Ama Thesis218

Kombolcha Institute of Technology
School of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering (process stream)
Title: Production of paper from pseudo banana stem

Section B
Name ID No
Nigus Melese..................................1316/08
Etsay Tumefal.................................0608/08
Seble Mezgebe…............................1399/08
Samrawit Ayene…..........................1477/08
Semaegzabher Belay.........................1427/08
Submission date 16/05/2012 E.C
Submitted to Komah B. (Msc)

Paper production 2012E.C
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, we would like to extend our gratitude thankfulness to almighty GOD for the
opportunity and strength given to us to realize our aspiration. We are indebted to and gratefully
acknowledge to our lecture Komah Berhe who gave us the fundamental principles or thoughts and
guide lines which can help to our project work as well as the formats how to write the project in the
successful way and encouragement, intellectual aspiration even constructive and helpful comments.
Successful and timely accomplishment of the study would have been very difficult without her
charitable time devotion from the beginning to the end of the project. Our families and the land itself
deserve an authentic thankfulness and our heartfelt pray for long lasting peace and prosperity. Let’s
God bless riches to all!
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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......................................................................................................................i
List of figure...................................................................................................................................iv
List of table......................................................................................................................................v
List of Acronyms............................................................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ON..................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
1. Background.............................................................................................................................1
1.2. Problem Statements............................................................................................................2
1.3 Objective...............................................................................................................................2
1.3.1 General Objective..........................................................................................................2
1.3.2 Specific Objective..........................................................................................................2
1.4. Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................2
1.5. Scope of the study...............................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO...............................................................................................................................4
LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................................4
2.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................4
2.2. Raw Materials for Pulp and Paper Production.................................................................5
2.2.1. Raw Material Selection................................................................................................6
2.3. Types of Pulping..................................................................................................................6
2.3.1. Mechanical Pulping......................................................................................................6
2.3.2. Thermo Mechanical Pulping........................................................................................6
2.3.3. Chemical Pulping..........................................................................................................7
2.3.4. Chemo Thermo Mechanical Pulping...........................................................................7
2.3.5. Recycled pulp................................................................................................................8
2.3.6. Organosolv pulping......................................................................................................8
2.3.7. Selection of Pulping Process........................................................................................8
2.4. Factors in Kraft Pulp Yield..................................................................................................8
2.5. Chemical Properties............................................................................................................9
2.6. Kappa Number..................................................................................................................10
2.7. Method of Production.......................................................................................................11
2.7.1. Kraft’s Process............................................................................................................11
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2.8. Recovery process..............................................................................................................12
CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................................14
METHEDOLOGY............................................................................................................................14
3.1. Materials and Equipments Used......................................................................................14
3.2. Chemicals and Reagents Used..........................................................................................14
3.3. Methods and procedures..................................................................................................14
3.4. Characterization of Chemical Composition of Banana Pseudo Stem............................15
3.5. Pulp Yield Determination.................................................................................................17
3.6. Characterization of Banana Stem Paper Properties with other Raw...........................17
Materials...................................................................................................................................17
3.6.1. Tearing Resistance of Paper......................................................................................17
3.6.2. Tensile Properties of Paper.......................................................................................17
CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................................................18
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION................................................................18
4.1. Material Balance................................................................................................................18
4.2. Energy Balance..................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................................23
DETAIL DESIGN AND SIZING OF DIFFERENT EQUIPMENTS...................................................23
5.1. Design of Continuous Flow Reactor................................................................................23
5.2. Evaporator Design............................................................................................................28
CHAPTER SIX................................................................................................................................33
FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS....................................................................................33
6.1. Market Study and Plant Capacity.....................................................................................33
6.2. Cost Estimation.................................................................................................................34
6.2.1. Purchased equipment cost........................................................................................34
6.2.2. Direct cost...................................................................................................................35
6.2.3. Indirect cost................................................................................................................35
6.3. Manpower requirement and annual labor costs............................................................39
CHAPTER SEVEN..........................................................................................................................40
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION...................................................................................40
7.1. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................40
7.2. Recommendation..............................................................................................................42
Reference......................................................................................................................................43
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List of figure
Figure2. 1 Process flow diagram of paper production...................................................................13
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List of table
Table2. 1 Fiber characteristics of banana fiber compared to other general raw materials............10
Table2. 2 Botanical compositions of studied pseudo stem fibers.................................................10
Table5. 1 Data's used for calculation.............................................................................................23
Table6. 1 Paper Consumption in Ethiopia.....................................................................................33
Table6. 2 Purchased equipment cost.............................................................................................34
Table6. 3 Direct cost (3247363.64)...............................................................................................35
Table6. 4 Indirect cost...................................................................................................................35
Table6. 5 Selling price...................................................................................................................38
Table6. 6 Number of man power requirement..............................................................................39
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List of Acronyms
Cp- Specific heat capacity
Tc, in - Temperature in
Tc, out -Temperature out
Q-Amount of heat needed
m- Mass
FCI-Fixed capital investment
TCI-Total capital investment
MAR- Minimum annual return
W- Weight
X1- Amount of product obtained before drying
X2- Amount of product obtained after drying it in oven
CaO- Calcium oxide (lime)
NaOH-Sodium Hydroxide
Na2CO3–Sodium carbonate
NaSO4-Sodium sulphate
DB - dry pulp
DS- dry sample
U-Universal heat transfer coefficient
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ABSTRACT
Now a day, the dependency of mankind on paper has grown to larger extent because of its wide
applications in our day to day activities. Wood is the primary raw material used to manufacture
pulp and paper. But it causes deforestation, So Choosing other alternatives like banana tree waste
is the best solution. The reason behind the selection of banana tree waste as raw material is, in
banana plantations, after the fruits are harvested, the trunks or stems will be wasted. Billion tons
of stem and leaves are thrown away annually. Therefore, it makes sense to turn such waste into a
useful product like pulp by using the concept “from waste to wealth”. The general objective of
this project was to produce pulp from banana tree waste. In this Thesis we have done three
Experiments the first experiment was done as our first trial and for comparison of the two basic
pulping methods i.e. Kraft and soda pulping. In the second experiment we have done two trials
based on Kraft pulping only. The Third experiment consists of parameter characterization using
the results of the second experiment and done in Ethiopian paper and pulp factory laboratory.
When we compare the two processes (i.e. Soda and Kraft) though Soda process requires only one
chemical but in large amounts to effectively break the lignin bonds. Kraft process requires fewer
amounts of different chemicals and also helps in complete lignin molecule breakage. From this
we can conclude that Kraft process is more advantageous. In terms of heat requirement Kraft
process is more advantage, because the cooking liquor is able to break and dissolve the lignin in
it. Soda process is supplied with heat for one hour more and still the cooking liquor could not
effectively digest the lignin. Finally when we compare the pulp that we have produced from the
standard one it was around Seventy percent effective.
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CHAPTER ON
INTRODUCTION
1. Background
Pulp and paper production is one of the high demand sectors in the world of industrial
production. The total global consumption from paper-making was projected to increase from 316
million tons in 1999 and 351 million tons in 2005 to about 425 million tons by 2010 [1].
Progress in pulp and paper technology has overcome most of the related environmental
problems. The environmental problems have brought forth the cleaner technology now involved
in paper making. New raw materials have replaced traditional wood raw materials with non
wood and residual materials, and less polluting cooking and pulp bleaching processes have been
evolved. Cleaner technology is applied to achieve increased production with minimum effect on
the environment, and to save, utilize, and recycle expensive and scarce chemicals and raw
materials. This technology is also called low and non-waste technology [1]. The technology
lessens the disposal costs, stability risks and resource costs results in a reduced burden on the
natural environment and increases profits. New technology is essential for a clean industry, but
this option is largely suppressed because of the costs of the technology required.
Today banana stem is used as a source of raw material for preparation of a paper pulp. This pulp
is used to prepare different types of paper such as tissue, bloating, tracing and writing printing
paper. Banana pseudo stems are easily available and cultivates in large scale at the south western
(SW) region of Ethiopia. In the fields of banana, when fruits are harvesting, the banana stem are
cut off and let it down nearby fields because each banana plant cannot be used for the next
harvest. There are three reason of cutting of stems, the very first reason is that banana stem are
cut off when fruits are harvested, the second reason of cutting off banana stem is due to diseases
(that is because attack of fungi which are grown in result of waste banana stem) and female
banana stem are also cut off after the maturity of male plant. So that a massive organic waste is
produced because the banana stems cannot be used as an animal feed or other alternative. The
waste is then causes of emission of toxic gases including CO 2 and also gives growth to the
harmful fungi which attack on remaining banana trees.
In production of paper through the banana stem, Kraft pulp process is preferred. It is the oldest
and very famous process to prepare a pulp. The Kraft process entails treatment of wood chips
with a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide, known as white liquor, which breaks
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the bonds that link lignin to the cellulose. Was discovered in Germany in 1879 and was first
applied in Swedish mill in 1885 [2].When initially paper was manufactured through the Kraft
process, the paper obtained was much stronger than any paper previously manufactured. A dark
brown pulp is obtained through this process. After that through the bleaching process, a white
pulp is obtained and this pulp gives a very good strength paper.
1.2. Problem Statements
In this modern age, the consumption of paper and boards has increased tremendously.
Conventionally, paper is manufactured from cellulosic materials like bamboo, hardwood, cotton
rags, etc. The ever-increasing demand, especially of the advanced countries has resulted in
continued denudation of forests causing severe environmental imbalances. In this context,
cellulose technologists are searching for alternative raw materials [3].
Agricultural residues of non-woody nature like cotton stalks, wheat straw, rice straw, sorghum
stalks, hemp, jute, etc., are possible raw materials which could be used for paper and board
making. However, all these require to be digested at high temperature and pressure, employing
energy consumptive and costly processes. Thus the search for other raw materials and cost
effective processes continues. One of the materials found to be promising was banana stem
waste, which is a very good source of cellulose. Banana production in Ethiopia is the highest,
and the area under its cultivation is largest and remains is produced from this huge production,
all of which goes waste due to non availability of suitable technology for its commercial
utilization. Taking into consideration the large availability of banana stem waste in the country,
production of paper and thicker varieties of paper from this agro-waste is more attractive.
1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of this project is production of paper from pseudo banana
1.3.2 Specific Objective
The specific objectives of this project are:
 To describe the process description of the production of the paper.
 To do engineering analysis (material and energy balance).
 To calculate economic analysis or cost estimation.
1.4. Significance of the Study

