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Journal of Cleaner Production 421 (2023) 138524
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
Agricultural waste-derived (nano)materials for water and wastewater

treatment: Current challenges and future perspectives
Hui Ouyang a, Nasim Safaeipour b, Razhan Salah Othman c, Maryam Otadi b, *, Reza Sheibani d,
Farshad Kargaran e, Quyet Van Le f, Hossein Ali Khonakdar e, Cheng Li g, **
a
Hunan Engineering Laboratory for Analyse and Drugs Development of Ethnomedicine in Wuling Mountains, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jishou
University, Jishou, 416000, PR China
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran
c
Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Shaqlawa Technical College, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq
d
Amirkabir University of Technology-Mahshahr Campus, University St., Nahiyeh San’ati, Mahshahr, Khouzestan, Iran
e
Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute (IPPI), Tehran, 14965-115, Iran
f
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Green Manufacturing Technology, Korea University, 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic
of Korea
g
Henan Province International Collaboration Lab of Forest Resources Utilization, School of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Maria Teresa Moreira The general environmental quality has a direct impact on how well life is supported on earth. There are fewer
and fewer water sources available, and those that are available are contaminated with many pollutants. Pollution
Keywords: of biological and chemical systems can result from heavy metal and dye poisoning of water resources. Agri
Waste valorization cultural waste benefits from a variety of sources, cheap cost, and renewable energy. When these wastes are
Agricultural wastes
converted into useful applications, such as environmental adsorbents for eliminating pollutants, biochar (BC),
Contaminant
composts, and natural fertilizers, rather than burning them in open fields, which results in various environmental
Pollutant removal
Environmental remediation problems like air pollution and soil erosion, they may represent a treasure. The transformation of waste into
useful compounds is one of the most significant scientific topics. This critical study evaluates current advance
ments in the utilization of (nano)materials obtained from agricultural waste for environmental decontamination
and pollutant monitoring or removal. Along with highlighting the most promising research areas, this section
discusses the major challenges to the removal of organic dyes, toxic ions, and other contaminants using diverse
methods including adsorption, reduction, and ion exchange using cost-effective materials generated from agri
cultural wastes.
1. Introduction Xu et al., 2021, 2022; Han et al., 2023). Environmental sustainability

and safety confront enormous problems as a result of growing indus
The growing human population and its associated activities have put trialization (Pan et al., 2022; Arnawtee et al., 2022; Jaleh et al., 2021).
enormous pressure on natural resources (water, air, and soil) (Oué Researchers around the world are trying to find effective ways to remove
draogo et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023; Sadeghi et al., 2022). Uncontrolled all kinds of pollutants (Nezafat et al., 2021; Nille et al., 2021; Patil et al.,
industrial effluent discharge into waterways caused an increase in 2019).
effluent concentration that quickly changed the ecosystem’s composi The most prevalent types of environmental pollutants are those that
tion and negatively impacted the health of people, plants, and animals are organic and inorganic, and both anthropogenic and naturally
(Zhao et al., 2022; Shinde et al., 2022, 2023). Hazardous compounds can occurring activities release them into the environment (Devre et al.,
enter the environment in large quantities and in several ways (Wang 2023; Selvam et al., 2022; Tian et al., 2022). Pesticides, chlorophenols,
et al., 2022; Dong et al., 2023). One of the major issues worldwide is phenolic compounds, nitro compounds dyes, polyaromatic organome
currently dealing with is environmental degradation (Nasri et al., 2021; tallic compounds, etc. are illustrative of organic contaminants, while
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Otadi), [email protected] (C. Li).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138524
Received 3 March 2023; Received in revised form 29 July 2023; Accepted 18 August 2023
Available online 21 August 2023
0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Ouyang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 421 (2023) 138524
toxic ions like Cr, Pb, As, and Hg are examples of inorganic pollutants biological, chemical, and physical methods (El-Ramady et al., 2020;
(Ahmad et al., 2010; Yadav et al., 2022; Shamshirgaran et al., 2022). Sharifi et al., 2023). Many scholars have studied the management of
Among many other resources, industrial wastewater is sometimes agricultural wastes from a variety of angles, with a focus on how to
viewed as the main cause of environmental pollution (El-Shahawi et al., effectively transform these wastes into marketable products while also
2010; Ren et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2019). The majority of inorganic reducing their ecological concerns (Nagendran, 2011; Patil et al., 2020;
pollutants are persistent in nature and can have genotoxic, teratogenic, Safa and Bhatti, 2011).
carcinogenic, and mutagenic effects even at low concentrations (Saxena The synthesis of (nano)materials using different agricultural wastes
et al., 2020). Contrarily, organic pollutants are mostly caused by and their modification was the main focus of this review. In fact, this
humans and are frequently employed as intermediates, fuel additives, review investigated agricultural waste-derived (nano)materials for
and industrial solvents (Wang et al., 2023a). Numerous produced goods, pollutant removal including dyes, 4-nitrophenol, heavy metals, and
including paints, adhesives, fuel, and plastics, contain dangerous other organic substances from wastewater (Fig. 1).
organic compounds (Chandra et al., 2011; Crini and Lichtfouse, 2019;
Wang et al., 2023b). These pollutants can be removed from the envi 2. Agricultural wastes and their features
ronment using different (nano)catalysts (Orooji et al., 2022a, 2022b;
Aswathi et al., 2023). Heterogeneous (nano)catalysts can be prepared Agricultural residues are rich in useful and bioactive compounds
using different materials and applied for very different applications (Lou et al., 2023). After purification, these residues can be used as raw
(Ashrafi et al., 2022; Jaleh et al., 2023). One of the most important materials in various industries such as food, cosmetics, medicine, fuel,
materials used for the synthesis of heterogeneous catalysts, nano chemicals, etc. The use of agricultural waste can be useful and effective
carriers, and nanomaterials is natural-based materials (Salahshoori in two ways, one is to prevent their accumulation in the environment
et al., 2021; Isacfranklin et al., 2020a, 2020b). These materials can be and reduce the pollution resulting from them, and the other is to use
prepared using biowastes and natural compounds (Xu et al., 2019). In natural and cheap materials for various industries (Sud et al., 2008; Koul
addition, the biowastes and bioextracts could be applied for the green et al., 2022). Agricultural wastes are divided into two categories, one is
synthesis of nanomaterials (Gowda et al., 2022; Kowsalya et al., 2021). the wastes that are obtained directly from the agricultural products
However, one of the most abundant applications of the (nano)catalysts is themselves, such as rice husks, wheat straw, bagasse, etc., and the other
wastewater treatment (Ali and Hassaan, 2017; Chankaew et al., 2019). is the wastes that are obtained from agricultural materials in various
However, different species have been able to remove contaminants industries, such as fruit peels and cores (Sadh et al., 2018; Sarkar et al.,
that are both organic and inorganic, such as industrial wastes (dried 2012; Nguyen et al., 2019). In the following, some features of agricul
activated sludge and fly ash (Aksu and Yener, 2001), coal fly ash (Zhang tural waste will be examined.
et al., 2011), waste tires (Saleh et al., 2014), silica gel (Nie et al., 2015),
etc.); soil and mineral substances (montmorillonite clay (Lin et al., 2.1. Rice husk
2006), river sediment (Gao et al., 2011), hematite (Saikia et al., 2013),
zeolite (Liu et al., 2014b), bentonite (Hao et al., 2014), etc.); agricultural Over 600 million tons of rice are annually generated worldwide, with
wastes (rice husk (RH) (Chen et al., 2013), sugarcane bagasse (SB) the RH making up 20% of the total weight. In other words, it is estimated
(Jiang et al., 2012), peanut husk (Song et al., 2011), etc.). Furthermore, that 0.23 tons of RH are produced for every ton of generated rice (Abbas
processed agricultural waste has some benefits, like being a renewable and Ansumali, 2010; Balingbing et al., 2020; Kwan and Wong, 2020).
natural resource, being abundant, and inexpensive, producing selective RH is used as fuel in several countries to parboil paddy in rice mills
adsorption effluent, and being simple to regenerate (Jin et al., 2023; and improve power steam engines (Hello et al., 2014; Prasad and Pan
Zhou et al., 2015). dey, 2012). RH is a rice by-product that has the benefits of being highly
Recently, agricultural production has increased by more than three biodegradable, low in density, and easy to collect (Aridi et al., 2017;
times due to the expansion of agricultural soils, the technical produc Jeon et al., 2015). It is also inexpensive, and rich in silica, lignin, and
tivity effects of the green revolution, and the rapid increase in popula cellulose (Wu et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2013a; Yi et al., 2016). The chemical
tion. This increase in global output has increased environmental composition of the RH differ from sample to sample owing to variances
pressure to the point that it has a detrimental effect on natural resources, in climatic and geographical circumstances, kind of paddy, etc. So, RH is
putting ecological sustainability and public health at risk. 21% of the promising for various applications (Adam et al., 2011, 2012; Chang
emissions of greenhouse gases come from agriculture (Duque-Acevedo et al., 2005). It has been widely studied for the preparation of catalysts
et al., 2020). Agriculture is a crucial sector of the bioeconomy since it (Chang et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2009; Suyitno et al., 2015), adsorbents (Xu
produces the most biomass among the biological industries (Ami et al., 2013b), combustible gases (Shen et al., 2014), activated carbon
nuzzaman et al., 2019). This is a huge opportunity because it promotes (AC) (Kalderis et al., 2008), various silicon (Kamath and Proctor, 1998),
the transformation of vegetable waste into byproducts with higher and chemical products viz. furfural (Chareonlimkun et al., 2010) and
value, like bioenergy, bioproducts, feed, and food. This helps develop xylose (Dutta et al., 2014) (Fig. 2b). The RH is potent for application in
new green markets and jobs opportunities while also reducing the usage composite reinforcements (Dimzoski et al., 2008; Oksman et al., 2003).
of fossil fuels and emissions of greenhouse gas into the environment RH has a 13–29% ash mass fraction, which also causes environmental
(Bracco et al., 2018; McCormick and Kautto, 2013). pollution. SiO2 is the chief component of rice husk ash (RHA), reaching
When humans abandon organic materials throughout the course of up to 97.3%, which is higher than other ashes (Renuka et al., 2015; Shen
agricultural production, it is referred to as “agricultural waste”. Agri et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014). On the other hand, when the RH was
cultural waste is widely distributed, abundant, replicable, biodegrad burned in the open air, the silica ash was produced that ranged in color
able, and environmentally benign (Dai et al., 2018). In developing from gray to black depending on the amount of inorganics and unburned
nations, it is common practice to dispose of agricultural waste in land carbon (Das et al., 2020; Gehlen et al., 2023; Pham, 2020). The RHA is
fills and dump it in the open. This process generates vast volumes of ash, the most economical source for the preparation of nanostructured silica
which can have an extremely negative impact on the environment and (Aprilia et al., 2023; Haider et al., 2022; Kumchompoo et al., 2023).
human health, especially if groundwater is affected. The development of RHA also comprises a slight quantity (5–14%) of alkali metal oxides in
new and enhanced methods for recovering agricultural wastes through addition to nano-SiO2, which can be eliminated through proper chemi
the green bioeconomy concept, developing industrial innovation and cal treatment, and afford >99 wt % silica content (Chakraverty et al.,
cutting-edge technology (Kadhom et al., 2020; Saad et al., 2010). 1988; Lee et al., 2017; Muniandy et al., 2014).
