Materials Science & Engineering A 712 (2018) 232–239

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Materials Science & Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Investigating of the tensile mechanical properties of structural steels at high T

strain rates
⁎
A.R. Khalifeha, A.Dehghan Banarakia, H. Danesh Manesha, , M.Dehghan Banarakib
a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: St37 and St52 structural steel plates were tested in uniaxial tension at room temperature over various strain rates
Structural steels ranging from 0.001/s to 0.1/s. The yield stress, flow stress and fracture behavior of steels were analyzed. It was
High strain rates found that the strain rate has a strong effect on the tensile mechanical properties of St37 steel, while St52 has a
Deformation behavior less sensitive strain rate and that the yield strength of both steels exhibits a higher strain sensitivity rate than the
Constitutive modeling
other mechanical properties. An increase in the loading rate from 0.001/s to 0.1/s led to a %30 increase in the
lower yield strength of St37 steel and an increase of %6 for St52. The equations were derived to express the yield
stress behavior with the strain rate. The ductile dimple fracture was observed in static and dynamic conditions;
however, increasing the strain rate resulted in a pronounced cleavage-type fracture in both steels. The St37
fracture strain decreased considerably by increasing the strain rate.

1. Introduction yield stress under the loading rate of 0.01/s [15]. Investigations by
Matos and Dodds demonstrated that this steel presents a 45% increase
Due to low cost, excellent reliability and compatibility with most of yield stress at a strain rate of 1/s and a 65% increase at a strain rate
manufacturing techniques, steel is one of the most widely used in- of 10/s [16]. They found that higher strength steel structures such as
dustrial materials [1]. Steel is employed for a wide variety of applica- A572 present an increase of 40% in the yield strength at the strain rate
tions, including chemical and petrochemical plants, power transmission of 10/s [16]. Stainless steel structures have been considered for cor-
components and structures [2,3]. Steel products may encounter high- rosive elements in chemical plants. The impact and fracture response of
strain rate deformation conditions during their production and service the AISI316L stainless steel subjected to high strain loading were stu-
life [4–7]. Using the assumption of rate-independent plastic deforma- died by Berling and Slot. Results showed that the flow stress-strain
tion in classical plasticity theories may not be appropriate in the design response of the AISI316L stainless steel depends strongly on the applied
and construction of elements that made by these materials. The per- strain rate [21]. The brittle fracture mode was observed in 18Mn types
formance of steel moment resisting frames during the 1994 Northridge of steels by increasing in the strain rate of 0.27/s, which is unusual for
and 1995 Kobe earthquakes raised the negative impacts of high-loading austenitic stainless steels [22]. Lee and Lin indicated that the
rates on the mechanical behavior and highlighted deficiencies asso- morphologies and characteristics of both dislocation and micro-
ciated with the design and construction of steel structures based on structures of AISI304L are sensitive to the loading rates changes. They
static tensile tests [8–12]. The steel structures high-stressed regions, as disclosed that increasing the loading rate increases the density of dis-
well as the deformed steel bars and wires of reinforced concrete locations, thereby increasing the flow stress at a given strain rate [23].
structures can receive a strain of 0.001/s to 0.1/s under seismic and In this study, the effects of static and earthquake-type dynamic
impulsive loads [13–15]. In the presence of cracks and stress con- loadings on the tensile mechanical properties of a ductile structural
centration points strain rate can increase up to 1/s, being responsible steel, St37, and a higher strength grade, namely St52 have been studied
for a considerable reduction in the materials toughness [16]. The steel to compare their responses at the loading rates. The relation of the
yield stress and ultimate tensile strength, strains corresponding to these combined power law constitutive model was selected to describe the
stresses, and strain hardening rates will be affected by increasing the material response to strain rate variations. The fractography of the
strain rate [13,17–20]. Chang and Lee revealed that the annealed A36 tested specimens under both static and dynamic loading conditions
structural steel at room temperature shows a 27% increase in lower have also been discussed. The topics could provide some important

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H.D. Manesh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.11.025
Received 20 August 2017; Received in revised form 30 October 2017; Accepted 8 November 2017
Available online 09 November 2017
0921-5093/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A.R. Khalifeh et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 712 (2018) 232–239