Conventional method of paper making uses cellulose the form of wood chips obtained by felling
trees, which increases global warming moreover in this method chemicals are used this releases
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toxic substances that cause environmental pollutions (air pollutions, water pollutions and noise
pollution) resulting in the need for treatment of water slurry states that for manufacturing of 1 ton
of paper 277 eucalyptus or 462 bamboo plants are required. Moreover 100,000 greeting cards are
save 500 tress [4].The banana pseudo stem accumulated in large quantities cause environmental
pollution and unhygienic conditions. From the banana pseudo stem waste material convert into
useful products to create an eco-friendly environment. This activity not only eco friendly also
create awareness for peoples to change the waste as one source of income.
1.5. Scope of the study
The scope of this project is production of paper from pseudo banana stem and to size the
equipments used, to do or calculate the Engineering analysis (material and energy balance), and
to represent the process description as well as to do economic analysis and cost estimation, we
can conclude and recommended our issue based on the energy analysis and economic analysis.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
Cellulose pulp is produced from hardwood, softwood and agro residues. Hard wood and soft
wood pulping accounts to ~95% of the total worldwide pulp production. The rest 5% pulp comes
from non wood raw materials, mainly agro residues and grasses (Jimenez et al., 2005). India and
China is the major non-wood pulp producers and meets out 45-50% of their pulp requirement
from these raw materials. Forest resources are experiencing increasing pressure due to the
growing world population and improving living standards. Wood is a natural resource and a
major raw material for the manufacture of pulp, paper and other similar products. Although
wood is renewable, the rate at which wood is been used is not commensurate with the rate it is
being replaced. The rate at which forests are declining has been estimated to be 13.0 million
hectares per year in developing countries [5].In many developing countries of the world today,
wood is becoming scarce and expensive because of the heavy dependence on wood for
construction and building purposes, grazing, and conversion of forests to agricultural land to
grow crops and felling of tree for firewood. The ecological damage caused by the continual use
of wood includes deforestation leading to soil erosion, desertification, extinction of certain
species, flooding, drought, climatic change and the disruptions of water and carbon cycle [5].
The obvious solution to this is to use wood sparingly while embarking on the massive plantation
and development of non-wood species. Non-woods fibers are abundantly available and have
become one of the important alternative and supplementary sources of fibrous material for pulp
and paper making in some developing countries like China, India, Thailand and Indonesia [5].
Banana is one of the rhizomatous plants and currently grown in 129 countries around the world.
It is the fourth most important global food crop. Different parts of banana trees serve different
needs, including fruits as food sources, leaves as food wrapping, and stems for fiber and paper
pulp [2]. Banana is an important fruit crop which belongs to the genus Musa. It grows wild and
also cultivated on a large scale as a field crop as well as a backyard crop in households. In India,
banana is cultivated in about 1, 86,000 hectare of land. The plant shows luxuriant growth in rich
well-drained soil with ample moisture and decaying organic matter. It can also flourish on light
sandy or gravelly soil as well as on stiff but well drain clay, if the soil is fertile and facilities for
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irrigation are available [2].In recent years, with the growing shortage of wood from the forest,
the search for alternative fiber producing plant material has been initiated in many countries of
the world. The generation of fast growing high biomass yielding plant is thought to be one of the
solutions to meet the shortage of cellulosic material. However, certain agricultural plants
producing higher biomass are found to be suitable substitute for certain fiber based industries.
Among them banana plant may serve partly as an alternative resource in fiber based industries.
The banana fibers possess good physical strength properties. The higher pentose content together
with gums and mucilage in the sheath of certain species of banana plant may be a suitable source
for producing grease proof paper [2].
2.2. Raw Materials for Pulp and Paper Production
Pulp is one of the most important industries in paper and paper board manufacturing in the
world. Pulp is manufactured from raw materials containing cellulose fibers, generally wood,
recycled paper, and agricultural residues. The demand and use of pulp and paper have marked
the levels of civilization and development of many societies. Ethiopia as a developing country
has significantly very low paper and paper board consumption per capita of 0.43 kilogram
/person /year when compared with the world average of 54.48 kilogram/person/year in 2005 [6].
The demand for pulp and paper fiber resources is largely determined by the society’s dependence
on paper, paper boards and other related products for human welfare. The pulp in society is used
in education, information storage, advertising, communication, in protection, packaging of food
and non-food goods, transportation and security of goods in transit; protection of human health
and sanitation in form of tissues and sanitary paper products. It is interesting to note that some
environment advocates have proposed the use of non-wood fibers in paper making as a way to
preserve natural forests. Both wood and non-wood resources are currently exploited for the
manufacturing of pulp, paper and soft boards. But still the major source of pulp which meets
more than 80% demand is still wood from forests. However scientists all over the world in the
last two decade have been involved in intensive research for the alternative sources of pulp for
paper industry [7].Recently, due to the shortage of wood supplies and the environmental concern
related to deforestation, alternative raw material is needed to supplement or replace wood source
to maintain the pulp industry. Many research and development have been done towards this
issue. In developing countries, about 60% of lignocelluloses fibers originate from non-wood raw
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materials such as biogases (sugar cane fibers), cereal straw, bamboo, reeds, esparto grass, jute,
flax, and sisal [7].
2.2.1. Raw Material Selection
Banana (Musa species) is a very important crop in sub-Saharan Africa, especially Eastern Africa,
where besides consumption as food, bananas have cultural and medicinal values. There are many
types of bananas grown in Africa, but depending on how bananas are utilized, they can be
broadly grouped as, desert banana, cooking banana, beer banana and multipurpose banana. Day
by day banana cultivation is increasing due to its huge demand for food among the mass people.
So, every year colossal amount of banana plant remain as leftover creating environmental
pollution. Waste Banana stem is a very good source of cellulose. It contains 60-65 % cellulose
and 5-10% lignin [2]. Cellulose can be easily separated from lignin without using toxic chemical
during process. Sugarcane Bagasse, Corn stalks, Cotton stalks, Rice straw, Wheat straw, Cereal
straw) except banana stem require to be digested at high temperature and pressure, employing
energy consumptive and costly processes. Based on this reason, and availability of the large scale
of banana stem waste in the country and shortage of raw materials for producing pulp and paper,
it make sense to use waste banana stem for paper making.
2.3. Types of Pulping
2.3.1. Mechanical Pulping
Manufactured grindstones with embedded silicon carbide or aluminum oxide can be used to
grind small wood logs called "bolts" to make stone pulp (SGW). If the wood is steamed prior to
grinding it is known as pressure ground wood pulp (PGW). Most modern mills use chips rather
than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If the chips are just
ground up with the plates, the pulp is called refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) and if the chips are
steamed while being refined the pulp is called thermo mechanical pulp (TMP). Steam treatment
significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage
(cutting) to fibers. Mechanical pulps are used for products that require less strength, such as
news print paperboards [2].
2.3.2. Thermo Mechanical Pulping
Thermo mechanical pulp is pulp produced by processing wood chips using heat and a
mechanical refining movement. It is a two stage process where the logs are first stripped of their
bark and converted into small chips. These chips have a moisture content of around 25-30% and
a mechanical force is applied to the wood chips in a crushing or grinding action which generates
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heat and water vapor and softens the lignin thus separating the individual fibers. The pulp is then
screened and cleaned; any clumps of fiber are reprocessed. This process gives a high yield of
fibred from the timber (around 95%) and as the lignin has not been removed, the fibers are hard
and rigid [2].
2.3.3. Chemical Pulping
Chemical pulp is produced by combining wood chips and chemicals in large vessels known as
digesters where heat and the chemicals break down the lignin, which binds the cellulose fibers
together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibers. Chemical pulp is used for materials
that need to be stronger or combined with mechanical pulps to give product different
characteristics [2].These are of three types mainly:
1. Kraft’s process
The Kraft process (also known as Kraft pulping or sulphate process) is a process for conversion
of wood into wood pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibers. It entails treatment of
woodchips with a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide, known as white liquor,
which breaks the bonds that link lignin to the cellulose. The Kraft process is the dominant
chemical pulping method [2].
2. Sulphite process
The sulphite process produces wood pulp which is almost pure cellulose fibers by using various
salts of sulphurous to extract the lignin from wood chips in large pressure vessels called
digesters. The salts used in the pulping process are either sulfites (SO32−), or bisulphate (HSO3−),
depending on the pH. The counter ion can be Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium or Ammonium [2].
3. Soda Puling
This pulping process is entirely similar to Kraft’s process. The only difference exists is the
cooking chemicals used. In soda pulping process only NaOH or combination of NaOH and
Na2CO3 are used. The quality of pulp obtained in soda pulping is low and used for
manufacturing low grade paper. The amount of bleaching agent required is large as the lignin
content is not effectively removed [2].
2.3.4. Chemo Thermo Mechanical Pulping
Wood chips can be pre-treated with sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphite and
other chemicals prior to refining with equipment similar to a mechanical mill. The conditions of
the chemical treatment are much less vigorous (lower temperature, shorter time, less extreme
pH) than in a chemical pulping process since the goal is to make the fibers easier to refine, not to
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remove lignin as in a fully chemical process. Pulps made using these hybrid processes are known
as chemo thermo mechanical pulps (CTMP) [2].
2.3.5. Recycled pulp
Recycled pulp is also called deinked pulp (DIP). DIP is recycled paper which has been processed
by chemicals, thus removing printing inks and other unwanted elements and freed the paper
fibers. The process is called deinking. DIP is used as raw material in papermaking. Many
newsprint, toilet paper and facial tissue grades commonly contain 100% deinked pulp and in
many other grades, such as lightweight coated for offset and printing and writing papers for
office and home use, DIP makes up a substantial proportion of the furnish [2].
2.3.6. Organosolv pulping
Organosolv pulping uses organic solvents at temperatures above 140 °C to break down lignin
and hemi cellulose into soluble fragments. The pulping liquor is easily recovered by distillation
[2].
2.3.7. Selection of Pulping Process
The pulping process that is used is known as "Kraft pulping" which relies on a combination of
heat, chemicals and mechanical pulping to convert the wood into a smooth, soft pulp suitable for
use in paper making. Kraft pulping is the main pulping process (together with mechanical
pulping) used today [9].
The Kraft process has several advantages:
1. It can be used with virtually all wood species,
2. It can easily handle the extractives in most coniferous wood,
3. The pulp has very good strength (the word 'Kraft' means 'strong' in Swedish),
4. The recovery process for the chemicals is well established.
However, there are also disadvantages:
1. The equipment used for the chemical recovery is extensive and costly to install.
2. Sulphurous compounds, which are odorous in the parts per billion ranges, are formed in the
process.
3. Fairly complicated processes are required for bleaching the pulp
2.4. Factors in Kraft Pulp Yield
1. Wood Species
Wood, an organic raw material, consists of polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicelluloses),
lignin, and extractives. Their concentrations vary substantially among commercial wood species ,
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cellulose, approximately 40–50% of wood; hemicelluloses, 25–35%; lignin, 15–30%;

