979), was applied to the data. This study
meeting future workforce demands, goals contributes to what is known about FGCS
for national economic prosperity, and global experiences. The study also responds to
competitiveness (Lopez, 2006; White House, an omission in the literature on FGCS
2009). The Higher Education Research experiences. Although the literature has
Institute defines a FGCS as any student examined the struggles of first-generation and
from a family in which both parents have no low-income students (Choy, 2001; Lohfink &
education beyond high school (Pryor et al., Paulsen, 2005; Saenz et al., 2007), few studies
2006). Nearly 90% of FGCS enrolled in have examined the experiences of successful

Cynthia Demetriou is Director for Retention and Clinical Instructor of Education, Judith Meece is Professor of
Educational Psychology, Deborah Eaker-Rich is Associate Dean and Chief Academic Office, School of Education,
and Candice Powell is Retention Specialist, all at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 19

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

students. To date, the majority of research on as five nested circles with the individual in
undergraduate retention and graduation has the center circle. Each system is both part of
focused on failure (Schreiner, Hulme, Hetzel, a larger system and contains smaller systems.
& Lopez, 2009). Consequently, little is known Within the bioecological systems model, this
about the experiences of successful students. study concentrates on the several microsystems
Appreciating the experiences of FGCS who are of youth collegiate experiences. As described
retained and graduate from college enhances below, the study focuses on campus-related
our ability to develop effective retention and activities, roles, and relationships as proximal
degree-completion strategies. developmental processes for youth within
For the purposes of this study, a successful collegiate settings.
student is a student who has been retained and
is within one semester of 4-year undergraduate ACTIVITIES, ROLES,
degree completion. This study describes the AND RELATIONSHIPS
experiences of successful students using the
voices of students themselves. It describes According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), the
college success through the eyes of students microsystem includes “activities, roles, and
from historically underresourced and under­ interpersonal relations experienced by the
performing groups. A rich and complex developing person in a given setting with
description of the activities, roles, and relation­ particular physical and material characteristics”
ships of successful FGCS is shared. (p. 22). Developing individuals engage in
activities, take on cultural roles, and enter
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK in to relationships with people, objects, and
OF THE STUDY symbols in their immediate environment.
How individuals perceive their experience of
This study is based on a synthesis of the activities, roles, and relationships influences
psychological, sociological, and educational their development. To understand how
perspectives largely informed by Bronfen­ an individual develops, it is necessary to
brenner’s (1979) bioecological systems theory. under­stand the objectives properties of an
The theory contends that developmental environ­ment as well as the ways in which
changes occur across the life span through the properties are perceived by the individual
dynamic relations between the individual in the environ­ment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979,
and the multiple ecological levels of his or p. 22). Personal characteristics influence
her environment, including the family, peer individuals’ experiences of activities, roles,
groups, schools, community settings, and and relationships. For example, attitudes and
culture systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The dispositions (e.g., interest, motivation), as well
theory is guided by two major developmental as gender and ethnicity, can influence how a
principles: (a) personal experiences cannot be student experiences the activity of going to
disconnected from the settings in which they class. It is important to note that activities,
occur, and (b) individuals shape and are shaped roles, and relationships cannot be isolated from
by their social contexts. The theory includes one another; in the bioecological model, they
five environmental systems that influence and overlap with and influence one another. In
are influenced by an individual: microsystem, the microsystem, the individual forms social
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and relationships such as the relationship between
chronosystem. The systems are conceptualized student and teacher. This relationship requires

20 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

participation in specific cultural roles. The to function in new roles, he or she is likely
individual must play the role of student and to develop a more complex identity as he
assume the expectations and responsibilities or she grows to appreciate the expectations,
associated with this role. Together, the student behaviors, and tasks associated with each role.
and teacher will engage in activities associated Developmental relationships involve reci­
with their role and relationship such as procal interactions between two individuals
classroom learning and mentoring. (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Reciprocal interaction
Developmental activities are constant means that there is an exchange between the
behavioral processes involving a single action individuals and both individuals are affected
or a progression of steps (Bronfenbrenner, by the interaction (Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
1979). Activities involve interactions with 2006, p. 798). For positive outcomes to occur
other individuals as well as interactions with both individuals in the relationship must have
objects and symbols (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, mutually positive feelings, the connection
p. 23). Individuals can perform activities with between the individuals must endure over
other individuals or autonomously. Perceptions time, and both individuals must attend to each
of activities are important in shaping develop­ other’s activities (Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
ment. The way individuals perceive their 2006, p. 816). In a developmental relationship,
engagement and their participation in activities the balance of power slowly shifts toward the
influences how the activity drives develop­ developing person with the developing person
ment. Throughout college, students are likely taking on enhanced responsibilities. Within the
to engage in a number of activities such college context, developmental relationships
as undergraduate research, study abroad, include relationships between students and
and participating in student organizations. faculty members, peer relationships, and
Participating in activities that gradually relationships between college personnel and
increase in complexity over time can help students (Evans, 2010; Light, 2001; Pascarella
college students advance toward positive & Terenzini, 2005). Interpersonal relations of
college outcomes (Kuh, 2008; Light, 2001). college students are critical to college student
Bronfenbrenner (1979) defines develop­ success. For example, supportive relationships
mental roles as sets of relations and activities with faculty, including individualized, one-on-
expected of an individual in a culture (p. 25). one attention, have been related to enhanced
Within a culture, there are distinct behav­ learning in college (Kuh, 2008).
ioral expectations and responsibilities asso­ It is important to understand the activities,
ci­ated with particular roles. Through roles, roles, and relationships of FGCS as these
indi­viduals explore their environment and experiences shape the immediate environment
learn about them­selves. College students of the developing student. Understanding these
are likely to take on multiple roles in their experiences can help us understand successful
immediate environment (Evans, Foreny, students. Describing the activities, roles, and
Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010; Light, 2001). relationships of successful students can present
When students enter the college culture, they a picture of the ways in which successful
are likely to assume a variety of new roles students act on their environment and the
and responsibilities specifically related to the environment acts upon them, guid­ing students
college context. The role of undergraduate in toward positive college outcomes including
and of itself is an important role new college successful transition, retention, and graduation.
students must take on. As an individual learns The approach of this study differs from