Agricultural wastes can be employed to make a number of products,
including biochemicals, biofuels, biomaterials, etc. via various
2
Fig. 1. Agriculture-based catalysts for the removal of different pollutants through various approaches.
2.2. Wheat bran 1.0% lignin, 1.5% ash, and other constituents in small quantities
(Fig. 2e) (Liang et al., 2010; Ververis et al., 2007). In addition, there are
The wheat grain external coat named wheat bran (WB) is a vast by- many studies, that produced activated carbon (AC) from OP and applied
product of the food industry (Cheng et al., 2022; Glaser et al., 2023; it as an efficient support or electrode for catalytic and electrochemical
Wayenbergh et al., 2023). The high availability and cost-efficiency of applications (Dhelipan et al., 2017; Xiang et al., 2017). Likewise, studies
WB make it advantageous for utilization not only in food applications show that the waste OP has the potential as a biosorbent and also as a
(Curti et al., 2013) but also in other applications such as the production solid biofuel (Santos et al., 2015).
of more costly adsorbents (Chung et al., 2022; Das et al., 2022b). Fig. 2c
shows the composition of WB, which is comprised of water, ash, fat,
2.5. Bagasse
protein, phenolic acids, and carbohydrates including cellulose, starch,
β-glucan, and arabinoxylans (Apprich et al., 2014). The diversity of the
Bagasse is another renewable source of biomass with a natural pore
chemical composition of the WB makes it an interesting biomass with
structure. This agricultural waste contains the fibrous residue of cane
many potentials. The elimination of various toxic ions is one of the ap
stalks which remain after crushing and their juice has been removed. It
plications of WB. In other words, these materials work incredibly well to
should be noted that bagasse is produced worldwide on an annual basis
absorb different various toxic ions (Farajzadeh and Monji, 2004; Özer
in amounts of roughly 54 million dry tons (Bezerra and Ragauskas,
and Pirincci, 2006).
2016; Mkhwanazi et al., 2023). Bagasse is applied for a variety of pur
poses such as the raw materials used to produce pulp and paper crops,
2.3. Wheat straw different types of construction materials, and specific chemicals, or the
fuel for the boilers used in the sugar plant (Sun et al., 2003). Bagasse has
Wheat straw (WS) is known as an important source of lignocellulose. been widely investigated for the elimination of toxic ions. It has several
It is typically used as animal feed (Perumal et al., 2018). In addition, the benefits, such as renewability, nontoxicity, biodegradability, economic
wheat stalk is one of the types of agriculture waste and has different efficacy, and modifiability (Bhatnagar et al., 2015; Son et al., 2018; Tao
applications such as thermal insulation material, enhancing the tensile et al., 2015). Additionally, bagasse involves 23% lignin, 27% hemicel
properties of different materials, liquid fuels, etc. (Binici et al., 2020; lulose, and 46% cellulose (Doke et al., 2019) (Fig. 2f). So, it can be an
Gajera et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2010). The utilization of WS lignocel appropriate choice for the preparation of carbonaceous materials.
lulose as a carbonaceous microwave absorption material seems like an
effective approach Due to its availability, affordability, and high carbon 3. Agricultural waste-derived (nano)materials in environmental
content (Littlewood et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2018). applications
The distinctive vascular bundle structure of WS provides an additional
surface area for chemical alterations. Additionally, it is rich in hydroxyl Any surroundings within which humans live, including the air, land,
functional groups and contains complex components like cellulose, and water of the earth are called “environment”. Chemical, physical,
hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, fatty acids, and protein (Fig. 2d) (Tian cultural, and aesthetic conditions and properties of the environment
et al., 2011). influence human life and health (Fig. 3). Contamination is caused by the
entrance of substances into the environment in higher concentrations of
natural levels for the area and the organism. Contaminants may include
2.4. Orange peel
organic and inorganic pollutants, electromagnetic waves, etc.
Orange is a popular fruit crop used for extracting juice in the food
industry, which affords huge quantities of residues, counting peel, and 3.1. Elimination of heavy metals
slice membranes (Kandemir et al., 2022; Russo et al., 2021). Peels are a
primary by-product, which forms 50–65% of the fruit weight with more Commonly, metals with a density higher than 5 g/cm3 are called
than 68 million tons of annual production worldwide (Li et al., 2022a; heavy metals. Among heavy metals, the most threats to human health
Wedamulla et al., 2022). Orange peel (OP) is rich in proteins and other are caused by lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd),
insoluble and soluble fibers, bioflavonoids, etc. all of which are appli and arsenic (As) which is a metalloid but is typically counted as heavy
cable in nanobiotechnology, for example in the synthesis of nano metal (Liu et al., 2008; Guo et al., 2023). This group of metals is bene
particles (NPs) (Singh et al., 2016; Sinha et al., 2009). It also contains ficial in different fields such as mining, water pipes, pigments, and
51.1% pectin, 11.1% cellulose, 12.6% hemicellulose, 7.8% protein, building materials (Järup, 2003). Numerous metals are found naturally
3
Fig. 2. a) Different kinds of agricultural wastes, chemical composition, and different applications of b) RH c) WB, d) WS, e) OP, and f) bagasse.
4
Fig. 4b.
Burning fossil fuels causes the emission of elemental Hg0. Due to
their physical characteristics, Hg2+ and particulate-bound Hg emission
can be managed, but Hg0, which is partially soluble in water, is difficult
for existing removal technology to successfully control (Wang et al.,
2016; Yang et al., 2018). AC is known as an efficient and useful sorbent
for controlling Hg emissions (Presto et al., 2007). In 2020, Yang and
co-workers designed a magnetic cobalt-iron modified porous carbon
achieved from agricultural wastes to remove Hg0 in coal-fired flue gas
(Fig. 4c) (Yang et al., 2020). The Co0.4Fe12/RSWU(500) with a surface
area of 274.029 m2/g, total pore volume of 0.328 cm3/g, and average
pore size of 4.665 nm displayed the highest Hg0 sorption at 130 ◦ C and
good regeneration performance. In the name of the mentioned catalyst,
the RSWU refers to activated rice straw chars using an ultrasonic pro
cedure. Fig. 4c also shows the SEM analysis of Co0.4Fe12/RSWU(500).
Cd is a useful element in different industries such as yellow pigments
(Teimouri et al., 2019), solar photocatalysis (Giacopetti and Satta,
2018), batteries, phosphatic fertilizers, plastics, and metal coating (Gao
et al., 2019a). Release of this element in nature causes renal failure,
pancreatic cancer (Davis et al., 2006), osteoporosis (Xu et al., 2014), and
hypertension (Gallagher and Meliker, 2010).
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are three-dimensional crystalline
Fig. 3. Different types of environmental pollutants affect human health.
hybrid materials with very porous architectures organized by the
interaction between metal ions and multidentate organic composites.
in the crust of the earth, but due to human activity, excessive amounts of MOFs owe high surface areas, more than 5200 m2. g− 1 (Ben et al., 2009).
heavy metals are deposited in the environment, posing a risk to human Today, MOFs have wide areas of application including energy storage
health as well as to other animals and plants. (Zhang et al., 2019a), catalysis (Wang and Li, 2017), and adsorption
They may cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, and genotoxic effects. (Wang et al., 2017a). Hassan used garlic peels as a green source of
Also, the remediation of environments suffering from heavy metal carbon atoms to produce carbon nano-onions (CNOs), metal-organic
contamination is difficult (Mishra et al., 2019; Su, 2014). It needs frameworks (MOF-199), and their integration frameworks
distinct attention to all the scopes including the quality of soil, water, (CMOF-199) (Hassan, 2019). All the prepared materials were used for
air, human health, and animal health. The application of physical and the removal of Cd+2 to investigate the adsorption efficacy. Among these
chemical approaches for the remediation of heavy metals involves dis three solid materials, CMOF-199 represented the maximum adsorption
advantages as they are time-consuming, release extra waste to the capacity of 113.3 mg. g− 1 at 40 ◦ C. According to thermodynamic studies,
environment, and are not feasible. Different novel approaches can be the heavy metal is physically adsorbed on the surface of the adsorbent.
employed for the elimination of heavy metals such as adsorption by Supported silver NPs and silver suspensions have been exposed to
cost-effective materials prepared from agricultural wastes (Ogata et al., their auspicious abilities for water disinfection (Loo et al., 2015). In
2022; Noor et al., 2017; Rashid and Yaqub, 2017). 2019, Kotp and co-workers used pomegranate peel (PP) extract as a
Cr(VI) and Cr(III) are major forms of Cr in aqueous media. The reductant to synthesize silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and polyvinyl
toxicity of Cr(VI) is almost 100 times higher than Cr(III) and is terato alcohol nanofibers supported silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs/PVA-NF)
genic and carcinogenic (Huang et al., 2016; Lei et al., 2018; Shakya and (Fig. 5a) crosslinked by glutaraldehyde (Kotp et al., 2019). The syn
Agarwal, 2019). According to World Health Organization (WHO), the Cr thesized Ag-NPs with the mean particle size of 7–13 nm. According to
(VI) concentration in drinking water should be below 50 μg/L. Reduc the investigations, the maximum Cd2+ adsorption occurred in pH = 8
tion, ion exchange, separation, and adsorption are usual techniques for and the adsorption capacity of Ag-NPs/PVA-NF (40.65 mg/g) was
treating wastewater containing Cr. Among these methods, adsorption is higher than pristine Ag-NPs (28.4 mg/g).
low-cost and simple and can be an efficient method for Cr(VI) removal As is another heavy metal that can cause cancer and other different
(Bansal et al., 2009). In 2020, Chu et al. achieved N-doped AC noncancerous illnesses (Abdul et al., 2015). In a study in 2019, Nikić and
BDC-STM30-10.0HT dreg for the elimination of Cr(VI) which BDC co-workers employed corn silk (CS) and onion peel (ONP) extract to
referred to as bean dregs derived activated carbon (Fig. 4a) (Chu et al., synthesize magnetite nanoparticles (MNp-CS, and MNp-ONP) (Fig. 5b)
2020). According to the characterization methods, BDC-STM30-10.0HT (Nikić et al., 2019). Characterization of MNp-CS and MNp-ONP displays
exhibited a high specific surface area of 1004 m2/g and a high quater that they both have high BET-specific surface areas of 261 and 243
nary nitrogen content of 1.11%, which are associated with the adsorp m2/g, respectively. The adsorption of as ion was studied for both
tion capacity up to 3.30 mmol g− 1 for Cr(VI). The BDC-STM30-10.0HT is preparation materials and was compared with the MNp obtained from
recyclable and affords 54% of the initial adsorption potential after five the conventional chemical route (MNp-CO). The maximum adsorption
revivals. In addition, the comparison of the adsorption capacity of Cr(VI) potential of MNp-CO, MNp-ONP, and MNp-CS were 1.30, 1.86, and 2.79
using diverse adsorbents is displayed in Fig. 4a. In 2019, Reddy and mg/g, respectively.