Table 1
The chemical composition of St37 and St52 steels. (a)

Materials Chemical composition (%wt)

Fe C Mn Ni Cr Mo Si P

St37 ball 0.131 0.321 < 0.005 0.044 0.005 0.155 0.015
St52 ball 0.206 1.36 < 0.005 0.003 0.005 0.485 0.014

insights on the structural applications of St37 and St52 steels under

earthquake loading conditions. Ferrites
2. Experimental procedures Pearlites
100 μm
The St37 and St52 carbon steels investigated in the present study
were received in plate form with a thickness of 15 mm. Both steels were
supplied by Isfahan's Mobarake Steel Company (Iran). The chemical (b)
composition of carbon steels has been presented in Table 1. The subsize
tensile specimens with 25-mm gauge length were prepared from hot-
rolled steel plates using wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)
processes according to the ASTM E8 standard.
The samples were cut in the longitudinal rolling direction for the
evaluation of tensile mechanical properties variation at the static and
dynamic loadings. In order to analyze the anisotropy of the steel plates,
transverse tensile samples were also prepared for testing in the static
condition. The surfaces of each specimen were polished by sand papers
and any WEDM-induced defects were removed from the surfaces in
Ferrites
order to eliminate any potential source of stress concentrations during
the testing processes. In order to ensure the reliability of the test results, Pearlites
three specimens of each steel were tested for each strain rate condition. 100 μm
The Static [24] and earthquakes-type dynamic loading [14,15] ranging
from 0.001/s to 0.1/s were conducted using a servo hydraulic testing Rolling
machine with a 25 kN maximum load capacity (Instron8800). Micro- direction
structural evaluations were done utilizing an optical microscopy after
Fig. 1. The microstructure of (a) St37 and (b) St52 steel.
polishing and etching samples with a 2% Nital solution. Scanning
electron microscopy, SEM, was used for the fractography observation of
the failed specimens. tensile test as follows:
σ = S (1+e ) (1)
3. Results
ε = Ln (1+e ) (2)
3.1. Metallographic examination These expressions are valid only in uniform deformation area of the
engineering stress-strain curves or until the onset of necking [26,27].
The microstructures of the steels in the longitudinal rolling direction The formation of a necked region introduces triaxial stresses, making it
were characterized by optical microscopy, as can be seen in Fig. 1. difficult to determine the longitudinal tensile stress accurately [26].
Ferrites and pearlites are apparent in both St37 and St52 steels mi- Therefore, only this part of the true stress-strain curve has been con-
crostructures. Fig. 1a shows the optical micrograph of St37 carbon sidered, Fig. 2b. The average measured tensile properties have been
steel. As can be seen, the microstructure of the St37 low-carbon steel summarized in Table 2.
contains approximately 90 vol% ferrite and 10 vol% pearlite. The
average grain size is approximately 42 µm. The coarse grains produced 3.2.1. Mechanical properties in the static condition (ɛ̇ = 0.001/s)
due to hot working processes can be seen in the metallographic images. Almost all samples show the yield-point phenomenon in which the
The optical micrograph of St52 carbon steel has been shown in Fig. 1b. material exhibits a characteristic drop in the stress-strain curve at the
The microstructure contains fine ferrite and pearlite grains, about %70 end of the elastic region. The upper yield strength, UYS, the lower yield
ferrite and %30 pearlite, elongated in the direction of rolling processes. strength, LYS, and the ultimate tensile strength, UTS, for St37 in the
The finer grains in St52 microstructure are result of production pro- static loading were 240 MPa, 235 MPa and 387 MPa, respectively. The
cesses [25]. The average grain size for St52 was about 17 µm. The yield ratio (LYS/UTS) was 0.61. The values of UYS, LYS and UTS for
percentage of pearlite was much greater than that in St52 steel with St52 steel were obtained as 392, 390 and 613 MPa which are 63%, 66%
respect to St37. and 58% higher than those for St37 steel, respectively. The yield ratio
for St52 was computed as 0.64, which is higher than the value obtained
3.2. Mechanical properties evaluation for St37 steel. The higher yield ratio of St52 permits more reliable
design of steel structures [2]. The static yield drops for St37 and St52
Representative the engineering stress-strain curves up to fracture at steels were observed as 2% and 0.5%, respectively. The relative yield
different strain rates have been plotted in Fig. 2a to demonstrate the drop was followed by a region of almost constant nominal stress with
effect of the strain rate on the tensile mechanical properties of St37 and some fluctuations. Within this region of nearly constant stress, the
St52 structural steels. The true stress and true strain were computed plastic deformations take place locally in deformation bands or Lüdders
based on the engineering stress, S, and engineering strain, e, of the band. The Lüdders band dimension is not noticeable in the static

