Pen Culture

Pen Culture:
• Pens generally refer to small enclosures used for confinement or safe keeping
of domestic animals.
• In fisheries pens are formed by damming a bay, cove (concave arch), fjord (an
arm of a sea), estuary, river, lake or reservoir.
• Sites are selected where the barriers can be constructed across narrow sections
or channels (Fig. 5) in order to reduce costs and increase the ease of operation.
• The enclosures should be relatively small (about 2.07.0 ha). However, in
Japan large enclosures measuring up to 120 ha or more are also seen.
• The depth of the pens should be more than 1 metre, even in low tide condition.
Fig. 5 Diagram of a pen constructed on an enclosed fjord.

• Most of the perimeter of the enclosure (pen) is formed by the natural shoreline.
• When the blind end of a water area is enclosed, there may be only one or one
series of barriers.
• In the enclosures where there are continuous flows of water, there may be two
or two series of barriers: one upstream and another downstream.
• The barriers are made of stones, sand, soil or concrete and are provided with
‘SCREENS’.
• These ‘screens’ prevent the escape of the fish stock (Fig. 6).
Fig.6 Bamboo Scaffolding enclosers of different size.

The types of enclosures generally seen are:
(a) Bamboo scaffolding(temporary structure) enclosures used in the bays of

Philippines and in the lakes of China (Fig. 6).
(b) Floating net-enclosures useful for the culture of tilapia and milkfish in lakes.
(Fig.7)
(c) Single-layered pens of nylon webbing.

(d) Double-layered pens suitable for use as nurseries for fish and prawn seeds.
Remark:
The introductions of pen culture in many countries have not met with much success.
This probably is due to the difficulties in the use of intensive techniques and in some
cases due to the high costs of embankments and water management (for example,
through pumping).
The merits of pen culture are:
(i) Intensive utilization of space: As we have mentioned the requirement of a pen

can be small (a few square metres) or large (over 100ha in the case of the largest
milkfish pen), but in all cases the space given is intensively utilized. Even in the
large milk fish pens utilize space intensively and their production is 4 – 10 times
higher than the natural production. We have already referred to the high production
(per unit area) above, that production even in the large pens are much higher, not
only because of the intense culture practices adopted, but also due to other factors
such as protection from predators.
We have referred to the millfish production of 4 tons/ha (average)
without recourse to any feeding. In Norway in the 1.2ha enclosure in Floyoykgolpo,
the production capacity is said to be 150 tons, with intense culture practice (feed)
and maintenance of environmental quality. In any case per square area basis, the
production will be less than for the cages, and the larger the pen generally the lesser
the production.
(ii) Safety from predators: Within the enclosure the predators can be excluded.
Before stocking the predators will have to be removed; in the larger pens this would
be more difficult, but in smaller pens this can be done as efficiently as in the cages
(see also discussion following).
(iii) Suitability for culturing many varied species: Under artificial culture provided
suitable environmental conditions are maintained, with artificial feeds, many
varieties of species can be cultured as in the cage.
(iv) Ease of harvest: Eventhough in the large pens the harvest may not be aseasy
as in the cages, it would be definitely more controllable and easier than in the natural
waters.
(v) The flexibility of size and economy: When compared with the cage, pens can
be made much larger and construction costs will be cheaper than that of the cages.
(vi) Availability of natural food and exchange of materials with the bottom: Since,
as pointed out earlier, the bottom of the pen is the natural bottom, unlike the cage
which kept either on the bottom or floating, has always a netting/ screen seperating
the cage from bottom; the pen culture organisms are at an advantage that while
enclosed they can procure food/exchange materials.
The demerits of pen culture are:
(1) High demand of oxygen and water flow: Since the fish cultured are stocked
in high density they deplete oxygen very fast and a good flow of water through the
pen either by natural means or artificially by pumping is demanded for healthy and
fast growing fishes.
(2) Dependence on artificial feed: Since high density (biomass) is to be sustained

in a restricted area, for high production artificial feeding is necessary, increasing the
cost of production.
(3) Food losses: Part of the feed is likely to be lost uneaten, and drifted away in
the current, but the loss here would be less than in floating cages.
(4) Pollution: Since a large biomass of fish are cultured intensively a large
quantity of excrements accumulate in the area and cause a high POD - also
substances such as ammonia and other excreted materials, if not immediately
removed/ recycled. They pollute the water and cause damages.
(5) Rapid spread of diseases: For the same reason of high stocking density in an
enclosed area, any disease beginning will spread very quickly and can cause
immense mortality of stock and production decline.
(6) Risk of theft: Since the fish are kept in an enclosed area, ‘poaching’ and thefts
can take place more frequently than in natural waters, but perhaps less than those
from cages.
(7) Conflict with multiple use of natural waters: In locations where a pen is
constructed to the requirement of higher water level for eg. in a lake/reservour,
would be against the interest, for eg. for irrigation water supply; enclosures can
interfere with navigational routes and also with recreational activities, such as
swimming, boating etc.
Fig.7 Floating net enclosure.
Requirements of Pen Culture and Site Selection