Dalal embedded iron NPs with a size of 4–70 nm in Citrus limetta peels as The most common metallic contaminant in aqueous media is Pd ion
a reducing and capping agent (Dalal and Reddy, 2019). Reduction of which is produced by industrial processing systems; for example,
Cr6+ to Cr3+ occurs by the transition of Fe0 to Fe2+/Fe3+. In another alloying, mining, electroplating, metallurgy plastic manufacturing,
study, the research team of Dai prepared magnetic alkaline refining, and pigmenting (Farooq et al., 2010). Pd immediately diffuses
lignin-dopamine NPs called as AL-DA/Fe3O4 NPs with 44.56 mg. g− 1 through the body and causes damage. It can hurt the red blood cells and
adsorption capacity for Cr(III) (Fig. 4b) (Dai et al., 2019). With respect to bind their capability for carrying oxygen. Also, it may cause brain
the mussel-inspired dopamine molecules and three-dimensional damage, hearing problems, headaches, behavioral problems, learning
network of lignin, Cr(III) can be physically and chemically adsorbed disabilities, and even death. In 2019, Mohammad et al. derived AC from
on the surface. Also, the magnetic property of the adsorbent helps it peels of pomegranates, oranges, bananas besides apricot, and peach
easier recycle over 90%. The TEM images of the catalyst are displayed in stones to produce Polyaniline/activated carbon (PANI/AC) composites
5
Fig. 4. a) The suggested mechanisms for Cr(VI) adsorption onto BDC-STM30-10.0HT and a comparison of Cr(VI) adsorption capacity using different adsorbents (Chu
et al., 2020), b) An illustration of the process, a schematic for making AL-DA conjugate and AL-DA/Fe3O4 NPs, UV–vis spectra, adsorption-desorption cycles and TEM
images (Dai et al., 2019), c) synthesis of magnetic cobalt-iron modified porous carbon for removal of Hg0 and SEM image of the synthesized catalyst (Yang
et al., 2020).
6
Fig. 5. Schematic a) biosynthesis of the Ag-NPs/PVA-NF (Kotp et al., 2019), b) green synthesis of the Fe3O4 NPs (Nikić et al., 2019) and c) synthesis of the PANI/AC
composites and adsorption of the Pd(II) (Mohammada et al., 2019). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
Web version of this article.)
(Fig. 5c) (Mohammada et al., 2019). These composites were studied for the removal of dyes (Belcaid et al., 2023; Hassan and Adenan, 2023;
Pb(II) removal from an aqueous solution (Fig. 5c). Results show that Mandal et al., 2023).
increasing the pH up to 4 increases the removal efficacy of all the pre BC is a carbon-rich organic substance produced via pyrolysis or
pared composites. Also, OP-activated carbon affords the highest efficacy gasification of biomass (Brown, 2012). Its morphology is considered by
in comparison with others. larger pore spaces than its biomass source which affords promising
Also, in another study in the same year, Nasab and her group used adsorption sites (Kleber et al., 2015). In 2019, Trinh et al. investigated
chitosan and RHA to form chitosan/RHA/nano-γ alumina as an adsor the applicability of BC modified with reactive constituents to decolorize
bent for the elimination of Pd ions from aquatic media (Fooladgar et al., dyeing wastewater (Trinh et al., 2019). RH was used to produce BC.
2019). The greatest adsorption efficiency was obtained at 90.98% at pH subsequently used nano-zero-valent iron (nZVI) to magnetize and
= 5, 0.01 g adsorbent mass, 30 ppm concentration of Pd ion, and 105 modify the obtained BC. The final material was studied in the decolor
min. Their results displayed that the adsorption capacity of the prepared ization of reactive yellow (RY145), reactive red (RR195), and reactive
catalyst was kept above 70% after 6 cycles. blue (RB19). Also, in 2022, to stimulate the mineralization and degra
dation of rhodamine B (RhB) and diclofenac (DCF) in water via perox
ydisulfate (PDS), Mustafa and Aziz used discarded black seed pomace to
3.2. Elimination of organic pollutants
the synthesize of a cheap modified BC that is iron-impregnated
(FeBS800) by a single stage of pyrolysis. After 10 min, the degradation
Organic pollutants are prevalent naturally and are brought on by
efficiency for 20 mg/L DCF and RhB in the FeBS800/PDS system reached
human activity and the environment (Wu et al., 2023). Some of the most
88.3 and 98.2%, respectively (Mustafa and Aziz, 2023). According to
common organic wastes include human waste, food waste, dyes, phar
investigations, the modified BC shows better performance in comparison
maceuticals, petroleum, drugs, etc. Organic pollutants have become a
with pure BC.
main problematic concern in the environment (Salahshoori et al.,
Photocatalysis is an effective and economical technique to purify
2023a–c). Their properties such as stability, high lipid solubility, hy
contaminants by redox ability. TiO2 is the most valued catalyst due to its
drophobicity, and lipophilicity make them persistent and give them
stability, good catalytic potential, corrosion resistance, and low cost. Also,
capable of quickly bioaccumulating in many environmental areas,
other materials are Fe2O3, ZnS, WO3, CdS, and ZnO. In 2020, Alwash used
causing toxicological effects (Ael et al., 2012; Lepp, 2012).
PP extract to prepare ZnO NPs with a crystalline size of about 28 nm
(Alwash, 2020). The mechanism of photocatalytic decolorization can be
3.2.1. Dyes
explained in 4 steps: (1) photoexcitation, (2) charge separation, (3)
Dyes are a group of organic compounds that have increased envi
migration, and (4) surface oxidation-reduction reactions. The
ronmental danger (Nayagam and Prasanna, 2022; Oyekanmi et al.,
photo-reactions may occur through direct oxidation of molecules via the
2022; Wendari et al., 2023). Different technologies including elimina
exited electron or the formed hole; or by oxidation of molecules through
tion, degradation, and separation techniques have been investigated for
the OH• radicals produced by water oxidation or OH− by the h+ or oxygen
the elimination of these compounds from wastewater (Bote et al., 2021;
radicals (O•2, O•) with strong oxidizing potential which was generated
Sangeetha and Abarna, 2023; Setiawan et al., 2023). There are different
from the oxidation of the absorbed oxygen on the surface of the catalyst.
biowastes that can be applied for the synthesis of catalysts and used for
7
The decolorization efficacy of ZnO NPs was studied and compared with catalysts besides Ni-H3PW12O40/aluminosilicate catalyst were employed
the pure ZnO prepared without any extract. The catalytic performance of for the decomposition of methyl orange (MO) dye via photocatalysis.
each prepared catalyst was about 88% after 1 h under sunlight irradia Among these three materials, Ni/aluminosilicate catalyst afforded the
tion; but at the first 16 min, the decolorization efficacy of ZnO prepared greatest rate for removal of MO. The best removal percentage of 86% was
using the extract was higher in comparison to the bare ZnO. Also, in 2018, attained after 180 min at the exposure of irradiation using 3 g. L− 1
Shalaby et al. designed mesoporous SiO2-Al2O3 using isophthalic acid as a catalyst dosage.
textural modifier, RH as a source of silica, and waste aluminum foils MOFs, organized by organic ligands as linkers and inorganic building
(Shalaby et al., 2018). Hydrazine helped the reduction of NiCl2 and Ni blocks as clusters, are gathering lots of attention because of their
NPs were loaded onto the surface of aluminosilicate. The prepared properties. They are known as porous coordination polymers with
Fig. 6. a) Schematic description of the extraction of bio-silica for preparation of the adsorbent for adsorption of MB, VSM curve, SEM image and elemental mapping
(Olusegun et al., 2021), b) WB-citrate preparation process schematic, the volume of the citric acid solution, the effect of citric acid concentration in the solution,
curing temperature, curing time, SHP:citric acid molar ratio, mixing method and SEM images (Heydari et al., 2018).