extractives, 2–10%. The higher the polysaccharide content (especially cellulose) and the lower
the amounts of lignin and extractives, the higher will be the yield of pulp from wood. [10].
2. Wood Anatomy
The physical nature of wood also plays an important role in yield. Large differences exist among
wood species, especially in percentage of “fibers” (the preferred cell type for papermaking)
versus that of less desirable cells. This is compounded by large ranges in the principal wood fiber
dimensions: length, diameter, and cell wall thickness. The higher the percentage of long, narrow
fibers (as opposed to any other cell types) in the wood raw material, the more uniform will be the
pulping enhancing the yield of pulp which ideal for paper is making [10].
3. Chip Size Distribution
In chip size, two things are clear – thickness is the principal dimension of concern in Kraft
pulping, and 2–8 mm thick chips are ideal [10].
4. Chip Quality (Other Than Chip Size)
Many yield-related considerations fall into this category. In mixed-species chip furnishes, the
proportions of the species, each with its own yield potential, will affect overall pulp yield [10].
5. Conventional Pulping Chemistry
Among the primary independent variables of Kraft pulping, high alkali charge, low sulfidity,
high maximum temperature, and high lignin content in the wood are the most dangerous for
inferior yield, potentially reducing the value by several percentage points [10].
6. Mill digester systems
Digester equipment considerations can have a big influence on yield in Kraft pulping. Especially
important are the chip pre-steaming and liquor impregnation steps [10].
2.5. Chemical Properties

The selection of banana stem for various applications is not only related to physical and
mechanical properties but also to the chemical composition. The main constituents of banana
stems are cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin, which amount to over 90% of the total mass. The
minor constituents of banana stems are pentose, ash and others [2].Banana fibers are generally
lignocelluloses material, consisting of helically wound cellulose micro-fibrils in amorphous
matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses. The cellulose content serves as a deciding factor for
mechanical properties along with micro fibril-angle. A high cellulose content and low micro
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fibril angle impart desirable mechanical properties for banana fibers. Lignin's are associated with
the hemicelluloses and play an important role in the natural decay resistance of the
slignocelluloses material.
Table2. 1 Fiber characteristics of banana fiber compared to other general raw materials.
Raw materials Fiber length(mm) Fiber width(mm) Coarseness(mg/m)

Sisal 3 20 0.104
Eucalyptus 1.0-1.1 9.10 0.074
Soft wood 2-3.5 30-45 0.160-0.340
Bamboo 2.7 14 -
Hard wood 0.7-1.6 16-25 0.070-0.12
Banana stem 1.7 31.4 0.15
Source: The data is compiled of information from: (1) Fiber Properties. Philippines Textile
Research Institute (2005), (2) Thailand Textile Institute (2008), and this research experiment
Table2. 2 Botanical compositions of studied pseudo stem fibers.
No Constituents Percentage%
1 Cellulose 60-65
2 Hemicellulose 6-19
3 Lignin 5-15
4 Extractives 3-5
5 Ash 8.63-12
6 Moisture 11.16
Source: International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013.

2.6. Kappa Number
The kappa number is an index used by the pulp and paper industry to express the residual lignin
content in unbleached pulp after cooking. Lignin is responsible for the brown coloration of paper
on service and residual lignin is removed at the subsequent bleaching stage to obtain desired
brightness. Lower residual lignin in pulp content required less amount of bleaching chemicals to
obtain the same brightness of bleached pulp. Therefore, the lignin content must be well known,
so that only a minimum amount of bleach chemicals are used. The higher the lignin content in
the pulp the more is the kappa number. The pulp having high lignin content is termed as hard
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cooked pulp and the pulp with low lignin content as soft cooked pulp. The hard cooked pulp
requires more bleaching chemicals to attain particular brightness compared to soft cooked pulp
[5].
2.7. Method of Production
2.7.1. Kraft’s Process
The Kraft process (also known as Kraft pulping or sulphate process) is a process for conversion
of wood into wood pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibers. It entails treatment of wood
chips with a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide, known as white liquor, which
breaks the bonds that link lignin to the cellulose. The Kraft process is the dominant chemical
pulping method. It involves following operations [9]:
Step 1 - Wood preparation
The bark is removed from in-coming logs, and these are then chipped. Sometimes, the wood
arrives at the plant already chipped, meaning that this step is unnecessary.
Step 2 - Cooking
The wood chips are heated in a solution of NaOH and Na 2S in a pressure cooker, during which
time a lot of the lignin (the reinforcing substance that make tree cells wood hard and 'woody'
rather than soft like those of other plants) is removed from the wood. The pressure is then
released suddenly, causing the chips to fly apart into fibers.
Step 3 - Pulp washing
The pulp is washed with water to wash out the cooking chemicals and lignin from the fiber so
that they will not interfere with later process steps.
Step 4 - Pulp screening
A sieve is used to remove knots and clumped-together uncooked fibers from the pulp.
Step 5 – Bleaching
This is done in two stages. Firstly the pulp is treated with NaOH in the presence of O2. The
NaOH removes hydrogen ions from the lignin and then the O2 breaks down the polymer. Then,
the pulp is treated with ClO2 then a mixture of NaOH, O2 and peroxide and finally with ClO2
again to remove the remaining lignin.
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Step 6 - Paper making

The fibers are mechanically treated to make them bond better to each other(strengthening the
paper), chemicals added to provide special properties such as color or water resistance, and then
the water is squeezed out and the pulp is rolled smooth and dried.
2.8. Recovery process
The excess black liquor is at about 15% solids and is concentrated in a multiple effect
evaporator. After the first step the black liquor is about 20 - 30% solids. At this concentration the
rosin soap rises to the surface and is skimmed off. The collected soap is further processed to tall
oil. Removal of the soap improves the evaporation operation of the later effects. The weak black
liquor is further evaporated to 65% or even 80% solids ("heavy black liquor") and burned in the
recovery boiler to recover the inorganic chemicals for reuse in the pulping process. Higher solids
in the concentrated black liquor increases the energy and chemical efficiency of the recovery
cycle, but also gives higher viscosity and precipitation of solids (plugging and fouling of
equipment). The combustion is carried out such that sodium sulphate is reduced to
sodiumsulphide by the organic carbon in the mixture [2]:
1. Na2SO4 + 2 C → Na2S + 2 CO2
This reaction is similar to thermo chemical sulphate reduction in geochemistry. The molten salts
("smelt") from the recovery boiler are dissolved in process water known as "weak wash". This
process water, also known as "weak white liquor" is composed of all liquors used to wash lime
mud and green liquor precipitates. The resulting solution of sodium carbonate and sodium
sulphide is known as "green liquor", although it is not known exactly what causes the liquor to
be green. This liquid is mixed with calcium oxide, which becomes calcium hydroxide in
solution, to regenerate the white liquor used in the pulping process through an equilibrium
reaction (Na2S is shown since it is part of the green liquor, but does not participate in the
reaction):
2. Na2S + Na2CO3 + Ca (OH) 2 ←→ Na2S + 2 NaOH + CaCO3
Calcium carbonate precipitates from the white liquor and is recovered and heated in a lime kiln
where it is converted to calcium oxide (lime).
3. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Calcium oxide (lime) is reacted with water to regenerate the calcium hydroxide used in
Reaction 2:
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4. CaO + H2O → Ca (OH) 2