There are two separate aspects to be considered, one is the requirement of the species
(biological) and the other is the structural requirements of the pen (physical). Both
these in turn are linked with the process of site selection. We have already referred
to the inter-tidal and sub-littoral coastal areas (marine and brackishwater) and also
the shallow freshwater bodies as suitable sites for pen culture.
1 Biological factors:
The enclosure conditions should be suitable to the species to be cultured. Success of
the culture system would depend on the understanding the optimal requirements of
the species. Now even the fast swimming yellow tail and the highly demanding
Atlantic salmon are being cultured in pens.
For better survival and growth rate of the species under culture optimal conditions
of the following factors should be known.
(i) Temperature
(ii) Salinity (brackish waters)
(iii) Oxygen
(iv) Other water conditions (e.g. pollution)
(v) Feeding rate and pattern
(vi) Crowding (stocking density)
(vii) Predator control
(viii) Fouling by algae and mussels
2 Physical (structural) Factors

Those as we pointed out refer to the structural requirements of the enclosure, but it
is hard to distinguish between the interactions of physical and biological factors
involved. As given above some physical problems have already been discussed. The
structural details of the enclosure will be discussed separately. Rightly the physical
requirements will be dealt with under “Site exposure” (see below), but we shall
discuss below general characteristics of ‘site selection’ first and then take up ‘site
exposure’, as dealt by Milne (1979a). Since the general characteristics of the site are
discussed under “cage culture” we shall refer here only to certain salient points
pertaining to pen culture.
3 Site Selection
As observed before, enclosure culture is practiced in the intertidal and sublittoral
areas in the brackish and marine waters and in the shallow freshwater bodies in areas
closer to the shore.
Primarily the hydrography of the waters must be studied to know the
seasonal changes in water temperature, salinity, oxygen content, water currents,
pollution levels etc. If brackish water fish are to be farmed in the intertidal area there
is no need to control salinity, but if the marine froms are to be farmed (e.g. plaice in
Artdoe, Scotland), then salinity has to be controlled. The rainfall from the catchment
must also be assessed, since it is “essential that the fresh water does not become
impounded” in the enclosure (sealed embankment); thus in the intertidal area of the
freshwater draining into it must be diverted.
4 Site Exposure
The site chosen is to be first cleared from the point of view of the biological
requirements of the species to be cultured and now the site should be considered
from the aspect of exposure to winds and waves, and it would be necessary to design
the structures above and below water, adequate to withstand hurricanes and typhoons
as well.
For studying the effect of wind forces on structures above water it is essential
to know the mean hourly wind speeds and maximum gust speeds occurring in the
vicinity of the site - such information is usually available from the meterological
office of the countries concerned.
Types of Pens - Design and Construction

We have referred to the three types of pens earlier (Fig. 2) -i.e. the completely
enclosed pen with net/rigid structures on all four sides in the middle of a bay/open
water in lake without any foreshore; a shore enclosure with a forshore extending to
deepwater surrounded by a net structure (c.f. osland enclosure) and a bay or
lock/fiord enclosure with an embankment or net barrier only at the entrance (of the
bay).
While all the pens would come under the above 3 categories, we can deal with the
design and construction of pens, in a different classification, as indicated below:
Rigid pens
Embanked pens
Net enclosures
Flexible pens (netting)
Outer barrier nets.

The embanked pens and net enclosures have already been referred to under ‘pen
culture in different parts of the world’, but here we shall describe the design
(structural details) and construction more particularly. Under ‘Net enclosures’
material selection, fouling and corrosion will not be dealt with here, as these topics
have been covered under ‘Cage Culture’. However, structural details, and fouling
and other effects will be referred to briefly as pertinent to the points in question;
some mention of these have already been made under ‘Site Selection’. The “outer
barrier nets” will not be discussed separately, but discussion on these is incorporated
under the section on “net enclosures”.

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Pen Culture:

Fig. 5 Diagram of a pen constructed on an enclosed fjord.

Fig.6 Bamboo Scaffolding enclosers of different size.

(a) Bamboo scaffolding(temporary structure) enclosures used in the bays of

(c) Single-layered pens of nylon webbing.

The merits of pen culture are:

(i) Intensive utilization of space: As we have mentioned the requirement of a pen

The demerits of pen culture are:

(2) Dependence on artificial feed: Since high density (biomass) is to be sustained

Fig.7 Floating net enclosure.

Requirements of Pen Culture and Site Selection

(ii) Salinity (brackish waters)

(iv) Other water conditions (e.g. pollution)

(v) Feeding rate and pattern

(vi) Crowding (stocking density)

(vii) Predator control

(viii) Fouling by algae and mussels

2 Physical (structural) Factors

Types of Pens - Design and Construction

Flexible pens (netting)

Outer barrier nets.

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