8
applicability in many fields including drug delivery, electrical conduc SEM images of the crude WB, poorly modified WB, and optimized
tivity, photocatalysis, etc. (Jin et al., 2016; Kadhom and Deng, 2018). In WB-citrate are shown in Fig. 5b. In addition, the effect of different
a study in 2019, AC/Materials Institute Lavoisier (MIL)-88B (Fe) nano conditions is shown in Fig. 6b.
composite was designed by Mahmoodi and co-workers using AC from
Kiwi peel with BET surface area and band gap value (Eg) of 199.4 m2. 3.2.2. 4-Nitrophenol
g− 1 and 3.79 eV, respectively (Mahmoodi et al., 2019). The photo 4-Nitrophenol (4-NP) is a toxic material that is widely found in in
catalytic activity of the AC/MIL-88B (Fe) material was compared to AC dustrial wastewater (Torres Landa et al., 2022; Xie et al., 2023; Xia et al.,
and MIL-88B (Fe) and it had the highest value (99%). 2023). It is carcinogenic and even a trace quantity of it can cause
Metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) are vital in different fields. Amongst damage to human body organs such as the liver and kidneys (Wiench
them, AgNPs has the lowest toxicity, and in addition to their antimi et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2017a). Along with these disadvantageous
crobial property, they afford photocatalytic potential in detoxification properties, 4-NP is also a chief raw material for the preparation of
and removal of dyes. Recently, special attention has been given to the pharmaceuticals, synthetic dyes, and pesticides (Gao et al., 2019b). So,
preparation of MNPs by green routes. Srivastava and co-workers used an exploring sustainable and green routes for the chemical transformation
aqueous extract of Citrus sinensis (orange) peel as a reducing and capping of harmful 4-NP to 4-aminophenol (4-AP) has gotten high attention (Liu
agent to form AgNPs (Srivastava et al., 2019). These AgNPs were proven et al., 2017a; Wu et al., 2017). However, there are some bio-based
to have the potential for photocatalytic degradation of Congo red (CR) catalysts prepared from agricultural wastes that were applied for the
plus their antimicrobial activity. Also, in 2022, Das and colleagues removal of 4-NP (Dang-Bao et al., 2023; Mejía and Bogireddy, 2022;
produced iron oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles (IONPs) from lemon peel Sandhya et al., 2023).
extract that had an average size of 42 nm and could breakdown meth Recently, different fields have shown interest in carbon-based metal-
ylene blue (MB) dye in a quick, dark Fenton-like reaction (Das et al., free catalysts. They afford sustainable and green routes since they can
2022a). replace traditional metal-based catalysts in industry production (Wang
Adsorption is another efficient route to remove dye contaminants. et al., 2018). In a recent study in 2020, Xie et al. used cellulose as an
Designing low-cost adsorbents has been a wide field of research. In agricultural by-product to prepare a nitrogen and phosphorus co-doped
2019, another group under the supervision of Sankararamakrishnan carbon (NPC) (Fig. 7a) and used it to reduce 4-NP catalytically (Xie
employed SB to prepare hierarchical nano Fe(0)@FeS doped cellulose et al., 2020). The complementary impact of phosphorus and
nanofibers (CNF-Fe(0)@FeS) for the removal of dyes (Sankarar nitrogen-doped in the carbon skeleton causes an enhancement in the
amakrishnan et al., 2020). The efficacy of the prepared material was catalytic behavior of the NPC catalyst. The TEM, SEM and EDS mapping
studied using anionic CR and MB dyes and it represented maximum of the catalyst is shown in Fig. 7a.
adsorption capacity of 111.1 and 200.0 mg/g, respectively, and a fast Metal NPs possess different sizes and shapes and have attracted
reduction of 70% within 3 min. Their results exhibited that the syn significant attention due to their applicability for many applications in
thesized CNF-Fe(0)@FeS can be reused for 5 times without any reduc various sectors. Between noble metals, CuO NPs are easy to prepare and
tion in performance. possess unique potential chemical and physical properties plus their
In order to enhance the qualities that are useful for adsorption such catalytic properties, antibacterial activity, thermal conductivity, and so
as porosity and high-specific surface area, in 2022, Dey and colleagues on (Devi and Singh, 2014). Also, SiO2 NPs have a large surface area and
thermally treated the waste potato peel at 550 ◦ C (Dey et al., 2022). The well-ordered nanopores. So, it is broadly employed as supporting ma
batch adsorption of iron using the thermally treated waste potato peel terial (Fig. 7b) (Hazarika et al., 2016). In this study, the biosynthesis of
had maximum adsorption of 202 mg/g and had the greatest degradation Fe2O3@SiO2 nanocatalyst was investigated. In this study, researchers
of MB from an aqueous medium at 91.76%. The decomposition of MB in used RH for the synthesis of SiO2. The prepared Fe2O3@SiO2 can be
an aqueous solution through a photo-oxidative mechanism was accel reused for 5 times with no significant reduction in performance. In 2019,
erated by the sorbent produced from potato peels with iron adsorbed. Ramya and co-workers prepared CuO@SiO2 NPs by doping CuO NPs
The prepared catalyst can be recycled and reused for 3 cycles with a 10% onto SiO2 NPs obtained from RH (Ramya et al., 2019). The catalytic
decline in activity. Additionally, using AC is one of the best options due behavior of this green-sourced catalyst was investigated by degradation
to its high adsorption capacity and cost-effective material (Adinata et al., of 4-NP using NaBH4. It was proved that CuO@SiO2 has better catalytic
2007). For example, in 2019, Teimouri and colleagues used almond and activity in comparison to CuO and SiO2 NPs.
walnut shells to produce microporous AC as an efficient adsorbent by Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are also very attractive and effective in
means of microwave irradiation (Teimouri et al., 2019). The adsorption many chemical reactions. In 2017, Chairam et al. used mung bean starch
capacity of adsorbents was studied for cationic dye removal and was (MBS) as a reducing and stabilizing agent to synthesize AuNPs (Chairam
measured as 114 and 98 mg. g− 1 for almond and walnut shell-derived et al., 2017). The MBS-AuNPs was employed for the reduction of 4-NP
AC, respectively. Also, the spongy form of almond shell AC and the and the activation energy, enthalpy and entropy were 47.42, 44.78,
average pore size of 2.4 nm are unique properties that enhance the and − 261.49 kJ/mol, respectively. Additionally, at the conclusion of the
adsorption potential in wastewater treatment. fifth usage, recycling resulted in a 73% drop in the catalytic potential.
Another study in 2021 investigated the capacity of nano bio-silica for Also, in 2017, Wang et al. used aqueous green coffee bean extract as a
the elimination of MB. Olusegun et al. extracted bio-silica from RH and reducing agent to prepare spherical biogenic AgNPs which represented
incorporated that with CoFe2O4 with 1:2 ratios of cobalt and iron salt catalytic activity for the reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP plus its antibacterial
(Olusegun et al., 2021). The cobalt and iron salt were dispersed in a potential (Wang et al., 2017b). Silver NPs were also developed using
bio-silica solution and then calcined at 700 ◦ C according to Fig. 6a the MBS as a reducing and stabilizing agent (Fig. 7c) in another study by
results show that the prepared composite has better performance (253.6 Chairam and co-workers in 2016 (Chairam and Somsook, 2016). The
mg. g− 1) in comparison with pure bio-silica (52.6 mg/g) which proves supported AgNPs were demonstrated to have significant catalytic ac
the synergistic effect of CoFe2O4 on bio-silica. Besides, the designed tivity for the 4-NP reduction in the presence of NaBH4 (Fig. 7c). Also, the
composite is economical since it can be magnetically separated. Fig. 6a catalytic performance of 75% was retained after the fifth use.
displays the analysis of the synthesized catalyst including SEM, EDX In another study in 2017, wheat straw cellulose (WSC) was employed
mapping, and VSM curve. Also, in 2018, Heydari and his group used to prepare WSC-g-poly(acrylic acid)/poly(vinyl alcohol) semi-IPN
citric acid, as a carboxyl group-bearing agent, to thermochemically hydrogel (WSC-g-PAA/PVA) by Ding and co-workers for the reduction
modify WB (Fig. 6b) (Heydari et al., 2018). The prepared material was of 4-NP (Ding et al., 2017). In this study, nickel and copper NPs were in
used for MB adsorption and the results show that improvement in the situ arranged inside the prepared hydrogel (Fig. 7d) and then applied as
number of carboxylic acid groups improves the adsorption efficacy. The a catalyst which showed the activity and conversion of almost 70% and
9
Fig. 7. a) Synthesis process schematic of NPC, EDS mapping, TEM and SEM images of the NPC (Xie et al., 2020), b) biosynthesis of Fe2O3 NPs using Musa balbisiana
(Hazarika et al., 2016), c) the schematic formation mechanisms of MBS-stabilized AgNPs, schematic reaction for the reduction of 4-NP and UV–vis spectra of 4-NP
reduction by MBS stabilized AgNPs (Chairam and Somsook, 2016), d) the schematic mechanism for interaction between Cu/Ni NPs and WSC-g-PVA/PAA hydrogel,
TEM images and 3D response surface graph (Ding et al., 2017), e) preparation of CuO@eggshell NCs, the impact of NCs on the adsorption of aromatic compounds in a
crude oil sample, as well as the proposed mechanism for the catalytic reduction of 4-NP (Sajadi et al., 2018).
100%, respectively. The TEM images of the catalyst and 3D response that may result in liver toxicity, renal toxicity, neurotoxicity, teratoge
surface graph are exhibited in Fig. 7d. nicity, immunotoxicity, endocrine, endocrine disruption, and cell gen
A hierarchical three-dimensional metal silicate, counting zinc sili eration of apoptosis in the human body. These herbicides do not easily
cate, cobalt silicate, magnesium silicate, and nickel silicate was prepared degrade in nature (Jazini Zadeh et al., 2020; Jung et al., 2013). In 2021,
using RH as a silicon source (Zhang et al., 2017b). Among these mate Jazini Zadeh and co-workers employed RHA to prepare 3-mercaptopro
rials, Ni NPs/SiO2 showed high catalytic performance and excellent pyltrimethoxysilane-modified magnetic mesoporous silica
stability for 4-NP reduction in a short time of ~160 s, which can be (SH-magMCM-41) NPs for the adsorption of glyphosate and 2,4-D her
because of the ultra-small particle size of ~6.8 nm, excellent dispersion, bicides from aqueous media (Fig. 8a) (Jazini Zadeh et al., 2021). 79.38
and good loading capacity of Ni NPs. The synthesized catalyst can be and 83.44% of glyphosate and 2,4-D were removed at the adsorbent
recycled and reused for 8 times and the conversion of 4-NP to 4-AP is dose of 0.2 g/L, herbicide concentrations of 20 mg/L, pH of 5 and 6, and
95%. In another example in 2018, Sajadi and his research group syn contact time of 60 and 30 min, respectively as the best results. Metola
thesized CuO/eggshell nanocomposite (NCs) by the pomegranate dried chlor (MET) is a widely-used chloroacetanilide herbicide. Fig. 8a shows
peel extract as a reducing agent (Fig. 7e) (Sajadi et al., 2018). The the catalyst’s TEM images as well as the effects of pH and contact time.
prepared material was employed as an innovative adsorbent nano Liu et al. designed a magnetic nitrogen-doped BC-supported CoFe2O4
catalyst for the reduction of 4-NP in the presence of NaBH4 (Fig. 7e) and composite (MNBC) by using rice straw (Liu et al., 2019). The obtained
also for the removal of aromatic compounds from crude oil samples. This catalyst showed promising potential in the catalytic degradation of MET
biosynthesized adsorbent showed high activity and stability in several through combination with peroxymonosulfate (PMS) (Fig. 8b).
consecutive cycles in both reactions. MNBC800 with the surface area of 150.7 m2/g and pore volume of 0.081
cm3/g showed the best performance among various samples. Low
3.2.3. Other pollutants toxicity and easy separation in addition to stability and reusability make
Today, pesticides are widely employed to increase agricultural pro the catalyst applicable for MET removal from aquatic media.
duction. Depending on the kind, potency, and duration of the herbicide By thermally polymerizing urea and glucose in one step while using
exposure, they can be absorbed by plants, reach water sources, and have nanodisc silica (NDS) made from RHA as a rigid template, in 2022,
an impact on human health (Trivedi and Mandavgane, 2018). Glypho Shittu and coworkers were able to produce oxygen-doped mesoporous
sate and dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicides, with the carbon nitride (O-MCN) (Shittu et al., 2022). Under visible light irra
chemical formula of C3H8NO5P and C8H6Cl2O3 respectively, are used for diation, the largest amount of bisphenol A (BPA) removal was 97%, with
removing deciduous weeds. Based on the World Cancer Research Center, 60% mineralization (catalyst dose = 40 mg L-1; [BPA] = 10 mg/L: pH =
glyphosate is known as a substance with a high risk of carcinogenesis. 2, 10; 180 min).