The combination of reactions 1 through 4 form a closed cycle with respect to sodium, sulphur
and calcium and is the main concept of the so-called re-caustic zing process where sodium
carbonate is reacted to regenerate sodium hydroxide. The recovery boiler also generates high
pressure steam which is fed to turbo generators, reducing the steam pressure for the mill use and
generating electricity. A modern Kraft pulp mill is more than self-sufficient in its electrical
generation and normally will provide a net flow of energy which can be used by an associated
paper mill or sold to neighboring industries or communities through to the local electrical grid.
Additionally, bark and wood residues are often burned in a separate power boiler to generate
steam [2].
Banana Purificatio Stripping Drying Cutting

stem n
cooking liquor
Steam Evaporatio
Recovery
n Digestion
boiler Water pulp
Recovery
chemicals water
Water bleaching powder
Pape Drying Molding Blending Bleaching Filter &
r washin
g
Figure2. 1 Process flow diagram of paper production
KIOT Page 13
CHAPTER THREE
METHEDOLOGY
3.1. Materials and Equipments Used
The equipment’s used during the experimentations includes muffled furnace is used to determine
the ash content , digital weighing balance is used to measure the weight of the sample ,oven is
used to dry the sample , water bath is used to heat the sample during cooking , heating mantle is
also used to heat the sample during cooking , measuring cylinder used to measure liquids during
cooking liquor preparation, soxh-let apparatus is used to extract the pseudo stem extracts,
cellulose extraction thimble, beaker, scissor, glove, mask, goggles blinder machine ,sieve bucket,
molding frame, pulp screen, cloth, stove ,knife and cooking baker.
3.2. Chemicals and Reagents Used

Chemicals/reagents used in this study are: - ethyl alcohol and toluene was a solvent during
extraction, caustic soda (NaOH) and sodium sulphate (NaSO 4) was used as cooking liquor,
hydrogen per oxide (H2O2) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) was used as bleaching powder, sulphuric
acid and distilled Water was used during characterization process.
3.3. Methods and procedures

Banana pseudo stem, the main raw material for pulp production is available in Ethiopia grows
widely in the southern part. The banana pseudo stem samples used for this study were collected
on April, 2016 from kitofurdisakebele around Jimma town of Oromia region.
Step one: Purification and Size reduction of raw materials. Initially Banana Pseudo stem is taken
and washed several times with water to remove dust and soil particles present on it. Later it is cut
into smaller pieces.
Step two: Drying of the Sample. Since the banana pseudo stem has higher water content the
drying process takes longer time. The sample was dried at 105℃ for 8 hours.
Step three: Digestion. Before the digestion process begins the cooking liquor was prepared by
taking basis as 1000 ml solution of cooking liquor, then 12.5% by weight gives 125g which is
the total weight of all two chemicals required. Compositions of solids are given by wt%. If we
calculate the individual weight of chemicals required, they would give the following.
1. NaOH weight = 0.586 ∗ 125 gram = 73.25 gram.
2. Na2SO4 weight = 0.414 ∗ 125gram = 51.75 gram.
Once the cooking liquor is prepared, 150 gram of dried banana pseudo stem was added in the
KIOT Page 14
1000 and the level was marked. The reason for marking the level is described in next chapter.
Step four: Washing and Filtration: In order to remove the trace lignin in the pulp washing and
filtration was done.
Step five: Bleaching, once filtration and washing was completed the washed pulp was dissolved
in 200ml of water to which 5gram bleaching powder was added to completely remove the brown
color to obtain white paper grade pulp.
Step six: Blending; the blanched pulp with 250 ml of water was added in the blinder and mix 5-
10 minutes.
Step seven: Molding of sheets; a piece of white cloth that has sufficient size to cover the entire
outer surface of the molding frame was taken. Place a neat &wrinkle free cloth over the mesh
(that now has the pulp) in such a way that no gaps, folding or water bubbles occurred in the pulp
formed on the cloth. For each sheet of pulp use different layers of cloths and placed it one over
the other. Once the sheets formed on the cloth or stacked together pressing to remove the water.
Step eight: Drying of the sheets; the sheet was dried by using sun light. The sheet was put in
the sun for a certain period of time until the water completely removed.
3.4. Characterization of Chemical Composition of Banana Pseudo Stem.

I. Moisture content of banana pseudo stem
The collected samples were carried to the workshop, where they were cut in sizes of about 2-3
cm with a cutter, cleaned with water to removed adhered soils, and dried in air. After that take
ten-gram material and allow to dry eight hours in the oven.
%of moisture = (w1 – w2)/w1
Where W1 = gram in wet sample
W2 = gram of dry sample
Hot Water Solubility of Banana stem
Two-gram sample was oven-dried and placed into 200 milliliters Erlenmeyer flask with
100milliliters of water. Samples were then allowed to dissolve for 10 minutes by continuous
starring. After 10 minutes removed the sample and filtered by using filter paper. The residue was
ovendried at 105oC and weighed until a constant weight was obtained. The following formula
was used to obtain the hot-water solubility of banana stem:
Water soluble (%) = 𝖶1−𝖶2

𝖶1 ∗ 100
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Where, w1= weight of oven-dry test specimen (grams).

w2= weight of oven-dry specimen after extraction with hot water (grams).
II. 1% Alkali Solubility
Two gram dried raw materials were extracted with 1% of NaOH solution to remove and
determine the low molecular weight carbohydrates according to the standard method. In this
method an appropriate mass of material was treated with 1 % of hot NaOH solution for one hour,
the extract was evaporated to dryness and the residues determined gravimetrically.
IV. Extractive Substances of Banana pseudo Stem
Ten-gram oven-dried sample was placed into a cellulose extraction thimble. The thimble placed
in a soxlet extraction tube. The boiling flasks containing 2:1 solvent mixture of toluene and ethyl
alcohol respectively were placed on a heating mantle. The extraction was conducted for eight
hours. The following formula was used to obtain the alcohol-toluene solubility content of banana
pseudo stem:
Extractives (%) = 𝖶1−w2 ∗100
𝖶1
Where, W1 = weight of oven – dry test specimen (grams).

W2 = weight of oven – dry extraction residue (grams).
IV. Hemicelluloses in banana by direct extraction with aqueous alkali
One-gram, oven-dried sample of extractive-free banana pseudo stem was placed in a 100
milliliters beaker and 15 milliliters of aqueous NaOH was added slowly while stirring and
mixing well for one hour . The solid residue was then separated from the solution and dried .The
hemicelluloses content calculated by weighting the dry sample.
Hemicelluloses = W1/W2 ∗ 100
Where, W1 is the dry sample after extraction of NaOH.
W2 is the extractive free sample.
V. Klason Lignin in Banana pseudo stem
One-gram, oven-dried sample of extractive-free banana pseudo stem was placed in a 150
milliliters beaker and 15 ml of cold sulphuric acid (72 percent) was added slowly while stirring
and mixing well. The reaction proceeded for two hours with frequent stirring in a water bath
maintained at 20 °C. At the end of second hour the specimen were transferred by washing it with
560 milliliters of distilled water into a 1,000 ml flask, diluting the concentration of the sulfuric
acid to three percent. The flasks were then removed from the water bath and the insoluble
KIOT Page 16
material was allowed for overnight to settle. The contents of the flasks were filtered by. The
residue was washed free of acid with 500 ml of hot tap filter paper and then oven-dried at 105°
C.
After drying weighed until a constant weight will be obtained. The following formula was used
to obtain the lignin content of banana pseudo stem:
Kasonlignin (%) = 𝖶1−𝖶2 100%
∗
𝖶1
Where, W1 is weight of oven dried extractive free sample (grams).

W2 is weight of oven dried residue and crucible (grams).
III. Cellulose Content
Αcellulose = extractive free sample − hemicellulose – lignin content
VI. Ash content
Taking 5 gram of sample and entering in to the furnace at 6000c for 0ne hours.
Ash content (%) = 𝖶1
𝖶2∗ 100%
Where, w1 is the amount of sample use for analysis and w2 is the mass of ash in gram.
3.5. Pulp Yield Determination

The pulp yield was determined by weighing the dry pulp (DB) after digestion and taking samples
(DS) were weighed and dried in an oven at 105°C for 8 hour and divided by the dry pulp.
Dryness% =𝐷𝐵∗ 100
𝐷𝑆
Where, DB = dry pulp

DS= dry sample
3.6. Characterization of Banana Stem Paper Properties with other Raw

Materials
3.6.1. Tearing Resistance of Paper
Procedure: A test specimen is cut to rectangular shape, 63mm length and 26 wide mm. The test
piece was placed in the clamps making sure that any slacks are eliminated. Avoid touching the
test area between the clamps with the fingers. Piece was placed in the clamps making sure that
any slacks are eliminated. Avoid touching the test area between the clamps with the fingers.
3.6.2. Tensile Properties of Paper
Procedure: The sheet specimens were cut into 15 mm wide by 150mm long test pieces. The test
piece was placed in the clamps making sure that any slacks are eliminated. Avoid touching the
test area between the clamps with the fingers.
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CHAPTER FOUR
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION
All the calculation are work based on batch production process .One batch production process
takes 8 hour and also the process begins after the banana pseudo stem fiber is produced from the
banana fiber extractor machine.
4.1. Material Balance

The plant production capacity is 95kg/batch and the annual working time is 300 days. Therefore,
the annual production capacity is about 85.5 tone/year .To achieve this goal, we have expected to
do energy and material balance at each stages of the process. Here we are trying to doing the
material and energy balance calculation for main equipments.
1. Dryer
Dry banana fiber@110°C
Hot air @135°C Air @ 80°C