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700 at the fracture surface of the specimens. The true fracture strain was
(a) calculated as [27]:

600 εf = Ln (A○ / Af ) (3)

where εf is the true strain at fracture, A○ and Af are the initial area and
500 area at the fracture, respectively.
The obtained results have been presented in Table 2. As can be seen,
the fracture strain for St52 steel is smaller than St37 in static condition.
Stress,MPa

400 In order to evaluate the anisotropy of the rolled-plate products, the

tensile tests were also done on the transverse rolling specimens. Data on
300 the transverse tensile test for St37 and St52 steels in the static condition
has been given in Table 2. The results show no significant difference
St52,0.1/s
between UYS, LYS and UTS of transverse and longitudinal specimens.
St52,0.01/s
200
St52,0.001/s
3.2.2. Influence of dynamic loadings on mechanical properties
St37,0.1/s
Fig. 2 shows the engineering and true stress–strain curves obtained
100 St37,0.01/s for St37 and St52 steels at three strain rates of 0.001/s, 0.01/s and 0.1/
St37,0.001/s s. The results reveal that these steels follow the same general trend. By
0 increasing strain rate, the yield point, tensile strength and flow stress of
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 the steels increase. The most dramatic changes are evident in the yields
Strain points. For the clarification of this phenomenon, the variation of LYS
and UYS of St37 and St52 carbon steels at different strain rates from
800
(b) 0.001/s to 0.1/s have been compared in Fig. 3. Increasing the LYS and
UYS of both steels by increasing the strain rate is clearly visible. It can
700 be seen in Fig. 3, that the effects of the strain rate on the LYS of St37 are
more considerable than those of St52 steel. Considering this figure, the
600 sharpest variation for both steels is seen at the strain rate of 0.1/s in
which the LYS of St37 and St52 presents a 30% and a 6%increase, re-
spectively.
True stress,MPa

500
Another way to express the effect of the strain rate on the yield
behavior of structural steels is the ratio of the yield strength in the
400 dynamic static
dynamic-to-static condition. The ratio of σ LYS /σ LYS for St37 and St52
steels at different strain rates has been plotted in Fig. 4. The results
300 St52,0.1/s
revealed that the lower strength material (St37) has more strain rate
St52,0.01/s
St52,0.001/s
sensitivity than the higher strength grade (St52). The equations which
200 are useful for the predicting of the LYS of steels over dynamic loadings
St37,0.1/s
St37,0.01/s extracted through the fitting of the power law equation on the tensile
100 St37,0.001/s tests data at different strain rates:
For St37 steel:
0 dynamic static
σ LYS /σ LYS = 33.01ɛ̇2 − 1.0659ɛ̇+1.0441 (4)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
True strain And for St52 steel:
dynamic static
Fig. 2. The engineering (a) and true (b) stress-strain curve of St37 and St52 at different σ LYS /σ LYS = 0.3931ɛ̇2+0.3924ɛ̇ + 1.0057 (5)
strain rates. dynamic
In which and
σ LYS σ static
denotes dynamic and static lower yield
LYS
stress at room temperature respectively, and ɛ̇ refers to the test strain
condition. The uniform elongation starts at the end of the Lüdders rate.
bands and continues up to the ultimate strength. The stress related to The strain rate effects on UYS of St37 and St52 steels have been
this region is known as flow stress which is higher in all ranges of plotted in Fig. 3. The variations for UYS with the strain rate are more
strains for St52 than St37 steel. Necking started after the σmax and noticeable and show a 46% increase for St37 at the loading rate of 0.1/
during a non-uniform elongation region continued up to the breaking s. Increasing UYS for St52 is much lower and only 15% increase was
point or fracture strain. The fracture strain was determined by direct observed during the dynamic loading of 0.1/s. The upper yield point is
measurement of the initial cross-sectional area and cross-sectional area sensitive to alignment of the specimens in the tensile test [28] and

Table 2
The yield strength, tensile strength, yield ratio, fracture strain of St37 and St52 structural steels at various strain rates.

