Space Education

SPACE EDUC ATION
Space
Education
Preparing Students
for Humanity’s
Multi-Planet Future
Mark D. Wagner, Ph.D.

Space Education: Preparing Students for Humanity’s Multi-Planet Future
Copyright © 2023 by Mark D. Wagner, Ph.D.
Published by Multiverse Media Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repro-
duced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permis-
sion in writing from the Publisher.
First printed edition published in 2022 by Multiverse Publishing, LLC.
Print ISBN-13 979-8-9866538-0-8

eBook ISBN-13 979-8-9866538-1-5
Cover images courtesy Earth Science and Remote Sensing Unit, NASA Johnson Space Center
NASA/JPL • Radius Images/Design Pics/Alamy Stock Photo
Interior illustrations by Mark D. Wagner, Ph.D.
Book Design by Barbara Tada
Printed in the United States of America

2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3
multiversepublishingllc.com
To the late Colonel & Professor, Dr. Bob Krone.
His contributions to the field of Space Philosophy

are an inspiration to many, and his encouragement was
instrumental in the conception and completion of this book.
CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part I: Preparing Today’s Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 1: K12 Education for Space Settlement:
an Ideas Unlimited Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 2: Science Fiction as Inspiration
for K12 Education:an Ideas Unlimited Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chapter 3: A Case for Multi-Disciplinary Methods
in Space Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 4: A Novel Approach to a K12 School
Focused on Space Exploration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Part II: Serving Students in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Chapter 5: Potential Challenges of Distance
Education on Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 6: The Moon Village School:
Potential Challenges and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Physical Plant, Curriculum, and Other Design Considerations . . 111
An Ideas Unlimited Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Chapter 9: The O’Neill School:
Education in Deep Space Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Part III: Preparing Educators and Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Chapter 10: Moral Decision-Making and Leadership
for Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Chapter 11: Moral Leadership and Space Exploration:
Barack Obama’s Speech at Kennedy Space Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Chapter 12: Leadership, Governance,
and Self-Organization for Schools in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter 13: Space Education Graduate Programs
and Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Foreword
by Frank White
A s the space movement has gathered momentum, we have

begun to look beyond exploration and development, focusing
more attention on Large-Scale Space Migration (LSSM) into the rest
of the solar ecosystem. The common sentiment among members of
this movement is “Space for all.” In other words, we must open up the
space environment for everyone on Earth, in an inclusive, equitable,
and sustainable way. This means, of course, that “Space with a capi-
tal S” must be welcoming to children and young people, and to their
families. What logically follows from this insight is that kids will need
to be educated, and they will need schools. What will these schools of
the future look like and how will they function? Dr. Mark Wagner, an
experienced teacher and expert on educational technology, asks and
answers these questions in this excellent book.
Mark begins his inquiry with where we are right now, with the
schools that are located on Earth. He considers what would be needed
to prepare our young people for life in a multi-planetary future - a time
that is not so far away now. Among other things, he recommends much
more emphasis on experiential education that goes far beyond simply
learning facts about Earthbound subjects. Mark recognizes that rote
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XII Space Education
repetition of information provided by teachers is not going to shape the

minds of young people in a way that will help them to survive and even
thrive in a multi-planet future. He also notes that this shift in educa-
tional emphasis will be required even for students who plan to remain
on the home planet. Why? Because life on Earth will be influenced by
Large-Scale Space Migration (LSSM), just as life in Europe has been
influenced by centuries of emmigration.
Mark supplements his own thoughts to fill this book with a rich
variety of inspiring ideas for teachers of the present and the future.
He reviews in some detail a vision for the Academy for the Relent-
less Exploration of Space (ARES) Learning Center. Using a unique
collaborative process for qualitative research called Ideas Unlimited,
he has also called on his colleagues in the space field to share their
thoughts on how terrestrial schools should prepare for a multi-planet
future - and how schools that will be operating in the rest of the solar
ecosystem should be designed. Advocating a “constructivist approach”
to education, Mark tells readers why students will benefit from “Moon-
shot Thinking,” “Design Methodology,” and an “Explorer’s Mindset.”
Although each of these techniques offers its own perspective on learn-
ing, all of them share the commitment to hands-on learning by doing.
Moreover, I am pleased to say that implementing Mark’s recom-
mendations will go far toward “bringing the Overview Effect down to
Earth,” a global movement in which we both participate. It seems highly
likely that transforming the education of students on the home plan-
et would include sharing with them photos and videos of that planet,
helping them to see who we Earthings really are, how the Earth func-
tions as a single system, and the reality of our shared existence in space..
Of course, the real challenges loom ahead when we imagine chil-
dren migrating to, or being born on, the Moon or Mars, or in one of
the communities in free space advocated by Gerard K. O’Neill. For
these students of the future, the Earth will loom in the sky above them,
much as our Moon does for those of us on the surface. Before we even
consider the technical and practical issues of off-world education, we
will have to deal with this psychological shift—the Overview Effect
Foreword XIII
once again, but now experienced directly, like an astronaut. We will

have to know our place in the solar system… and the universe beyond.
Mark notes that communication lags will affect the extent to which
Earthbound educators can interact with schools on other worlds, and
he reminds us that we cannot take the Internet for granted in that con-
text. Schools on Mars, where the communication lag with Earth can be
20 minutes or more, will have to be especially independent. Reduced
gravity on the Moon and Mars will affect school construction (you will
definitely need high ceilings, because kids can jump a lot farther), and
may have unknown impacts on brain functioning and learning process-
es. What about recess and sports? You will still want those activities to
exist, but the kids can’t simply run outside and play in a place where
there is no breathable atmosphere.
Mark notes that there may be subtle changes in the curricula of
these new schools as well. For example, if a student is in a school on
the Moon, and can always see the Earth in the sky, that might be a great
opportunity for a terrestrial history lesson. Viewing the Earth in that
way would also encourage lectures on systems thinking because the
home planet would be seen as a whole, in which everything is inter-
connected and interrelated. On the other hand, if the student is living
on Mars, and the Earth is a mere point in the sky, would he or she have
much interest in the history of a planet that the class can’t even see?
Education in an O’Neill community would deal with yet another
scenario. The idea behind these habitats is to make them as Earthlike
as possible, even including artificial gravity. Like the lunar students,
they would see the Earth all the time, which would eventually become
normal for them. We do not yet know the long-term impact of experi-
encing what is known as the Overview Effect in this way, but educators
will certainly have to deal with it.
I am pleased to say that these ideas take me back to the very begin-
ning of my work on the Overview Effect. Initially, I was wondering
what life would be like for inhabitants of an O’Neill community, not
what happens to astronauts in space. It is exciting to consider that we
may know the answers sooner than expected!
XIV Space Education
Of course, we cannot know all the answers to the question of how

humans will evolve in environments that are, at the moment, totally
alien to them. However, thoughtful planning for one critical aspect
of that evolution will certainly be helpful. In the meantime, following
Mark’s recommendations will undoubtedly improve education right
here and right now.
Because this book’s subject matter is so extensive in space and
time, it will surely be read many years in the future—and on more
than one planet.
— Frank White
Author, The Overview Effect:
Space Exploration and Human Evolution
Acknowledgements
by Mark Wagner, PhD
T his book was only possible because of the year I spent as a

scholar with Kepler Space Institute. I owe a debt of gratitude to
the faculty and staff, particularly the late president Dr. Bob Krone,
Dr. Robert Downing, and professor John Mankins, who inspired me
to explore the reality of building a school on the Moon. Dr. Barry Elsey
deserves special recognition for teaching the space education courses,
and for his enthusiastic support for this project. Dr. Gordon Arthur
was not only one of my space philosophy professors; he was later one
of the editors of this book. Professor Frank White also deserves special
recognition for a number of reasons… as the author of the influential
book The Overview Effect, as the host of the weekly Overview Round-
table (which I attended regularly throughout the writing process), and
as the primary editor of this book. He was also gracious enough to con-
tribute the foreword. A number of fellow scholars and colleagues also
participated in the original research projects that appear here, and they
have been credited in the appropriate chapters.
I also need to thank all of my colleagues at Multiverse Publishing
that made this book possible, especially Dylan Taylor for deciding to
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XVI Space Education
publish it, and Will Henry for advocating for it throughout the process.
Barbara Tada did wonderful work on the interior layout and the cover
design, and in the end Marc Boucher was also instrumental in getting
it across the finish line.
Naturally, I also enjoyed the support of my family and close friends
as I worked on this project through two challenging years during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Most importantly, thank you to my wife, Eva,
for being so supportive of my research and career even during very
difficult times.
Introduction
T he reality of a multi-planet future for humanity is fast

approaching. NASA has plans to return astronauts to the Moon
this decade, 1 and to land a mission on Mars in the next, 2 with a per-
manent presence planned for each. SpaceX has already been chosen as
the primary contractor for the next Moon landing,3 and has an even
more aggressive timeline for sending people to Mars in just a few years. 4
Their founder, Elon Musk, has said he wants to create a community of
a million people on Mars. 5 His fellow billionaire and space entrepre-
neur, Jeff Bezos of Blue Origin, envisions trillions living in space aboard
massive manufactured habitats.6 And space philosophers like Howard
1
NASA, “Artemis,” https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/.
2
NASA, “NASA’s Journey to Mars,” December 1, 2014, https://www.nasa.gov/content/
nasas-journey-to-mars.
3
NASA, “As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next
Americans on Moon,” April 16, 2021, https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/
as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon.
4
Kate Duffy, “Elon Musk Says SpaceX Will Get Humans to Mars
in 2026,” Business Insider, https://www.businessinsider.co.za/
elon-musk-spacex-starship-humans-mars-mission-2026-experts-question-2021-2.
5
Ross Anderson, “Elon Musk Argues that We Must Put a Million People on
Mars if We Are to Ensure that Humanity Has a Future,” Exodus, https://web.
archive.org/web/20150612073942/http://aeon.co/magazine/technology/
the-elon-musk-interview-on-mars/.
6
Corey S. Powell, “Jeff Bezos Foresees a Trillion People Living in
Millions of Space Colonies. Here’s What He’s Doing to Get the Ball
Rolling,” NBC News, https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/
1
2 Space Education
Bloom and Frank White see an opportunity for humans to spread life
from Earth’s biosphere to previously lifeless worlds throughout the solar
system and beyond.7 8
Concrete progress toward these goals is happening at an increasing
pace, with astronauts successfully growing plants aboard the Inter-
national Space Station, 9 and three private companies successfully
launching humans into space already this year, SpaceX, Blue Origin,
and Virgin Galactic. Perhaps more importantly for most people today,
the space economy on Earth is growing rapidly (already accounting
for hundreds of billions in annual revenue)10 11 —and affecting more
industries each year, with a potential for disruption similar to the effects
of the Internet and smartphones in the previous two decades…or even
similar to the Industrial Revolution.12 It is becoming difficult to imag-
ine careers on Earth that would not be affected by space technologies
in the next two decades.
As a career educator and educational technologist (also a lifelong
space enthusiast who initially studied astronautical engineering as an
undergraduate), I wonder how well the school systems of the world are
preparing students for this future…or for this current reality. Based, as
they are, on an Industrial Age (or even medieval) model, schools are
jeff-bezos-foresees-trillion-people-living-millions-space-colonies-here-ncna1006036.
7
Howard Bloom, “Garden the Solar System, Green the Galaxy: A Visual Manifesto,”
https://new.howardbloom.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/garden-the-solar-system-
green-the-galaxy.pdf.
8
Frank White, The Overview Effect: Space Exploration and Human
Evolution, 4th ed. (Denver: Multiverse, 2021), https://www.amazon.com/
Overview-Effect-Space-Exploration-Evolution/dp/B0932GSDM3/.
9
NASA, “Growing Plants in Space,” https://www.nasa.gov/content/
growing-plants-in-space.
10
Matt Weinzierl and Mehak Sarang, “The Commercial Space Age is Here,”
Harvard Business Review, February 12, 2021, https://hbr.org/2021/02/
the-commercial-space-age-is-here.
11
Morgan Stanley, “A New Space Economy on the Edge of Liftoff,” February 17, 2021,
https://www.morganstanley.com/Themes/global-space-economy.
12
PriceWaterhouseCooper, “Main Trends & Challenges in the Space Sector,” 2nd ed.,
December 2020, https://www.pwc.fr/fr/assets/files/pdf/2020/12/en-france-pwc-main-
trends-and-challenges-in-the-space-sector.pdf.
Introduction 3
typically resistant to change, and overly reliant on traditional approach-

es to teaching and learning, such as lectures, textbooks, and tests. The
immune system-like response that schools exhibit when confronted
with something new has been evident since the first personal computers
in classrooms.13 Although additional technology has made its way into
school systems over the past 40 years, especially following emergency
distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, there is precious
little space science or space philosophy represented in the curriculum
or in student learning experiences. And the gap between what students
are learning in school and what the unpredictable and fast-changing
world of their future will require of them grows every year.
Improving on this is a design problem worthy of our attention as
educators, and as a society. So, in the language of design methodology
(or design thinking), the purpose of this book can be captured in this
“how might we” question:14
How might we as a global society best prepare today’s students for
humanity’s rapidly approaching multi-planet future?
This book is an initial attempt at exploring answers to this ques-
tion, based on foundations of effective teaching and learning—and
effective educational technology. The book is also an attempt to look
even further ahead and consider how we might best educate students
once we get there…once multigenerational civilian communities are
in place on the Moon, Mars, and elsewhere in the rest of the solar sys-
tem. Doing either of these things successfully at scale will also require
well prepared educators, leaders, and social systems, so the last part of
the book is focused on issues of professional development and gover-
nance. Each part contains a number of academic articles I wrote while
studying as a scholar at the Kepler Space Institute (KSI), some of which
have been previously published in the Journal of Space Philosophy or
elsewhere. Each chapter will also begin with a more casual overview,
13
Seymour Papert, “Why School Reform is Impossible,” Journal of the Learning Sciences
6, no. 4 (1997): 417-27, https://learning.media.mit.edu/courses/mas713/readings/why_
school_reform_is_impossible.pdf.
14
“How Might We,” https://www.designkit.org/methods/3.
4 Space Education
like this introduction, meant to provide a consistent narrative line

through all of the individual articles, tying them together into a single
coherent volume.
Part 1 thus begins by focusing on how we might best prepare today’s
students. The first chapter summarizes a review of literature providing
a series of compelling arguments for why humanity should invest in
space exploration and migration. It also includes the results of origi-
nal qualitative research exploring expert answers to the question posed
above. This is followed by an additional study looking to science fic-
tion as another source of inspiration in answering the same question.
Chapters 3 and 4 then focus on the multidisciplinary methods schools
could apply today to better prepare students, and on the skill sets and
mindsets students might need to develop to make the most of their
challenging future—and all the opportunities space exploration could
present to them. These include the explorer’s mindset, moonshot think-
ing, design methodology, effective synthesis, and hansei, the Japanese
concept of relentless self-reflection.
Part 2 then moves on to consider the question of how to educate
students who are actually living in space…on Mars, on the Moon, and
in artificial space habitats. Mars is considered first, as it presents some
of the most difficult obstacles, which can then be contrasted with other
locations nearer to Earth. The next three chapters are then dedicated to
designing a school to serve the first community on the Moon, as envi-
sioned by the Moon Village Association, which is working on concrete
plans for 125 people to live at Shackleton Crater at the lunar South
Pole. These chapters progress from addressing theoretical challenges,
to more specific designs for the physical plant and education programs,
and finally to another original study of expert opinion related to the
Moon Village School. This section then concludes with an additional
paper exploring the very different possibilities afforded by designing
a school for a space habitat, such as those imagined by Gerry O’Neill
in the 1970’s and still championed by space advocates today, includ-
ing Jeff Bezos.
Introduction 5
Part 3 then focuses on preparing educators and leaders, and on

establishing appropriate systems of governance, for schools in space
(if not for space communities). Two chapters focus on moral deci-
sion-making and leadership, with a third considering school governance
needs, and alternative systems that might meet those needs, including
an exploration of holacracy (a system for distributed self governance) as
a potential alternative to traditional hierarchies. Finally, the last chap-
ter of the section considers how all of these ideas might be applied
in graduate schools and professional development programs meant to
empower today’s teachers and school leaders to take on these challeng-
es, engage the students under their charge, and better prepare them for
the future ahead.
In a worst-case scenario, the next generation may be unprepared to
move peacefully into the rest of the solar system, or unable to protect
the Earth as they do. A number of existential threats face humanity in
the coming years, and our survival is not assured. 15 Or perhaps only
a small elite population will have access to space settlements, space
industry, and to the space economy on Earth…a sort of Elysium Effect
made manifest;16 While this may seem inevitable and necessary at first,
every effort should be made to shape a public education system that
addresses issues of equity and inclusion with respect to space. “Space
is for everyone” is a common refrain among enthusiasts today,17 but it
will take a lot of work at a systems level around the globe to make that
dream come true.
Since the 1960’s, the science fiction franchise Star Trek has offered
stories illustrating a vision of the future where diverse people work
together using science and technology to solve problems and help
15
Toby Ord, The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity (Paris: Hachette
Books, 2020), https://theprecipice.com/.
16
Rick Tumlinson, “The Elysium Effect: The Coming Backlash to the
Billionaire ‘NewSpace’ Revolution,” October 24, 2020, https://www.space.com/
elysium-effect-billionaire-space-revolution.
17
Planetary Society, “Space for Everyone: Strategic Framework 2019-2023,” https://
www.planetary.org/about/strategic-framework.
6 Space Education
others wherever they go in the universe. Similarly, Kepler Space Insti-