DRYER
Wet banana stem fiber@ 20°C
Raw material in=1560kg

H2=0.0150
mp1=0.05kg/s
Basis of calculation is 1hr operation
Banana pseudo stem contains 92% initial moisture
Basis of calculation is 1hr operation
Solid contains 92% initial moisture
Mass of dry solid=Ms=1560(1-0.92) =125kg/hr
Moisture in the wet solid=x1=0.92/1-0.92=11.5%
Moisture in the dry solid=x2=0.01/1-0.01=0.0101%
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Water evaporated, Mw=Ms(x1-x2) =1200(11.5-0.0101) =1435kg
2. Digester
For cooking liquor to be prepared chemicals must be taken in right proportions so that effective
cooking would happen. Kraft pulping consists of following chemicals-NaOH and Na2S. These
two chemicals must combine to give total of 12.5% by weight solution. In this 12.5% of solution,
according to Kraft’s pulping solids analysis says−
58.6% is NaOH
41.4% is Na2S
If we take basis as 10000litre solution of cooking liquor, then 12.5% by weight gives 1250kg
which is the total weight of all two chemicals required. Compositions of solids are given by wt%.
If we calculate the individual weight of chemicals required, they would give the following.
NaOH weight = 0.586 ∗ 1250kg = 732.5kg
Na2S weight = 0.414 ∗ 1250kg = 517.5 kg
From the laboratory the yield of brawn stock is 0.88 % of the dry banana stem pseudo stem.
Dry banana pseudo stem 125kg (DB)
Cooking liquor (CL) Brawn stock (BK) (0.88*125)

10000 liters (11134.2kg) Digester
Black liquor (BL)

From the general mass balance
Input − output − consumption + generation = accumulation
By the assuming steady state and no consumption and generation then the simplified energy
balance is;
Input=output
CL+DB=BK+BL
11134.2+125=0.88*125+BL
BL=11149.2kg
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3. Bleaching
Bleaching powder (BC=12.5kg)
Water (W) s BLEACHIN 5000kg

Pulp (P=110kg)
BP=?
W+BC=BP
5000kg+12.5kg+110kg=5122.5kg
4. Washing and Filtration
Water (5000kg)
Washing
BP=5235kg and Effluent=?
filtration
Water pulp=103kg
BP+W=WP+E
5235+5000=103+E=10132kg
5. Pulp Machine
Pulp (p=103kg) PULP 95kg
MACHINE
Water=?
P=W+95kg
W=8kg
Summary of Material Balance Calculation

Unit operations Input Out put
KIOT Page 20
Dryer 1560kg 1436.24kg+125kg

Digester 125kg+11134.2kg 110kg+11149.2kg
Bleaching 110kg+12.5kg+5000kg 5122.5kg
Washer 5235kg+5000kg 103kg
Pulp machine 103kg+10132kg 95kg+8kg
4.2. Energy Balance

1. DRYER Dry banana @ 110°C
Tunnel
Hot air@120°C Hot air @80°C
DRYER
Banana stems @20°C

Now enthalpy of different streams (suppose reference temperature=0°C) and CP of banana fiber
is 0.874kj/kg.
Mp1=0.05kg/s
MsH2+Mpx1=MsH1+Mpx2
1kg/s*0.015+0.05kg/s*11.5=1.2*H1+0.05kg/s*0.0101, H1=0.49kg/s
Hp1 = [CPs + (4.187) x1] [Tp1 – 0] = [0.874 + (4.187)11.5] [20– 0]
= 980.03kj/kg dryer
Hp2 = [CPs + (4.187) x2][Tp2 – 0] = [0.874 + (4.187)0.0101][110 – 0]
= 101kj/kg dry solid
Hs1 = [1.005 + (1.88) 0.015] [120– 0] + (0.015) (2500) = 161 kj/kg
Hs2 = [1.005 + (1.88)0.49][80 – 0] + 0.49(2500) = 154.1 + 1225 = 1379.1kj/kg
The energy balance equation
MsHs2 + Mp1Hs1 = Mp2Hp2 + MsHs1
Where, Mp1= 0.05 kg/s
Mp2= 0.05kg/s
Ms*161.5Kj/kg +0.05kg/s*980.03kj/kg=0.05kg/s*101kj/kg +Ms*1379.1kj/kg
KIOT Page 21
Ms= 0.036kg/s
2. Energy Balance on Digester

cooking liquor @ 25°C
Stem @ 135 °C Digester stem @ 60°C

Dry banana@80°C brawn pulp@ 90°C
Black liquor @ 90°C
By assuming steady state energy balance and also the term of consumption and generation are
zero.
By using reference temperature= 0°C
Ms= 1kg/s
Mdb= 0.35kg/s
Mb= 0.03kg/s
Mc= 2kg/s
Mbl=?
Input= out put
Ms ∗ hfg + Mdb ∗ Cpdb ∗ (80 − 0) + Mc ∗ Cpcl ∗ (25 − 0)
= Ms ∗ hfg + Mb ∗ Cpb ∗ (90 − 80) + Mbl ∗ Cpbl ∗ (90 − 25)
1kg/s ∗ 2159.16Kj/kg + 0.35 ∗ 0.874kj/kgk ∗ 80 + 2kg/s ∗ 3.81kj/kgk ∗ 25
= 1kg/s ∗ 2358.89kj/kg + 0.03kg/s ∗ 0.0874kj/kgk ∗ 10 + Mbl
∗ 3.74 kj/kgk ∗ 652374.132 = 2358.91622 + 243.1Mbl
Mbl= 0.063kg/s
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CHAPTER FIVE
DETAIL DESIGN AND SIZING OF DIFFERENT EQUIPMENTS
5.1. Design of Continuous Flow Reactor
Table5. 1 Data's used for calculation.
Name Volume (liter) Mass (kg) Density (g/cm3) Molecular weight

(kmol/kg)
Cooking liquor 10000 - - -
NaOH - - 2.13 40
NaSO4 - - 2.7 119.06
Banana pseudo - 125 1.35 751.47
stem
Rate equation based on the removal of lignin content

dl/dt = −kCiL
k = koe − E/RT
For Kraft pulping
k = e (B − A/T)
= e (43.2 − 16113/363.15)
= 0.32
Basis
FAo = 27.8kg/hr
The amount of lignin in the raw material is 0.14 % of the total flow rate so,
FLo = 4 kg/hr
dl/dt = −kCiL
𝐿𝑜
ln ( ) = 𝑘𝐶𝑖𝑡
𝐿
Where, Ci = [NaOH] + [NaSO4]/2

Ci = 2.05 mol/L
ln 17.5 − ln(𝐿) = 2.46
L= 1.5
-rA= 0.3*2.05*1.6= 0.988 ≈ 1
Conversion= 0.95 of lignin is removed
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V= 4(0.95)/0.988
= 3.8m3
2. Mechanical Design of Reactor
Volume of the reactor = V = 3.8 m3.
Assuming L/D = 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷2/4(L)
⇒ Diameter, D = 3√( 4𝑉 = [4 x 3.8 / (3 π)] = 1.6 m

3ℎ)
⇒ Height, L = 3 ∗ D = 3 ∗ 1.6 = 4.8 m

Turbine agitator design
We use 4 blade turbine agitators. The diameter of impeller varies from 30 to 50 % of tank
diameter.
Assuming that turbine operates at 120 rpm.
Diameter of reactor = 1.6 m
Diameter of agitator= 0.34 * 2.4= 0.544 m
i.e. using 34% of diameter of reactor as impeller diameter.
Density of mixed cooking liquor and chips ρ= 2060kg /m3
Viscosity of mixture, μ = 5cp
NRe = ρ ND2/ μ = [2060 ∗120/60∗ [0.544]2/ 5 ∗ 10-3= 243,851.264 > 10,000. From M.V .Joshi,
process equipment design, 2nd edition
From power curve, Np = 6.1 for Reynolds number> 10,000
From equation 14.1
Power, pc = NP ρ N3 D5/(gc* 75)= (6.1 * 2060 * (120/60)3)* (0. 5445)) / (9.81 * 75)= 6.51ℎp
Gland loss (10%) = 0.651 hp
Power in put = 6.51 + 0.651 = 7.161 hp
Transmission system losses (20%) = 7.161* 0.2 = 1.43 ℎp
Total hp= 7.161 + 1.43 = 8.6ℎp
This will be taken as10 hp to allow for fitting losses
∴ It is advisable to use 10 hp motor.
KIOT Page 24
Shaft Design
Continuous average rated torque on the agitator shaft
Tc = (hpx 75 x 60)/ (2πN)
= (10 x 75 x60)/ (2π x120)
= 59.7kgm
Polar modulus of the shaft cross section is
Zp=Tm/fs
Where Tm is maximum torque=1.5Tc=89.52kgm
Fs-shear stress-550kg/cm2
Zp= (1.5x89.52x100)/550
=24.42cm3
πD3 /16=24.42
d=5cm
Torque Tm is resisted by force Fm acting at a radius of 0.75Rb from the axis of agitator shaft.
Where, Rb is radius of blade.
Force, Fm=Tm/0.75Rb
Fm= (1.5x89.52x100)/ (0.75x25)
= 716.16 kg
Maximum bending momentum
M = Fmxl
Where, l is length of overhang of agitator shaft between bearing and agitator.
Let l=1500mm
∴ M = 716.16x 1.5 = 1074.24kgm
Equivalent bending moment
Me= 1/2(M + √M2 + Tm2)
= 1/2(1074.24kgm + √1074.2 + 89.522
= 584.8kgm
The stress due to the equivalent bending
F = Me/Z
Z =π (5)3/32 (modulus of section of the shaft cross section)
Z = 12.3cm3
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∴ f = (584.8x 100)/12.3
= 4568.75 kg/cm2
Stress f is higher than the permissible elastic limit (2560 kg/cm2). Therefore use 16cm diameter
shaft for which the stress will be,
f = 2360 kg/cm
Deflection of shaft
δ = (wl3) / (3 EI) [w = Fm]
Where E is the modulus of elasticity = 19.5 x 105 kg/cm2 =19.5x105kg/cm2
∴ δ = [716.16 (150)3]/[3 x 19.5 x 105x (π x 164)/64]
= 0.13 cm
Critical speed, Nc = (4.987 x 60) /√ δ
= 843.9 rpm
Speed is 15% of the critical speed
Thickness of reactor vessel
Allowable stress value, f = 1130 kg/cm2 (up to 500 C for carbon steel)
Thickness of reactor, t= (PD)/ [(2fj) − P] + C
Where, j , joint efficiency = 0.85
P, is the design pressure
P = 1.1 P actual
= 1.1 x 1.05
= 1.156 kg/cm2
f– Stress in crushing of key (for carbon steel it is = 1300 kg/cm2)
∴ t = (1.156 x 1600)/ [(2 x 1130 0.85) − 1.156] + 3
= 4.44 mm with corrosion allowance
Design of reactor head
Using flat head
Thickness of head, t = (CD/10) X (√ (P/f))
Where, C is taken as 0.5
(from table 3.27, IS 2825 – 1969)
∴ t = (0.5 x 1600/10) x (1.156 x 100/1130)0.5
= 25.6mm
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= 27.6mm with mm allowance of corrosion.