4-D is also classified by the World Health Organization as a class II toxin Alachlor (2-chloro-2,6-diethyl-N-(methoxymethyl)acetanilide) is
10
Fig. 8. a) Preparation of SH-magMCM-41 NPs for the adsorption of glyphosate 2,4-D herbicides, TEM images of the catalyst and different conditions of adsorption
(Jazini Zadeh et al., 2021), b) mechanism of MET degradation by PMS and MNBC800, SEM image and chart of the stability of the catalyst (Liu et al., 2019), c) Images
of the RH-obtained samples, preparation of RHIMZ catalyst and pH profile for the acceleration of reaction of RHIMZ with DEDNPP (Ferreira and Orth, 2017).
another herbicide used in agriculture. In 2009, Artkla et al. used bare studied the removal of seven antibiotics, such as tazobactam (TAZ),
TiO2 and also supported TiO2 (TiO2/RH-MCM-41) for photocatalytic piperacillin (PIP), trimethoprim (TRI), erythromycin (ERY), sulfameth
degradation of alachlor herbicide (Artkla et al., 2009a). The designed oxazole (SUL), tetracycline (TET), and ampicillin (AMP) from aqueous
TiO2/RH-MCM-41 was prepared using mesoporous support from RH media using three prepared samples of Fe3O4 NPs which were used by
silica. The catalytic performance of TiO2 and TiO2/RH-MCM-41 for the aqueous peel extracts from black grapes (Vitis vinifera), cucumber
decomposition of alachlor was accomplished under 300 nm wavelength (Cucumis sativus) and lemon (Citrus limon), and were denoted as
of UV radiation. According to the results, the supported TiO2 showed Fe3O4(grp), Fe3O4(lem) and Fe3O4(cum), respectively (Stan et al.,
better adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of alachlor than the 2017). Generally, Fe3O4 NPs produced by extracts showed excellent
bare one. Furthermore, among different samples of the supported TiO2, removal of >90% towards considered antibiotics, excepting TRI and
10% TiO2/RH-MCM-41 represented the alachlor conversion of 100% in SUL, and also established better efficacy for antibiotics elimination than
20 min. In 2017, Orth and Ferreira functionalized RH with imidazole Fe3O4 NPs prepared by conventional methods. ciprofloxacin (CIP) is a
(IMZ) groups to prepare RHIMZ (Fig. 8c) with the purpose of degrada widely-used antibiotic in human medicine. In 2019, Nassar et al. used
tion of organophosphate (Ferreira and Orth, 2017). The designed cata RH to synthesize pure SiO2 NPs, with high adsorption potential for CIP
lyst presented a promising catalyst for the dephosphorylation of diethyl drug removal from aqueous media (Nassar et al., 2019). The prepared
2,4-dinitrophenyl phosphate. In addition, Fig. 8c displays the images of catalyst can be reused for 5 times. Additionally, Ba et al. developed a
the RH-obtained samples and the pH rate for the reaction. new cost-effective catalyst (ACRMbp) for the SUL decomposition process
Antibiotics are useful for the prevention of diseases, agriculture, by using red mud (RM) as the primary component, molasses wastewater
animal husbandry, aquaculture, etc. Antibiotics can be released into the as a partial acidifying agent, and bagasse pith as a pore-enlarging agent
environment and affect human health. The development of effective (Ba et al., 2022). The ACRMbp had the strongest Fenton-like catalytic
technology for the treatment of wastewater polluted with antibiotics is activity under the circumstances of catalyst dosage of 2 g/L, pH equal to
essential (Lin and Li, 2016). In a study in 2017, Stan and co-workers 3, and reaction duration of 90 min. The ACRMbp can be recycled and
11
Fig. 9. a) Preparation of the SiOC composite for the ciprofloxacin removal (Pan et al., 2020), b) chemical structure of AMX, the chemical structure of PDADMAC,
schematic of adsorption capacity of PDADMAC on the SiO2 surface and AMX removal efficiency (Pham et al., 2018), c) FNPSA and FNPSOPR for the elimination of
fluoride from contaminated water and SEM images (Christina and Viswanathan, 2015).
reused for 4 cycles without significant reduction in activity. fabricated nano-silica (SiO2) from RH and studied the adsorption of the
In another study in 2020, Pan et al. prepared porous SiOC composites polyelectrolyte polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (PDADMAC) on
via the biotemplate method using different proportions of RH and sili its surface. Fig. 9b shows the chemical structure of PDADMAC and the
cone resin (Pan et al., 2020). The composite was utilized as an adsorbent schematic of the adsorption of PDADMAC on the SiO2 surface. Accord
and also catalyst support for ciprofloxacin removal from wastewater ing to the investigations, increasing the pH accelerates the negative
(Fig. 9a). The composite’s adsorption capacity was determined to be charge of SiO2 and subsequently, the adsorption of PDADMAC. The
148.0 mg/g, with a strong potential for reusability. Also, the prepared material was employed for AMX removal with 92.3% efficacy
SiOC/g-C3N4 showed a photodegradation rate constant of almost 2.28 (Fig. 9b). The synthesized materials can be reused for 3 times.
times higher than g-C3N4, which proves that the SiOC composites are Fluoride is a common element that can be found in the earth’s crust
applicable as promising catalyst support. The adsorbent can be recycled in cryolite, fluorspar, and fluorapatite. Fluoride is known as a contam
and reused for five times with no dramatic reduction in performance. ination in the water media which is documented as a serious issue in the
In the same year, another study was done by Sereshti and his group world. In 2015, Viswanathan and Christina designed two sorbents: The
for Cefixime antibiotic removal from aqueous media (Esmaeili Bidhendi immobilizations of Fe3O4 NPs in sodium alginate matrix (called FNPSA)
et al., 2020). They prepared nano-structured activated carbon from PP and Fe3O4 NPs with saponified OP residue in sodium alginate matrix
(PG-AC) through the chemical activation by NaOH. The maximum (called FNPSOPR) have been developed to remove fluoride from
adsorption efficiency for cefixime was 181.81 mg/g after 1 h at pH = 4. polluted water, (Fig. 9c) (Christina and Viswanathan, 2015). According
The prepared adsorbent can be reused for 10 cycles. Amoxicillin (AMX) to the results, FNPSA and FNPSOPR had maximal adsorption capabilities
(Fig. 9b) is in the beta-lactam family of antibiotics and its removal was of 58.24 mg/g and 80.33 mg/g, respectively. This would indicate that
studied in 2018 by Pham and co-workers (Pham et al., 2018). This group FNPSOPR can be a promising choice for this application. The SEM
12
Table 1
Agricultural waste-oriented (nano)materials and their environmental applications.
Entry Source Role of the Agricultural waste- Environmental application Highlights Ref.