tute offers a vision for creating “a better world through empowerment,
vigilant protection of individual human rights and freedom of expres-
sion and inquiry.” If we wish to see that future come to pass in our time
(rather than a future more like the world depicted in The Expanse, in
which humanity exports their conflicts to the solar system and beyond),
then the work begins in our schools today, at all levels. And if you want
to see this happen…maybe you should be involved.
That is why I’ve created this book. It is also why my cofounder
Brendan Brennan and I are working to make a prototype school based
on these ideals a reality. We call it ARES (the Academy for Relent-
less Exploration of Space), and you’ll learn more about the vision
for it in these chapters as well. It is meant to be replicable in public
schools everywhere.
My hope is that this book might serve as an initial resource for other
space philosophers who are considering these challenges, for other edu-
cators who are doing the work in schools today, and for those who will
eventually design schools to serve the space settlements of the future.
For now, I hope you will find the book valuable in whatever role you
play, and I hope you will ask yourself how you can improve upon or
build upon what you find valuable here. Ad astra!
Part I :
Preparing Today’s
Students
Chapter 1
As the earliest study conducted for this book, the following paper
is also an appropriate first chapter. It serves two purposes that pro-
vide a foundation for the rest of the collection.
First, it begins with a literature review that addresses the fun-
damental why behind the book. Preparing students for humanity’s
multi-planet future isn’t just about training future astronauts or
improving workforce development for the growing space econo-
my; it’s about benefits for all of humanity, including our long-term
future—and the future of the entire terrestrial biosphere. If life is
to survive on Earth and thrive throughout the solar system and
beyond, it will be humans (or the successors we create) who will
take it there. This is an historic inflection point, with a staggering
breadth of possible futures ahead of us, from fully embracing this
long term challenge…to the total annihilation of all life on Earth.
With the opportunity to protect life and project it into the uni-
verse established as a guiding purpose, the paper then addresses
the fundamental question of how best to educate students to partic-
ipate in the historic decades ahead. Expert opinions are synthesized
to reveal themes that are not surprising, given my experience as an
(admittedly impatient) educational technologist. Even with all the
technology in schools today, and all of the focus on STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Math) or even STEAM (including the
11
12 Space Education
Arts), most schools are not focused on student exploration, test-

ing of hypotheses, and creation of new solutions. Instead, they are
locked into an Industrial Age model where students move from
class to class as teachers fill them with new knowledge. Rows of
desks where students copy notes provided by the elder in the room
can be traced back to monks in the Middle Ages, and should be
considered a medieval model of passing on knowledge. Education
researchers have known for at least a century (since John Dewey’s
foundational work) that a more active model of learning is more
effective, allowing students to engage problems in an authentic
way, creating their own meaning as they build their own internal
understanding of the world. Naturally, flexible problem-solving will
be important both to the first humans to migrate to other worlds
and to those who dedicate their lives to solving the many near-in-
tractable problems here on Earth.
In addition to establishing the need for space exploration and
for better schools more suited to the purpose, this first paper also
introduces many of the themes of the book, including the Overview
Effect, the Law of Space Abundance, and the importance of both
philosophy and science fiction as inspiration for designing schools
of the future. We will need graduates more like the well-rounded
Starfleet officers of Star Trek, ready to wrestle with technical and
ethical dilemmas, and less like the nineteenth-century factory work-
ers, ready to follow orders, but not to be original thinkers.. Ultimately,
I hope this paper serves as inspiration and justification for reading
on to explore the detailed analysis in later chapters.
K12 Education for Space Settlement:
an Ideas Unlimited Study
Mark Wagner, Ph.D., Brendan Brennan, Athena Brensberger,

Joshua Dahn, Andrew Dobbie, Rosalyn Freeman, Janet Ivey,
Bob Krone, Ph.D., Holly Melear, Rod Pyle, Steve Sherman,
Rhonda Stevenson, Scott Thomas, Barbara Hopkinson Wagner,
Artemis Westenberg, and Heather Wolpert-Gawron
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study was to explore how best to prepare cur-
rent K12 students for humanity’s multi-planet future. It began
with a review of literature in the field of space philosophy that
demonstrated the benefits of space exploration, and thus the
importance of educating students to be contributing participants
in the coming settlement of the solar system and beyond. The
study then included the results of an original qualitative investi-
gation of expert opinion using the Ideas Unlimited method and
a grounded theory approach to generate actionable policy recom-
mendations for educators and education leaders.
13
14 Space Education
LITERATURE REVIEW
As Arthur pointed out, the philosophy of space is a new and still devel-
oping discipline. 1 However, the space age is a historically significant
period in human history that must be confronted by philosophers. 2
Of primary importance to the practice of space philosophy is the ques-
tion of why human beings should explore space, or whether or not
we should. The purpose of this literature review was to answer that
question based on a body of previous space philosophy, and to also
consider the question through the lens of education; asking whether
or not children should be educated for space exploration. In addition,
some results of the review suggested how best to educate students for
full participation in—and contribution to—the new space age of the
next two decades, a time it seems will be characterized by an increase in
activity from space agencies around the globe, expanding commercial-
ization of space, and the return of crewed missions beyond low Earth
orbit…to the moon, mars, and beyond.3
BENEFITS OF SPACE EXPLORATION
For a generation, children have been taught that the benefits of the
space program include Tang, freeze dried ice cream, and velcro. While
these obviously fall far short of capturing the most important benefits,
this sort of pragmatic justification is often the first response of space
philosophers when asked why investment in space exploration is worth-
while. “Spin off ” technologies now found in daily life are often cited
as clear benefits, including: medical advances;4 improved agricultural
practices;5 the ability to monitor the environment, weather, and pollu-
1
Gordon Arthur, “Why Go to Space? The Academic Philosophy of Space Travel,”
Journal of Space Philosophy 10, no. 1 (2021): 54-68.
2
Florence Hetzler, “Man and Space,” Dialectics and Humanism no. 2 (1982): 51-64.
3
Rod Pyle, Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International
Partners Are Creating a New Space Age [Kindle Paperwhite version] (Dallas: BenBella
Books, 2019). https://amazon.com.
4
Hetzler, “Man and Space”; Pyle, Space 2.0.
5
Pyle, Space 2.0.
Chapter 1 15
tion from space;6 the Global Positioning System used for navigation;7
and the increasingly space-based infrastructure of many government
agencies and the public Internet. 8 It is becoming difficult to imagine
industries that are not likely to be affected by space technologies (partic-
ularly satellites) in the next two decades. In addition, government—and
now commercial—spending on space exploration has another practi-
cal benefit: it drives both economic growth and scientific training in
the workforce.9
Perhaps one of the biggest benefits of the space program so far is
less tangible, but rather a change in the way the general population
perceives the planet Earth and their own place in its biosphere. From
Russia’s first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who wrote of the transforma-
tional beauty of the Earth and his desire to see it preserved, toShuttle
astronauts, like Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan bin Salman Al-Saud, those
who have been to space have often reported a change in perspective that
transcends national borders and ethnic divisions.10 Dubbed the Over-
view Effect by White, this cognitive shift in awareness became available
to a whole generation when the general populace first saw photographs
and videos of the Earth from the moon, leading to an ongoing change
in public opinion evident in the international environmental move-
ments of today.11
This shift in consciousness is just one of the ways space exploration
has already benefited efforts to protect humanity’s threatened envi-
ronment on Earth. Satellite data is already critical to monitoring and
addressing climate change. In fact, it is a false dichotomy to think we
must choose between investing in space exploration and investing in
6
Hetzler, “Man and Space”; Pyle, Space 2.0.
7
Pyle, Space 2.0.
8
Frank White, “The Overview Effect and the Future of Humans in Space,” In Beyond
Earth: The Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris,
and Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 38-40; Pyle, Space 2.0.
9
Pyle, Space 2.0.
10
Walter Peeters, “Space Science as a Cradle for Philosophers,” Astropolitics 10 (2012):
27-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/14777622.2012.647393; Pyle, Space 2.0.
11
White, The Overview Effect.
16 Space Education
protection of the environment on Earth. 12 Munévar saw space explo-

ration as a means to a cleaner future on Earth, 13 later arguing that
resources from around the solar system can be used to resupply the
environment of “spaceship Earth.” 14 Munévar also considered devel-
opment of such systems an obligation to the future.15 Not surprisingly,
K12 students have agreed, expressing both a desire to protect the Earth
and a concern about the future of the planet. 16 Protecting and even
extending Earth’s biosphere into space is likely to be a priority among
space explorers. Kirby and Kiker recognized the importance of plants in
any long term space-based human habitat,17 and Sobodowski predicted
that spacefaring humans will create entirely new habitats that may be
even more important than the Earth for the ultimate development of
life in the solar system.18
If the environment is an urgent concern of our time, so is the need
for greater diversity, equity, and inclusion on Earth—and here again
space exploration may be beneficial. Among his reasons why the United
States should return to the moon, Rogers listed “the benefit of all man-
kind” 19 and called for representation of all the Earth’s 200 countries.
In part due to the Overview Effect, involvement with space exploration
12
Arthur, “Why Go to Space?”
13
Gustavo Munévar, “A Philosopher Looks at Space Exploration,” in Evolution and The
Naked Truth, ed. Gustavo Munévar (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), 169-79.
14
Gustavo Munévar, “Space Colonies and Their Critics,” in The Ethics of Space
Exploration, ed. James S. J. Schwartz and Tony Milligan (Cham, Switzerland: Springer
International, 2016), 34.
15
Gustavo Munévar, “Space Exploration and Human Survival,” Space Policy 30
(2014): 199.
16
Lonnie J. Schorer, “Children’s Visions of Our Future in Space,” in Beyond Earth:
The Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris, and
Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 127-34.
17
Richard Kirby and Ed Kiker, “Planning the Oasis in Space,” in Beyond Earth: The
Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris, and
Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 251.
18
Joe Sobodowski, “Space Education, Learning, and Leading,” Journal of Space
Philosophy 2, no. 1 (2013): 15-18.
19
Thomas F. Rogers, “Creating the First City on the Moon,” in Beyond Earth: The
Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 57.
Chapter 1 17
encourages acceptance and inclusion of people from a diversity of back-

grounds.20 And as Krone pointed out, space is something of a cultural
blank slate, defined by six decades of international collaboration, and
no open war or conflict as of yet. 21 We still have an opportunity to
expand into the rest of the solar system in a historically peaceful and
inclusive way.
Munévar made a unique argument for the exploration of space
on account of the unintended benefits of scientific serendipity. 22 For
instance, nobody working on the Sputnik satellite could have predict-
ed the daily use of Google Maps to navigate with a smartphone, which
relies on GPS satellites; instead, our modern society has serendipitously
benefited from the development of satellites. Arthur reasonably point-
ed out that there is no necessity involved in this argument; although
serendipitous benefits may arise, and often do, there is no guarantee
that they will…and sometimes science is instead quite dangerous or
destructive.23 However, unintended benefits of scientific inquiry have
been a significant driver in human history, and there is no reason to
believe that this trend would not continue into the future.24 Presently,
we are experiencing an acceleration in the development of new space
technologies and the commercialization of the benefits—often at a
rate even faster than anticipated.25 Consider the rapid implementation
of StarLink satellites for instance, or the timeline for landing on the
Moon and Mars set by SpaceX, which is far more aggressive even than
the NASA missions they have been hired to deliver. It is reasonable to
expect that serendipitous benefits may also come more quickly to the
general populace.
Perhaps the most meaningful of the reasons traditionally given in
20
Madhu Thangavelu, “Human Space Activity: The Spiritual Imperative,” Journal of
Space Philosophy 3, no. 1 (2014): 110-15.
21
Robert M. Krone, “Philosophy for Humans in Space,” Journal of Space Philosophy 2, no.
2 (2013): 78-82.
22
Munévar, “A Philosopher Looks at Space Exploration.”
23
24
Krone, “Philosophy for Humans in Space”; Ord, The Precipice.
25
Pyle, Space 2.0.
18 Space Education
support of space exploration might be the inspiration it offers to people

around the world. Investment in the Apollo program drove not just the
development of the modern space program but also the rise of Silicon
Valley and innovations in many other fields.26 There is even an element
of spiritual inspiration, as can be evidenced in the religious testimonies
of astronauts and others influenced by the Overview Effect who have
never even been to space.27
CRITIQUES AND COUNTER ARGUMENTS
Despite these many benefits of investing in space exploration, there are

of course common critiques and counter-arguments. As Arthur pointed
out, social critics argue that resources would be better spent addressing
more important problems here on Earth, and ideological critics argue
that continued space exploration may be dangerous or even immoral.28
Both critiques are now easily answered by space philosophers.
If a critic of the space program is concerned about care for the envi-
ronment of the Earth, it has already been demonstrated above that an
investment in space has clear benefits for climate science and increas-
ingly efficient agriculture. In addition, Munévar showed that humans
are not alone as a species that transforms the environment, and that the
ethical requirement is now for us to do so with wisdom…which infor-
mation from space can aid us to do.29 Furthermore, he argued that many
disruptions to the balanced ecosystems of the past then led to greater
opportunities for new life forms. He suggested that humanity (and all
land animals) are the beneficiaries of environmental changes that led to
life venturing from the sea onto land—and he suggested that humanity
taking life into space may have similarly long-term benefits for a variety
of life forms. White would agree that we are the beneficiaries of the
26
Pyle, Space 2.0.
27
Peeters, “Space Science as a Cradle for Philosophers”; White, The Overview Effect.
28
29
Munévar, “Space Colonies and Their Critics.”
Chapter 1 19
“explorer fish,” and that we may play a similar role for future life forms.30
Similarly, Munévar recognized that we need to address problems
on Earth by developing a better attitude toward equity and maturing
beyond our historically colonial ethic of resource exploitation. 31 But
these changes can not only be undertaken in conjunction with space
exploration (there is nothing mutually exclusive about the two endeav-
ors), they may actually be enhanced by the opportunity to actually put
into practice something different as we expand into space. Humanity
can explore the solar ecosystem through collaborating internationally,
selecting more diverse crews, and focusing on making sure the benefits
are realized by a more inclusive population…and the clean slate in space
may be our best opportunity to do this.
The cost of space exploration is also a frequent concern of critics,
particularly given the perception that these investments take away from
investment in solving other problems. While it is clear that the Space
Shuttle program was far too expensive, this concern is mitigated by the
significantly reduced cost of newer spacecraft. 32 The rapid development
cycles of SpaceX, for instance, are focused on minimizing costs, and
they are able to deliver payloads and passengers to space for a fraction
of the cost of past efforts or current competitors. Also, Pyle pointed
out that most Americans actually have no idea what NASA’s costs are,
that its federal budget is currently about 90 percent lower than it was
in the Apollo era, or that NASA is doing far more with comparatively
fewer resources today.33
Whatever the costs, the dangers of space exploration are also com-
monly cited as reasons for avoiding investing in it, especially for crewed
missions or human settlements. Even space philosophers agree that
the integrity of a space station is fragile and that a space habitation
would be considerably more dangerous than inhabiting an aircraft
30
31
Munévar, “Space Colonies and Their Critics.”
32
33
Pyle, Space 2.0.
20 Space Education
carrier. 34 Pyle captured this humorously in his anthropomorphized

phrase, “space hates people.”35 Even K12 students understand the dan-
gers, expressing a variety of fears about space exploration, especially in
the wake of the Challenger and Columbia tragedies; however, many
students still recognize that space settlement is risky but necessary. 36
Ord also acknowledged that humanity must not let the impossibility
of knowing future dangers stand in the way of space exploration and
the potential benefits,37 and White went so far as to question whether
humanity could continue to evolve and improve if it remains suppos-
edly safe on Earth alone.38 This brings us to the most important reasons
for pursuing the exploration of space.
CRITICAL REASONS FOR SPACE EXPLORATION
Even recognizing the validity of these critiques, the most important rea-
sons for space exploration are considerably more compelling. Nothing
less than the survival of the human race, our greatest aspirations, and
future stages of our evolution are at stake.
According to Mitchell,39 space exploration is critical to the survival
of humanity as a species, and he is far from alone in this belief. Muné-
var also advocated for colonization of other planets (and the galaxy) to
ensure human survival in the long run.40 This is articulated most com-
pletely in Ord’s The Precipice in which he demonstrates that a human
expansion to other planets would protect the species against many nat-
ural catastrophes (including asteroid strikes, for instance) and against
34
Kirby and Kiker, “Planning the Oasis in Space.”
35
Pyle, Space 2.0, 15.
36
Schorer, “Children’s Visions of Our Future in Space.”
37
Ord, The Precipice.
38
39
Edgar Mitchell, "Foreword," in Beyond Earth: The Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob
Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris, and Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee
Books, 2006), 7.
40
Gustavo Munévar, “Humankind in Outer Space,” International Journal of Technology,
Knowledge, & Society 4, no. 5 (2008): 17-25.
Chapter 1 21
many human-made existential threats as well. Even politicians and dip-