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 21

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

prior research in several important ways. First, transcripts explored curricular and cocurricular
as stated, most studies of first-generation experiences of students on their paths to degree
students focus on access, attrition, and failure. completion. The transcripts are from interviews
The current study focuses on successful that included 31 highly structured questions
FGCS at a 4-year institution. Second, the and lasted from 45 to 60 minutes each. The
study departs from sociological models of corresponding categorical data came from
college graduation (e.g., Bean, 1986; Spady, admissions applications, FAFSA applications,
1970; Tinto, 1975, 1993) to consider college and university records. They described level
environments as a developmental context of parental education, gender, ethnicity, age,
for youth making the transition from late home residence, academic achievement, area
adolescence to early adulthood. Another major of study, and financial need.
departure is the use of qualitative methods to The categorical data were used to pur­
capture youths’ perceptions of their college posively narrow down the 100 student cases
experiences and to give voice to successful first- to a study group of FGCS with common
generation college youth approaching college characteristics. Of the 100 student cases, 27
graduation during a time of national and state were FGCS. From the 27 cases, we constructed
investments in higher education. a final study group of 16 total cases (8 male
and 8 female). All 16 cases were financially
METHOD needy, came from a hometown within the
state, were traditional-age college students
Research on undergraduate retention has (between 18 and 24), and were graduating on
focused primarily on quantitatively measuring time (within 4.0 to 4.5 years of starting their
undergraduate retention and graduation rates baccalaureate degree). Half of the student
among student populations. Researchers (i.e., group included students from historically
Bowen et al., 2009) have predominantly utilized underrepresented racial or ethnic groups,
regression analysis to assess the influence and the other half of the cases were White.
of multiple factors on degree attainment. In addition to using the categorical data to
The base of research on retention could be narrow down the study group, the categorical
enhanced through studies yielding qualitative data were used as we read and analyzed the
insight into the lived experiences of students. transcripts and considered the experiences of
Qualitative study provides the opportunity each student case. The categorical data served
for researchers to explore individual experi­ as a valuable resource to cross-reference items
ences. The knowledge gained from this referred to in the interviews.
exploration can meaningfully contribute to In qualitative research, to reach data
our understanding of how students experience saturation, the researcher continues to sample
their undergraduate careers. relevant cases until no new insights are
emerging from the data (Glaser & Strauss,
Data Sources 1967; Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006).
This project began with 100 student cases Guest and colleagues (2006) suggest that
provided by the office of institutional research when interviews are highly structured and
at a large, public Research 1 institution in the participants share common characteristics,
southeastern United States. Each student case saturation may be reached between 10 and 12
included a deidentified interview transcript and cases. We reached data saturation between 12
corresponding categorical data. The interview and 14 cases, but continued to analyzed all 16

22 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

cases to make the findings as rich as possible. or revised to accurately reflect the patterns
emerging from the data. External audit was
Strategies for Analysis also conducted multiple times throughout this
Strategies for analysis included interim analysis, study. We worked with four different external
memoing, coding and developing category auditors including a qualitative researcher, an
systems, and creating matrices. The cyclical educator who works closely with FGCS, and a
process of interim analysis was repeated multiple graduate student who is a FGCS and mentors
times over the course of this study (Johnson undergraduate FGCS. Auditors provided
& Christensen, 2008). Memoing was used to written feedback as well as participated in
record emerging insights and thoughts on the detailed conversations regarding the codes,
data (Creswell, 2008). Coding and developing the themes, the organization of data, the
category systems was an essential part of the comparison of data, and the development
data analysis. During the coding process, we of findings. Finally, member checking was
intentionally sorted the text into like segments used to validate findings. Because the original
and labeled the segments with codes. A master study participants were unidentifiable and
list of all codes was compiled, and the codes were inaccessible, a revised member check with
continuously reviewed to avoid redundancies or current FGCS was conducted.
overlaps (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Both
inductive and a priori codes were utilized in the FINDINGS
analysis. A priori codes for this analysis came
from the literature on bioecological systems The findings include identifications and rich
theory. In addition to the a priori codes, the descriptions of the activities, roles, and rela­tion­
data in this study were coded inductively. The ships in the microsystem. In particular, findings
codes were continuously refined and revised describe students actively engaging in course­
throughout the process of analysis. Creating work, participating in undergraduate research,
hierarchical category systems with codes helped traveling abroad, participating in student
identify patterns and connections (Johnson & organizations, engaging in community service,
Christensen, 2008). In addition to hierarchical and joining a small community. Students are
relationships, the segmented and coded data also described as taking on multiple roles
were also organized into matrices to allow including that of undergraduate, researcher, and
relationships among categories to emerge (Miles employee. Important relation­ships including
& Huberman, 1994). academic, peer, and employ­ment relationships
are described. Finally, because developmental
Validating Findings processes are influenced by personal dispositions
This study utilized specific strategies to and attitudes, findings also include attitudes
validate findings including triangulation, and dispositions noted among participants.
negative case analysis, external audit, and
member checking (Creswell, 2008). Through Activities
triangulation, evidence from multiple data Students described themselves as positively
sources, individuals, and types of data was changing through activities with persons,
corroborated. Negative case analysis was objects, and symbols in their environment.
repeated throughout the research study. When Common activities students described included
negative cases were found, they were carefully curricular activities, cocurricular activities, and
examined to see if themes should be broadened employment activities. It is important to note