biowaste derived (nano)
material
1 Pomelo peel Source of BC Fe@pomelo peel- Degradation of 4-NP - (Min et al., 2021)
derived BC composite
2 Onion peel extract Reductant G-NZVIa Reduction of bromate to Br− The nanoparticle diameter is (Lem et al., 2021)
100–600 nm and 100% removal
occurs in 2 min
3 OPs Adsorbent Nano-sized OPs Adsorption of cerium from aqueous 4–50 nm narrow particle size, 45.2 (Oyewo et al.,
precursor media mg/g adsorption capacity, spherical 2021)
morphology and improved surface
area displayed for OP
4 Citrus sinensis Source of NFCb Ag NPs/NFC Adsorption of Cd and Cr The nanocellulose was 44–50 nm (Tavker et al.,
peel/OP extract and reductant for and Ag NPs showed 15–16 nm 2021)
the preparation particle size. The sorption activity
of Ag NPsc of Cr and Cd was 32.20 and 83.49%,
respectively
5 Walnut shells Source of AC Magnetic AC Cationic dye adsorption from The maximum adsorption was 130 (Salem et al., 2020)
wastewater mg/g
6 Bagasse Absorbent B-AM-DETAd Adsorption of Hg ions The adsorption capacity of 813.0 (Ma et al., 2020)
precursor mg/g, and the removal percentage
of 99.9%, reused for 5 times
e
7 Olive pomace Absorbent NMOOP700 Adsorption of Cu2+or Ni2+ ions The maximum adsorption of (Dakroury et al.,
precursor NMOOP700 was 149.93 ± 4.4 for 2020a)
Ni2+ and 186.219 ± 6.3 mg/g for
Cu2+ metal ions
8 RH Source of Si RSi-bPEI f Removal of phosphate The maximum adsorption was (Suzaimi et al.,
123.46 mg/g, recycled for 5 cycles 2020)
9 Olive pomace - Silica/olive pomace Sorption of radionuclides The nanocomposite can adsorb Ra- (Dakroury et al.,
nanocomposite isotopes and 210Po-radionuclides 2020b)
from Ra-Po-Th radionuclide
admixture
g
10 Bagasse Support SBC-TiO2 Degradation of MB The degradation rate was 78.91% (Xiong et al., 2020)
precursor
h
11 Cactus pear fruit Reducing agent CP-ZnO-NPs Degradation of bisphenol-A (BPA) The catalyst size was 10–50 nm (Kamaraj et al.,
peel with hexagonal structure and 2020)
showed >90% removal, 10 times
recyclability
12 RH Source of BC Fe-magnetic BC Degradation of 4-NP via Fenton 99.8% of 4-NP was removed with (Van Nguyen et al.,
oxidation process 20 wt % Fe-loaded content 2020)
13 RH Source of AC Ag-ZnO-AC Photocatalytic degradation of MB, High degradation efficiency of (Vu et al., 2020)
tartrazine, CR, and organic 100% in 1 h, and degradation
compounds (caffeine and BPA) capacity of 17.8 mg/g in 20 min
14 PP, OP, banana Source of Cellulose-MoS2 Photocatalytic degradation of RhB The catalyst with the weight ratio of (Tavker and
peel (BP), and cellulose dye 500 mg showed 96% degradation Sharma, 2020)
sweet lime peel efficiency for RhB dye
15 WS Supporting agent WS-NZVIi composite Degradation of chlortetracycline In single pollutant systems, the (Shao et al., 2020)
and reduction of Cu2+ removal capacity was 1280.802 for
chlortetracycline and 376.4 mg/g
for Cu2+
16 Peanut peel Biotemplate m-Co3O4 NPsj Reduction of 4-NP and oxidative The activation energy of the 4-NP (Gulati et al., 2020)
degradation of orange G reduction and oxidative
degradation of Orange G was 22.3
and 18.7 kJ. Mol− 1, respectively,
recyclable up to 5 cycles
17 RH Supporting agent Fe2Cu1/RHA Reduction of NO - (Teng et al., 2020)
18 RH Supporting agent Fe/Ni@RH-SiO2 k Reduction of NO The catalyst reused for 9 successive (Ghadermazi et al.,
cycles 2020)
19 OP Source of AC MNAC l Cr(VI) removal The adsorbent has a high-specific (Nemr et al., 2020)
surface area of 1228.2 m2/g and
maximum adsorption of 133.33
mg/g and showed 99.12% removal
20 Palm kernel shell Source of AC PKSAC-nZVI m Removal of Cd(II) The maximum adsorption was (Prabu et al., 2022)
425.4 mg/g.
21 Saccharum Source of nano- SL-NS n Removal of Pb(II) and Zn(II) from The maximum adsorption were 148 (Kaliannan et al.,
officinarum leaves silica aqueous solution mg/g for Pb(II) and 137 mg/g for 2019)
Zn(II)
22 SB Source of AC Fe3O4/AC composite Removal of As(III) The best adsorption of As occurred (Joshi et al., 2019)
at pH = 8, adsorbent dose of 1.8 g/
L, and contact time of 1 h and
maximum adsorption was 6.69 mg/
g
23 WS Source of carbon WS-derived magnetic Absorption of microwave - (Gou et al., 2019)
carbon foams
(continued on next page)
13
Table 1 (continued )
material
24 BP Source of BC γ-Fe2O3@BC Degradation of BPA BPA was removed in 20 min at a (Rong et al., 2019)
rate constant of 0.1849 min− 1, can
be reused for 4 times
25 Citrus limetta peel Reducing and AgNPs Degradation of azo dyes According to TEM images, AgNPs (Srivastava and
extract stabilizing agent was 63 nm with a spherical shape Choubey, 2019)
p
26 Citrus sinensis peel Reducing agent Lp-TiO2/G-nCSP Photocatalytic degradation of - (Jabasingh and
extract Reactive Red-45 Lalith, 2019)
27 OP extract Reducing agent AgNPs Degradation of MB The zeta potential value for AgNPs (Skiba and
obtained was − 21.7 mV Vorobyova, 2019)
28 RH Source of SiO2 Fe2O3.SiO2 Degradation of organic dyes Fe2O3 was dispersed on SiO2 with 5 (Vu et al., 2019)
nm diameter and high surface area
of 109.5 m2. g− 1, can be reused for 5
times
29 Punica Granatum Stabilizing and Ag/Fe3O4/RGO NCs q Reduction of 4-NP, MB, methyl The catalyst can be reused for 5 (Adyani and
peel extract reducing agent green, and MO times Soleimani, 2019)
30 RH Source of AC Mn-Ce/RAC r Reduction of NOx - (Shu et al., 2019)
31 Lemon pomace Source of AC Lp-AC/Fe-Zn NPss Fenton-like decolorization of - (Oruç et al., 2019)
Reactive Red 2
32 WS Source of m-WSC/FP-Cu t Reduction of 2-nitrobenzoic acid (2- 1.00 g m-WSC/FP-Cu with 0.3 g (Su et al., 2019)
cellulose NA) NaBH4 was determined as the
optimum amount for reduction of
100 mg/L 2-NA, can be reused for 5
cycles
33 Coffee ground, BP, Precursor N-doped PCs u BPA removal N-Doped PCs from spent coffee (Oh et al., 2019)
OP, saw dust and ground and saw dust, with 44–46
dried leaves at. % graphitic N and >400 m2 g− 1
specific surface area, showed better
performance than those prepared
from OP, BP, and dried leaves, can
be reused for 4 times
34 PP extract Reducing agent Nano zerovalent iron CR removal 97.53 ± 0.4% removal was (Kvg et al., 2019)
and Klebsiella sp. obtained
35 RH Source of silica Pt loaded TiO2-Al- Removal of cyanide The catalyst can be reused for 5 (Kadi et al., 2019)
MCM-41 cycles
36 RH Source of silica Fe/SiO2 Oxidative degradation of refractory The catalyst can be reused for 4 (Xiong et al., 2019)
organics times
37 RH Source of silica MW-nSiO2 v Adsorption of MB The maximum adsorption was (Peres et al.,
679.9 mg/g with 80% removal 2018b)
percentage
38 RH Precursor Graphitic nanoribbons Adsorption of nitrobenzene - (Dasgupta et al.,
2018)
w
39 RH Source of char NiFe2O4-RHC Photodegradation of MB The photocatalyst is magnetically (Han et al., 2018)
separatable and shows excellent
stability for more than five runs
without any noteworthy loss of
activity
40 Annona squamosa L Reducing and AuNPs Reduction of CR and MB and 4-NP NPs are spherical with 5 ± 2 nm (Gangapuram
(AS) fruit stabilizing agent diameter, can be reused after 5 et al., 2018)
cycles
41 OP Precursor CMOPC x Removal of As The adsorption capacity was 10.3 (Shehzad et al.,
mg/g 2018)
42 Pomelo peel Bio-carrier for Zr-La/PP composites Removal of fluoride - (Shang et al., 2018)
anchoring the
dual-metal
hydroxide
43 RH Precursor Fe-RHA Decolorization of basic yellow 28 - (Amir et al., 2018)
44 RH Source of BC Nanosized RH biochar Removal of fluoride Removal efficiency was 90% (Goswami and
Kumar 2018)
y
45 OP Source of BC IOM-OPB Removal of Cd - (Salmani et al.,
2017)
z
46 Mango peel - GMP-nZVI Removal of Cr The removal success was above (Yirsaw et al.,
90% 2016)
47 Sineguelas Support S-NaOH-NZVI aa Pb(II) removal - (Arshadi et al.,
2014)
48 Walnut shell - NiIIHCFIII-WS bb Cesium removal - (Ding et al., 2014)
cc
49 SB - SB coated on nMAG Uranium removal Maximum adsorption capacity was (Rahnama et al.,
10 mg of uranium per g biosorbent 2014)
50 Delbergia sissoo Precursor DSPC dd Removal of Cd2+, Pb2+ and Ni2+ The biosorbent can be reused for up (Mahajan and Sud,
pods (DSP) ions from aqueous media to 5 consecutive sorption- 2014)
desorption cycles
51 SB Precursor Aqueous extract of Reduction of hexavalent Cr - (Mukherjee et al.,
sugar cane bagasse 2014)
52 BP Precursor BP Thorium removal The removal efficiency was 95.34% (Abbas, 2013)
14
material
53 Barley husk Source of silica Lined Type A Hg removal Adsorption efficacy was 98% (Azizi et al., 2013)
nanozeolite
54 Iraqi rice husk Precursor Type Y-zeolite Removal of toxic metals (Co, Hg, Li, Maximum removal of heavy metals (Abbas and Abbas,
(IRH) Sb, Sn, V, and W) was 97.55, 94.15, 98.25, 97.65, 2013)
96.63, 95.44, 96.16% for Co, Hg, Li,
Sb, Sn, V, and W ions, respectively
55 IRH - IRH Removal of Mg, Mn, and Mo The removal efficiency was 93.95, (Nsaif and Saeed,
97.18, and 95.26% for Mg, Mn and 2013a)
Mo, respectively
ee
56 OP Precursor MNP-OPP Cd removal Capacity of 55.38 mg. g− 1 and 82% (Gupta and Nayak,
Cd2+ removal was achieved, can be 2012)
reused after 5 cycles
57 Olive residue and Source of AC AC Hg removal - (Arvelakis et al.,
WS 2010)
58 Punica granatum’s Reducing and Pt NPs Reduction of 3-nitrophenol 16–23 nm was particle size (Dauthal and
peel stabilizing agent Mukhopadhyay,
2015)