Conical bottom thickness
(Th = PD / (2 xfxjx (cos 𝛼 ))
Where α = 60 / 2
= 30°
∴ Th = 1.156 x 1600 / (2 x 1130 x 0.85 xcos 30°) + C
= 1.1 + 3
= 4.1 mm with corrosion allowance.
Nozzle diameter for banana pseudo stem inlet:
Feed rate of banana pseudo stem = 28kg/hr.
= 7.8 ∗ 10-3 kg/s
Assuming velocity, v1 = 0.01 m/s
Area of nozzle = mb/ (v1 x ρb)
Where mb is mass flow rate of banana stem
V1 is the velocity of banana stem
ρb is density banana stem = 1350 kg/m3
∴ Area of the nozzle, A = 7.8 ∗ 10-3 / (0.01 x 1350)
= 0.01053 m2
Diameter of nozzle = [(0.01053 x 4) / π] 1/2
Dn = 0.32m (using diameter of 45 cm)
Thickness of the nozzle
Th = PDn / (2Fj− P)
= 1.156 x 450/[( 2 x 1130 x 0.85) – 1.156]
= 0.27 + 3 mm = 3.27 mm
Cooking liquior inlet nozzle diameter:
Mass flow rate of a cooking mixture:
mc = 2474.27kg/hr = 0.7kg/s
Velocity, v2 = 0.01 m/s assuming
Density of mixture, ρ = 1933.3 kg/m^3
∴ Area of nozzle = mc / (ρv2)
= 0.7 / 1933.3 x 0.01
= 0.04 m^2
KIOT Page 27
Diameter of nozzle = (0.04x 4 / π) ^ (1/2)

DW = 23 cm
Thickness of the nozzle
Th = PDw/ (2fj− P) + C
= 1.156 x 230 / (2 x 0.85 x 1130 – 1.156) + C
= 0.14 + 3
= 3.14 mm
5.2. Evaporator Design

Thermal Design consideration
Assumption to calculate Mass and Energy Balances
1. There is no leakage or entrainment
2. The flow of non-condensable is negligible
3. Heat loss from the evaporator System is negligible
Universal heat transfer coefficient
U-is taken – Table 16.1 page 475(1)
Table 9.2 page (2)
From table
U1 = 2270J/m2s
U2 = 2000J/m2s
U3 = 1420J/m2s
Assume
1. No boiling point elevation
2. Equal heat transfer in each effect.
3. Neglect sensible heat
Given
XF= 14% TS = 100°C
XP = 65% T3 = 80°C
Feed rate = 11,1654.45kg/8hr = 1395.7kg/hr.
Solid in the feed = 0.14 ∗ 1395.7kg/hr. = 195.398kg/hr.
Liquid in the feed= (1 − 0.14) ∗ 1395.7kg/hr. = 1200.302kg/hr
Product out = 65% solid
KIOT Page 28
MASS BALANCE
Gf X f = GpXp – component mass balance
Gp = GFXF/XP = 1395.7kg/hr ∗ 0.14/0.65
= 195.398/0.65
= 300.613077kg/hr.
Water out with the product = 300.613077kg/hr (1 − 065)
= 105.2143077kg/hr.
From general mass balance
Gf = Gp + v (where v = flow rate of vapor leaving the evaporator, kg/hr.)
V = Gf − Gp = 1395.7 − 300.613077
= 1095,086923 kg/hr.
Mass Balance Summary
Solid Liquid Total
Feed 195.395 1200.302 1395.7
Product 19.395 105.214077 300.613077
Evaporation 1095. 086923
Total evaporation rate in three effects (ms1 + ms2 + ms3)
Water in = 1395.7 − 0.14 ∗ 1395.7
= 1200.302kg/hr.
Total evaporation rate in three effects = ms1 + ms2 + ms3
= 1200.302 – water out with the product
= 1200.302 − 105.2143077
= 1095.089623kg/hr.
Allow equivalent areas to the three affects
A1 = A2 = A3
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = U1A1ΔT1 = U2A2ΔT2 = U3A3ΔT3
U1ΔT1 = U2ΔT2 = U3ΔT3
U1/U2 = U2/U3
Total = ΔT1 + ΔT2 + ΔT3 = 120°C − 80°C= 40°C
Then ΔT1 (1 + U1/U2 + U1/U3) = 40°C
ΔT1 = 40/1 + U1/U2 + U1/U3= 40/1 + 2270/2000 + 2270/1420
KIOT Page 29
40/1 + 1.135 + 1598591549 = 40/3.733591549

ΔT1 = 10.713544710°C
ΔT2 = ΔT1 (U1/U2) = 10.713544 Temperature of the vapor leaving effect1
Tb1 = 120°C − 10.71354471°C = 109.286455℃
Latent heat vapor generated in effect1 at 109.28645
From stem table hs =
The correlation given, hs = 2499.5698 − 2.204864Ts − 2.304 ∗ 10 – 3Ts
Tb_2 = Tb_1 − T_2 = 109.2864552℃ − 12.15987325℃ = 97.12658195℃
Tb_3 = 97.12658195℃ − 17.12658℃ = 80℃
Consideration
Assumption to Calculate
7(2270/2000) = 12.159873250°C
ΔT3 = ΔT1 (U1/U3) = 10.7135447(2270/1420) = 17.126582040°C
= 2499.5698 − 2.204864TS − 2.304 ∗ 10 – 3TS2
hs = 2210.80852KJ/Kg-1
hs1 = 2231.090138KJ/Kg − 1
hs2 = 2263.683944KJ/kg − 1
hs3 = 2308.43508CKJkg – 1
ENERGY BALANCE FOR EFFECT ONE
MfHf+ Msxs = (MF – MS1) H1+Ms1Hs2
Equating the quantities evaporated in each effect and neglecting the sensible heat changes W1,
W2, W3 are respective quantities evaporated in effect 1,2and 3 and WS is the quantity of steam
condensed per hour in effect 1, then w1∗ 2231.090138 ∗ 103 = w2∗ 2263.683944 ∗ 103
= w3 ∗ 2308.43508 ∗ 103
= ws ∗ 2201.80852 ∗ 103
The sum of quantities evaporated in each effect must equal the total evaporated in all three effect
so that w1+w2 + w3 = 1095.086923
w2 = w1 (0.985601432)
w3= w1 (0.966494642)
(1 + 0985601432 + 1.010258422) w1 = 1095.086923
KIOT Page 30
w_1 = 365.53kg /hr.

w_2 = 360.2702703kg/hr.
w_3 = 353.2827868kg/hr.
w_s = 370.3911447kg/hr.
= M_f H_f + MsHs = (m_s1 − ms1) H_1 + MS_1 Hs1 = U_1 A_1 Δ T_1
First find steam consumption
W_S = 370.3911447kg/hr. to evaporated 1095.086923kg/hr.
That is = 370.3911447kg/hr steam/1095.86923kg/hr water evaporated
0.34kg steam/kg water evaporated
HEAT EXCHANGER SURFACE
Writing a heat balance on the first effect
Heat evaporated water per hour = heat supplied = U1A1ΔT1
w_1 ∗ HS_1 = U_1 A_1Δ T_1 = 365.53kg/hr ∗ 2231.290138 ∗ 〖10〗^3
= 2270 ∗ A1 ∗ 10.71354471℃
A1 = 226,536.2162/2270 ∗ 107135441
= 9.32m2
Total area = A1 + A2+ A3 = 27.96m2
Tube Details
Let as select 11/4 inch nominal diameter so schedule brass tube of 12ft in length
Outer tube diameter (do) = 42.16mm
Inner tube diameter (di) = 32.46mm
Tube length (L) = 3.6576mm
Surface area each tube (a) = πdoL = π∗ 42.16 ∗ 10 − 3 ∗ 3.6576 = 0.4845m2
Number tubes required (Nt) = A/a = 9.31m2/0.4845m2 = 19.22
Tube pitch (triangular), Pt. = 1.25 ∗ do = 1.25 ∗ 42.16mm = 52.71mm
Total area occupied by tube = Nt ∗ (1/2) ∗ PT2 ∗ sin 𝜃
= 20 ∗ 0.5 ∗ (53 ∗ 10 ∗ −3)2 ∗ 0.866
= 0.02165m2
This area is generally divided by factor when varies from 0.8 to 1 to find out the actual area .this
allows for position adjustment of peripheral tube are those can’t be too close to tube sheet edge.
KIOT Page 31
Actual area required = 0.02165/0.8 (0.8 is selected)