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 23

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

that these experiences are classified in this enroll in a linguistics course. The activity of
study as activities, but they span across roles taking this course, and fully engaging in it, led
and relationships. For example, employment is to what Sophie ultimately described as “the best
defined here as an activity; however, it overlaps part” of her academic experience:
with both relationships (the relationship I think the best part is before I got here I
between employee and supervisor) and roles didn’t know what linguistics was and I’d
(the role of being an employee). The curricular, always loved learning French and when
cocurricular, and employment activities of the I found out that I just thought it was
successful FGCS in the study are described in really exciting, like this new thing to learn
the following sections. that I really loved. And I’ve just loved
almost all my courses that I’ve taken in
Curricular. The thematic analysis identified
linguistics . . . coming in to college I had
curricular activities as activities relating no idea what I would be majoring in. I
to credit-bearing, undergraduate courses had no idea.
or to the formal academic curriculum for
By engaging in the linguistics course, Sophie
undergraduates. Curricular activities included
found her major and developed an ardent inter­est
engaging in coursework, participating in
in an academic area that was entirely new to her.
faculty-mentored research, and studying
Gianna described a similar experience.
or traveling abroad. Curricular activities
Gianna never heard of sociology prior to
involved academic credits counting toward
college. Then she took one course with Dr.
degree completion.
Karol from the Sociology Department. The
Engaging in coursework. The first
activity of taking the course opened up to
curricular activity described by study group
several more activities and opportunities. First,
participants was engaging in academic course­
it led to academic advising from Dr. Karol.
work. Participants engaged in coursework
Academic advising resulted in Gianna’s major
by participating in class, completing course
selection and a research opportunity:
assignments, working on group projects,
completing research projects, communicating I took Dr. Karol’s “Sex and Gender in
with peers, working with teaching assistants, and Society” class, and it kind of opened my
eyes to a whole other aspect of things
working with instructors. Successful students
that I had no idea even existed, sex and
did not simply go to class and go home to do gender inequalities and things like that.
homework. They actively participated during I was terribly interested by the course.
course meeting times and invested several hours . . . [Dr. Karol] helped me make my
each week working on course content outside of decision to major in sociology . . . and
the class meeting time. Overall, when students also choosing to write an honors thesis,
actively engaged in coursework, they were those are probably two biggies that really
able to access further academic opportunities. shaped my academic career here.
For example, students described courses as The activity of engaging in the course led to
gateways to academic areas with which they were the development of an important relationship
previously unfamiliar. As a case in point, Sophie with a faculty member. It also led to the
described taking her first linguistics course. Prior decision to write a thesis. By fully engaging in
to college she had never heard of linguistics. the coursework, the single class opened up to
She shared with an academic advisor that she multiple opportunities and academic pathways
really enjoyed French courses in high school. for the student.
The academic advisor recommended that she Participating in faculty-mentored

24 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

research. Nearly all students, 15 out of 16, the detail that goes into research, especially
described participation in faculty-mentored being at a research university.” For students
research, including writing honors theses, like Ethan, the growing appreciation of
completing capstone projects, participating in research and experience with research helped
field and lab experiences, and doing research them understand the college environment
projects in credited courses. Most students better. Students described research as being
described these experiences occurring after highly valued in the university community.
their first year in college. Students described Understanding this value helped the students
faculty-mentored research that was a structured feel connected and accepted in the community.
part of the curriculum of a course. As an Studying or traveling abroad. Ten out of
example, Gianna shared, 15 participants worked, studied, or traveled
I’m in a class this semester where I’m abroad. All 10 of these students described their
actually doing a research project for time abroad as a defining moment in their
sociology of Islam. We actually did a undergraduate career. Most students studied
survey with the whole class, and we’re abroad between the end of their sophomore
using some of the survey data to generate year and the first half of their senior year.
our own results after we’ve done a lit Students recommended that all undergraduates
review on the same topic. I’m actually should travel abroad during college. As a case
writing it about the varying attitudes
in point, Orlando shared:
towards Islam by religious affiliation in
the United States. I went to Ireland one summer and loved
it. I’m actually going to Turkey and Cairo
Students also described participating in this summer after graduation. I think
faculty-mentored research through field travel is crucial. . . . I think everyone in
placements. Alexandra participated in an some way, some manner, while they’re in
internship abroad that included field research their college career, should travel. . . . Get
in South Africa: out there. Soak up everything you possibly
can. And what better time in your life than
I [researched] the politics behind the AIDS to travel, to get out there?
crisis in South Africa. And I interviewed
people and just worked on that. . . . [My Students described their experiences
faculty mentor is] an expert in Africa so abroad as boosting their self-confidence and
that was really helpful. . . . I gained a their belief that they can accomplish their
better understanding into the connections
goals. For example, Gianna described her
between politics and health care.
study abroad experience as bringing her “out
Students indicated that participating of her comfort zone” and “out of her shell.” For
in faculty-mentored research helped them Alexandra, an internship at a children’s hospital
to formulate original ideas as well as in South Africa confirmed for her “that I really
better understand and contribute to the wanted to be a doctor.” A third student, Brian,
academic enterprise. described his time abroad as confirming that
Ethan described “having to come up he could accomplish his goal of becoming a
with . . . a research topic, carry it out,” and working artist. He said that the experience
see it through to completion. Through this established “that I can do that, that I can
experience, Ethan realized that “every detail successfully put myself out there to be creative
to that research project was important,” in the way that I want to be.” Many students
and this realization helped him “understand reflected that the confidence they developed