Materials ɛ̇(1/s) Test Direction UYS(MPa) LYS(MPa) UTS(MPa) LYS/UTS εf

St37 0.001 Longitudinal 240 235 387 0.61 1.12

Transverse 252 249 393 0.63 1.06
0.01 … 266 252 401 0.63 1.05
0.1 … 350 306 422 0.73 0.88
St52 0.001 Longitudinal 392 390 613 0.64 0.92
Transverse 405 396 624 0.63 0.90
0.01 … 398 395 614 0.64 0.86
0.1 … 450 413 627 0.66 0.81

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700 6.7
R² = 1.00
600 6.5

500
6.3
R² = 1.00

Ln true stress
Stress(MPa)

400
6.1

300
5.9 St52
200 UTS St52 St37
UYS St52
UTS St37
5.7 Linear (St52)
100 LYS St52 Linear (St37)
UYS St37
LYS St37 5.5
0 -3.5 -3.2 -2.9 -2.6 -2.3 -2 -1.7 -1.4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 Ln true strain
Strain rate(1/s) Fig. 5. The linear least-squares curve fitting scheme to determine K and n values for St37
and St52 steels.
Fig. 3. The variation of LYS, UYS and UTS of St37 and St52 steels by the strain rate.

1.40 6.7
R² = 0.9953
6.6
1.30
6.5
1.20 St52
LYS(dynamic)/LYS(stac)

6.4 St37
Linear (St52)
Ln stress

1.10 6.3
Linear (St37)

1.00 6.2
St37
St52 6.1 R² = 0.9149
0.90
6
0.80
5.9
-7.5 -6.5 -5.5 -4.5 -3.5 -2.5
0.70 Ln(strain rate)
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Fig. 6. The log–log plot of stress versus strain rate (m extracted equal 0.021 and 0.015 at
Strain rate(1/s) strain of 0.15 for St37 and St52, respectively).
Fig. 4. The effects of strain rate on the lower yield stress of St37 and St52 steels.

3.2.3. The effect of the strain rate on flow stress

therefore the lower yield point is a more important factor in the design Fig. 2b shows the true stress-strain curves of St37and St52 steels at
and construction of steel structures. different strain rates. The graph reveals that the flow stress of St37 steel
The variation of UTS for St37 and St52 steel with the strain rate has is strongly dependent on the strain rate during the tensile processes,
been shown in Fig. 3. Increasing in UTS is seen by increasing the strain while St52 has less strain rate sensitivity. The flow stress of both steels
rate but the amount of variations is not as considerable as that of LYS. increases by increasing the strain rate. The uniform ductility for St37 is
UTS increases by 9% and 2% for St37 and St52, respectively by in- similar in all loading conditions. This is the balance of the higher work
creasing the strain rate from 0.001/s to 0.1/s. Considering the results, hardening rate and Lüdering at higher strain rates. Higher work hard-
the UTS has a less strain rate sensitivity than the yield strength for both ening tends to increase the uniform ductility, whereas extended Lü-
steels. dering reduces the uniform elongation. For St52 increasing in strain
Results on the yield ratio in dynamic conditions for St37 and St52 rate results in reduction of uniform elongation. Lüdering is not con-
steels have been given in Table 2. It can be seen from the data that by siderable for St52 steel.
increasing the strain rate from 0.001/s to 0.1/s the yield ratio increases A suitable constitutive equation, capable of accurately describing
from 0.61 to 0.73 and from 0.64 to 0.66 for St37 and St52 steels, re- the flow behavior of materials, is a suitable tool for the engineering
spectively. The effects of strain rate on the yield ratio of St37 steel are design of steel structures. Thus, the combined power law constitutive
more considerable than those related to St52. equation fitted on the tensile test data of the St37 and St52 structural