lomats recognized the threat in 1997 with the UNESCO Declaration
on the Responsibilities of the Present Generations Towards Future Gen-
erations, which recognized that human survival may be at risk, and
that acting on this knowledge falls within the mission of the United
Nations.41 More recently, Downing noted that strong global leadership
is needed to avoid the probability of extinction.42 Arthur brought home
the importance of this reason when he stated that “survival is of value
to us because without it, our other aspirations are moot.”43
It is our greatest aspirations that may be our most compelling rea-
son for committing to space exploration. As explorers, we tap into our
higher human nature to push boundaries and overcome obstacles. 44
And the coming decades will mean not just explorers in space, but the
pioneers who will follow and create civilization there.45 There may even
be a positive feedback loop as we expand; ideally, we should be able to
use space exploration (such as settlement of the Moon) to improve our
culture,46 our quality of life,47 and the models available for those left on
Earth to emulate,48 thus ensuring benefits for future generations both
on and off the Earth. 49 White considered planning for space explora-
tion and settlement to be synonymous with planning the evolution of
41
Ord, The Precipice.
42
Lawrence G. Downing, “Ethics, Values, and Moral Leadership for Space Settlements,”
43
Arthur, “Why Go to Space?” 61.
44
Pyle, Space 2.0.
45
46
Rogers, “Creating the First City on the Moon.”
47
Kenneth J. Cox, Robert M. Krone, and Langdon Morris, “Theory and Action for the
Future of Humans in Space,” in Beyond Earth: The Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob
Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris, and Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee
Books, 2006), 271-75.
48
K. T. Connor, Lawrence G. Downing, and Robert M. Krone, “A Code of Ethics for
Humans in Space,” in Beyond Earth: The Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob Krone,
Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris, and Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books,
2006), 119-26.
49
Pyle, Space 2.0.
22 Space Education
human civilization (and perhaps the evolution of the universe itself ).50
In this way, expanding human civilization beyond Earth helps us to pre-
serve our potential, avoiding biological or cultural lock-in that might
limit it forever.51 If Earth is alone in supporting life, humanity might
be its best or only chance to not only avoid eventual extinction but to
expand and flourish. 52 After all, “the Earth is the cradle of mankind,
but one cannot remain in the cradle forever.”53
It is the future of life beyond the human that perhaps should be
our highest concern. Many space philosophers are already consider-
ing a post-human (or posthumanist) future where the biological or
inorganic descendents of humanity, such as designer life forms or Arti-
ficial Intelligences, are better suited to flourishing beyond the cradle of
Earth. This is why White suggested not just a Human Space Program,
but a Post-Human Space Program broad enough to include humans,
non-humans, post-humans, extraterrestrials, and any non-organic intel-
ligence; and he imagined post-humans swimming through space like
dolphins, a hypothetical species he dubbed Homospaciens.54 Similar-
ly, Todd wondered what type of posthuman we will decide to become,55
and Ord argued for a future where people explore a diverse variety of
post-human forms.56 White also noted that humans may not need to
understand their role in the evolution of intelligence in the universe in
order to fulfill it, and he postulated that the purpose of human evolu-
tion may be to make a contribution to the universe rather than exploit
it.57 Realization of such a future will require new global systems of gov-
50
51
Ord, The Precipice.
52
Ord, The Precipice.
53
Tsiolkovsky, quoted in Peeters, “Space Science as a Cradle for Philosophers,” 79.
54
55
Joseph Todd, “A Utopian Mirror: Reflections from the Future of Childhood and
Education in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World and Island,” in Childhood, Science Fiction,
and Pedagogy: Children Ex Machina, ed. David W. Kupferman and Andrew Gibbons
(Singapore: Springer Nature, 2019), 135-54.
56
Ord, The Precipice.
57
Chapter 1 23
ernance,58 greater participation of the general populace, and ultimately

the transition of space exploration efforts from a government project
to a civilization-wide undertaking.59 Preparing a new generation of stu-
dents for this impending transition is very much the mandate of existing
school systems, though they may not be well prepared for the challenge.
SHOULD CHILDREN BE EDUCATED FOR SPACE EXPLORATION?
Given these compelling reasons for humanity to invest in space explo-

ration, it follows that it may be wise to prepare children to participate
in and contribute to the coming new Space Age. It may even be some-
thing of a moral imperative to provide them this preparation for the
world they will likely live in…and help to shape. As White suggested,
we can now make preparations such as this with clear intention.60 If we
must explore space to promote peace, as Cox suggested, then perhaps
schools should be a part of that learning process as early as possible. 61
And if Dror advocated for a Global Leadership Academy, then perhaps
that learning should start as early as possible too—and for a much wider
set of students—so that they can then be well prepared for the sorts of
careers and leadership roles Dror advocates in his steps for redesigning
global society.62 These can include Dror’s new space settlement profes-
sion, Peeter’s space ronin—the independent rogues who serve as change
agents,63 and Arthur’s wide range of disciplines involved in space settle-
ment.64 Here again, K12 students would agree…they expect our species
to advance through study and exploration.65
58
Yehezkel Dror, “Governance for a Human Future in Space,” in Beyond Earth: The
Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 41-45.
59
Cox et al., “Theory and Action.”
60
61
62
Dror, “Governance for a Human Future in Space.”
63
Peeters, “Space Science as a Cradle for Philosophers.”
64
65
24 Space Education
So, if schools should be redesigned to better prepare students for

humanity’s multi-planet future, what should be the foundational prin-
ciples of those schools? Though an additional answer to this question
is offered in the study results below, the literature of space philosophy
does provide some initial guidance. It is clear that the school should be
hands-on, 66 following constructivist learning principles and focusing
on empowering the learner. 67 Students should also be trained in the
practice of philosophy themselves, from classical philosophy including
stoicism,68 to the philosophy of science.69
In a sense, science fiction is “philosophy of the future,” and should
be explicitly included in the learning experiences of the new schools;
Hetzler called for philosophers (and by extension educators) to be open
to thinking about possible worlds,70 and Krone considered science fic-
tion a staple of literature. 71 Perhaps more importantly, Levinson and
Jandrić recognized the role science fiction has played in driving scientif-
ic innovation forward,72 and it follows that if inspiring more scientists
is an important goal, then science fiction should be a focus in schools.
Similarly, if educating more creative problem-solvers is important, then
exposing students to science fiction may be helpful, as the genre encour-
ages imagination, speculation, and…delight.73 Kupferman and Gibbons
66
Becky Cross, “Sowing Inspiration for Generations of Space Adventurers,” in Beyond
Earth: The Future of Humans in Space, ed. Bob Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris,
and Kenneth Cox (Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 135-37.
67
Phillip W. Simpson and Andrew Gibbons, “Filling the Mind: Cortical Knowledge
Uploads, Didactic Downloads and the Problem of Learning in the Future,” in Childhood,
Science Fiction, and Pedagogy: Children Ex Machina, ed. David W. Kupferman and
Andrew Gibbons (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2019), 155-69.
68
69
70
Hetzler, “Man and Space.”
71
Robert M. Krone, “Music and Arts for Humans in Space,” in Beyond Earth: The Future
of Humans in Space, ed. Bob Krone, Edgar Mitchell, Langdon Morris, and Kenneth Cox
(Burlington, ON: Apogee Books, 2006), 114-18.
72
Paul Levinson and Petar Jandrić, “Children and Pedagogy between Science and
Fiction,” in Childhood, Science Fiction, and Pedagogy: Children Ex Machina, ed. David W.
Kupferman and Andrew Gibbons (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2019), 211-26.
73
Walter S. Gershon and Reagan P. Mitchell, “Your Android Ain’t Funky (Or Robots
Can’t Find the Good Foot): Race, Power, and Children in Otherworldly Imaginations,”
Chapter 1 25
also pointed out that “science fiction reveals to the child the nature of
the system in which s/he is being educated” and introduces them to
“different forms of educational future.”74
Engaging students in this sort of reflection will also be critical in a
school designed to prepare students for altruistic space exploration—
and to avoid the potentially dystopian alternative futures. 75 Ultimately
reflection is also a necessary ingredient of the sort of wisdom that will
be required of future leaders and citizens as humanity expands into
space; the need for wisdom is a common thread through much of space
philosophy, particularly with respect to global leadership, policy, and
governance.76
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
It is clear that the benefits of space exploration are many, and that
humanity cannot take advantage of them without proper planning
and collaboration on a global scale. Spinoff technologies and seren-
dipitous scientific discoveries that benefit the general populace are
only the beginning. More significant benefits include: the perspec-
tive-shifting Overview Effect; the technology to monitor and deal
with climate change; the opportunity to practice diversity, equity, and
inclusion on a global (and interplanetary) scale; and the inspiration of
new generations of scientists, explorers, and pioneers. As the costs of
space exploration come down and the understanding of the dangers
improves, some critical benefits clearly outweigh the risks. Space explo-
ration may help humanity avoid existential threats, making it possible
in Childhood, Science Fiction, and Pedagogy: Children Ex Machina, ed. David W.

Kupferman and Andrew Gibbons (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2019), 93-110.
74
David W. Kupferman and Andrew Gibbons, “Why Childhood Ex Machina?”
in Childhood, Science Fiction, and Pedagogy: Children Ex Machina, ed. David W.
Kupferman and Andrew Gibbons (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2019), 10.
75
Todd, “A Utopian Mirror.”
76
Dror, “Governance for a Human Future in Space”; Robert M. Krone, “Utopia: Space
Philosophy and Reality,” Journal of Space Philosophy 2, no. 2 (2013): 44-48; Gustavo
Munévar, “Space Exploration and Human Survival,” Space Policy 30 (2014): 197-201;
Ord, The Precipice.
26 Space Education
to achieve our highest aspirations as a species—and to move ethically

into a post-human future of essentially unlimited potential.
Therefore, it is clear that it would be best to prepare the world’s
youth for this future in space, and that schools should be redesigned
for this function. These new schools should provide opportunities for
active learning while building students’ foundations in philosophy, sci-
ence fiction, and effective reflection so that they might one day serve
as wise leaders and citizens.
METHOD
This qualitative study followed a grounded theory approach using the

Ideas Unlimited method to engage a panel of experts and make their
tacit knowledge explicit for real-world implementation, and for further
research. The researcher operated from a social constructivist paradigm,
a common foundation for education research resting on the belief that
the human mind is constantly engaged in developing subjective mean-
ings from the environment in which it lives, and that meaning-making
is a process of social negotiation via dialogs or conversations between
individuals.77
School design is a complex long-term undertaking faced with many
human elements that limit the effectiveness of quantitative analysis,
making a qualitative approach more appropriate, especially with an
emerging future context such as space settlement. Trochim defined
qualitative research as a process involving any measures where the data
are not recorded in numerical form, and he included short written
responses on surveys among his examples of qualitative data. 78 These
measures are especially appropriate in a social constructivist context
because qualitative researchers are interested in the meaning that
77
John W. Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method
Approaches, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003); David H. Jonassen et al.,
Learning to Solve Problems with Technology: A Constructivist Perspective (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2003).
78
William M. K. Trochim, The Research Methods Knowledge Database, 2nd ed.
(Cincinnati: Atomic Dog, 2001).
Chapter 1 27
people construct and how they make sense of the world and their expe-
riences in it.79 The role of the researcher in qualitative research is thus
to gather, analyze, and interpret data—a process that requires careful
observation, tolerance for ambiguity, confidence in intuition, and clar-
ity in communication.80
Because we do not know of any K12 schools that focus on pre-
paring students for humanity’s multi-planet future, a grounded theory
approach is an effective choice for generating new ideas. According to
Leedy and Ormrod, “the major purpose of a grounded theory approach
is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theory.” 81 In this
case, the study works from the expert opinions of the participants to
then derive an abstract theory meant to guide policy-makers.82
In particular, the Ideas Unlimited method is well proven for plan-
ning purposes, improving performance, and generating new ideas.
According to Downing et al, "Ideas Unlimited collects and organizes
ideas from people to solve strategy, policy, planning, program, pro-
cess, task, or procedural problems.”83 Traditionally, ideas are collected
on small slips of paper, thus the original name of C.C. Crawford’s
“Crawford Slip Method” before Dr. Bob Krone coined the name
“Ideas Unlimited.” 84 For this 2020 study, an online Google Form was
used to asynchronously collect submissions from geographically dis-
persed participants into a collaborative web-based Google Spreadsheet
shared between the researcher and his academic advisors. Participants
responded to a single prompt, known as a “target” in the Ideas Unlim-
ited method, that was designed to focus their mind on their relevant
79
Sharan B. Merriam, Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).
80
Creswell, Research Design; Merriam, Qualitative Research.
81
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne E. Ormrod, Practical Research: Planning and Design, 8th ed.
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2005), 140.
82
Creswell, Research Design.
83
Lawrence G. Downing, Robert M. Krone, and Ben A. Maguad, Values Analysis for
Moral Leadership (London: Bookboon, 2016), 30. https://bookboon.com/premium/
books/values-analysis-for-moral-leadership.
84
Robert M. Krone and Selena Gregory-Krone, Ideas Unlimited: Capturing Global
Brainpower (Wilmington, DE: Stratton Press, 2018).
28 Space Education
experience. 85 Their responses were then copied from the spreadsheet

into the Zotero qualitative research software for a process of tagging,
keyword classification, and data reduction, with a focus on making
recommendations for performance improvements.86 An outline of the
results was created using the online outliner Workflowy, and this anal-
ysis is the final outcome of the study. The researcher was personally
responsible for all aspects of implementing the Ideas Unlimited pro-
cess. He composed the target (and associated instructions, though these
were adapted from a target sheet created by Dr. Bob Krone at Kepler
Space Institute), recruited all participants, analyzed all data, and inter-
preted all findings.
Fifteen participants were included in the study, each an expert in
either space philosophy, education, or both. All participants are cred-
ited as co-authors of this paper. Their names, titles, and professional
affiliations also appear in Appendix A. The following is the target each
of them responded to:
Future space exploration and settlement: How might K12 schools
best prepare students for success in humanity’s multi-planet future?
RESULTS
Several themes emerged from the analysis of participant responses to

this target prompt. In general, there was consensus around what might
be considered constructivist ideals: a focus on a learning experience that
is engaging, context-embedded, inquiry-driven, collaborative, and sup-
portive of metacognition. As such, mentorship (as opposed to teaching)
was a focus of the responses, as was problem-solving (as opposed to rote
learning and recall). Not surprisingly, the importance of technical skills
came up often, but so did a variety of “softer” skills, including art, phi-
losophy, and leadership. Finally, there was a consistency in participants’
vision for a better future—a world inspired by utopian science fiction,
85
Krone and Gregory-Krone, Ideas Unlimited.
86
Downing et al., Values Analysis for Moral Leadership.
Chapter 1 29
characterized by equity, abundance, and humanist or post-humanist

perspectives.
A constructivist learning environment can be said to be engag-
ing, context-embedded, inquiry-driven, collaborative, and supportive
of metacognition. 87 Participant responses tended to include many of
these elements. For example, space educator Holly Melear argued that
traditional approaches such as hand-outs, memorization, and test-
ing would not be effective in preparing youth for success in off-world
communities; instead she advocated for students to be working in
cross-curricular multi-age teams focused on solving real-world prob-
lems. Janet Ivey, host of Janet’s Planet, suggested similarly authentic
experiences, including activities such as planning Martian settlements,
creating model robotic arms, or designing “astro socks” to protect astro-
nauts’ feet as they hook onto footholds in zero gravity. Rod Pyle, author
of Space 2.0, also recommended engaging projects, field trips to space
facilities, and connecting with scientists, engineers, and other space
industry professionals. Additional participants suggested students
complete context-embedded hands-on projects while learning about
existing space policies, such as the Outer Space Treaty, and conducting
interviews with professional astronauts. An inquiry process driven by
student agency (including giving students “more practice in exercising
power”) was also a hallmark of many responses. A call for collaborative
elements included cooperation, respect, and appreciation of unique
contributions—and also included a more inclusive reduction in elitist
attitudes. Rosalyn Freeman, herself a student, also promoted the idea
that students should rely on each other as they perform tasks similar to
those of a multi-planet society. Reflection and metacognition appeared
in several responses, with a focus on student analysis of learning out-
comes, both in authentic research as a part of completing projects and
in the context of more formal academic writing. In keeping with these
constructivist methodologies, direct instruction was de-emphasized in
Mark D. Wagner, “Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games as