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 25

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

abroad continued to serve them once they Student Association” challenged her to explore
returned to their home campus. Students the “fine line between self-segregation and
described being more willing to develop promoting your culture.”
relationships with people they did not know Overall, students portrayed their partici­
and to participate in new activities. As students pation in student organizations as personally
discussed their experiences abroad, confidence beneficial. Many students commented that
and independence were continuous themes. participating in an organization made the
Cocurricular. For the purposes of analyses, large university community feel smaller. One
we identified cocurricular activities as social student, Manny, described how he gained a
and learning experiences that complement great deal from student organizations, and
the formal undergraduate curriculum. Co­ while such gains may not be demonstrable on
curricular activities include participating a resume, they were highly beneficial to his
in student organizations, participating in career prospects nonetheless:
community service, and joining a small So I feel like I’ve grown personally through
community on campus. all these different extracurricular activities
Participating in student organizations. and it may not show maybe through a
All participants (16 out of 16) participated resume or through an application but that
in student organizations, with half of the I will be well versed in cultural knowledge
participants engaging in organizations with and social justice knowledge as I move
a religious or an ethnic or cultural affiliation. forward in my career.
Students described some organizations, Students also described finding peer mentors
especially ones with religious affiliations, through student organizations. These peer
as having a transformative influence on mentors helped guide students through
their lives. For example, Donovan described the college experience. In addition to peer
the significant role a Christian student mentors, two students described valuable
organization and a Christian fraternity played relationships they developed with professional
in his development throughout college: staff who supervised student organizations.
It completely transformed my life and my Participating in community service.
college experience. . . . That organization Nearly all students in the study group (15
was really instrumental in just my growth out of 16) indicated that they participated in
as a college student, and I’ve been community service during their undergraduate
involved with them since the end of my experience. Students described participating in
fresh­man year.
community service as early as the first week of
Another student, Mackenzie, described school and all the way through to graduation.
a religious organization as the thing “that Some of these activities were connected to
most influenced” her time in college. Some courses but occurred outside of the classroom,
students, such as Lauren, who participated such as Faith’s experience volunteering in an
in ethnic or cultural organizations described elementary school:
their experiences as “fun” and “time to relax.” I took an immigration geographies course
Others found that their experience with and I volunteered at [an] elementary
ethnic or cultural organizations challenged school with kindergarteners. It was great.
them to explore their cultural identities I love it. . . . It’s helped me educate myself
and their communities. For example, Faith about other cultures, not just Latin, or
said that her participation in the “Hispanic American culture, but Burmese. A lot of

26 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

the kids that I worked with were Burmese. peers who held common interests and valued
And I’m so, yeah, just expanding my volunteerism. Many students shared that
understanding of the world. they were very active in service during high
The student found that the volunteer service school and continuing service during college
opportunity broadened her appreciation of was a helpful way to transition into the
cultures beyond her own culture. Another university environment.
student, Makayla, described the way com­ Joining a small community. All parti­
munity service work influenced her major ci­pants described joining at least one small
choice and career pursuits. She found that com­mu­nity on campus. In particular, stu­
volunteering at the Family Violence Prevention dents identified major departments, student
Center gave her vital experience that helped organizations, work settings, campus recreation,
her come to the conclusion that social work and housing communities. For example,
was the right field of study for her. Makayla described the importance of her
So [volunteering], to me, was really membership in a small housing community:
meaningful, and it was really directed “my suite, I loved the people in my suite,
towards what I wanted to do, and that’s and I became really, really close to them,
why I picked social work. . . . Last and they became some of my best friends.”
summer I was there. . . . I was the only Another student, Ethan, described his small
Spanish-speaking person they had during community as the “fitness community” based
the summer.
in the university’s campus recreation center:
The student also shared how meaningful it
I’ve been working in the Student Recreation
was to her that she could use her language to Center. It’s the primary fitness center on
provide service to the community. campus. . . . So through that and from
Several students indicated that community working out there regularly for the past 4
service provided them with stress relief, years, I just met people as I worked out to
enjoyment, and an escape from the pressures where I maybe out somewhere on campus
of college. For example, Lauren described her or even off campus and I see someone
service experience at a children’s hospital: that I know through that there and also
we’re having conversation and everything,
I like to help out, especially at the hospital people that I would not know had I not
with kids and stuff. They’re really fun. I worked there or worked out there. So you
think it’s like a reliever off from school. I know, so it makes me feel more a part of
just get my mind off it, and just hang out the community. I can walk around and see
with the kids, and just play with them. So people all the time saying hey to me that
it was really fun. They’re all interesting I know from there alone. So that’s been
and have different personalities, so I think very important. It made me feel a part of
that’s what I liked about meeting kids [the university].
at the hospital too, and they make me
appreciate my life, and just to see how For this student, being a member of the small
strong they are. fitness community helped the student connect
to the university and feel like a part of the
Lauren described community service collegiate environment. Another student,
as a means to give back to her community Sophie, also described how joining a small
and as a way to socialize and make friends. community helped her feel like she was a part
Service provided Lauren and others with of the university. She described feeling lost for
the opportunity to build friendships with all of her first year of college. It was only in her