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Fig. 7. Comparison between experiments and the combined power law model at (a) strain rate = 0.001/s, (b) strain rate =0.01/s and (c) strain rate = 0.1/s for St37 steel.

steels toward the strain rate as follows [27]: been shown in Fig. 9a–f. Fracture in all specimens is preceded by a
localized reduction in the cross-section that called necking. The longer
σ= C′ɛnɛ̇m (6)
crack path in the static condition, Fig. 9a and d, and the shorter crack
where σ and ε are the true stress and true plastic strain, respectively, n path during the dynamic loading scenario, Fig. 9c and f for St52 and
is the strain hardening exponent, C′ is the strength coefficient, ɛ̇ is the St37 were seen, respectively. These results depict that the damage of
strain rate and m is the strain rate sensitivity. these structural steels depends on the loading rate.
A linear least-squares curve fitting scheme was used to determine The fracture surfaces of specimens failed at three strain rates of
constants from the tensile tests, as can be observed in Fig. 5. C′ and n 0.001/s, 0.01/s and 0.1/s are shown in Fig. 9g–i and j–l for St37 and
values of St37 steel for this equation are 870 and 0.3 and those for St52 St52, respectively. Considering these figures, it is obvious that by in-
are1300 and 0.29, respectively. The strain rate sensitivity, m, of the creasing the strain rate the fracture surfaces Af of specimens of both
tested specimens was calculated from the true stress-strain curves at the steels were increased. The fracture strain ε f at different strain rates
strain of 0.15. Fig. 6 shows a log–log plot of the stress versus strain rate. computed based on the initial cross-section A○ and fracture surfaces at
The slopes of the linear fits give m = 0.021 and m=0.015 for the St37 necking Af using Eq. (3). The obtained results are given in Table 2. The
and St52 steels, respectively. fracture strain decreases from 1.12 to 0.88 and from 0.92 to 0.81 for
The comparisons of model fitted to tests data and experiments at St52 steel by increasing the strain rate from 0.001/s to 0.1/s.
three strain rates of 0.001/s, 0.01/s and 0.1/s have been shown in Fig. 7 The SEM fracture surfaces of three samples of St37 and St52 at three
for St37 and those for St52 in Fig. 8. The results reveal good agreement different strain rates have been shown in Fig. 10. As can be observed,
between experiments and the constitutive power law model for St37 the ductile fracture with small and elongated dimples take place in the
and St52 steels. Maximum error observed is less than 5%. St37 specimens deformed by the strain rates of 0.001/s and 0.01/s
(Fig. 10a and b). During the low strain rate loading, the microvoids
were nucleated at the center of the neck, elongated under continued
3.2.4. The effect of the strain rate on fracture behavior
straining and coalesced to form a central crack [29]. This crack grows in
The macroscopic images of the failed tensile specimens of St37 and
a direction perpendicular to the axis of the specimen until it approaches
St52, were tested at three strain rates of 0.001/s, 0.01/s and 0.1/s, have

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Fig. 8. Comparison between experiments and the combined power law model at (a) strain rate = 0.001/s, (b) strain rate = 0.01/s and (c) strain rate = 0.1/s for St52 steel.