87
Constructivist Learning Environments in K-12 Education: A Delphi Study” (PhD diss.,

Walden University, 2008), https://edtechlife.com/dissertation/.
30 Space Education
favor of more meaningful mentorship from people who work in the

space industry (such as experts at NASA, JPL, and elsewhere).
Realistic problem-solving was a near universal recommendation of
the participants. There were explicit calls for Project-Based Learning
(from Melear, Ivey, and others) including many suggestions of specific
space-themed hands-on challenges. These projects were typically open
ended with an expectation of multiple (and multi-disciplinary) paths to
success. A Design Thinking approach was common, in which students
would come to understand a problem (and the people it affects), ideate
possible solutions, build prototypes, test their theories, and iterate on
their creations to improve outcomes. For example, Assistant Principal
Scott Thomas suggested teaching students engineering skills in the con-
text of designing space habitats. Others embedded such challenges into
a game or game-like format.
Activities involving technical skills were common recommendations,
with a broad emphasis on STEM (Science Technology Engineering
and Math) skills, many of which were focused on the challenges of
survival in outer space or in the hostile environments of other planets.
Andrew Dobbie, a Grade 6 teacher, suggested that students be tasked
with developing Arduino or Raspberry Pi controlled systems for meet-
ing survival needs, such as lighting for plants, air filtration, or waste
recycling. Other suggestions for STEM projects included environmen-
tal studies, resource stewardship, and challenges related to governance
or interpersonal dynamics. Naturally, there were explicit calls for a
wide range of science education as well, including other coding projects,
such as games or simulations, and maker projects, such as 3D printing
or model building from household materials (Ivey mentioned a paper
mache spacesuit helmet). Learning experiences were also expected to
include cutting-edge technologies; some, including Freeman, wanted
students to learn using augmented or virtual reality headsets and gloves.
Responses that focused on technical skills were balanced by similar-
ly numerous discussions of softer skills, including art, creativity, social
emotional learning, personal growth, philosophical thinking, spiritual-
ity, and leadership development. The importance of art was a common
Chapter 1 31
concern, with Malear stressing the critical role of the arts for design,
beauty, and stress relief, and Ivey advocating a wide variety of projects,
including songwriting, dances, and travel brochures or various visual
media as mock marketing materials. Others focused on the creativity
in students’ finding their own paths to success. There were also explicit
calls for the development of interpersonal skills and social-emotional
learning for personal growth…even approaches like practicing mental
health, compassion (and self-compassion), social restoration, collabora-
tive meditation, development of spiritual relationships, and intentional
culture building. Some correlated this sort of personal growth to devel-
oping familiarity with classical philosophy—and with optimistic Stoic
resilience in particular. Naturally, several participants also pointed out
the importance of helping students develop their leadership skills, which
can be accomplished by allowing students opportunities to lead their
peers while engaging in the sorts of projects and problem-solving sug-
gested above.
Participants tended to espouse an optimistic vision for the future,
inspired in part by science fiction, but also their hopes for an inclusive
global society with a sense of abundance for all, and with the commit-
ment to duties, policies, and progressive administrations required to
make that a reality. Some responses suggested establishing an environ-
ment of optimistic thinking for students, encouraging them to believe
in themselves and pursue their dreams. Ivey included the practice of
calling students by aspirational titles such as “Astronaut Aiden.” These
recommendations are explicitly meant to be inclusive and equitable for
a diversity of students around the world, with an acknowledgment of
the interpersonal, cultural, and ethical challenges involved in this “inter-
national investment.” There were also concerns about overpopulation
on Earth, but a generally optimistic belief in humanity’s ability to settle
other habitats throughout the solar system, and in the validity of both
the Overview Effect and the Law of Space Abundance (which suggests
that space has abundant resources to meet human needs). Respondents
advocated helping students develop a sense of duty and ownership over
the solutions to such systemic problems. This included introducing
32 Space Education
students to issues of governance, including the policy sciences, and also

working directly with current political administrations so that students
can gain experience in dealing authentically with similar issues today.
In keeping with these philosophies, several participants recommend-
ed that educators provide opportunities for students to study science
fiction as inspiration; for example, Dahn expected instructors to select
appropriate books and films for their students, and Pyle suggested a
focus on the overlap between real science technology and science fic-
tion. In addition, some explicitly recommended exposing students to
the Journal of Space Philosophy published by Kepler Space Institute.
CONCLUSION
It is clear from the literature review that the benefits of space exploration
are many, and that humanity cannot take advantage of them without
proper planning and collaboration on a global scale. Spinoff technol-
ogies and serendipitous scientific discoveries that benefit the general
populace are only the beginning. More significant benefits include: the
perspective-shifting Overview Effect; the technology to monitor and
deal with climate change; the opportunity to practice diversity, equity,
and inclusion on a global (and interplanetary) scale; and the inspiration
of new generations of scientists, explorers, and pioneers. As the costs
of space exploration come down and the understanding of the dangers
improves, some critical benefits clearly outweigh the risks. Space explo-
ration may help humanity avoid existential risks, making it possible to
achieve our highest aspirations as a species—and to move ethically into
a post-human future of essentially unlimited potential.
Given this evident moral mandate to prepare students for human-
ity’s multi-planet future, the results of this new Ideas Unlimited study
suggest a clear plan of action for educators and education policy makers.
It is critical that a constructivist approach to active learning be adopt-
ed, with a focus on creating learning experiences that are engaging,
context-embedded, inquiry driven, collaborative, and supportive of
reflection and metacognition. Methods should focus on mentorship
Chapter 1 33
(as opposed to didactic teaching) and on authentic real-world prob-

lem-solving (as opposed to rote learning and recall). Technical skills
should certainly be emphasised (including coding, making, and the
practice of the scientific method), but so should a variety of soft skills,
including creativity, social emotional learning, and leadership devel-
opment. Finally, educators should uphold an optimistic worldview,
inspired by the best of science fiction, and characterized by equity,
abundance, and a post-humanist vision for humanity’s future in the
solar system and beyond.
34 Space Education
Constructivist Learning
Figure 1. This framework illustrates the principles and processes of constructivist

learning. Students must be engaged by tapping into their motivations. Learning
must take place in context, and is best when driven by their own inquiry in
collaboration with peers. The best results are achieved when students then engage
in reflecting on their thinking.
Chapter 1 35
APPENDIX A
PARTICIPANTS TITLE AFFILIATIONS
Brendan Brennan Co-Founder ARES Learning

Joshua Dahn Executive Director Astra Nova School
Athena Brensberger Science Communicator Astroathens
Andrew Dobbie* Grade 6 Teacher SDG Global Ambassador
Rosalyn Freeman* Student MPH
Janet Ivey* CEO Janet's Planet, Inc.
Bob Krone, Ph.D. President Kepler Space Institute
Holly Melear* CEO & Founder STEAMSPACE Education Outreach
Rod Pyle* Writer and Editor National Space Society
Steve Sherman Chief Imagination Officer Living Maths
Rhonda Stevenson President/ CEO Tau Zero Foundation
Scott Thomas* Assistant Principal Stuyvesant High School
Barbara Hopkinson Wagner Social Awareness Educator Kids Are the Solution Project
Artemis Westenberg CEO Explore Mars Europe
Heather Wolpert-Gawron 21st Century Learning San Gabriel Unified School District
*All participants in the study are credited as co-authors on this publication.

Participants indicated with an asterisk requested credit in the body of the text for
their specific contributions.
Chapter 2
At the invitation of Space Education professor Dr. Barry Elsey, I

took the opportunity to look deeper into ways that science fiction
might inform our answer to the question of how best to educate
students for humanity’s multi-planet future. Like the previous chap-
ter, this chapter includes both a review of literature (in this case
an exploration of imaginative fiction rather than philosophy) and
an original study synthesizing expert opinion. Some conclusions
are surprising, but the final recommendations converge with the
results in Chapter 1.
As a science fiction fan myself, I was surprised to realize that
most depictions of education in science fiction stories are either
rather dystopian, or quite traditional. Even in Star Trek, students
are usually depicted seated in rows with a teacher at the head of
the room, and arguably modern schools are already tending toward
the more dystopian with their increased standardization and cen-
tralization. Still, there are some inspirational examples of more
individualized and authentic learning in science fictional depic-
tions of the future, and we can look to those as models. At its best,
education in science fiction tends to include development of both
technical skills and soft skills (like leadership) through a focus on stu-
dent agency and one-to-one mentorship rather than a traditional
school model. This is very much in keeping with the individualized,
37
38 Space Education
authentic, and (in a word) constructivist approach the expert opin-

ions support.
Perhaps most importantly, science fiction can inspire educators
and students to create a more positive vision of the future to aspire
to and work toward. And, of course, dystopian stories can inspire us
to avoid them.
Science Fiction as Inspiration
for K12 Education:
an Ideas Unlimited Study
Mark Wagner, Ph.D., K atrina Adkins, Ed.D., Lisa DeLapo,

Sharon Eilts, Pamela J. Gaudet, K arlana R. Kulseth, Leona Laurie,
Emmy Leleu, Nathan Lowell, Garrett H. Pope, Galen Rosenberg,
K atie Sandberg, Jacquelyn Whiting, John E. Wick, Ed.D.
INTRODUCTION
This paper is in response to Elsey and Omarova, 88 who articu-

lated an invitation for scholars at Kepler Space Institute (KSI)
to explore the genre of science fiction for worthy examples of
imagined future education systems. The purpose is to provide
guidance to educators and education policy-makers in creating
K12 schools that better prepare students for humanity’s impend-
ing multi-planet future. In keeping with KSI’s institutional focus
on the Philosophy of Space, the researcher first conducted a
review of relevant scholarly literature before then implementing
an original qualitative study of expert opinion to see what trends
might emerge from the two approaches. In the end, both the
Barry Elsey and Amina Omarova, “An Imagined Order: Connecting Ideas about
88
Quality Education to Human Communities Living in Outer Space,” Journal of Space

Philosophy 8, no. 2 (2019): 11-23.
39
40 Space Education
existing literature and the new results of the study highlighted

similar themes that can be offered as guidance for practicing edu-
cators and leaders, as well as illuminating opportunities for further
research by space philosophers and other academics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review was conducted to explore previous publications

in the fields of space philosophy and learning theory that had already
addressed the interaction of science fiction and education. The review
was thus limited in scope, and did not directly revisit primary sources,
such as short stories, novels, or films. Even so, several useful themes
emerged from the literature. Though most science fictional depictions
of schools, learning institutions, and education systems tend to be
dystopian (in keeping with common settings ripe for adventure and
heroism amid dramatic stakes), there were also signs of more vision-
ary extrapolations of the sort that typify the genre at its best—and
often most prescient. In this case, various philosophers and theorists
were identified.
Turin89 identified a long history of dystopian visions of learning in
science fiction, from Jules Verne’s dark versions of a future Paris in 1883
to modern tales like the Matrix films. Elsey and Omarova 90 summa-
rized concerns about a dystopian future for space communities in the
open question of how much the norms of social order might intrude
on personal freedom in the name of survival needs; they were clearly
concerned about threats to personal autonomy—and the potential that
the Military Industrial Complex would dominate civil society (and
education systems) in early space settlements.91 Though they too con-
cluded that much of science fiction depicted dystopian social orders,
89
Ornat Turin, “How Is the Futuristic School Imagined in Science Fiction Movies and
Literature?” History of Education and Children’s Literature 13, no. 1 (2017): 673-97.
90
Elsey and Omarova, “An Imagined Order.”
91
Barry Elsey and Amina Omarova, “Space Education: Earth Bound Ideas or Something
Else?” Unpublished manuscript.
Chapter 2 41
they also noted that other stories projected a vision of the future more
supportive of human dignity, personal freedom, and self-actualization.92
Unfortunately, as Todd93 insinuated, 21st century schools already have
a dystopian dimension in expecting students to repress their natural
curiosity in favor of minimizing disruption and fostering an ultimate
dependency on adults. Simpson and Gibbons94 also noted the pressure
that digital mediation is already imposing on students when they are
learning through a screen, an issue that has surely been exacerbated
during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. That said, Levinson
and Jandrić95 appreciated the ability of science fiction to help readers
consider their own current problems from a new hypothetical perspec-
tive, and to learn valuable lessons—even when the fictional setting is
dystopian. And Todd 96 ultimately chose to focus on the promise of
more utopian alternatives in some science fiction. For instance, he was
particularly interested in students’ sense of sovereignty in their rela-
tionships with adults (which might be considered student agency as
opposed to dependency), and in the posthuman futures offered by Hux-
ley (for example), which depicted a model for engaging children with
their community, with nature, and with self-reflection.
This approach of looking for more optimistic depictions of learning
environments led to more positive recurring themes in the litera-
ture, including a focus on constructivist learning typified by student
engagement, context-embedded learning, inquiry-driven experienc-
es, collaborative or socially negotiated learning, and opportunities for
reflection or metacognition.97 In contrast to the educational dystopias
that Turin 98 identified, where students are not involved as active par-
ticipants and partners in learning, Simpson and Gibbons identified an
92
Barry Elsey and Amina Omarova, “Space Education for Human Communities Living
on Mars,” Journal of Space Philosophy 9, no. 1 (2020): 21-41.
93
Todd, “A Utopian Mirror,” 148.
94
Simpson and Gibbons, “Filling the Mind.”
95
Levinson and Jandrić, “Children and Pedagogy.”
96
Todd, “Utopian Mirror.”
97
Wagner, “Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games.”
98
Turin, “How Is the Futuristic School Imagined,” 687, 691.
42 Space Education
explicitly constructivist theme in some depictions, where a “construc-

tivist reality transforms classrooms from places of teaching to places
of learning in which the teacher and the classroom [may] disappear.”99
Andrews identified similar themes in stories like Vinge’s Rainbow’s End,
Butler’s Parable series, and Stephenson’s The Diamond Age in which
“students engage in peer-led, project-based learning both in and out
of class, driven by international competition and awareness that their
experience will soon lead to adult work in a globalized world,” 100 and
he of course pointed out the degree of student agency in Card’s Ender’s
Game. Levinson and Jandrić also identified recurring themes of stu-
dent agency and “child freedom,” 101 which Turin 102 saw as well, in
Le Guin’s Dispossessed,, while Foster 103 explored stories in which the
unique epistemologies of children were valuable in the face of habit-
ually conformist adult thinking, such as in the Netflix series Stranger
Things. In short, many science fiction authors have “faith in children’s
innate drive to learn and to become participants in adult worlds.”104 In
addition, Todd 105 focused on the importance of reflection in stories
like Brave New World…and also lamented the lack of reflection already
seen in today’s schools.
In keeping with the more constructivist visions for learning found in
science fiction, the accompanying teaching methods tended to focus on
mentorship (as opposed to didactic instruction), on providing experi-
ential learning opportunities, and on nature-embedded learning. Turin
concluded that “when there are positive references to teaching [in sci-
ence fiction], they are often associated with the image and the role of
99
Simpson and Gibbons, “Filling the Mind,” 163.
100
Gillian Andrews, “To Boldly Go Where No Learner Has Gone Before: Independent
Inquiry, Educational Technology, and Society in Science Fiction.” E-Learning and
Digital Media 12, no. 3-4 (2015): 349.
101
Levinson and Jandrić, “Children and Pedagogy,” 215.
102
103
Adam Foster, “Heretic Gnosis: Education, Children, and the Problem of Knowing
Otherwise,” in Childhood, Science Fiction, and Pedagogy, 171-87.
104
Andrews, “To Boldly Go,” 358.
105
Chapter 2 43
the teacher as a mentor," 106 citing characters such as Yoda, Morpheus,

and Mazer Rackham as exemplars. Also, in The Dispossessed for exam-
ple, “studying is pursued in mutual interest groups…[while] Teachers
move from one place to another, offering their expertise, each time to
a different group."107 Andrews108 identified similar themes of coaching
as mentorship in works like Rainbow’s End. In some stories, such as The
Diamond Age and others, mentorship is provided by an AI, as point-
ed out by Simpson and Gibbons. 109 In still other stories, like Varley’s
Beatnik Bayou, education “transcends the limits of the classroom and
[is] carried out on the move in a natural environment, in the encounter
of daily events.” 110 A typically embedded teaching approach in con-
structivist education is problem-based learning, which appears in many
science fiction stories, including Rainbow’s End, where students engage
with peers in the “context of complex, compelling, real-world proj-
ects.”111 A pragmatic take on information literacy112 and on technical
skills, such as the computer programming, space construction, lunar
mining, cold fusion, and laser communication that Asimov predict-
ed,113 are also hallmarks of constructivist teaching in science fiction.
Technical skills such as these are a particularly common recurring
theme in science fictional depictions of future learning experiences,
often with a focus on survival, STEM skills, hard science, or advanced
educational technologies. As Elsey and Omarova noted, the “contin-
uous awareness of the imperative for survival” 114 will likely impact
any education system in early space communities. Naturally, this
need would lead science fiction authors to predict learning institu-
tions focused on science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)
106
107
108
Andrews, “To Boldly Go.”
109
110
Turin, “How Is the Futuristic School Imagined,” 693.
111
112
113
Turin, “How Is the Futuristic School Imagined,” 693.
114
Elsey and Omarova, “An Imagined Order,” 21.
44 Space Education
skills,115 and to explore what role new technologies might play in edu-
cation. Consider the desk tablets or battle room in Ender’s Game, for
instance. The computer or artificial intelligence (AI) in the role of
teacher is also a common theme in science fiction; Simpson and Gib-
bons116 identified this trend as inevitable and transformational, and the
primer in The Diamond Age is a particularly good fictional example. 117
The convergence of education technologies with the human body via
some form of brain-computer interface is also commonplace in science
fiction, from the hypnosis in 1899’s The Sleeper Awakes to more modern
entries like William Gibson’s Johnny Mnemonic or the Matrix films.118
If students are expected to master (or take for granted) advanced
technologies in the future, they are often also expected to develop com-
petence in a variety of soft skills. Many stories showcase the need for
student creativity. As early as Asimov’s 1957 story, Profession, an argu-
ment was made suggesting the easy acquisition of knowledge via brain
downloads would be insufficient to support “creativity or the advance-
ment of knowledge.”119 Similarly, Simpson and Gibbons120 identified
a deeper educational philosophy that asks not just if or how a new
technology might be implemented in schools, but whether or not it
should. Elsey and Omarova121 considered classical (Greek) philosophy
an important foundation for liberal society, social fairness, and citizen-
ship—and especially for facing the unknown in space. Todd122 was also
explicitly interested in educational philosophy, from a very stoic-like
resilience…to the use of psychedelics to better understand the world.
It follows that educators might prepare students to apply a similar
degree of philosophical thinking and open-mindedness in the future.
115
Elsey and Omarova, “Space Education for Human Communities.”
116
117
118
Turin, “How Is the Futuristic School Imagined,” 693; Andrews, “To Boldly Go,” 349.
119
120
121
Elsey and Omarova, “An Imagined Order”; Elsey and Omarova, “Space Education:
Earth Bound Ideas.”
122
Chapter 2 45
Furthermore, Levinson and Jandrić 123 saw this sort of philosophical

pursuit as addressing the same kinds of questions that religion does,
and agreed with Todd 124 in highlighting stories suggesting that a more
spiritual connection with nature may be important for human health.
As such, it may be reasonable to also prepare students for an active
transrational spiritual life in addition to providing more rational phil-
osophical foundations during their education.
This call for students to be well-rounded in creativity, philosophy,
and spirituality is in keeping with the more aspirational visions for a
better future found in science fiction. From early speculative stories
like Gulliver’s Travels to more recent ones like Star Trek, the genre
has offered innovative ideas about how learning might create a bet-
ter world. 125 For example in Beatnik Bayou, John Varley illustrated a
world in which “the paramount goal of education…is aspiration for
empathy and altruism, which transform the individual into a moral
entity capable of choosing right from wrong.” 126 Elsey and Omaro-
va 127 identified a similar theme of more utopian science fiction that
describes learning systems focused on human dignity, personal free-
dom, self-actualization, civil society, and the passing on of these values.
Todd128 also explored ways in which science fiction reimagined educa-
tion in terms of gender roles, adult relationships, disciplinary power,
and both human and posthuman ideals, including encounters with the
other. Sometimes these education systems are subversive, such as the
primer in The Diamond Age, which was commissioned to provide the
engagement missing from traditional schools.129 In addition, Todd 130
found hope even in dystopian fiction—because readers' reactions can
123
Levinson and Jandrić, “Children and Pedagogy.”
124
125
Turin, “How Is the Futuristic School Imagined.”
126
127
128
129
130
46 Space Education
still lead to positive cultural transformations. Andrews 131 valued the