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 27

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

second year, when she became a member of a gained many favorable things from her work
small community, a student organization with experience. Largely, students expressed great
a religious affiliation, that she began to feel she value gained from their part-time employment.
belonged on campus: “Being a part of Campus For example, Gianna described her work-study
Crossroads really made me feel like I had position at the university hospital as “probably
somewhere to go to and make the campus seem the most positive small environment” to which
a little smaller.” Other students echoed the she had belonged on campus.
importance of student organizations as small I had some more support there. My
communities. Mackenzie shared that being boss is great. And that job really helped
involved in an organization enables you me grow, and it’s definitely helped me
to be part of a smaller community, and in my job search thus far that I was a
then within those organizations even research assistant and I have all these
smaller communities. Probably the one responsibilities and things like that.
thing that’s influenced me most is my
Another student, Tessa, described her
small group Bible study. And it’s all 4
years the same girls, and just to see how work experience as a valuable opportunity
we’ve grown and relied on each other and to be “part of a team and work on team
helped each other and encouraged each building skills.” Manny described how working
other, I can’t imagine what my college one summer “as a door-to-door solicitor”
career would’ve been without that group. motivated him to become more engaged in
And that’s just 12 girls, so that’s very college. Manny said he realized through his
small group. summer work experience what he did not
Being a member of the small community of a want to be doing after college graduation,
student organization was significant enough and he had to take more advantage of what
to Mackenzie that she could not imagine what the university offered. Manny’s unsatisfactory
her college career would have been like if she work experience led to his decision to study
were not involved in the community. abroad the following summer and seek out
Employment. Employment activities in­ paid internship opportunities.
volved working for pay at least part time.
Eleven out of 16 students worked on or close Roles
to campus while enrolled in a full course The roles participants most frequently dis­
schedule (12–18 credit hours). Only one cussed included being an undergraduate, a
student indicated that he worked more than researcher, and an employee. Roles included
part time. He worked between 20 and 35 hours distinct responsibilities and autonomous
per week, whereas all of the other students as well as social behaviors. Throughout the
worked fewer than 20 hours per week. interviews, students discussed vital skills
Most students found the activity of they had to develop to perform in their roles
employment as generally beneficial. Only and meet expectations. As described in the
one student indicated that working part-time next sections, the roles influenced identity
detracted from her college experience. Makayla development among the students.
shared that “when you have to work, that also Undergraduate. Study participants described
takes away from other extracurricular activities their experiences as they took on the role of
that you could be doing.” Even though this undergraduate in the college culture. To be
student noted this limitation, at other points successful, students had to learn how to play
in the interview, she shared that she had the role of college student. Several students

28 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

described initially feeling like an imposter in of undergraduate. William described the role
the role. Students expressed worry that the of undergraduate as someone who must take a
university made a mistake with their admission. broad array of courses. Gianna explained that
For example, Orlando described his initial being a FGCS undergraduate requires that you
experience in his new role of college student: have faith in yourself and that you constantly
It is overwhelming . . . the first time you remind yourself “you belong here and can do it.”
buy a textbook and you look at it, and Orlando shared that being an undergraduate “is
you’re like, “Why does the name match a pretty important part of my identity.” Overall,
the person who’s teaching this course?” students described being an undergraduate as
You’re looking at the, “Written by John a role that one does not automatically play
Andrews,” and you’re looking at your without an investment of time and energy.
course, it says “Teacher: John Andrews,” Students had to actively think about their new
and you’re like, “Oh, no.” You realize for
role and how best to perform in this role.
the first time exactly what you’ve gotten
yourself into, that you’re like this isn’t Researcher. Researcher was an important
some dusty old guy out in the middle role that overlaps with the activity of research
of nowhere writing this book. The guy and the relationship of academic mentor and
that’s teaching wrote this book. And it’s mentee. Fifteen of the study participants
overwhelming. You’re thinking, “This reported participating in faculty-mentored
person’s going to see through everything. research and described the importance of
They’re going to realize that somehow or their role as a researcher in their overall
another my high school messed up, and
undergraduate experience. Makayla described
somehow or another the admission board
messed up, and I’m here but I’m not that in the role of researcher, “you definitely
qualified at all to be here,” and you panic. see it all come together,” including the ability
to ask academic questions, write, and draw
Orlando went on to explain that, through conclusions. Brian described that as his role
a relationship he had a with a faculty member, of researcher increased in complexity over
he began to genuinely feel like he belonged time, he became more confident. He described
and like he could fully inhabit his role of feeling honored that eventually, after several
undergraduate. By learning the student role, years as a researcher, his faculty mentors let
Orlando was able to live up to the expectations him become a principal investigator for a study.
and responsibilities of being an undergraduate Ethan articulated the importance of
such as participating in study groups, visiting being a researcher to connect with faculty.
faculty during office hours, and meeting He described a particular faculty as being
degree requirements. unapproachable in class: “during a lecture,
Brian described serving in the role of like he never seemed like personable at all.”
undergraduate as learning that “you are not When the student became a researcher for
invincible.” Brian described learning that he the faculty member, “when we needed help,
must put in time and effort to perform on when I went to his office and everything, he
the college level. Performing on the college was very helpful.” Through the researcher role,
level was different from high school, which the student was able to make a connection
required less time investment to succeed. This and develop a relationship with the faculty
role change led Brian to reflect on his identity member even when he could not do this
and his former sense of invincibility. Other through the lecture class. Brian, like several
students shared unique insights in to the role other students, indicated that overall being a