59 Musa balbisiana - CuO NPs Reduction of nitro aryl compounds The BET surface area and total pore (Tamuly et al.,
peel volume of CuO were 7.479 m2/g 2014)
and 0.1259 m3/g, respectively, the
conversion yield was 74–96%
60 RHA Support RHPrNH2@Ag ff Reduction of nitroarenes - (Davarpanah and
Kiasat, 2013)
61 Punica granatum Stabilizing agent Ag NPs Reduction of 4-NP - (Edison and
Sethuraman, 2013)
62 Gymnocladus Reducing agent Au NPs Reduction of 4-NP The particle size range was 4.5 ± (Tamuly et al.,
assamicus pod 0.23–22.5 ± 1.24 nm, can be reused 2013)
for 4 times
63 Cotton stalk Source of BC Ce-Mn-AC Reduction of NOx The best NO conversion was almost (Wu et al., 2012)
55% at 260 ◦ C
gg
64 RH Source of silica UM-nSiO2 Adsorption of crystal violet dye The adsorption capacity and the (Peres et al.,
removal percentage were 495 mg/g 2018a)
and 98%, respectively
65 RH Source of zeolite TiO2/ZSM-5 Toluene removal Size of TiO2 was 10–20 nm and (Dinh et al., 2018)
TiO2/ZSM-5 is capable of removing
about 70% toluene
66 Shaddock Peel Starting material ACSP-HZO hh Phosphate removal 25.3–35.2 mg P/L was the (Duan et al., 2017)
for supporting maximum adsorption capacity of
the HZO ACSP-HZO
67 RH Source of silica MnOx-CeOx/SiO2 Removal of Hg0 and NOx SBET was 123 m2. g− 1 and Hg0 (Liu et al., 2017b)
removal efficiency was 96%
68 Maize (Zea mays L.) - ZM ii/Fe-Cu NPs Malachite green (MG) dye removal - (Lara-Vásquez
et al., 2016)
69 OP Source of AC AC/SrCl2 Iodine and MB adsorption The surface area of the AC was 577 (Akmil-Başar et al.,
AC/H3BO3 m2/g and 290 m2/g for H3BO3 and 2016)
SrCl2 activation, respectively
70 WS Precursor MWS jj Pd adsorption Maximum sorption capacities of (Azizi Haghighat
50.76 and 41.15 mg/g were and Ameri, 2016)
achieved for MWS and WS,
respectively
71 RH Ash precursor RHA-MNP kk Removal of Acid Red 114 (AR114) - (Kaykioglu and
dye Gunes, 2016)
72 RH Source of nano- Ceramic membrane Removal of MB The ceramic membrane can be (Tolba et al., 2016)
silica recycle after 5 cycles
73 Corn husk - Corn husk-based Adsorption of platinum - (Tavassolirizi et al.,
adsorbent 2015)
74 WS - Fe3O4-WS MB adsorption The adsorption capacity was (Pirbazari et al.,
1374.6 mg/g 2014)
ll
75 Wheat husk - MN-WH Removal of methyl blue Maximum adsorption of 98% (Shah et al., 2014)
occurred at pH 5
76 Coffee husk Source of AC Iron oxide dispersed Organic pollutants removal Can be reused after 5 times (Gonçalves et al.,
over AC 2013)
77 RH Source of silica RHS-50Ti10Ce mm Adsorption and photodegradation of The adsorption capability was more (Adam et al.,
MB than 99% 2013b)
78 RH Ash precursor Tin and titanium Adsorption and photocatalytic - (Adam et al.,
incorporated RH silica degradation of MB 2013a)
nanocomposite
79 RH Ash precursor Polyaniline and Removal of COD, color, anions, and - (Ghorbani and
polypyrrole heavy metals Eisazadeh, 2013)
nanocomposites
coated on RHA
80 RH Ash precursor Copper-based RHA Removal of SO2 and NO from flue The optimum adsorption capacity (Lau et al., 2013)
sorbent gas was 53.40 mg SO2/g and 6.90 mg
NO/g
15
material
81 Coconut shells Source of AC AC-supported MB removal - (Lima et al., 2013)

magnetite
82 SB fly ash Precursor Porous carbon VOC removal - (Subramanian
et al., 2013)
83 RH - Iraqi rice husk Removal of minerals - (Nsaif and Saeed,
adsorbent 2013b)
84 RH Starting material Nanocomposite TiO2- UV absorption - (Jaroenworaluck
SiO2 gel et al., 2012)
85 Orange or - Citrus peel biosorbent Cd desorption - (Njikam and
grapefruit peels Schiewer, 2012)
86 OP - OP nanoporous Removal of bromophenol blue - (Arunachalam and
adsorbent Annadurai, 2011)
87 OP - AC-CNT nn/OP Removal of MB The adsorption capacity was 78%, (Jain et al., 2010)
composite the sorption/desorption cycle was
repeated up to six times
88 SB - EDTAD oo-modified SB Adsorption of MB The adsorption capacity was 115.3 (Xing et al., 2010)
mg/g
89 Jack fruit peel Precursor Jack fruit peel carbon Photolytic and photocatalytic - (Jain et al., 2009)
degradation of atrazine
90 RH - AC and RH Removal of RhB - (Jain et al., 2007)
91 RH Source of AC Pt/PAC pp Oxidative degradation of poly >85% sulfonate polymer removal (Karthikeyan et al.,
[(naphthaleneformaldehyde) was achieved over five consecutive 2018)
sulfonate] recycles
92 RH Silica source MSIO-NPs qq Degradation and mineralization of The removal of total organic carbon (Kushwaha et al.,
nile blue sulfate dye (TOC) and the degradation 2018)
efficiency of NBS dye from MSIO-
NPs were determined to be 66.58
and 92.46%, respectively, can be
reused 4 times
93 RH Ash source α-Fe2O3/SiO2 Photocatalytic NO oxidation - (Balbuena et al.,
2018)
rr
94 RH Source of BC Fe-RHB Acid red 1 dye degradation Maximum removal rate was 97.6% (Rubeena et al.,
and TOC removal rate was 84.2%, 2018)
can be reused for 4 times
95 Coir pith Source of BC Fe-CPB ss Acid red 1 dye degradation TOC removal and maximum dye (Rubeena et al.,
removal efficiency 86.7 and 99.1% 2018)
respectively, can be reused for 4
times
96 Bottle gourds (BG) Reducing and BG/Pd/Fe3O4 MNPs Reduction of MB The surface area was 27.6 m2. g− 1 (Prasad et al.,
peel capping agent 2017a)
97 SB - CeO2/SB Photocatalytic degradation of MB - (Channei et al.,
2017)
98 Bagasse Precursor γ-Fe2O3/C Adsorption and catalytic BET surface area was 764.116 m2/ (Chen et al., 2017)
degradation of MB g, mesoporous volume was 0.54
cm3/g, and saturation
magnetization was 17.1 emu/g, the
adsorbent can be reused for 5 times
99 SB Source of AC xTiO2-AC Adsorption and photocatalytic - (El-Salamony et al.,
degradation of MB 2017)
tt
100 RH Source of silica RHSi-Fe Fenton degradation of oxalic acid 69.71% of oxalic acid was degraded (Ghime and Ghosh,
within 1 h 2017)
101 Pisum sativum (PS) Reducing and PS-Fe3O4 MNPs Degradation of MO dye Fe3O4 NPs show high specific (Prasad et al.,
peels capping agent surface area and the size range 2017b)
about 17.6 m2/g and 20–30 nm,
respectively
102 RH Source of Cellulose acetate Photodegradation of MO dye Can be reused several times (Rohani et al.,
cellulose hybrid nanofibers 2017)
103 RHA Source of silica MCM-48/Ni2O3 Photocatalytic removal of CR dye Reused after 5 runs (Shaban et al.,
gel 2017)
uu
104 SB Source of BC BC600 Sonocatalytic degradation of MB - (Lia et al., 2017)
105 Citrus maxima peel Reducing and Au NPs Degradation of 4-NP - (Yuan et al., 2017)
capping agent
106 RH Source of silica Cr/ZSM-5 Photocatalytic degradation of 4-NP The catalyst can be recycled for 6 (Ali et al., 2017)
times
107 Citrus peel Source of ZnO-Cel vv Degradation of MB 69.5% degradation was achieved (Ali et al., 2016)
cellulose
ww
108 Benincasa hispida - Ag/AgCl NPs Degradation of organic compound - (Devi and
peel Ahmaruzzaman,
2016)
109 RH Source of silica Ag-ZnO incorporated Photo degradation of MB - (Hong et al., 2016)
silica
110 Ridge gourd (RG) Reducing and RG-FeMNPs Degradation of MB Specific surface area was 26.21 m2/ (Cheera et al.,
peels capping agent g 2016)
16
material
111 PP Stabilizing and ZnO-Ag NCAxx Photocatalytic degradation of MB The catalyst can be reused for 5 (Kaviya and
reducing agent times Prasad, 2015)
112 Citrus grandis peel Stabilizing and Cu NPs Degradation of methyl red Cu NPs were spherical in shape with (Sinha and
reducing agent 22–27 nm diameter Ahmaruzzaman,
2015)
113 RH Support RHA-Pt and RHA-Ti Degradation of chlorobenzenes - (Thabet et al.,
2015)
114 RH Silica precursor Fe-RH-MCM-41 Degradation of Reactive Red 3 - (Wantala et al.,
2015)
yy
115 RH Source of AC NPAC Degradation of 2-deoxy-D-ribose - (Karthikeyan and
Sekaran, 2014)
116 Rice hull - MFe2O4 (M = Mn, Co) Degradation of MB Maximum MB removal was 99.7% (Liu et al., 2014a)
117 RHA Zeolite Y Ti-Ag/NaY Degradation of cyanide Optimum conditions afforded 99% (Mohamed et al.,
precursor removal 2013)
118 RHA Immobilizer Iron(III) immobilized Decolorization of Acid Red 1 96% decolorization occurred under (Daud and
on RHA the optimum situation, the catalyst Hameed, 2010)
can be reused for 4 times
119 RH Silicon source Zeolite-supported Degradation of MB, direct yellow 8, The catalyst can be reused for 5 (Petkowicz et al.,
titania catalysts direct blue 71 dyes cycles 2010)
120 RH Source of silica Ti-RH-MCM-41 and Photocatalytic degradation of MO RH-MCM-41 and TiO2/RH-MCM-41 (Artkla et al.,
TiO2/RH-MCM-41 represented mesoporous structures 2009c)
with surface areas of 1073 and
1006 m2/g, respectively
121 RH Source of silica TiO2/MCM-41 Photocatalytic degradation of - (Artkla et al.,
tetramethylammonium 2009b)
122 RH Silicon source Titania supported on a Photodegradation of MB MB decomposition was 92% (Petkowicz et al.,
NaA zeolite 2009)
123 RHA Precursor ZSM-5 zeolite Degradation of acid green - (Mohamed et al.,
2008)
124 Rice and melon Precursor AC Degradation of anthracene - (Owabor and
husks Saniyo, 2006)
125 SB - SB citrate Degradation of the organics Color removal of 93.71% and TOC (Zhang et al.,
removal of 85.89% were obtained 2019b)
126 RH - Iron-loaded RHA Decolorization of MB The catalyst can be reused for 4 (Ikhlaq et al.,
times 2019)
127 Pithecellobium Reducing and Ag NPs Degradation of MO and eosin yellow - (Khan et al., 2018)
dulce pod capping agent (EY)
128 RH Stabilizing agent Au NPs Reduction of 4-NP The catalyst can be reused for 3 (Li et al., 2015)