= 0.03m2
The central down corner area is generally taken as 40 to 70 % of the total cross sectional area of
tube .consider 50% of the total tube cross sectional area of tube .Consider 50% of the total tube
cross sectional area.
Therefore down comer area = 0.5 ∗ (Nt ∗ π/4 ∗ do2)
= 0.5 ∗ (20 ∗ π/4 ∗ (0.04216)2
= 0.014m2
Down comer diameter = 4 ∗ 0.014/π = 0.0178m
Total area of tube sheet in evaporated = down comer area + area copied by tubes
= 0.03 + 0.014
= 0.044m2
0.0 44
Tube sheet diameter = 4 ∗ = 0.056m
ℎ
KIOT Page 32
CHAPTER SIX
FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
6.1. Market Study and Plant Capacity
A. Market Study
1. Past supply and Present Demand
Paper has become an important necessity of our day to day life. Modern life depends on paper
and millions of tones of it are made and used each year. The range of possible uses of paper is
limitless and new ways of using it are being devised daily. We use paper for news prints,
magazines, writing, printing, packaging, sanitary purpose and household uses. Books, exercise
books, report cards, receipts, envelops greeting cards, calendars, diaries, wall papers, toilet
tissue, towels are a few among the usages of paper.
The supply of paper in Ethiopia is dominated by imported products. The only paper producing
factory in Ethiopia is Ethiopian Pulp and Paper Share Company which is located at Wonjj. This
factory has a production capacity of 8,000-10,000 tones, annually. Due to the limited production
capacity of the country's sole producer of paper, the country imports a large quantity of paper
from oversees [17].
Table6. 1 Paper Consumption in Ethiopia
Year Domestic Import Total
1988 7489 20313 27802

1999 10420 160612 171032
2000 5143 413432 418561
2001 6144 100302 106446
2002 7719 32216 39935
2003 6683 35926 42609
Source: Ethiopian pulp and paper share company
KIOT Page 33
2. Plant Capacity
From the technical point of view, a small-scale paper mill is one, which has a minimum capacity
per day. Accordingly, considering the demand projections worked out in the market study
section, it is proposed that a plant with a daily capacity of 285 kg per day is recommended.
This is equivalent to 85,500kg per year. Production capacity is based on a schedule of 300
working days per annum and 3 shifts of eight hours per day.
6.2. Cost Estimation

6.2.1. Purchased equipment cost
Table6. 2 Purchased equipment cost
No Equipment list Cost ($) No.(set) 20% salvage

Value
1 Raw material 5700 1 1140
preparation
tank(washer)
2 Banana stem 4325 1 865
Size reduction
Machine
3 Dryer 30000 1 6000
4 White liquor 27600 1 5520
Tank
5 Pulpier(digester) 37600 1 7520
6 Pulp washer 4200 1 840
7 Black liquor 28100 1 5620
Tank
8 Bleaching tank 21800 1 4360
9 Washing and 23000 1 4600
filtration tank
10 Blender 25200 1 5040
11 Head box (flow 4200 1 840
box)
12 Pulp drainer 12000 1 2400
Machine
13 Sheet equipment 4000 1 800
14 Handling 6500 1 1300
Equipment
15 Paper Cutting 5400 1 1080
Machine
16 Evaporator 95600 1 19120
17 Boiler 548000 1 109600
18 Centrifugal 9800 2 1960
Pump
Total 893025 17 178605
KIOT Page 34
The average price of capital investment component of both direct and indirect cost
Calculate capital investment by using total purchased equipment.
Purchased equipment cost = 893025
Capital investment (CI) ∗ 27. 5% =893025$
CI = 893025/0.275 = 3,247,363.64$
6.2.2. Direct cost
Table6. 3 Direct cost (3247363.64)
Component % capital Price in $

Investment
Purchased equipment 27.5 893025
Purchased equipment 10 324,736.4
installation
Instrumentation and 5 162,368.182
control
Electrical 11.5 373446.82
Piping (installed) 6 194,841.82
Building (installed) 10.5 340,973.2
Yard improvement 3.4 110,410.4
Service facility 14 454,630.1
Land 1.5 48,710.5
Total direct cost 2,903,142.4
6.2.3. Indirect cost
Table6. 4 Indirect cost
Component % capital Investment Price in $

Engineering and 12.5 405930.455
supervision
Cost expense 10 324736.4
Contractors fees 4 129893.5456
Contingency 10 324736.4
Total indirect cost 1,185,297.801
KIOT Page 35
Total fixed capital investments = total direct cost + total indirect cost
= 2903142. 4 + 1185297. 801
= 4088440. 223$
Total capital investment = working capital cost + total fixed cost
TCI =WC + TFC
Taking total working cost =15%TCI
TCI = 0. 15TCI + TFC
TCI (1−0. 15) = 4088440. 223$
TCI = 4088440. 223$/ 0. 85
= 4, 809, 929. 674$
Therefore TWC =4, 809, 929. 674$ = 721489. 45 $
A. Direct production cost (60% total production cost)
1. Raw material cost (RM) = 10% TPC
=0. 1∗TPC
2. Operating labor (OL), =10% of TPC
=0. 10∗TPC
3 .Direct supervisory and clerical labor, taking 10% of operating labor
= 0. 1 (0. 1 ∗TPC)
4. Utilities (U), 10% of TPC,
0. 10∗TPC
5. Maintenance and repairs, 2% of FCI
0. 02∗FCI=0. 06 ∗ 2903142. 4$ = 58062. 85$
6. Operating supplies, 10% of maintenance and repairs
0. 10∗58062. 85$=5806. 2848$
7. Laboratory charges, =10% operating labor
= 0. 1∗ 5806. 2848
= 580. 63$
8. Patent and loyalties, = 3%TPC
=0. 03TPC= $
FROM THE ABOVE
0.1TPC +0. 1TPC +0. 1(0. 1TPC) +58062. 85+5806. 284+580. 63+0. 03TPC
KIOT Page 36
TPC= 247883. 7$
So; 1. 0.1 TPC= 24788. 37$
2. 0. 1(0. 1TPC) = 2478. 834$
3. 0. 03TPC = 7436. 5$
Total direct production cost =148730.2$
B.Fixed charge (10 – 20% OF total product cost)
1. Straight line depreciation
FCI = 2903142. 4$
Salvage value= 178605 $
Useful life = 15 year
Depreciation = FCI − Salvage value / 15
= 2903142. 4−178605/ 15
= 181635. 8$
2. Local taxes (1 −4% of fixed − capital investment)
Since our country is a developing county and have a policy to promote local entrepreneur
without local tax
3. Insurance (0.4 −1% of fixed Gross profit)
0. 5∗10−3∗ 2903142. 4 = 14515. 7$
4. Rate (8−12% of value of rented and building)
0. 08 ∗ (389683. 7) = 31174. 7$
Total fixed charge = 227326$.
C. Plant over head costs
5 %TPC = 0. 05 ∗ 247883. 7
= 1 2394. 2$
General expenses = administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + Research and
development cost
A. Administrative costs (2−6% of total product cost).
5 %TPC = 0. 05∗247883. 7 = 12394. 2$
B. distribution and selling costs (2−20% of total product cost)
5 % TPC = 0. 05 ∗TPC = 12394. 2$
KIOT Page 37
C. Research and development cost (2−5 % of every sales dollar or about 5% of total product
cost).
5%TPC = 0. 05∗TPC = 12394. 2$
D. Financing (interest) (0−10 % of total capital investment) = 0
Total general expenses =37182.555 $
Manufacturing cost = 148730.2 +227326+12394.2
=388450.4$
Total product cost = Manufacturing cost + general expenses
= 388450. 4 + 37182. 555
= 425632.4$
Selling price
Total income = selling price of product + production capacity
Total expense = Manufacturing cost + general expenses =TPC
Table6. 5 Selling price
Product Quantity (KG) Single price $ Total price $

Paper 85500 kg 4$ 320,625
Activated carbon 1,755,999kg 2.7$ 4741197.3
Total - 5061822.3
Gross earnings
Total income = 5061822. 3$
Total expense = 425632. 4$
Gross profit= 5061822. 3– 425632. 4 = 4636189. 9$
Profit tax (34%) =0. 34∗3933790. 6$ = 1576304. 6$
Net profit after tax = Net profit before tax − profit tax (34%) =
=4636189. 9−1576304. 6
= 3059885. 334$
Rate of return
A) Before tax
ROR = Gross profit / Total capital investment ∗ 100%
= 4636189. 9/ 4809929. 7∗ 100% = 96%
B) After tax
KIOT Page 38
ROR = Net profit after tax / Total capital investment ∗100

= 3059885. 334/ 4809929. 7∗100 =63. 6%
Pay out period in year = (deprtiable FCI) / (Net profit + deprsiation)
= 4088440. 223$ / (3 059885. 334$+181635. 8$)
= 1. 5 year
Break-even point
The point where the total product cost equals to the total income is known as the Break-even
point
Break-even point analysis = FCI / (total product cost – WCI)
= 4088440. 223/ (5061822. 3−721489. 4) ∗100 = 94
6.3. Manpower requirement and annual labor costs

Table6. 6 Number of man power requirement
NO Description Req. no Monthly salary In $ Yearly salary In$