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 29

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

researcher helped him identify his academic Relationships

interests and prioritize his goals. From his
research experience, Brian also learned “my All participants described at least one bene­
first priority is getting into grad school, and ficial, developmental relationship with a
continuing my research in social psychology more experienced peer, faculty member, or
because that’s what really interests me.” adult. Many students described multiple
Employee. The role of employee overlaps relationships that positively influenced their
with the activity of employment. Through college experience. The most common relation­
the role of employee students developed in ships they described included academic
multiple ways. Ten of the 16 students worked mentor, student mentor, and employment
part-time while enrolled in full-time course mentor. All students described having at least
work. These students described their role of one of these relationships, and some reported
employee as largely beneficial. For example, relationships in all three of these categories.
Mackenzie found that through her role as a Academic Mentor. Relationships with
babysitter, she became a part of a family away academic mentors included relationships
from home and that she felt cared for and students developed with faculty members or
needed in this role: graduate students, including teaching assistants
I just fell in love with the family, they and research assistants. Students shared
were great and the kids were great and that relationships with academic mentors
I just ended up keeping them up until helped them make important academic
last year when they went to school. So choices and decisions including which major
it was two days a week and it went from to declare and whether or not to pursue
me going to their house and sitting with graduate school. The relationship of academic
them to picking them up from their little mentor overlaps with the activity of research.
preschool and taking them home and just
Students shared that they met their academic
playing and cooking them lunch and just
kind of become part of the family. mentors through a course or research project
but their relationship ultimately extended
Mackenzie described the responsibility well beyond the occasion for their initial
and accountability expected of her in this interaction. Manny’s description of how he
role. Ethan commented that through his met his academic mentor is demonstrative of
role of employee, he learned responsibility, this occurrence:
accountability, and how to communicate As a sophomore . . . I took [my mentor’s]
and interact with other people. In particular, class. . . . I really, really enjoyed it and
Ethan commented that his job taught him pretty much aced his class. So, he asked
“a lot about how to deal with other people me to help him with [research]. . . .
. . . like knowing how to work with others He provided me a really good recom­
is very critical, working with co-workers and mendation for graduate school. . . . I’m
everything.” Ethan went on to explain that his still in contact with him from time to
time so he was a really good mentor and
role of employee taught him how to “be real
provided me a lot of good feedback and
diligent about work” and “serious on the job,” it was a really good experience with him.
which will aid him in his future vocational
aspirations beyond college. Bronfenbrenner described relationships
as bidirectional in nature (Bronfenbrenner,
1979). Manny’s experience is a good example

30 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

as the relationship positively influenced the to the meeting, the first meeting ever that
development of Manny, the student, and it I went to my freshman year, and he was
positively influenced the development of the the first person that really reached out to
me during my college experience. His first
mentor. Manny’s relationship with his mentor
question to me was . . . what is my story?
grew out of the activity of research and, over And then I talked to him for an hour after
time, it took on significance beyond the that and just kind of told him about me.
research activity. Another student, Gianna, And that was the first time that anybody
described a similar situation. Whereas she took a genuine interest, and was sincere,
initially connected with her academic mentor and then he followed up, and called me
for a research project, she ultimately found that the next week, and called me, and prayed
while she was “a great advisor to my thesis,” she for me, and asked me to get dinner, and all
these things, and so he then pretty much
was also “a great mentor” overall and someone
began to mentor me and kind of teach
to whom she could turn “just with anything.” me different things about my Faith, and
Student Mentor. Students described having so I went freshman year, sophomore year,
a peer mentor through a student organization. meeting up with him every week.
These mentors were not part of assigned
mentoring programs but stemmed from two William also reported that a peer mentor from
peers being in the same organization. In most a student organization “challenged me” and
cases, the mentors were more experienced “made me think of things in a different way.”
with college but not necessarily older. Orlando He shared that he was inspired by the fact that
shared that he valued “having a role model his peer mentors “all want to do things with
your age” and indicated “it’s very satisfying their life and do very important things.”
to see someone your age doing well who you Employment Mentor. The relationship of
respect, actually respect, respect as much as employment mentor overlaps with the activity
you would any professor or an adult.” Orlando of employment. Several students described
went on to say that having a peer mentor their employee supervisor as an important
helped him feel valued and more confident mentor during their college experience.
about his own goals: Of interest, these students described work
supervisors who were college graduates and
You hold them [peer mentor] in high
regard, and you’re convinced . . . “Well, could relate to their college experience. Two
gosh, I hold this person in such high female students described babysitting jobs
regards and we seem to have similar goals, they worked throughout college for families
so I must be doing something right.” with professional parents who graduated
from college. The young women described
Tessa commented that the best thing
developing caring and supportive relationships
about having peer mentors from student
with their supervisors who could relate to their
organizations was that “we were all looking
college experience. Ethan described working
out for each other.” Donovan explained that
on campus for a recent college graduate (“my
his peer mentor interactions helped him feel
boss at the rec center. He’s definitely become
valued and seen. Donovan’s peer mentor
a mentor in my life”) who could relate to his
was from a student organization with a
struggles in college and discuss plans for life
religious affiliation:
after college. Manny also described working
He’s been there since my freshman year, with the housing department on campus and
and I met him the first night that I went having several recent college graduates as his