the surface of the specimen [26]. Fig. 10c shows the fracture surface of 4. Discussion
the specimen loaded at the 0.1/s strain rate. Larger dimples and clea-
vage-type fracture surfaces are evident on the fracture surfaces. These St52 steel shows higher yield values and flow stress under static and
results demonstrate that the fracture mode of St37 steel is highly sen- dynamic loading conditions, as compared to St37. There are many
sitive to the strain rate. Fig. 10(d–f) shows the fracture surfaces of St52 mechanisms attributed to improving the mechanical properties of St52
steel at different strain rates from 0.001/s to 0.1/s. For this steel, the in comparison to St37 structural steel. Firstly, as can be seen from the
ductile dimple fracture occurs microstructure of two steels (Fig. 1), St52 contains finer grains of ferrite
due to tensile loadings; however, the amount of plastic deformation and pearlites than St37 steel. Increasing the yield stress by decreasing
decreases by increasing the strain rate. The SEM micrographs shows the grain size is consistent with the Hall-Petch relationship (σy = σo +
that as compared to St37 steel, the size of ductile dimples of St52 be- kd−1/2), and grain boundary strengthening mechanism [27,31]. This
comes larger and narrower during all strain rates, Fig. 10(a–c) versus dependence can be explained in terms of dislocation pile-up at grain
Fig. 10(d–f). The micrographs depict that less plastic deformation take boundaries [27]. The number of dislocations in these pile-ups is pro-
place in the tensile test for this steel in comparison with St37 steel. portional to the grain size, d. By increasing the grain size, the number of
Higher values of C and Mn in St52 steel improve the tensile properties dislocations pile-ups increases and hence the stress concentration in the
of St52, while this increase trend to cleavage-type fracture modes of the grain across the boundaries increases. Therefore, with a larger grain
steel [30]. size, a lower applied stress is required for the slip [27]. Second, in-
Considering macroscopic observations, fracture strain calculation creasing the yield and ultimate strength of St52 is attributed into the
and fractography by SEM, the ductility of both steels decreases with solid solution role of carbon [32]. St52 contains a higher amount of
increasing the strain rate of tensile test. The amount of this reduction is Carbon, 0.2%C versus 0.13% of St37. Increasing the carbon content in
higher for St37, as compared to St52. The results demonstrate that St37 steels decreases the mean free path of dislocations, and therefore the
is more ductile than St52 and the amount of absorbed energy in the yield and ultimate strength which is dependent on the dislocation path
static loading scenario is higher than the dynamic loading condition for increases [32].
both types of steels. To explain the effect of the strain rate on the strength, the

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Fig. 9. The macroscopic images of tested tensile samples (a-f) and tensile fracture surfaces (g-l) of St37 and St52 samples failed at different strain rates.

dependency of the dislocation motion on the strain rate is considered as yield the point phenomenon [26]. Thus, the stress required to deform
shown in Eq. (7) [33]. the specimen will be reduced once the yielding begins, i.e. the yield
drop.
ɛ̇ = ρbv (7)

where ρ is the density of mobile dislocations, v is the average dis- 5. Conclusions

location velocity and b is the burger's vector [33]. The dislocation
density increases with strain and v strongly depends on the flow stress The tensile mechanical properties of St37 and St52 structural steels
as at room temperature under static and dynamic loadings were examined.
(8) The results obtained can be summarized as follows:
v ∝ τm
where τ is the resolved shear stress and m is a constant (m = 35 for 1. The upper yields and lower yield points of both steels are more
iron). strain sensitive than the other tensile properties. The St37 steel are
For carbon steels in which the dislocations can be strongly pinned strongly affected by strain rates where 46% and 30% increase in
by carbon and nitrogen atmosphere [33], the only way that ρbv can be UYS and LYS observed with a change in the strain rate from 0.001/s
matched with the imposed strain rate is an increase in the average to 0.1/s, respectively. The increases obtained in UYS and LYS for the
velocity, v , yet according to Eq. (8), this can only be achieved at higher St52 steel are15% and 6%, respectively.
stress levels. Therefore, at high strain-rate loadings the upper yield 2. From the extensive data extracted from tests on St37 and St52 steels,
point must be increased to compensate for an increase in the imposed equations have been developed which can accounts for predicting
strain rate [33]. the dynamic loading effects on the lower yield strength of materials.
The dislocations movement results in a possible quick multiplication 3. The flow stress of St37 and St52 increase with increasing the loading
and an increase in their density. This introduces some work hardening rate. Since a constitutive description of structural steels is required
in spite of a drop in average velocity and therefore the flow stress to simulate the flow stress of the material, the relation of combined
dominates the flow behavior. This will led to a yield drop and lower

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Fig. 10. The SEM images of the fracture surfaces of the failed specimens at different strain rates (a–c) St37 and (d–e) St52.

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