way that science fiction can prompt educators to articulate pedagogi-
cal goals and consider how they relate to potential future technologies
and visions for future society.
In any case, Turin132 neatly summarized the more optimistic depic-
tion of education in science fiction in very constructivist terms:
The more pleasant aspects of futuristic learning involve choice:
choice between right and wrong and choices of interests and topics.
The learning process will be independent, motivated by fascination, a
desire to experiment and the will to extend wisdom. It will occur in the
encouraging environment of age peer groups. The mentor’s character
as a charismatic role model will be of greater importance, promoting
insights and maximizing cognitive and physical skills…alternative
impressions view the purpose of education in humanistic terms, aimed
at socialising a moral and kind person and making use of advanced
technologies to broaden the flexibility of choice and independence of
the individual.
METHOD
In the wake of the literature review above, this qualitative study fol-
lowed a grounded theory approach using the Ideas Unlimited method
to engage a panel of experts and make their tacit knowledge explicit
for real-world implementation, and for further research. The researcher
operated from a social constructivist paradigm, a common foundation
for education research which rests on the belief that the human mind
is constantly engaged in developing subjective meanings from the envi-
ronment in which it lives, and that meaning-making is a process of
social negotiation via dialogs or conversations between individuals.133
131
132
133
Creswell, Research Design; Jonassen et al., Learning to Solve Problems.
Chapter 2 47

making a qualitative approach more appropriate, especially when con-
cerning an emerging future context such as space settlement. Trochim134
defined qualitative research as a process involving any measures where
the data are not recorded in numerical form, and he included short
written responses on surveys among his examples of qualitative data.
These measures are especially appropriate in a social constructivist con-
text because qualitative researchers are interested in the meaning that
ity in communication.136
Because we know of no K12 schools that focus on preparing stu-
dents for humanity’s multi-planet future, a grounded theory approach
is an effective choice for generating new ideas. According to Leedy
and Ormrod, “the major purpose of a grounded theory approach is to
begin with the data and use them to develop a theory.”137 In this case,
the study works from the expert opinions of the participants to then
derive an abstract theory meant to guide policy makers.138
According to Downing et al., "Ideas Unlimited collects and organizes
ideas from people to solve strategy, policy, planning, program, pro-
cess, task, or procedural problems.”139 Traditionally, ideas are collected
on small slips of paper, thus the original name of C.C. Crawford’s
“Crawford Slip Method” before Dr. Bob Krone coined the name
134
Trochim, Research Methods Knowledge Database.
135
Merriam, Qualitative Research.
136
Creswell, Research Design; Merriam, Qualitative Research.
137
Leedy and Ormrod, Practical Research, 140.
138
139
Downing et al., Values Analysis for Moral Leadership, 30.
48 Space Education
“Ideas Unlimited.”140 For this 2020 study, an online Google Form was
experience.141 Their responses were then copied from the spreadsheet
into the Zotero qualitative research software for a process of tagging,
keyword classification, and data reduction, with a focus on making rec-
ommendations for performance improvements. 142 An outline of the
results was created using the online outliner Workflowy, and this paper
is the final outcome of the study. The researcher was personally respon-
sible for all aspects of implementing the Ideas Unlimited process. He
composed the target (and associated instructions, though these were
adapted from a target sheet created by Dr. Bob Krone at Kepler Space
Institute), recruited all participants, analyzed all data, and interpreted
all findings.
Thirteen participants were included in the study, each an expert in
either K12 education, science fiction, or both. All participants are cred-
ited as co-authors of this paper. Their names, titles, and professional
affiliations also appear in Appendix A. The following is the target each
of them responded to:
K12 Education for Space Settlement: How might science fiction
inspire changes to K12 schools for humanity’s multi-planet future?
RESULTS
The participants’ responses to this target prompt revealed several

themes consistent with the review of literature. The panel of experts
also recognized the dystopian nature of much of the genre, but most
140
141
142
Downing et al., Values Analysis.
Chapter 2 49
of their responses were more inspirational in nature, and could be

organized into now familiar themes of constructivist learning, prob-
lem-based learning, technical skills, soft skills, and an optimistic vision
of the future. This consensus with the literature suggests that these
themes may be valuable as actionable recommendations for educators
and policy makers.
Many elements of constructivist learning environments were evident
among the responses, including student agency, inquiry-driven learning,
opportunities for collaboration, a focus on reflection, and teaching as
mentorship. Participants questioned how education might look when
the goal is not preparing students for traditional Earth-based occu-
pations, and how students might then chart their own educational
journeys. There was an emphasis on student inquiry, and on encourag-
ing curiosity early and consistently throughout the school experience.
Despite this call for individualism, there was also a call for a collective
approach to expanding human presence in the solar system and beyond;
based on participants’ experiences with science fiction, they saw work-
ing together as essential to survival in space and facing the unknown.
As such, several envisioned student projects being group efforts, with
diverse (perhaps even multi-planet) teams of students, each contribut-
ing their own strengths. Others noted that science fiction as a subject in
school is valuable as an opportunity for self-reflection, as well as reflec-
tion on the best and worst of humanity…and how we might face future
challenges. In alignment with the existing literature of space philosophy
and education theory related to science fiction, the study participants
also saw the role of the teacher changing; in a student-centered learn-
ing environment, the teacher serves more as a mentor, in context and
as needed—and even technology such as interactive software or AI can
play a similar mentorship role.
In this environment, open-ended problem-based learning was seen
as a valuable model illustrated by some science fiction. Outcomes
might include projects or portfolios, and be focused on “sci-fi themes”
like dealing with climate change, surviving with limited resources, or
role-playing new organisms…while drawing from a variety of disciplines
50 Space Education
in generating solutions. The elements of design thinking were explic-

it and common in participant conceptions of future problem- or
project-based learning: understanding a problem (and the people it
affects), ideating potential solutions, testing prototypes, and iterating
to improve—or pivoting to a new idea. One participant declared, “sci-
ence fiction is the ultimate design genre! …creators of science fiction
have been imagining and exploring solutions to these problems for
decades.” Furthermore, engaging with science fiction stories liberates
readers (or viewers) from the constraints of their current realities so
that they can expand their capacity for imagination and risk-taking
as they solve problems. In one case, problem-solving was framed in
the context of students undertaking an “adventure” themselves, as a
group naturally.
Pragmatically, adventuring, design thinking, and problem-solving
in general will require students to be competent with a variety of tech-
nical skills, especially in the sorts of futures imagined in science fiction
stories. Survival in hostile environments is often an issue projected and
portrayed in science fiction, and participants saw the importance of stu-
dents developing STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math)
skills necessary to survive and thrive. Considering the multi-planet ele-
ment of the target prompt, participants also imagined that students
would have to master the technical skills necessary for distance educa-
tion. And with science fiction stories in mind, they projected a number
of other educational technologies, including Augmented Reality and
Virtual Reality (AR/VR) or a “holodeck,” computers in multiple sur-
faces (such as desks or walls), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and actual
spacecraft. All would require significant competence in technical skills
from future students.
As in the literature review, the study also revealed that student suc-
cess (and humanity’s success) would rest on more difficult-to-teach
soft skills, such as the arts and social-emotional learning. Though some
emphasized “the science, not the fiction,” other participants pointed
out that STEAM skills (including the Arts) will also be important
to human happiness in future space habitats. Similarly, strong
Chapter 2 51
interpersonal skills will be necessary for “pods” of people working and

learning together in close quarters for long periods of time; teachers'
experiences with coronavirus in 2020 explicitly influenced this line of
thinking. Open-mindedness and acceptance would also be important
in any encounter with alien life, a staple of science fiction stories and
an eventuality that students of humanity’s multiplanet future should
be prepared for, even if the aliens wind up being post-human descen-
dants of Earth life as well. Participants also called for social-emotional
learning to be integrated across core subjects like reading, writing,
mathematics, history, and science, such that even learning technical
skills should include practicing “softer” disciplines.
This focus on soft skills is in keeping with the participants’ shared
vision for a better future. As Dr. Katrina Adkins pointed out, “science
fiction is a genre that relies on imagination, science, technology, and
futuristic possibilities” and though much of it portrays a dystopian set-
ting, the educators and philosophers involved in the study chose to
focus on more optimistic visions. Many of the participants reported
personally finding inspiration in particular stories themselves. They saw
the genre as full of hope, and as valuable for K12 learning communities
to explore, with potential benefits such as normalizing risk, failure, and
commitment to problem solving in schools. It was further suggested
that educators should “reverse-engineer” the best learning environ-
ments science fiction has to offer, and persist even in the face of fear
(of dystopian futures, of failure, or otherwise). They also saw hope for
using technology to improve the environment and provide future gen-
erations with a “healthier Earth full of nature's best diversity,” as school
principal Emmy Leleu enthused. They projected a cultural evolution
that would eradicate poverty and digital divides (or cultural divides)
in education. And based on the inspiration of posthuman science fic-
tion reading lists, they imagined a future of staggering diversity and
unrelenting acceptance of differences (among humans and the alien).
Ultimately, this is a powerful vision of the world that might be possible
if students are well prepared to shape humanity’s multi-planet future,
rather than being passive victims of a dystopian inevitability.
52 Space Education
CONCLUSION
The review of literature and the results of the original Ideas Unlimited
survey conducted for this study revealed similar themes, which can
now be offered both as recommendations for practitioners in education,
and as additional invitations for academics to conduct further research,
adding to this field of knowledge in space philosophy and education
theory. The following recommendations can be extrapolated from the
themes revealed in the study above:
1. Constructivist learning environments: Schools should be orga-

nized to provide student-centered learning environments that
are motivating and engaging, with primarily context-embedded,
inquiry-driven, and collaborative learning experiences. Oppor-
tunities for reflection should be an integral part of the process,
and educators should operate more like mentors or coaches than
traditionally didactic teachers.
2. Problem-based learning: Schools should challenge students with

problem-based learning experiences, incorporating information
literacy skills, the design thinking process, and the application
of multiple academic disciplines.
3. Technical skills: Schools should encourage student mastery of

a wide variety of science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM) skills, including coding, making, and competency with
advanced education technologies such as augmented reality
(AR), virtual reality (VR), and artificial intelligence (AI).
4. Soft skills: Schools should also include ample opportunities to

develop difficult-to-teach soft skills, including creativity, the
arts, philosophy, spiritual pursuits, and social/emotional skills
for both interpersonal relationships and self knowledge.
5. Inspiring Vision: Schools should encourage students to tackle

Chapter 2 53
difficult problems and persevere in their pursuit of solutions

by espousing an optimistic view of what is possible in human-
ity’s multi-planet future, a vision typified by diversity, equity,
inclusion, environmental stewardship, humanist values, and
post-human possibilities.
These recommendations may be valuable in early stage strategic

planning, but both the review of literature and the original research
conducted for this study were limited in scope. Perhaps the great-
est value may be in the revelation of additional questions for further
research prior to later stage implementation. For instance, academics
may wish to explore the primary source material with a much more
in-depth original review of science fiction stories that include meaning-
ful characterizations of schools, learning institutions, or other education
systems. Academic reviews of such fictional accounts are few, but the
source may be rich with inspiration—and warnings. Researchers may
also wish to pursue the following lines of inquiry:
1. In what ways might specific imagined learning environments

(such as Star Trek’s Starfleet Academy, for example) inspire the
design of real-world schools?
2. What are the most useful examples of problem-based learning in

science fiction, and how might they inform practitioners’ plan-
ning for student learning experiences?
3. Based on science fictional representations, what technical skills

might be most important to today’s K12 students in their future?
4. What sort of soft skills do K12 students need to develop in

order to fulfill our best hopes for moral and ethical leadership
in humanity’s multi-planet future?
5. How might schools instill in students a sense of optimism for the

54 Space Education
future and an aspiration to shape it? What role might science fic-
tion play in this cultural transmission?
It is the researcher’s hope that this contribution to the literature

of space philosophy will inspire meaningful learning experiences in
contemporary K12 classrooms, and support an ongoing tradition of
research into the role science fiction might play in shaping future real
world education for the better.
Chapter 2 55
APPENDIX A
PARTICIPANTS TITLES AFFILIATIONS
Katrina Adkins, Ed.D. *Senior Program Developer SHI International Corp.

Lisa DeLapo Director of Technology Union School District
Sharon Eilts Special Education Teacher Retired
Pamela J. Gaudet Author, Consultant Product Value Solutions
Karlana R. Kulseth English Teacher Clark County School District
Leona Laurie Senior Contributor Geek Girl Authority
Emmy Leleu* Princpal CVO Scala
Nathan Lowell Science Fiction Author
Garrett H Pope
Galen Rosenberg Media Arts Teacher Hays Consolidated ISD
Katie Sandberg Director of Innovation California League of Schools
Jacquelyn Whiting Innovation Specialist Cooperative Educational Services
John E. Wick, Ed.D. School Principal Holy Redeemer St. James Catholic
* All participants in the study are credited as co-authors on this publication.

Participants indicated with an asterisk requested credit in the body of the text for
their specific contributions.
Chapter 3
This chapter is shorter and more informal than the two that
preceded it, but it introduces concepts that will be important in
Chapter 4 and throughout the remainder of the book. In short, to
prepare students to effectively make decisions in the increasingly
complex context of future work, education today should focus on
multi-disciplinary models of problem-solving, rather than breaking
learning into traditional silos, such as English, History, Math, and Sci-
ence. Real-world problem solving often requires the integration of
knowledge from all these disciplines, and that will be increasingly
so in the future space economy—and in space settlements on the
Moon, Mars, and elsewhere. This chapter also introduces a trifecta
of important concepts: the explorer’s mindset, moonshot thinking,
and design methodology. Each of these ways of thinking has been
proven effective in contemporary schools, but they are only happen-
ing in a few islands of innovation—when they could be adopted on a
much wider scale. Each of them is also integral to the recommenda-
tions and school designs that follow throughout the rest of the book.
57
A Case for Multi-Disciplinary
Methods in Space Education
by Mark Wagner, Ph.D.
As Rod Pyle says, “Space is hard.” 143 Humanity is not going to

succeed at space settlement in the 21st century by preparing with
19th century models of education focused on discrete disciplines and
the regurgitation of predetermined “right” answers. Even a relatively
technical problem, like space solar power (or more broadly, providing
energy for settlements) involves the interplay of diverse disciplines
like electronics, thermodynamics, and materials science, if not orbital
mechanics and meteorology as well. 144 When more human factors are
considered, settlement will require expertise in areas varying from radi-
ation and hydroponics…to interior design. As a graduate of Cal Poly
San Luis Obispo, a school mostly divided between engineering stu-
dents and agriculture students, I realize that both disciplines will need
to work together in space settlements. Moreover, local governance will
require softer skills like psychology, sociology, and (ideally) philoso-
phy…not to mention communication skills, and leadership acumen
143
Pyle, Space 2.0.
John C. Mankins, The Case for Space Solar Power (Houston: Virginia Edition, 2014).
144
59
60 Space Education
among those with responsibility.145 When it eventually comes to estab-

lishing systems of education on remote worlds, all of the above will be
required, plus skill in lifelong open-ended social learning.146 With the
unknown challenges that will be faced by space community members,
education (even today in preparation) should focus on cultivating an
explorer’s mindset, problem-solving with design methodology, and
moonshot thinking to support out-of-the-box thinking or novel solu-
tions to unforeseen problems.
As a representative of the sorts of problems and design challenges
humanity will face in any effort to settle environments beyond the
Earth, let us consider the universal need for energy. John Makins sug-
gests Space Solar Power (SSP) as a potential solution in a number of
contexts, but even the best path forward in his expert opinion is one
with many challenges left to solve across multiple disciplines, including
reduced system mass, efficient electronic devices at high temperature,
efficient power management, effective low-mass thermal management,
large space system assembly, manufacturing of large-scale low-cost space
systems, and affordable space transportation. 147 At a minimum, this
means those overseeing and integrating such efforts will require some
mastery of electronics, thermodynamics, and materials science. In addi-
tion, understanding of orbital mechanics would be required for any
space-based system, and of meteorology for any system then beaming
energy through an atmosphere (on Mars for instance). Clearly, some
knowledge of manufacturing (likely in the vacuum and micro-g envi-
ronment of space) may also be required.
Providing power is just one challenge that will be faced in estab-
lishing a space settlement. When human needs are considered for a
true settlement, the number of intertwined disciplines multiplies. In
considering designs for human space habitats as early as 1976, Gerard
O’Neill recognized challenges related to biology and botany, climate
145
Yehezkel Dror, “Becoming a Singularity Policy Scientist,” Journal of Space Philosophy 7,
no. 2 (2017): 82-94.
146
147
Mankins, The Case for Space Solar Power, 388.
Chapter 3 61
and agriculture, geometry and physics, and economics.148 In addition