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 31

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

supervisors: “They’ve been through school and were evident across the majority of cases.
they see all of the things that are going on and Some students may have developed these
they’re very understanding.” Manny and his characteristics during college, while it is likely
supervisors shared mutual feelings of positive that other students came to college with these
regard and were able to connect around the characteristics.
shared experience of college including its
challenges and opportunities. DISCUSSION
Proximal Processes To understand how an individual develops, it is
Within and across activities, roles, and necessary to understand the objective properties
relationships, developmental processes called of an environment as well as the ways in which
proximal processes influence individual growth the properties are perceived by the individuals
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). We identified seven in the environment (Bronfen­brenner, 1979).
proximal processes for successful FGCS. This study has examined the lived experience of
These processes are embedded in social students to explore how developmental situations
context and time with the processes becoming in college are experienced by the people who
progressively more complex over time. These participate in them. The findings of this study
processes include (a) forming attachments to illustrate several tenets of Bronfenbrenner’s
people and places, (b) developing academic (1979) bioecological systems theory. For
skills, (c) setting goals, (d) coping with development to occur, an individual must be
change and challenges, (e) finding purpose an active agent in his or her environment. The
and meaning in learning, (f ) developing participants in this study were active agents as
autonomy, and (g) forming and solidifying they repeatedly sought out activities, learning
social and occupational identities. Through experiences, relationships, and opportunities
these developmental processes, students for participation in the college community.
expanded their understanding of the collegiate Furthermore, for development to occur, an
environment and formulated ideas about their individual must interact with the environment
place within this environment. in a progressively complex manner as the
individual becomes more competent. This was
Attitudes and Dispositions demonstrable repeatedly throughout the study.
Personal characteristics influence proximal For example, Manny described the progressively
processes (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The atti­ complex manner in which he participated in
tudes and dispositions of an individual can faculty-mentored research. Initially, he served
invite or discourage reactions from the social as a research assistant completing simplistic
environ­m ent. Attitudes and disposition organizational tasks. Over time, Manny’s
may foster proximal processes or disrupt relationship with a graduate student led to him
the operation of proximal processes. In becoming intricately involved with analyses
this study, there were several attitudes and and then eventually suggesting future projects
dispositions we identified that appeared to and developing research questions. As Manny’s
foster the operation of proximal processes. competence as a researcher increased, his
These included (a) being flexible and willing to research tasks and responsibilities increased in
change, (b) feeling independent, (c) perceiving complexity. The growth Manny experienced was
challenges as opportunities for growth, and a result of reciprocal interactions occurring on
(d) risk taking. These personal characteristics a regular basis over the course of time. These

32 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

interactions included the activity of the research institution (Guiffrida, 2006). In this study, we
project, the relationship with the graduate have demonstrated that the attrition paradigm
student, and the increased responsibility he can be replaced with a perspective that takes
took on in his role of researcher. Proximal into account the adaptive development of
processes are reciprocal in nature; all parties successful students.
involved in the interaction are influenced by the The new paradigm has yielded a study
interaction (Bronfenbrenner, 2005). Manny’s with useful findings. The findings take account
case showed this, as the graduate student was of the activities, roles, and relationships of
also influenced by the interaction with the successful students and provide insight into
undergraduate. The graduate student was aided how students can meet their potential in
by the undergraduate and went on to complete the college environment. The study findings
his research and accept a faculty position at provide an array of challenging activities and
another university. The graduate student and supportive relationships that can be nurtured
Manny continued to work together and support in the college environment toward advancing
one another even after one of the parties left positive college outcomes. Researchers have
the immediate college environment. Overall, argued for a paradigm shift away from the
the activities, roles, and relationships promoted pathological study of college learning and
learning, growth, and development. By engaging persistence (Walker, Gleaves, & Grey, 2006).
in activities, roles, and relationships, study In this study, we have responded to this
participants enhanced their understanding argument. We describe positive experiences
of their environment and how to act on the and outcomes. Our exploration of optimal
environment in a beneficial manner. academic functioning has provided a snapshot
In this study, we utilize a developmental of flourishing students who are fulfilled,
paradigm to appreciate positive college out­ accomplished, and learning. Describing
comes. This paradigm diverges from the theo­ optimal functioning is important because
retical tradition in the study of undergraduate students will not flourish if we simply cure
retention. Traditionally, reten­tion researchers pathology and eliminate behavioral and
have not focused on student success; rather, emotional problems; rather, flourishing
they have focused on attrition. Theorists (Bean, requires building and capitalizing on human
1986; Spady, 1970; Tinto, 1975, 1993) have strengths and capacities (Fredrickson &
attempted to explain the negative outcomes Losada, 2005). Research on the experiences,
of dropout or attrition. There is limited strengths, and capacities of successful students
empirical support for these attri­tion models is necessary. The following section includes
(Braxton, Sullivan, & Johnson, 1997; Kuh recommendations that can take the findings
& Love, 2000), indicating that the potential of optimal student experiences and bring them
of these models to guide research on under­ into practice for all students.
graduate retention is limited. Researchers have
proposed that these models are funda­mentally Recommendations
flawed (Brunsden, Davies, Shevlin, & Bracken, The study findings highlight mentoring as
2000) and culturally insensitive (Guiffrida, an important part of the student experience,
2006; Hurtado & Carter, 1997). The models and it is thus recommended that colleges and
fail to take account of the changing nature universities encourage mentoring relationships
of the student and the environment over the for FGCS. However, participants of this
course of the student’s interaction with the study described mentoring as relationships