1 General manager 1 200 2400
2 Production technical manager 1 175 2100
3 Financial, administration manager 1 150 1800
4 Accountant 1 80 960
5 Sales person 1 80 960
6 Purchaser 1 60 720
7 Secretary 2 120 2880
8 Production Forman 3 70 2520
9 Chemist 1 100 1200
10 Operator 3 80 2880
11 Electrician 1 100 1200
12 Unskilled labor 3 30 1080
13 Guard 3 30 540
14 Driver 2 50 2400
Tota 1325 23640
l
KIOT Page 39
CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
7.1. Conclusion
This work was intended to study the chemical composition of the raw material, the influence of
pulping parameters (active alkali (soda), cooking temperature, and time on the pulp yield and
characterization of paper Sheets Properties of banana pseudo stem pulp. Variability of these
operating conditions was the pre-dominant factors for the pulp yield and quality of banana
pseudo stem pulp. There are different methods of pulping from pseudo banana stem. In this
work, Kraft pulping method was used. In Kraft pulping the liquor used for the pulping was
NaOH and NaSO4 solution. In this study based on the analysis of experimental results, it is
realized that the individual factors and their interaction effects are significant model terms on
pulp yield and quality of paper. The maximum pulp yield and high quality of paper achieved
under the optimum conditions; at the active alkali of (12.5%), cooking temperature of 90℃ and
the cooking time of 240 minute. The observed quantitative difference in the quantity and quality
of the pulp was due to active alkali, cooking temperature and time variability. Thus,
determination of the appropriate amount of the active alkali, optimal temperature and time for
the recommended particle size needs to have a consideration to get the maximum amount of the
required product. After the engineering analysis and economic analysis and there are certain
conclusions made and listed below. They are:
1. Though Soda process require only one chemical but in large amounts to effectively break the
lignin bonds. Kraft process requires fewer amounts of different chemicals and also helps in
complete lignin molecule breakage. From this we can conclude that Kraft process is more
advantageous.
2. In terms of heat requirement Kraft process is more advantage, because the cooking liquor is
able to break and dissolve the lignin in it. Soda process is supplied with heat for one hour more
and still the cooking liquor could not effectively digest the lignin.
3. Pulp obtained after washing is added with bleaching agent. The amount of bleaching agent
required is more in Soda process when compared to Kraft process. So, the banana pseudo stem
pulp obtained in Kraft process can be used for high grade paper production. The banana pseudo
stem pulp obtained by Soda process can be used for low grade paper production. But the
discussion here is about the packing paper, so, the pulp must be entirely lignin free, because it
KIOT Page 40
acts as an impurity and may vary the conditions of the packed material. By this we can conclude
that Kraft process is safer.
4. Finally, coming to the yield, from the observations Kraft process gave more pulp for fixed
amount of raw material when compared with Soda process. So, Kraft process is more
advantageous. From the above observations we conclude that Kraft Process is safer and more
efficient based on yield.
The potential use of banana pseudo stem that it is a fast growing plant, with short harvesting time
and good chemical composition properties make it cost effective and sustainable feedstock for
pulp and paper production. Based on the studies conducted, it was found that the paper
mechanical properties for the optimum condition (12.5% of alkali charge, 270 minutes and 90°C
of pulping temperature) are as follows. Tensile strength and tearing resistances are 72 N and 20.9
N respectively. It can be concluded from these findings that comparable moderate strength paper
can be produced from banana pseudo stem pulp with more environmentally friendly pulping
process. Finally it can be concluded that banana pseudo stem has a great potential for substitution
of imported pulp in paper and paper products processing industry.
KIOT Page 41
7.2. Recommendation
First of all in this project work the age, position and site effects of the banana pseudo stem on the
pulp yield and quality of paper has not been studied. This is due to the internet constraint during
this project work and. Next, not only the pseudo stem of banana but also the leaf stalk (leaf) and
peduncle (kadhi) are used to produce paper by doing further analysis. Third, the high ash content
in of banana pseudo stem could make problematic for pulp processing, but it is possible to
reduce cultivating banana in fertile soil. Considerable amount of α-cellulose content, low lignin
content and high fiber length inside the pseudo banana stem were the advantageous property for
papermaking. Fourth, the thickness, uniformity and bleach ability of the banana pseudo stem
paper is possible to do looks like the imported paper for writing purpose by using the standard
paper machine and chemicals. At last but not the end converting waste into a resource in the
paper factory is the most crucial thing because the factory itself produce electricity by using the
waste cooking liquor (black liquor) to generate a stem in the chemical recovery process and also
the lignin inside the black liquor used to make lignin based activated carbon (adsorbent) by using
simple physical process. Finally we recommended that since the banana pseudo stem waste is the
promising raw materials for paper production it is better to use rather than polluting the
environment. The higher pentose content together with gums and mucilage in the sheath of
certain species of banana plant may be a suitable source for producing grease proof paper.
KIOT Page 42
Reference
[1] Waranyou, S, March 15, (2010). 'The Environmental Benign Pulping Process of Non -
Wood Fibers'
[2] Jaya, B, Reddy, M, Sairam, M, and Anudeep, N, (2014). 'Production of Pulp from Banana
Pseudo Stem for Grease Proof Paper'. International Journal of Engineering Research And
General Science Volume 2, Issue 1.
[3] Sabharwal, H. S., And R. A. Young; (1996).'International Agro-Fiber Research Initiative',
Tappi 79(12): 66-67.
[4]Taramani, C, December, 2010.’Eco-Friendly Handmade Paper Production’,
ShriAmmMuruGappaReasearch Center December
[5] Amsalu, T, June 2015.'Chemical Pulping Of OxytenantheraAbyssinicaBamboo'
[6] WRI, 2005.'Resource Consumption: Paper and Paper board Consumption Per capita
(kg/person/Year)', Earth Trends (Http://earthtrends Wri.Org)
[7] Mudit, C, August, 1998.'Use of Non wood Plant Fibers for Pulp and Paper Industry
In Asia'.
[8] M. Mostafizur, R, (2014).’International Journal of Lignocelluloses Products Variation of
Chemical and morphological properties of different parts of banana plant (Musa paradisica) and
their effects on pulping '1(2):93-103.
[9] The Pulp and Paper Industry IV-Forestry-C-Pulp and Paper.
[10] Martin, Macleod, 'The top ten factors in Kraft pulp yield'.
[11] Sameer, F, Sabia, Z, A.Q. Rather, Tahir Ali (2014). 'International journal of
environmental and bio energy, Characterization and Evaluation of Banana Waste (Musa
paradisiacal.) As a Raw Material for Paper Production',
Www.modernscientificpress.com/Journals/IJEE.aspx [12]International Journal of
Lignocellulosic Products, 1 (2): 93-103 http://ijlp.gau.ac.ir.
[13]. P.T. Franco, Abaca pulp and paper industry in the Philippines, Proceedings of TAPPI
Pulping Conference, 1981, pp.133
[14]. D.C. Saikia, Wild banana plants (Musa species) as source of fiber for paper and cordage
Industries, J. Sci. Ind. Res. 56(1997)408
[15]Michelle, Bird, Dr. John Talberth, August (2008).Waste Stream Reduction and Re Use in the
Pulp and Paper Sector .www.sustainableeconomy.orgs
KIOT Page 43

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Kombolcha Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering

Department of Chemical Engineering (process stream)

Title: Production of paper from pseudo banana stem

Submission date 16/05/2012 E.C

Submitted to Komah B. (Msc)

KIOT Page iii

KIOT Page vii

1.4. Significance of the Study

cellulose, approximately 40–50% of wood; hemicelluloses, 25–35%; lignin, 15–30%;

2.5. Chemical Properties

Raw materials Fiber length(mm) Fiber width(mm) Coarseness(mg/m)

Source: International Journal of Fiber and Textile Research 2013.

Step 6 - Paper making

4. CaO + H2O → Ca (OH) 2

Banana Purificatio Stripping Drying Cutting

Figure2. 1 Process flow diagram of paper production

3.2. Chemicals and Reagents Used

3.3. Methods and procedures

3.4. Characterization of Chemical Composition of Banana Pseudo Stem.

Water soluble (%) = 𝖶1−𝖶2

Where, w1= weight of oven-dry test specimen (grams).

Where, W1 = weight of oven – dry test specimen (grams).

Where, W1 is weight of oven dried extractive free sample (grams).

3.5. Pulp Yield Determination

Where, DB = dry pulp

3.6. Characterization of Banana Stem Paper Properties with other Raw

4.1. Material Balance

Hot air @135°C Air @ 80°C

Wet banana stem fiber@ 20°C

Raw material in=1560kg

Moisture in the wet solid=x1=0.92/1-0.92=11.5%

Moisture in the dry solid=x2=0.01/1-0.01=0.0101%

Water evaporated, Mw=Ms(x1-x2) =1200(11.5-0.0101) =1435kg

Cooking liquor (CL) Brawn stock (BK) (0.88*125)

Black liquor (BL)

Water (W) s BLEACHIN 5000kg

Summary of Material Balance Calculation

Dryer 1560kg 1436.24kg+125kg

4.2. Energy Balance

Banana stems @20°C

2. Energy Balance on Digester

Stem @ 135 °C Digester stem @ 60°C

Black liquor @ 90°C

Name Volume (liter) Mass (kg) Density (g/cm3) Molecular weight

Rate equation based on the removal of lignin content

Where, Ci = [NaOH] + [NaSO4]/2

⇒ Diameter, D = 3√( 4𝑉 = [4 x 3.8 / (3 π)] = 1.6 m

⇒ Height, L = 3 ∗ D = 3 ∗ 1.6 = 4.8 m

= 27.6mm with mm allowance of corrosion.

Diameter of nozzle = (0.04x 4 / π) ^ (1/2)

5.2. Evaporator Design

40/1 + 1.135 + 1598591549 = 40/3.733591549

w_1 = 365.53kg /hr.

Actual area required = 0.02165/0.8 (0.8 is selected)

Year Domestic Import Total

1988 7489 20313 27802

6.2. Cost Estimation

No Equipment list Cost ($) No.(set) 20% salvage