he addressed the need for protection from radiation generated by mul-
tiple sources, including everything from the cosmic rays to the local soil,
and of course the power sources manufactured by humans.149 More
recently, in preparing for human arrival on Mars, David Weintraub
focused on problems related to potential water sources (an investigation
as rich with geology as much as hydrology), potential methane sourc-
es (with discussions ranging from biology to geology as well), and the
potential discovery of life (or astrobiology with a discussion of ethics
to boot). 150 Clearly, design of space settlements will be a multidisci-
plinary affair. Academic or professional silos would have life or death
consequences, and to be effective local leadership will require fluency
that transcends disciplines.
“The first space community large enough to form a powerful indus-
trial base, able to manufacture products of value in quantities great
enough to provide important economic benefits to Earth, will require
a population of at least several thousand people.”151
Governance of any significantly sized community will naturally
introduce additional complications. In applying his experience in the
policy sciences to space settlement in particular, Yehezkel Dror suggest-
ed that leaders develop competency in a variety of disciplines including
not only politics and statecraft (or what he coined humanity-craft),
but also academic research skills, cross-cultural communication, cri-
sis management, and philosophy (particularly classical stoicism). 152
Unfortunately, Dror’s philosophies with a focus on the greater good
do provide an opportunity for abusive manipulation and exploitation
by elite leadership, so a foundation in ethical communication (of the
148
Gerard O’Neill, The High Frontier (North Hollywood, CA: Space Studies Institute
Press, 2019), 41, 50-51, 58, 83.
149
O’Neill, The High Frontier, 103, 113.
150
David Weintraub, Life on Mars: What to Know Before We Go (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2018).
151
O’Neill, The High Frontier, 115.
152
Dror, “Becoming a Singularity Policy Scientist.”
62 Space Education
sort based in listening and mutual benefit advocated by Rusk and Mill-
er) may also be prudent.153 Furthermore, Frank White illustrated that
an understanding of systems thinking may be necessary for bringing
these various domains together and seeing things from a long-term
overview perspective.154
So what sort of education system will be required to sustain (and
prepare for) such settlements? How might this diverse skill set be
encouraged in potential leaders and among the population of the set-
tlement at large? Social constructivist learning theory may hold the
answers, with a departure from the methods of the past (focused on
academic silos and the regurgitation of predetermined answers) and
a focus on students creating their own meaning through context-em-
bedded collaborative problem-solving. 155 One existing model is the
National Geographic Educator Certification, which aims to empower
students with the explorer’s mindset, including a love of curiosity, dis-
covery, and adventure…and a focus on real-world multi-disciplinary
problem solving.156 In addition to empowering mindsets, design meth-
odology is a proven framework for students to develop creative solutions
to novel problems using a cyclical system for ideating possible solutions,
testing them, and iterating on them (or pivoting to another possibili-
ty).157 158 That said, design methods tend to produce only incremental
changes, so a student’s (and leader’s) skillset is significantly compliment-
ed by also developing skill in moonshot thinking, a perspective-shifting
153
Tom Rusk and Patrick Miller, The Power of Ethical Persuasion (New York: Penguin
Books, 1993).
154
155
156
Susan Koch, “An Explorer's Mindset,” Grog Blog, September 25, 2017, https://grog-
gorg.blogspot.com/2017/09/an-explorers-mindset-guest-post-by.html.
157
Ingo Rauth, Eva Köppen, Birgit Jobst, and Christoph Meinel, “Design Thinking:
An Educational Model towards Creative Confidence,” in First International Conference
on Design Creativity, ICDC 2010 29 November-1 December 2010, Kobe, Japan,
ed. T Taura and Y. Nagai, https://www.designsociety.org/publication/30267/
Design+Thinking%3A+An+Educational+Model+towards+Creative+Confidence.
158
Harvard University, “Design Thinking in Education,” https://tll.gse.harvard.edu/
design-thinking.
Chapter 3 63
process for setting ambitious goals, exploring diverse ways of thinking,

embracing learning through rapid failure, and ultimately making the
seemingly impossible…possible.159 These approaches are seen in pockets
of innovation today, but are not widespread in schools. Even so, we see
similar philosophies evident in the writing of young aspiring astronauts
like Abigail Harrison and Alysa Carson.160 161
Perhaps there would be more Harrisons and Carsons in the next
generation of students and aspiring space migrants (and more well pre-
pared employees for the likes of SpaceX, Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic,
and other commercial space exploration efforts) if schools were to adopt
these multi-disciplinary methodologies…from public K12 schools and
universities through graduate schools like Kepler Space Institute. The
explorer’s mindset, design method, and moonshot thinking are not
new in education; their success is well documented, particularly in the
last decade. All that is needed is wider adoption by the leadership of
education systems that care to prepare students for their future rather
than our distant past.
159
X Company, “Moonshot Thinking,” https://x.company/moonshot/.
160
Abigail Harrison, Dream Big: How to Reach for Your Stars (New York: Philomel
Books, 2021).
161
Alysa Carson, So You Want to Be an Astronaut: A Realistic Guide to Becoming an
Astronaut at a Young Age (Independently published, 2018).
Chapter 4
This is a special chapter in the book, and it brings part one to

fruition. This is the academic articulation of a vision my co-founder
Brendan Brennan and I share for an innovative high school we call
the Academy for Relentless Exploration of Space, or ARES Learning.
The school is focused on the very issue this book is dedicated to,
i.e., preparing today’s students for humanity’s multi-planet future.
Based on the conclusions of the previous chapters, and on an addi-
tional literature review guided by our decades working in innovative
schools (and other more traditional, resistant school systems), this
makes concrete recommendations for establishment of a prototype
school—or for existing schools to follow—if they wish to implement
a similar program internally.
In addition to a multi-disciplinary approach and the models of
the explorer’s mindset, moonshot thinking, and design methodolo-
gy, this design includes two more skill sets to help prepare students
for their complex and unpredictable future. Synthesis is discussed
as a method of helping students integrate their learning and cre-
ate new meaning and new solutions, even when faced with difficult
ethical dilemmas. Hansei, or relentless self reflection, is included
as a daily practice for students’ problem-solving, self-improvement,
and personal growth. Naturally, explicitly introducing students to
philosophy also plays a significant role in the school design. Each
of these elements also remains important in later chapters focused
65
66 Space Education
on school design for space settlements on the Moon, on Mars, and

in deep space habitats.
When designing ARES, we were inspired by the idea of making
Star Trek’s Starfleet Academy real, but at a high school level; the
school needed to prepare students to be well rounded scientifical-
ly literate citizens prepared for complex moral decision-making (a
theme that returns in part 3 of the book). We also wanted to create
a feeder school for companies like SpaceX, for government agen-
cies like NASA or the Space Force, and for nonprofits like Space for
Humanity or The Moon Village Association—in addition to traditional
university programs, including aerospace and the widening array of
space sciences, such as astrobiology. While ARES is intended to be
an exemplary prototype school in its own right, our hope is that it
might also inspire change on a much broader scale in public schools
around the world, fundamentally improving workforce development
for the entire space economy, and preparing a generation of deci-
sion makers who will lead humanity into a peaceful, prosperous, and
equitable multi-planet future.
A Novel Approach to a
K12 School Focused on
Space Exploration
INTRODUCTION
With the current explosion of progress in space exploration and

industry, many questions related to the first legitimate long term
space settlements are being asked—and not just about technical
or logistical issues. Space philosophers are beginning to look very
seriously at questions of social significance, including legal pre-
cedence, methods of governance, and even how best to educate
children being raised in space or on another planet. Elsey and
Omarova, for instance, challenge scholars to imagine what an
education system might look like on Mars.162 They acknowledge
this as an imaginative enterprise at this point, but the question
becomes much more concrete if we consider how best to edu-
cate those who will actually be the first settlers—and are likely in
today’s classrooms.163
This question is thus already relevant if not pressing: how
Elsey and Omarova, “Space Education for Human Communities Living on Mars.”
162
Rachael Mann and Stephen Sandford, The Martians in Your Classroom (Grafo
163
Education, 2018).
67
68 Space Education
should K12 schools be designed to best prepare students for

humanity’s multiplanet future? Today’s schools are not only
poorly prepared for this future, they are poorly prepared for the
current reality. School should be ready to handle the truly chal-
lenging problems of today while also preparing students for the
unpredictable problems of tomorrow. Humanity cannot explore
and settle space with an industrial age education system. Luck-
ily, there are new mindsets and skill sets available to educators,
drawn from the successes of silicon valley and the space industry
itself—and already proven on the cutting edge of constructivist
pedagogy and educational technology.
This paper summarizes the academic justification behind the
design of The Academy for the Relentless Exploration of Space
(or ARES), a prototype secondary school created for the purpose
of putting these practices into effect with a focus on preparing stu-
dents to participate in the space industry (directly or indirectly).
The school has a two part mission:
MISSION I—Prepare students to solve enormous challenges in

any community, on any planet.
At ARES Learning, students build the knowledge, skills and

mindsets necessary to navigate the great challenges of the future—
on this planet or any other. ARES students emerge from their
experience prepared for jobs that don't yet exist, to use technolo-
gy that hasn't been invented, and to solve enormous problems we
can't foresee. ARES prepares young people to become the design-
ers, builders, philosophers and explorers of tomorrow.
MISSION II—Fundamentally disrupt and transform the global

education system.
The recent pandemic has shown traditional schools are not only
unprepared for the challenges of the future, they are unprepared
Chapter 4 69
for the challenges of today. ARES is the new model for glob-
al education that combines the Explorer's Mindset, Moonshot
Thinking, and human-centered design…supported by bleeding
edge technology and inspiring learning spaces. ARES places stu-
dents at the center of solving enormous problems facing their
communities—on this planet or any other. By design, ARES is a
laboratory school meant to influence the true transformation of
global education systems.
In particular, this paper articulates the reasoning behind the
chosen curriculum, mindsets, and routines that form the founda-
tion of the learning experience at ARES. A flexible curriculum is
delivered via blended (face-to-face and online) methods. In addi-
tion to core subjects, it includes a foundation in problem-solving
frameworks such as the explorer’s mindset, moonshot thinking,
and design methodology. For maximum effectiveness, daily rou-
tines also focus on synthesis, collaboration, and reflection.
A FLEXIBLE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM
At ARES Learning, learning experience in traditional subjects is based

on CK-12, an internationally recognized core curriculum for English,
Social studies, Math, Science, and more, including an introduction
to philosophy. This system is an open educational resource offering
interactive experiences rich with multi-media, adaptive practice, and
simulations. The program is modular and customizable to individual
student's needs, and each student has agency in co-creating their own
learning path. This approach provides a solid foundation for students'
academic future, and for the project-based learning that is the true
focus of the ARES Experience.
The CK-12 system is delivered via a blended learning approach,
combining face-to-face and online learning experiences. A blended
approach allows students and teachers to develop a face-to-face rapport
while still having the opportunity to communicate often online, and
70 Space Education
has been shown to increase student to teacher interactions.164 Blended

learning is particularly effective at teaching STEM subjects, including
scientific reasoning165 and mathematics.166 The blended experience also
helps students develop greater comfort writing across the curriculum.167
These basic skills help form the foundation needed for more advanced
learning and higher order problem solving.
In addition to their core subjects, all students participate fully in the
rich experience of a supplemental “Launchpad Curriculum” where they
are exposed to new ways of thinking—and get to set the Trajectory of
their own advanced learning. All students are introduced to advanced
domains of learning, like Philosophy, Anthropology, Linguistics, Psy-
chology, and Political Science—as well as forward looking pursuits like
Science Fiction as Literature, Fictional Languages, and Data Science
for Forecasting. With a grounding in the physical and life sciences they
then choose their own Space Science Trajectory with options including
Astrophysics, Orbital Mechanics, Spacecraft Systems Design, Terrafor-
ming, or Genetic Engineering. This broad supplementary curriculum
provides a deeper understanding of the world from which to launch
their projects in the Moonshot Lab.
More importantly, a multi-disciplinary philosophy-based approach
like this can help students develop the wide range of intellectual skills
necessary for success in their future, and help them prepare for mean-
ingful participatory citizenship. 168 In many schools, there is an over
164
Sandra Somera, “Educator Experiences Transitioning to Blended Learning
Environment in K-6 Public Schools” (PhD diss., Walden University, 2018).
165
IIsalyn F. Camungol, Yves I. Gonzales, and Lydia S. Roleda, “Progression of Scientific
Reasoning and Metacognitive Regulation of Secondary Students in the New K-12
Curriculum in Blended Learning Environment,” in IC4E 2020: Proceedings of the
2020 11th International Conference on E-Education, E-Business, E-Management, and
E-Learning (New York: ACPM, 2020), 10-14.
166
Lissa J. Raebel, “Introducing Blended Learning Environments for Mathematics
Instruction: How Does it Affect Student Achievement and Attitudes?” (MS Thesis,
University of Wisconsin Whitewater, 2015).
167
William Kist, Getting Started with Blended Learning: How Do I Integrate Online
and Face-to-Face Instruction? (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2015).
168
Sara Goering, Nicholas J. Shudak, and Thomas E. Wartenberg, eds., Philosophy in
Schools: An Introduction for Philosophers and Teachers (London: Routledge/Taylor &
Chapter 4 71
emphasis on repetition of science facts; teachers typically fail to char-

acterize scientific knowledge as tentative and the scientific method as
creative.169 But when philosophy of science is emphasized rather than
simply repeating facts provided by the teacher, “students construct
their conceptual models and present them to others within the class.”170
Inclusion of science fiction as literature further prepares students to be
creative in dealing with the unexpected, and has been demonstrated
to be an effective method for teaching climate change, 171 chemistry,172
and analytical skills 173—and for increasing interest in STEM based
pursuits in general.174
MINDSETS AND SKILL SETS
In the tradition of great explorers from the Polynesian islanders to

American astronauts—and the inspirational explorers of science fic-
tion, ARES Learning is infused with the Explorer Mindset. The school
is a program for students with a deep love of exploration, discovery,
and adventure. The learning experiences are designed to increase com-
fort with the unknown and with facing challenges in rapidly changing
environments. Students are encouraged to see potential, opportunity,
Francis Group, 2013).

169
James J. Gallagher, “Prospective and Practicing Secondary School Science Teachers'
Knowledge and Beliefs about the Philosophy of Science,” Science Education 75, no. 1
(1991): 121-33.
170
Susan L. Johnson and Jim Stewart, “Using Philosophy of Science in Curriculum
Development: An Example from High School Genetics,” International Journal of Science
Education 12, no. 3, (1990): 297-307.
171
Glenn Smith and Metin Besalti, “Learning Climate Change Science with Computer
Games in a Science Fiction Novel,” in Proceedings of EdMedia: World Conference on
Educational Media and Technology, ed. Theo Bastiaens et al. (Amsterdam: Association
for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 2018) 1231-35.
172
L. Gaby Avila-Bront, “An Experiential Learning Chemistry Course for Nonmajors
Taught through the Lens of Science Fiction,” Journal of Chemical Education 97, no. 10
(2020): 3588-94.
173
Neil Selwyn, Luci Pangrazio, Selena Nemorin, and Carlo Perrotta, “What Might the
School of 2030 Be Like? An Exercise in Social Science Fiction,” Learning Media and
Technology 45, no. 1 (2019): 90-106.
174
Selwyn et al., “What Might the School of 2030 Be Like?”
72 Space Education
and abundance when they encounter problems as opposed to seeing

threat and scarcity. They are taught to operate from the presumption
that possibilities always exist.
National Geographic has provided a powerful model for explorato-
ry learning by defining a framework for “The Mindset of an Explorer”
including age-specific skills and knowledge—and attitudes such as
curiosity, responsibility, and empowerment. 175 This framework has
been extended by educators to include tools for helping students “see,
observe, build curiosity, learn responsibility, feel empowered, and be
stewards in our interconnected world.” 176 The Explorer’s Mindset is
meant to develop a love of adventure, exploration, and discovery—and
is important for breakthrough thinking. 177 Importantly, the mindset
can help students to be flexible,178 adaptable, and ready to make critical
decisions without complete information.179 An Explorer’s Mindset can
also help leaders shepherd a team through the process of innovation.180
Though it’s a mindset that explorers have embraced for millennia,
Moonshot Thinking was codified in President John F. Kennedy’s com-
mitment to putting a man on the moon even though the technology
didn’t exist and nobody knew how to do it yet. At Google’s X Lab
this mindset was further formalized into a system for addressing huge
challenges, applying radical solutions, and developing breakthrough
technology. This mindset doesn’t seek a 10% improvement…it seeks a
175
National Geographic, “The National Geographic Learning Framework,” 1996-2021,
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/education/about/learning-framework/.
176
Explorer Mindset, “Students, Educators and the Explorer Mindset,” https://
explorermindset.org/about/.
177
Stephen Sweid, “Significance of the Explorer's Mindset for
Breakthrough,” FlevyBlog, August 20 2015, https://flevy.com/blog/
significance-of-the-explorers-mindset-for-breakthrough/.
178
Vani Kola, “The Explorer Mindset: Leadership Principles for Crisis,” https://www.
linkedin.com/pulse/explorer-mindset-leadership-principles-crisis-vani-kola/.
179
Sionade Robinson, “Introduction: An Explorer’s Mindset Matters…,” An Explorer’s
Mindset, https://www.anexplorersmindset.com/.
180
Tenday Viki, “How Adopting an Explorer’s Mindset
Can Help You to Lead Innovation,” Forbes, June 7, 2020,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/tendayiviki/2020/06/07/
how-adopting-an-explorers-mindset-can-help-you-to-lead-innovation.
Chapter 4 73
solution 10 times better than before, and it’s known also as 10X think-
ing. It requires failing forward and failing fast. This is exemplified in the
Space X approach to developing new spacecraft. The ARES Learning
model supports students as they address meaningful challenges in their
community, generate innovative solutions, and implement creative uses
of technology.
The system developed at X is a method for pursuing wildly ambi-
tious goals, including “processes and culture (that) make it easier to
make radical breakthroughs—repeatedly.” 181 This sort of thinking is
particularly relevant and beneficial in preparing for the challenges of
humanity’s multi-planet future because “moonshots galvanise commu-
nities towards tackling a huge societal challenge and shap[ing a] desired
future in the process.”182 It may also be particularly appropriate in the
public sector (in public K12 schools for instance) as a way to address
a social crisis.183
Within the context of moonshot style ambitions, the ARES
Learning method of solving problems is heavily influenced by Design
Methodology (or Design Thinking), of the sort used and promoted
by the Stanford D School. This begins with understanding those peo-
ple the problem affects, through a process of discovery, empathy, or
ethnography. Then, our students define a problem before ideating a
variety of possible solutions (using one of many exercises in which they
are trained), and choosing one to prototype and test first. They build
a prototype online, in virtual reality, or in a maker space with real-
world tools, including 3D printers. Based on the results of their initial
tests, they iterate on their solution, pivot to a new one, or begin the
process again.
Design methodology (or design thinking) is “a human-centered
181
X Company, “Moonshot Thinking.”
182
Anne-Laure Mention, João José Pinto Ferreira, and Marko Torkkeli, “Moonshot
Innovations: Wishful Thinking or Business-as-Usual?” Journal of Information
Management 7, no. 1 (2019): 1-6.
183
William D. Eggers and John O’Leary, If We Can Put a Man on the Moon: Getting Big
Things Done in Government (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2009).
74 Space Education
problem-solving approach that may be used in the teaching/learning