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 33

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

that developed from joint participation in an them negotiate challenge. During orientation
activity such as research or employment. This and admissions events, university professionals
is different from the ways that many mentoring should help FGCS develop the expectation
programs work on college campuses. Often that college will be challenging and that
administrators assign mentors to mentees challenge is a part of learning. Activities
based on a common interest or background should provide FGCS with the opportunity
characteristic. We recommend here that to set short- and long-term goals and consider
administrators of mentoring programs focus potential obstacles they may encounter as they
more on creating activities through which move toward their goals. Students should work
mentoring relationships can develop rather on developing their goals in collaboration with
than assigning mentoring dyads. academic mentors and more experienced peers.
It is also recommended that all FGCS have Finally, we recommend that policies
access to high-impact practices (HIP). HIP affecting first-generation and low-income
are widely tested evidence-based teaching and students, such as America’s College Promise
learning practices that are beneficial for college (White House, 2015), include not just
students from many backgrounds (Kuh, financial support to attend college, but also
2008). Undergraduates who engage in HIP evidence-based programs that encourage
are retained and graduate at higher levels than degree completion such as living-learning
those who do not (Kuh, 2008). HIP include communities, academic mentoring, and
living-learning communities, faculty-mentored cocurricular activities,
research, and study abroad. FGCS are more
likely than non-FGCS to be unfamiliar with Suggestions for Further Research
HIP or enrichment opportunities within The results of the study imply several areas
the college environment (Hurtado, 2007). that would be useful for future research. First,
We recommend marketing HIP directly to studying successful students proved to be a
FGCS and providing supports to help FGCS useful endeavor. We suggest that more studies
become familiar with these programs. The of the experiences of successful students be
steps for participating in HIP should be conducted. The literature on education and
explicit. Providing peer guides who previously development should include investigations
participated in these experiences could be of thriving and success in learning activities.
especially helpful. How engagement in these We also suggest research into the benefits of
activities can be beneficial to the overall FGCS working part-time while enrolled in a
experience of FGCS as well as to vocational full-time course load. Whereas employment
paths and graduate school opportunities should during college can be detrimental to some,
be clear. Participation in student organizations for many others, it may offer highly beneficial
and service opportunities is also important. opportunities, including exploration of
There should be multiple opportunities for vocational paths and mentoring.
new FGCS to become familiar with and join More research should also explore ways
a student organization. In particular, campus in which mentoring relationships develop. As
communities may want to make sure their noted several times throughout this article, the
FGCS are aware of student organizations with important mentoring relationships students
cultural, ethnic, and religious affiliations. described developed through joint partici­
FGCS should be challenged and universities pation in an activity. Understanding how
should offer supportive relationships to help mentoring relationships develop could inform

34 Journal of College Student Development

Successful First-Generation College Students

practice and offer the best support possible to (Patton, 2002, p. 242). There is no one
mentors and mentees. Studying this process absolutely right or wrong way to conduct
is especially critical given how important a qualitative investigation. The intrinsically
supportive relationships are to helping FGCS ambiguous nature of such an investigation can
respond to and navigate challenges in their be difficult for consumers of research who are
environment. All of the study participants not comfortable with uncertainty. Although
reported involvement in a student organization. this study made best efforts and employed
Half of the students described participation in all possible resources to make purposeful and
organizations with cultural, ethnic, or religious informed methodological decisions, the nature
affiliations. We suggest that further research be of the chosen research method inevitably
conducted into the role of these organizations results in the presence of some methodological
in the FGCS experience. Several of the ambiguity. Furthermore, this study relied
students who discussed their participation on interview data. Data collected through
in cultural, ethnic, or religious organizations interviews are subject to recall error (Patton,
described their involvement as life changing. 2002). Interviewees may not correctly recall an
It would be beneficial to understand this event or activity or may exaggerate or diminish
phenomenon more deeply. Do most students the importance of an event. This study also
have this experience, or is this unique to utilized categorical data from institutional
FGCS? What does participating in cultural, records. Such records may be incomplete or vary
ethnic, or religious organizations offer that in quality and completeness (Patton, 2002).
participating in other student organizations
does not? Answers to these questions could CONCLUSION
help institutions offer refined cocurricular
activities and opportunities. Empirical investigation into the lived experi­
Last, in this study, while all participants ences of FGCS enhances our appreciation of
were identified as financially needy, we do undergraduate student retention. This study
not know if students took on debt to fund contributes to what is known about FGCS
their education. The nation is currently experiences. This contribution is important for
engaged in critical dialogue about student the development of programs and supports to
indebtedness. Further research should examine encourage 4-year degree attainment for FGCS.
how much debt successful FGCS assume by The study also responds to an omission in the
the time they graduate. literature on FGCS experiences. Although
the literature has examined the struggles of
Limitations of the Study first-generation and low-income students,
Qualitative research findings are context studies have not examined the experiences of
and case specific (Patton, 2002). Although successful students. This study describes the
the findings of this study contribute to experiences of successful students utilizing
knowledge of the FGCS experience, they are the voices of students themselves. Finally,
not generalizable to all FGCS. One of the this study offers a developmental paradigm
primary challenges of qualitative research is for appreciating undergraduate retention.
that it is inherently “rife with ambiguities” Recommendations from this investigation
(Patton, 2002, p. 242). It is important to note support the development and implementation
that qualitative researchers apply “purposeful of proactive retention and degree-completion
strategies instead of methodological rules” strategies from a strengths-based perspective.

January 2017 ◆ vol 58 / no 1 35

 Demetriou, Meece, Eaker-Rich, & Powell

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Cynthia Demetriou, [email protected]

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36 Journal of College Student Development