times
129 Punica granatum Reducing and Cobalt-oxide NPs Degrading Remazol Brilliant Orange The CoO NPs were in highly (Bibi et al., 2017)
peel capping agent 3R dye uniform shape and a size range of
40–80 nm and degradation of
78.45%
130 Rambutan peel - Bi2O3 nanoflakes Degradation of MO dye Degrading the dye was achieved (Karnan and
about 94.66% at 10 h Samuel, 2016)
131 RH Source of AC Zn-TiO2/C@SiO2 Photodegradation of pollutants - (Chen et al., 2016)
132 RH Source of silica Titania-silica Photodegradation of MB - (Manurung et al.,
2015)
133 Beta vulgaris peel - AgCl-NPs Color reduction of MB The diameter of stable AgCl-NPs (Kumar et al.,
was approximately 10 nm 2015)
134 RH Template TiO2/SiO2 Photodegradation of MB Degrading the dye to about 82% (Hui et al., 2015)
within 4 h was achieved
135 RH Source of silica TiO2/ZSM-5 Decolorization of MB - (Panpa et al., 2008)
136 Pomelo peel Source of carbon Fe-N@BC Removal of organic pollutants and The catalyst can be recycled for 5 (Yao et al., 2022b)
and nitrogen reduction of Cr(VI) cycles
137 Psidium guajava - Ni NPs Degradation of reactive Orange E3 - (Rafique et al.,
peel dye 2022)
138 Citrus aurantium - Ag-MgO NCs Reduction of MB, Rose Bengal (RB), Reduction of MB, RB, and AO was (Ringwal et al.,
peel and acridine orange (AO) 89.77, 83.38, and 87.34%, 2022)
respectively
139 Cornstalk Source of carbon Fe3O4/C Adsorption of MB and RhB dyes The composite can be recycled for 5 (Wei et al., 2022)
cycles
140 Muskmelon peel Source of carbon Blue-fluorescent CQDs Degradation of RhB Quantum yield was 39.51%, can be (Preethi et al.,
recycled for 5 cycles 2022)
141 Cassia fistula plant - Bi2O3 NPs Degradation of RhB, MB and Bi2O3 NPs can be recycled for 5 (Meena et al.,
pod Alizarin Red S (ARS) dyes cycles 2022a)
142 Apple peel Nontoxic CuO NPs Reduction of CV and MB dyes The catalyst can be recycled for 5 (Rajamohan and
reducing agent cycles Lee, 2023)
and capping
agent
143 WS - Iron ore tailings-based Decomposition of MB The catalyst can be recycled for 4 (Gao et al., 2022)
Fenton-like catalyst cycles
144 OP powder - ZnO-GO Degradation of MB - (Sánchez-Albores
et al., 2022)
17
material
145 SB - Sugarcane-Nb2O5 Degradation of reactive black 5 - (Almeida et al.,

2022)
146 RH Source of silica CuO•Fe3O4/SiO2 Degradation of dyes and Tartrazine Large surface area and high pore (Ngoc and Vu,
volume were 496.4 m2/g and 1.154 2022)
cm3/g respectively, can be reused
for 3 times
147 Garlic peel Solid support for Cobalt@garlic peel Degradation of bromophenol blue The conversion was 94% with 87% (Zayed et al., 2022)
the assembly of and 4-NP activity after the tenth cycles
cobalt NPs
148 Citrus maxima peel Au–Ce Reduction of p-nitrophenol (PNP) The diameter of Au NPs was (Ho et al., 2022)
6.6–2.5 nm and the surface of CeO2
nanorods was 33.1–15.0 nm,
catalyst could be reused for at least
5 consecutive times
149 SB ash and pumice Source of SiO2 Ag2O/SiO2 Reduction of 4-NP - (Nurwahid et al.,
stone 2022)
150 Millettia pinnata - Bi2O3 Degradation of 4-NP, 4-nitro aniline Ranging from 25 to 70 nm, (Meena et al.,
plant pod and AB-10B dye photocatalyst can be reused after 4 2022b)
times
151 BP and sugarcane Source of carbon PtCo3-su Adsorption of toluene The adsorption capacity of toluene (Zhang et al.,
peel was 542 mg/g 2022a)
152 Pomelo peel Source of BC MgFe2O4/BC (MMB) Levofloxacin degradation 87.87% of LFX was removed, (Yao et al., 2022a)
reused for 3 cycles
153 Pomelo peel Source of BC Co-Fe@PPBC Degradation of TET Removal 86.2% of TET, can be (Han and Xiao,
reused for 5 cycles 2022)
154 Pomelo peel Source of BC Nitrogen-doped BC Removal of SUL Removal 95% of SMX, can be (Wang and Chen,
recycled for 4th cycle 2022)
155 WS Source of BC Granulated activated Sorption of volatile organic Biochar kept 92% reusability after (Zhang et al.,
carbon (GAC) catalyst compounds (VOCs) 10 adsorption/desorption cycles 2022c)
156 PP Source of BC PPC3/PMS removal of SUL Removal 10 mg/L of SMX with the (Chen et al., 2022)
rate of 85.39%, reused after 5 cycles
157 RH Source of silica ITQ-2 and MCM-22 Oxidation of benzene - (Schwanke et al.,
layered zeolites 2022)
impregnated with
cerium (5 and 10%)
158 RH - TiO2-RH Degradation of MO 92% of MO (Li et al., 2022b)
159 RH Source of carbon ZnCoxFe2-xO4-loaded Oxidation of BPA - (Zhang et al.,
RH-carbon 2022b)
160 SB ash Source of carbon- Magnetic SB ash Degradation of TET Degradation activity was 90.43%, (Rattanachueskul
silica (MBGA) reused for 4 times et al., 2022)
161 BP/watermelon - Watermelon peel, BP Removal of MG - (Yabalak and
peel (WM)/bay leaf and bay leaves Elneccar, 2022)
(BL) hydrochars
o Magnetic BC.
a
Green nano-zerovalent iron.
b
Nano-fibrillated cellulose.
c
Silver NPs.
d
Bagasse-acrylamide- diethylenetriamine.
e
Olive pomace-modified magnesium oxide NPs.
f
RH porous silica grafted branched polyethyleneimine.
g
Bagasse cellulose titanium dioxide.
h
Cactus pear fruit peel mediated ZnO-NPs.
i
WS-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron.
j
Magnetic Co3O4 NPs.
k
RH-SiO2 supported bimetallic Fe-Ni NPs.
l
Microporous nano-activated carbon.
m
Kernel shell-activated carbon impregnated with nano-scale size zero-valent iron.
n
Saccharum officinarum leaves assisted nano-silica.
p
Low-power CO2 laser-fabricated Graphene impregnated green TiO2-based nanocatalyst using Citrus sinensis peel extract.
q
Ag/Fe3O4/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites.
r
RH-derived activated carbon-supported manganese-cerium mixed oxide catalyst.
s
Lemon pomace-derived activated carbon/Fe-Zn bimetallic NPs.
t
Magnetic wheat straw cellulose (WSC) and feather protein (FP) hydrogel-Cu.
u
N-doped porous carbons.
v
Microwave-modified nano-silica.
w
RH char.
x
Calcined magnetic OP composites.
y
Nano iron oxide-modified OP biochar.
z
Mango peel nano-zero valent iron.
aa
Nanoscale zerovalent iron particles (NZVI) decorated sineguelas waste.
bb
Nickel (II) hexacyanoferrate (III) functionalized agricultural residue-walnut shell.
18
cc
Iron oxide nanocrystals.
dd
Carbonized Delbergia sissoo pods.
ee
OP powder modified into novel magnetic nanoadsorbents.
ff
Silver NPs embedded into the RH propylamine composite.
gg
Ultrasound modified bio-nano-silica.
hh
Amine-crosslinked nano hydrous zirconium oxide is embedded in shaddock peel.
ii
Zea mays L.
jj
Magnetic WS.
kk
Magnetic NPs from RHA.
ll
Magnetic particles impregnated onto wheat husk.
mm
Titania and ceria incorporated RH silica-based catalyst.
nn
Activated carbon nanotubes.
oo
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic dianhydride.
pp
Porous activated carbon-supported Pt catalyst.
qq
Mesoporous silica modified iron oxide NPs.
rr
Iron-loaded RH biochar.
ss
Iron loaded coir pith biochar.
tt
Iron-impregnated RH silica.
uu
BC pyrolyzed at 600 ◦ C.
vv
Zinc oxide impregnated cellulose.
ww
Ag embedded AgCl NPs.
xx
Nano custard apples.
yy
Nanoporous activated carbon.
images of the different samples are shown in Fig. 9c. including clays, zeolites, and montmorillonite are affordable, non-
Also, there are much more examples of the utilization of agricultural toxic, and widely accessible.
waste-derived (nano)materials in environmental applications, which are ✓ In addition, actual wastewater should be studied rather than artifi
summarized in Table 1. cially manufactured effluent.
4. Conclusion and future perspectives

Declaration of competing interest
Life depends on water, and having access to clean water is essential
for staying healthy. Water shortage and the quickening contamination of The authors declare no competing interest.
available water supplies, however, are two of the largest issues. Addi
tionally, solid food wastes are becoming a bigger issue every day. To Data availability
treat wastewater, solid waste should be recycled that is created at
massive rates and requires both ecologically benign, effective, and novel No data was used for the research described in the article.
procedures. The processing of agricultural wastes has a variety of uses,
including the creation of bioenergy, biofertilizers, composting, and the Acknowledgements
elimination of contaminants from the environment. Utilizing green
technology with added value to managing agricultural or industrial The supports from the Iranian Nano Council, Islamic Azad Univer
waste is a growing scientific concern in light of the challenges with sity, and Amirkabir University of Technology-Mahshahr Campus are
global economic growth and environmental damage. Therefore, one of appreciated.
the potential green biotechnologies that may lessen environmental
impact while restoring the balance of the agro-ecosystem is the biolog
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Journal of Cleaner Production 421 (2023) 138524

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Agricultural waste-derived (nano)materials for water and wastewater

1. Introduction Xu et al., 2021, 2022; Han et al., 2023). Environmental sustainability

81 Coconut shells Source of AC AC-supported MB removal - (Lima et al., 2013)

145 SB - Sugarcane-Nb2O5 Degradation of reactive black 5 - (Almeida et al.,

4. Conclusion and future perspectives

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