process to develop twenty-first century skills and enhance creativity and
innovation.”184 The method has been effective in empowering teachers
to facilitate constructivist learning and foster 21st-century skills in stu-
dents.185 It also integrates well with the other methods in use at ARES,
as design thinking helps build student motivation for exploration, con-
fidence in self-exploration, and competence in teamwork (including
expressing opinions and sharing knowledge), as well as building trust
between student and teacher.186 It leads to increases in students’ creative
confidence,187 self-efficacy,188 and ability to practically solve real-world
problems. 189 Also, it prepares students well for management, 190 entre-
preneurship,191 and challenging fields such as medicine.192
Because of the way the Design Methodology is implemented in
conjunction with Moonshot Thinking at ARES, there is room for truly
innovative approaches, always encouraging students to think bigger—
and providing exercises to help them get out of their comfort zone and
leave behind their preconceptions.
184
Ineta Luka, “Design Thinking in Pedagogy: Frameworks and Uses,” European Journal
of Education Research, Development and Policy 54, no. 4 (2014): 499-512.
185
Andrea Scheer, Christine Noweski, and Christoph Meinel, “Transforming
Constructivist Learning into Action: Design Thinking in Education,” Design Thinking
and Technology Education: An International Journal 17, no. 3 (2012): 8-19.
186
Scheer et al., “Transforming Constructivist Learning.”
187
Rauth et al., “Design Thinking.”
188
Birgit Jobst, Eva Köppen, Tilmann Lindberg, Josephine Moritz, Holger Rhinow, and
Christoph Meinel, “The Faith-Factor in Design Thinking: Creative Confidence Through
Education at the Design Thinking Schools Potsdam and Stanford?” in Design Thinking
Research, ed. Hasso Plattner, Christoph Meinel, and Larry Leifer (Cham, Switzerland:
Springer, 2012), 35-46.
189
Joyce Hwee Ling Koh, Ching Sing Chai, Benjamin Wong, and Huang-Yao Hong,
Design Thinking for Education: Conceptions and Applications in Teaching and Learning
(Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2015).
190
Judy Matthews and Cara Wrigley, “Design and Design Thinking in Business and
Management Higher Education,” Journal of Learning and Design 10, no. 1 (2017): 41-54.
191
Suna Løwe Nielsen and Pia Stovang, “DesUni: University Entrepreneurship
Education Through Design Thinking,” Education + Training 57, no. 8/9 (2015): 997-91.
192
Basil Badwan, Roshit Bothara, Mieke Latijnhouwers, Alisdair Smithies, and John
Sandars, “The Importance of Design Thinking in Medical Education,” Medical Teacher
40, no. 4 (2018): 425-26.
Chapter 4 75
SYNTHESIS AND REFLECTION
Inspired by the work of the Ad Astra school at SpaceX, the ARES

Learning program focuses on synthesis throughout. Students aren’t just
repeating right answers…they experience the tension of making diffi-
cult choices, and of risk-taking in their explorations and experiments.
The faculty ensures that their challenges include ethical dimensions, in
order to allow for more meaningful experiences, and deeper learning.
Sufficient time is allowed for analysis, debate, strategy, iteration…and
the changing of minds. The school has adopted the daily practice of
sharing ideas during a “Midnight Lunch” (at noon) inspired by Thomas
Edison, and the Japanese tradition of Hansei, or relentless self-reflection,
aiming to help students accept faults and failures with the high degree
of emotion needed to drive changes in the future.
Synthesis requires students to add to existing information by con-
tributing “their own thoughts, experiences, opinions, interpretations,
and connections to generate…new and bigger [ideas].”193 For example,
at Ad Astra, students engage in synthesis through complex scenarios—
working as a team through “case studies, simulations, and game-based
challenges.”194 Students practicing synthesis also hone their analytical
skills as they break concepts down into key points that allow them to
draw useful conclusions and make decisions in order to solve a mean-
ingful problem.195 Ethical dimensions can be included in the process of
problem-solving through synthesis; “some best practices include mak-
ing consequences and feedback on choices clear, [and] allowing more
time for [students] to form relationships…using authentic scenarios
and contexts.196
193
“Classroom Nook, “Reading Comprehension Strategy Series: How to Teach
Students to Synthesize While Reading,” https://www.classroomnook.com/blog/
synthesizing-a-text.
194
Matthew S. Williams, “Learning Through Play: How Synthesis Plans to Bring the Ad
Astra/Astra Nova Model to the Entire World,” Interesting Engineering, 2021, https://
interestingengineering.com/learning-through-play-how-synthesis-plans-to-bring-the-ad-
astra-astra-nova-model-to-the-entire-world.
195
Cosette Taylor, “What is ‘Synthesis’?” University of Manitoba, https://umanitoba.ca/
faculties/nursing/students/What_is_synthesis.pdf.
196
Karen Schrier, “Designing and Using Games to Teach Ethics and Ethical Thinking,”
76 Space Education
It was common for the scientists hired by Thomas Edison for his
innovation factory in Menlo Park, N.J., to toil into the late evening
or early morning hours, their boss alongside them. He often ordered
a midnight lunch of meat, bread, cheese and beverages for the entire
crew, to fuel their overnight discussions and theorizing. At a midnight
lunch, Edison encouraged people from different project teams to “share
their experiments, trade notebooks, and engage in spirited dialogue.”197
This arrangement allowed Individuals from diverse disciplines to offer
multiple perspectives when problem-solving rapidly, thus avoiding both
groupthink and a reliance on a culture of superstars.198 ARES Learning
embraces this collaborative and innovative approach to what traditional
school lunch time should be. Similarly, at the end of the day, students
come back together for a period of reflecting on their learning.
Hansei, or relentless self-reflection, is an important part of Japa-
nese culture – a continuous practice of subtle meditation undertaken
to look at past mistakes, outline the lessons learned, and pledge to act
on those lessons. “Han" means to change, turn over, or turn upside
down. "Sei" means to look back upon, review, and examine oneself. In
the workplace, Hansei typically involves taking individual responsibil-
ity for a problem and developing a (often written) plan for avoiding
the issue in the future.199 Studies show that Hansei enhances self-eval-
uation, improvement, and morality 200 (thus also addressing the need
for ethics education), and that this process is effective even for very
in Learning Education and Games, Volume 1: Curricular and Design Considerations ed.
Karen Schrier (Pittsburgh, ETC Press, 2014), 141-58.
197
Sarah Miller Caldicott, “Teamwork, Edison Style,” Mechanical Engineering Magazine
137, no. 2 (2015): 46-49.
198
Sarah Miller Caldicott, Midnight Lunch: The 4 Phases of Team Collaboration
Success from Thomas Edison's Lab (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012).
199
Jeffrey K. Liker and James M. Morgan, “The Toyota Way in Services: The Case
of Lean Product Development,” Academy of Management Perspectives 20, no. 2
(2006): 5-20.
200
Satomi Izumi Taylor, L. Weiping Wang, and Tetsu Ogawa, “I Think, Therefore, I
Improve: A Qualitative Study of Concepts of Hansei (Introspection) Among Japanese
Adults,” Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education 26, no. 1 (2005): 79-89.
Chapter 4 77
young children. 201 At ARES Learning, students engage in Hansei at

the end of each day to chart a course forward academically, socially,
and emotionally.
CONCLUSION
The Academy for the Relentless Exploration of Space (or ARES Learn-
ing) is a prototype secondary school designed to prepare students for
humanity’s multi-planet future. To that end, it incorporates a number
of mindsets and skill sets more suited to open-ended problem-solving
than traditional schooling. A flexible multi-disciplinary curriculum
(including subjects like philosophy, anthropology, and data science) is
delivered via blended learning methods to lay an academic foundation
for students. From there, the program helps students develop expe-
rience with problem-solving strategies such as the explorer’s mindset,
moonshot thinking, and design methodology. The school schedule also
includes routines to encourage synthesis, collaboration, and reflection,
thus amplifying what students are able to accomplish together in a
short amount of time. This paper provides a summary of the academic
justification for including these design elements.
It is the author’s hope that this brief literature review might offer
inspiration for educators in other contexts to implement some of
these changes with their students, and that it might also inspire other
researchers to explore some of these elements in more detail. Some
questions suggesting further research include these:
What subjects should space explorers have a basic grasp of for pur-
poses of settlement on other planets?
How might the explorer’s mindset (or moonshot thinking, or
design thinking) be employed by secondary students to help them bet-
ter understand the sorts of problems they might need to solve in space?
How might learning experiences be crafted to provide students with
Satomi Izumi-Taylor, “Hansei: Japanese Preschoolers Learn Introspection with

201
Teachers’ Help,” Young Children 64, no. 4 (2009): 86-90.

78 Space Education
opportunities for synthesis, collaboration, and reflection over a distance

in online or virtual environments?
What if that distance included a 20-minute delay in communica-
tions back to experts, peers, and online resources on Earth if students
are in fact settlers on a planet like Mars?
Chapter 4 79
Skill Sets and Mindsets
Figure 2. This cycle illustrates an innovative structure for students to engage

with and solve problems. They can come at the problem with the open-ended
discovery-ready Explorer’s Mindset. Before getting bogged down in iterating on
past solutions, they can think big and out of the box with Moonshot Thinking.
Then they can apply Design Methods to prototype and test possible solutions.
Best results are achieved when they Synthesize what they learn from various
perspectives and Reflect on the process.
Part II :
Serving Students
in Space
Chapter 5
Where Part One of the book focused on preparing today’s stu-

dents for the already-expanding space economy and increasing
opportunities for space exploration, Part Two looks further ahead,
exploring the possibility of educating students on other worlds once
settlements are established. The context is very different and full
of interesting challenges, but ultimately the underlying education
concepts laid out earlier will still be relevant.
In the early 2020’s, a number of robotic missions launched by
space agencies around the globe are currently focused on the explo-
ration of Mars, with both NASA and SpaceX making plans to land
people there to establish permanent settlements within a decade.
The question of raising and educating students can’t be too far
behind. So this section begins by considering the challenges that
might be posed by establishing the first school on Mars. This also
serves as an excellent way to open this section of the book, because
many of the obstacles involved with education on Mars can be alle-
viated (at least partially) on the Moon or in other orbital habitats.
By fully understanding the difficulties to be faced farther away, the
benefits of near-Earth locations might be better appreciated.
Undoubtedly, the distance to Mars creates the greatest
challenge. I was surprised by how many consequences the com-
munication delay alone has for a class of very remote students;
83
84 Space Education
everything from basic asynchronous communication like text mes-

sages to virtual reality would be impossible without significant local
resources. Naturally, hands-on learning materials (and opportuni-
ties) would also be rare in an early Mars community. There are some
potential solutions to help alleviate these issues, but the real relief
comes in the following chapters, when settlements closer to home
are considered in more detail. Mars is hard.
Potential Challenges of
Distance Education on Mars
Clearly, educators today need to consider how best to pre-

pare students for humanity’s rapidly approaching multi-planet future.1
But what if we look another turn farther down the road? What about
the first students to be educated in space? What challenges might face
the first school on Mars? The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted
many issues associated with a move to remote learning, and settlements
on a distant planet would face these same difficulties…and more. For
instance, on Mars, any education system would face a significant delay
in live communications with peers, experts, and other resources on
Earth. Similarly, hands-on learning of any kind would be challenging,
as would scheduling…from daily meetings to academic years. But by
considering these problems now, educators and space philosophers can
help lay a foundation for a successful education system on Mars in the
coming years.
Due to the tremendous distance between Earth and Mars, the delay
in radio communications (at the speed of light) is between 3 and 22
minutes each way as the two planets move through their respective
orbits, making the wait to receive a response in two-way communication
1
See Chapters 1 and 4.
85
86 Space Education
between 6 and 44 minutes. 2 When it comes to live communication

(via text, audio, or video), this means at best a student on Mars might
receive about 60 responses from a teacher in a six-hour school day, and
at worst, no more than eight responses in a school day. Clearly, ques-
tions during a live lesson would be impractical. For an asynchronous
model where students work independently and send a question when
necessary, this might require some patience but should be workable.
Figure 3. Distance from Earth to Mars in Astronomical Units (the average distance
from Earth to the Sun). Each AU represents approximately 8 minutes of communi-
cations delay, each way.3
However, most asynchronous online programs expect students to

read and research independently, and any kind of open-ended online
research will be similarly frustrating. When Earth and Mars are far-
thest away, a student who performs a search using Google would have
to wait 45 minutes to see the results of the search—and another 45
2
Mars One, “How Does the Mars Base Communicate with Earth?” https://www.mars-
one.com/faq/technology/how-does-the-mars-base-communicate-with-earth.
3
Image Source: https://theskylive.com/how-far-is-mars.
Chapter 5 87
minutes before seeing the first page they click on. Predictive algo-
rithms and local caching might alleviate this problem to some degree,
but any unpredictable or creative lines of inquiry would be painfully
impractical.4
Bandwidth from Earth to Mars, and local cloud computing capacity
on Mars, would also be factors, even with predictive caching. Current-
ly, the bandwidth between Earth and Mars is at most 32 Megabits per
second (Mbps),5 or about 10% the capacity of the home internet con-
nection used when composing this paper on Google Docs. Clearly this
will need to be improved by orders of magnitude before internet use on
Mars is viable, especially for media rich experiences of any kind. Infor-
mation could be cached locally (the entire wikipedia for instance is only
107.5 GB right now and could easily be stored on a single flash drive 6),
but doing this on the scale of the internet would be an ambitious and
resource heavy project, requiring a cloud infrastructure on Mars (mir-
roring the ones on Earth) for any sort of interactive or collaborative
applications, like Google Docs for instance. Currently, the Perseverance
mars rover uses Earth-based cloud computing instead.7 Luckily, there
are already efforts underway to tackle the need for local cloud comput-
ing on Mars,8 and SpaceX has already announced plans to implement
Starlink satellites on Mars, which should provide a local planetary net-
work with bandwidth of at least 300 to 1000 Mbps. 9 These efforts
could be coupled with higher-bandwidth laser-based communication
4
Mars One, “How Does the Mars Base Communicate with Earth?”
5
NASA, “Mars Curiosity Rover: Communications with Earth,” https://mars.nasa.gov/
msl/mission/communications/.
6
Wikimedia, “Wikimedia Downloads,” https://dumps.wikimedia.org/back-
up-index.html.
7
ZDNet, “Cloud Computing is Helping to Keep NASA’S
Perseverance Mars Rover on Track,” https://www.zdnet.com/article/
cloud-computing-is-helping-to-keep-nasas-perseverance-mars-rover-on-track/.
8
Takashi Iida and Yoshiaki Suzuki, “Future Needs for Communication System in the
Mars Human Community,” https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2007-3304.
9
Ry Crist, “Elon Musk: SpaceX Will Double Starlink’s Satellite
Internet Speeds in 2021,” https://www.cnet.com/news/
elon-musk-spacex-will-double-starlinks-satellite-internet-speeds-in-2021.
88 Space Education
systems between Earth and Mars,10 and may thus make a Martian inter-
net robust enough for educational needs, including local caches and
collaborative cloud computing resources. (Of course, Martian students
would still not be able to edit a document live with peers on Earth.)
Even if these technical challenges are overcome, creating meaning-
ful hands-on collaborative learning experiences for the first students on
Mars would be difficult, especially for a small initial cohort of students,
with a limited number of local peers and perhaps no local teacher. Inter-
active learning is critical for students to develop problem-solving skills
(rather than just memorizing and regurgitating information).11 It also
supports increased student engagement, and helps build the necessary
relationships and trust between students and teachers.12 But, due to the
communication delay, no face-to-face interaction with peers or experts
on Earth would be possible, even via streaming video or virtual reality
as some students were able to do, during the COVID-19 pandemic. On
the bright side, for some students an asynchronous discussion format
actually encourages more participation,13 and there are team-building
strategies that work across time zones on Earth and might be applica-
ble between planets as well.14
These silver linings do not alleviate the challenges involved with
creating a hands-on learning experience, especially when it comes
to physically making things. Ideally, a maker space is a place where
10
Radosław Bielawski and Aleksandra Radomska, “NASA Space Laser Communications
System: Towards Safety of Aerospace Operations,” Safety & Defence 6, no. 2 (2020):
51-62, https://doi.org/10.37105/sd.85.
11
See Internet Learning Journal 6, no. 1 (Spring 2017), https://www.apus.edu/academ-
ic-community/journals/dl/jolrap-06-01.pdf.
12
Rebecca Pruitt, “Constructivist Approaches Online and Face-to-Face: The Essential
Role of Trust,” Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue 19, no. 1/2 (2017): 105-27, https://
search.proquest.com/openview/583310c36eba2eb4075fad300f43c2f1/.
13
Robert M. Davison, Niki Panteli, Andrew M. Hardin, and Mark A. Fuller,
"Establishing Effective Global Virtual Student Teams," IEEE Transactions on Professional
Communication 60, no. 3 (2017): 317-29, https://doi.org/10.1109/TPC.2017.2702038.
14
Yasha Sazmand Asfaranjan, Farzad Shirzad, Fatemeh Baradari, Meysam Salimi, and
Mehrdad Salehi, “Alleviating the Senses of Isolation and Alienation in the Virtual World:
Socialization in Distance Education,” Procedia—Social and Behavioral Science 93 (2013):
332-37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.199.
Chapter 5 89
students “have an opportunity to explore their own interests; learn

to use tools and materials, both physical and virtual; and develop cre-
ative projects”15 Such spaces are shown to encourage student agency16
and develop creative competence,17 which students will surely need to
survive and thrive on Mars. But such an open-ended space with a vari-
ety of tools and materials may be prohibitively resource-intensive for
an early space settlement. While a virtual maker space might alleviate
this problem to some degree,18 the issues of time delay, bandwidth, and
local cloud computing resources would once again come into play; an
Oculus headset wouldn’t operate well when it has to wait 45 minutes
for a reply from Facebook servers, and it couldn’t connect Martian
students with peers or experts on Earth in real time any more than a
Zoom call or radio could.
Similarly, while virtual socialization can be beneficial for some
students in some ways, 19 synchronous interactions are unequivocal-
ly important to social development,20 and again wouldn’t be possible
except between the limited number of local martian students. And
when it comes to physical education, even students recognize the
15
Laura Fleming, Worlds of Making: Best Practices for Establishing a Makerspace for Your
School (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2015), 5, https://www.google.com/books/
edition/Worlds_of_Making/XtO5BgAAQBAJ?hl.
16
Anu Kajamaa and Kristiina Kumpulaine, “Agency in the Making: Analyzing Students’
Transformative Agency in a School-Based Makerspace,” Mind, Culture, and Activity 26,
no. 3 (2019): 266-81, https://doi.org/10.1080/10749039.2019.1647547.
17
José Luís Saorín, Dámari Melian-Díaz, Alejandro Bonnet, Carlos Carbonell Carrera,
Cecile Meier, and Jorge De La Torre-Cantero, “Makerspace Teaching-Learning
Environment to Enhance Creative Competence in Engineering Students,” Thinking
Skills and Creativity 23 (2017): 188-98, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.01.004.
18
Jennifer Lock, Petrea Redmond, Lindy Orwin, Alwyn Powell, Sandra Becker,
Paula Hollohan, and Carol Johnson, “Bridging Distance: Practical and Pedagogical
Implications of Virtual Makerspaces,” Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 36, no. 6
(2020): 957-68, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12452.
19
Scott Nicholson, “Socialization in the ‘Virtual Hallway’: Instant Messaging in the
Asynchronous Web-Based Distance Education Classroom,” The Internet and Higher
Education 5, no. 4 (2002): 363-72, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(02)00127-6.
20
Shelia Y. Tucker, “Promoting Socialization in Distance Education,” Turkish Online
Journal of Distance Education 13, no. 1 (2012): 174-82, https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/
tojde/issue/16899/176129.
90 Space Education
difficulties inherent in a remote learning scenario. 21 There would be

no sports on Mars, at least at first. (Space for athletic facilities or fields
would also be an issue for many sports.) That said, physical education
over a distance can be beneficial if it deemphasizes the focus on a “hero
athlete” and helps students reflect on their own health instead.22
Regardless of physical issues, scheduling would also be a new chal-
lenge. Even if students on Mars are able to interact with a teacher on
Earth up to 60 times a day asynchronously, the hours of the school
day would change for the teacher (presuming they stayed the same for
the student). Due to the slightly longer day on Mars, the start time on
Earth would shift 37 minutes each day, meaning in less than two weeks
the Martian students would be awake during the teacher’s sleep hours…
and then the start time would continue shifting until it was morning
again two weeks later. This problem might be either relieved and/or
exacerbated by having teachers in multiple time zones on Earth.23 In
any event, there would also be a question about the academic year; with
a Martian year being nearly double the length of an Earth year (687
days), would students on Mars follow Earth’s school calendar regard-
less of the time of year on Mars? Or would Martian education systems
leave K-12 behind for a system of seven grades (based on local years)
that cover the same developmental stages for students?
Perhaps more importantly, how would parent schedules work? If
students are primarily interacting with peers and teachers on Earth in
a distance learning format, how much of their parents’ time will be
required for supervision? This issue was revealed to be a struggle for
many families during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially for families
with two working parents, as all families would almost certainly be in
21
Metin Yaman, “Perceptions of Students on the Application of Distance Education in
Physical Education Lessons,” Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 8, no. 1
(2009), https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED503904.
22
Regina Celia A. Silva, Vera Lucia de F. F. e Silva, and André Pontes Silva, “Distance
Learning for Teaching in Physical Education,” Revista de Educação Física 25, no. 1 (2019),
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1980-6574201900010002.
23
Thomas Ormston, “What Time is It?” August 5, 2012, https://blogs.esa.int/
mex/2012/08/05/what-time-is-it/.
Chapter 5 91
a new Martian settlement. Parents are critical to setting expectations

for students,24 and student supervision requires a lot from parents 25—
so much so that school districts released guidelines for parent’s self
care during the pandemic.26 How compatible would this stress be with
the realities of surviving and building a settlement on a forbidding
planet? One recent model that might be useful on Mars is the for-
mation of learning “Pods” consisting of a small number of students
with a single teacher or parent supervisor. While this has been touted
as a potentially revolutionary microschooling model in the wake of
the pandemic,27 it doesn’t address the fundamental childcare problem
that traditional schools also solve. 28 At least some subset of Martian
parents would need to be on hand to supervise and assist the pod of
students. (This could happen in a co-op fashion where parents take
turns supervising, but this might not be what’s best for students who
need competent support.)
Emerging technologies also suggest solutions to some of these
problems, but there will be significant limitations even if the technical
goals are realized. Virtual reality, for instance, might be able to pro-
vide immersive learning experiences to remote students 29 (including
the sorts of virtual laboratory environments needed to raise potential
24
Anne Wahlgren, “The Most Important Way Parents Can Support
Distance Learning,” Printable Parents, https://printableparents.com/
the-most-important-way-parents-can-support-distance-learning/.
25
“Emergency Distance Learning Day Parent Checklist,” https://iusd.org/sites/default/
files/files/Ed_Services/1GeneralDocs/parent_checklist_-_edl.pdf.
26
Arizona Department of Education, “Arizona Emergency Distance Learning
Guidance, August 2020 Update,” https://www.azed.gov/sites/default/files/2020/09/
AZ-Emergency-Distance-Learning-Guidance_August-2020-Update.pdf.
27
Jason Bedrick and Matthew Ladner, “Let’s Get Small: Microschools, Pandemic Pods,
and the Future of Education in America,” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 3540,
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED609716.
28
Michael B. Horn, “The Rapid Rise of Pandemic Pods,” Education Next 21, no. 1
(2021), https://search.proquest.com/openview/c2395d6d47f7d66a9a57eed0d4efabd0/.
29
Jennifer L. Penland, Kennard Laviers, Elbert Bassham, and Victor Nnochiri, “Virtual
Learning: A Study of Virtual Reality for Distance Education,” in Handbook of Research
on Blended Learning Pedagogies and Professional Development in Higher Education, ed.
Jared Keengwe (Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2019), 156-76, https://www.igi-global.com/
chapter/virtual-learning/208354.
92 Space Education
scientists on another planet30), but ultimately any collaborators, online

resources, and cloud computing capacity would have to be provided on
the local planetary network as well. There are good reasons not to use
VR for learning here on Earth,31 and these would be multiplied on Mars.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) might also alleviate some of the issues
with VR, with the interplanetary communication delay in general,
and with the need to support local pods of students. AI could provide
intelligent tutoring systems,32 as well as serve a number of other needs,
including intelligent laboratory systems, intelligent library resources,
and intelligent questioning (or testing/assessment) systems. 33 Of course,
an AI that is able to replicate or replace a human educator may still
remain a fantastic concept for many years, if it is ever possible in a way
that wouldn’t detract from healthy human development.
Quantum communication might be held up as a possibility for
improving the bandwidth between Earth and Mars, if not potentially
eliminating the lightspeed dependent delay. Quantum communication
is mostly used for encryption purposes today,34 but might also increase
the efficiency of communication in deep space.35 In fact, communica-
30
M. T. Valdez, C. M. Ferreira, and F. P. Maciel Barbosa, “Distance Education Using a
Desktop Virtual Reality (VR) System," in 2013 24th EAEEIE Annual Conference, ed.
Giorgos M. Papadourakis (Heraklion, Greece: Technological Educational Institute of
Crete, 2013), 145-50, https://doi.org/10.1109/EAEEIE.2013.6576518.
31
Veronica S. Pantelidis, “Reasons to Use Virtual Reality in Education and Training
Courses and a Model to Determine When to Use Virtual Reality,” Themes in Science and
Technology Education 2 no. 1-2 (2009): 59-70, https://www.timtechconsults.com/imag-
es/ttcvreducation%20.pdf.
32
F. A. Dorca, C. R. Lopes, and M. A. Fernandes, “A Multiagent Architecture for
Distance Education Systems,” in Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE International Conference
on Advanced Technologies (New York: IEEE, 2003), 368-69, https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/
abstract/document/1215127.
33
Utku Kose, Artificial Intelligence Applications in Distance Education
(Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2014), https://www.google.com/books/edition/
Artificial_Intelligence_Applications_in/6KN_BAAAQBAJ.
34
Picoquant, “Quantum Communication,” https://www.picoquant.com/applications/
category/quantum-optics/quantum-communication.
35
Markus Aspelmeyer, Thomas Jennewein, and Anton Zeilinger, “Long-Distance
Quantum Communication with Entangled Photons using Satellites,” https://www.arx-
iv-vanity.com/papers/quant-ph/0305105/.
Chapter 5 93
tion networks on Mars (and between planets) may look very much
like the CubeSat Quantum Communications Mission (CQuCoM)
of today. 36 But, because of the need for laser (or radio) to transmit
the information necessary to compare states of entangled qubits, even
quantum communication (as it is understood today) will not be able to
overcome the transmission delay due to the speed of light.37 That said,
these avenues of research may turn up surprising new opportunities,
and questioning physical limits can be a powerful tool for scientific
progress; scientists should “never say never.”38
Meanwhile, it seems the first education system setup on Mars will
require a great deal of planning ahead, acceptance of asynchronous
communication methods, and (most of all) significant reservoirs of
patience. But, this is no more than was required of pioneers and settlers
in earlier periods of human history, when messages might take months
to cross an ocean by boat.
So while the delay in communication, the difficulty in providing
collaborative hands-on learning experiences, and the issues related to
scheduling (not to mention the related technical challenges) might be
significant, these are all factors that can be addressed with planning.
Local infrastructure, best practices for asynchronous learning coupled
with the best of microschooling pods, and judicious use of emerging
technologies (like VR, AI, and whatever quantum communication may
offer in the coming years) can all help to alleviate the challenges of
establishing the first education system on Mars, even for very small
numbers of students in the earliest settlements. Once again, planning,
36
Daniel K. L. Oi, Alex Ling, Giuseppe Vallone, Paolo Villoresi, Steve Greenland, Emma
Kerr, Malcolm Macdonald, Harald Weinfurter, Hans Kuiper, Edoardo Charbon, and
Rupert Ursin, “CubeSat Quantum Communications Mission,” EPJ Quantum Technology
4, no. 6 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1140/epjqt/s40507-017-0060-1.
37
Chad Orzel, “The Real Reasons Quantum Entanglement
Doesn't Allow Faster-Than-Light Communication,” Forbes, May
4, 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/chadorzel/2016/05/04/
the-real-reasons-quantum-entanglement-doesnt-allow-faster-than-light-communication/.
38
Kruti Shrotri, “Superluminal Communication: We’re Talking
Faster than Light,” I, Science, http://isciencemag.co.uk/features/
superluminal-communication-were-talking-faster-than-light/.
94 Space Education
patience, and creative problem-solving will open up new possibilities

in human history.
Chapter 6
This chapter builds on a series of three papers focused on a

hypothetical first school on the Moon. At professor John Mankins’
suggestion, I focused on exploring designs to serve a settlement
planned by the Moon Village Association at the South Pole of the
Moon near Shackleton crater. This made the whole approach con-
crete, with a clear location and specific demographic in mind.
Because most of the technical challenges are not as much of
an obstacle as they would be on Mars, there was room in this paper
to begin considering additional elements particular to the Moon,
including inspiring learning spaces, new possibilities for physical
education, and field trips in the lunar environment…or cis-lunar
space. Each of these topics is revisited in more detail in the chap-
ters that follow.
There is also some thought given to issues such as the academ-
ic calendar and student supervision in a small community, but it is
worth noting that no thought is given to providing for younger chil-
dren who are not yet of school age. As ambitious as these papers
are, early day care is beyond the chosen scope of focusing on K12
students. Someday though, co-ops and preschools will need to be
considered as well if the Moon Village is to be a truly multi-gener-
ational settlement where a child can be raised from birth. I defer,
however, to experts in that field, and hope that this collection might
inspire similar work from them.
95
The Moon Village School:
Potential Challenges
and Consequences
INTRODUCTION
Clearly, educators today need to consider how best to prepare

students for humanity’s rapidly approaching multi-planet future.39
It is also clear that many challenges will need to be overcome in
order to provide a similarly effective education to students once
humans have actually settled another planet, such as Mars, for
example. 40 However, these challenges are largely reduced if the
school is closer to home, and it seems likely that humans will
establish a settlement on the Moon first.
In fact, the Moon Village Association (MVA) is currently pre-
paring concrete plans for a settlement near Shackleton Crater at
the Moon’s South Pole, where solar power is available all-day year-
round, temperatures are relatively stable, and water ice is readily
available for mining.41 The Moon Village is meant to support 125
settlers, including approximately 25 school-age children. To meet
the needs of this population, plans are being made for a Moon
39
40
See Chapter 5.
41
Moon Village Association, “Welcome to the MVA,” https://moonvillageasso-
ciation.org/.
97
98 Space Education
Village School; thus, the following research question becomes

more tangible and takes on a greater sense of urgency.
How might we educate the first students living on the Moon?
This simple question reveals a number of challenges and conse-
quences that must be addressed prior to any multigenerational
settlement of the Moon. Technical considerations include net-
work latency due to the distance from Earth, local bandwidth
(and cloud computing resources), and the necessary capacity for
students to benefit from educational technologies such as virtual
reality or artificial intelligence. Other issues include scheduling
challenges (especially student supervision in such a small commu-
nity), the need for appropriate learning spaces (consider physical
education for instance), and other environmental factors, both
positive and negative.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Network latency is a measure of the time it takes data to make a round

trip between two points in a computer network. As this article was
written, the network latency at the author’s desk was tested using a
web-based service and clocked in at 26.4 milliseconds (ms). This is
considered optimal for most purposes (even high-end gaming), and
anything under about 100ms is considered acceptable for ordinary
use. 42 Synchronous communications begin to break down at laten-
cies of about 250ms and higher, especially for video or virtual spaces. 43
Unfortunately, the latency between the Earth and Moon will always
be more than 10 times this amount (and 100 times an optimal amount
at the author’s desk); the average delay in communications between
the Earth and Moon is over 2.5 seconds, or 2500ms due to the tre-
mendous distance involved, and the upper speed limit of light (and
42
Screenbeam, “How to Reduce Latency or Lag in Gaming,” https://www.screenbeam.
com/wifihelp/wifibooster/how-to-reduce-latency-or-lag-in-gaming-2/.
43
Twilio, “Latency,” https://www.twilio.com/docs/glossary/what-is-latency.
Chapter 6 99
all electromagnetic communication, such as radio or wireless Internet

access).44 That said, with a two and a half second delay between respons-
es, synchronous communication via video, audio, and text would be
possible, and wouldn’t be nearly as frustrating as they might be on Mars
(where the delay is between 6 and 45 minutes). The delay between the
Earth and Moon would, however, mean that audio and video conver-
sations would require some norms to ensure that participants don’t
speak over each other or otherwise become frustrated with the delay
between responses. Due to the time necessary to type even under nor-
mal conditions, live text messaging would be more or less unchanged.
So, it would be no problem for students on the moon to partici-
pate in synchronous learning opportunities with peers, experts, and
educators back on Earth. It would also be possible, with some delay,
to collaborate using Earth-based cloud resources such as Google Docs
that allow simultaneous editing… changes would not be seen instantly
as it seems with a good connection on Earth, but within a few seconds,
which is certainly acceptable for academic purposes. The delay would
also minimally impact online research, as a wait of a few seconds for
search results or opening new documents (or buffering a video) is not
at all crippling in a classroom situation.
However, depending on the state of the network infrastructure
on the Moon, Bandwidth may be an issue. Currently, the bandwidth
available at the author’s desk is approximately 30 megabits per sec-
ond (Mbps) for uploads and nearly 300 Mbps for downloads. This
sort of bandwidth has never yet been available on the Moon, but in
2014 researchers using a laser-based system “transmitted data from the
Earth to the moon at 19.44 megabits per second, a factor of 4,800
times faster than the best [radio frequency] uplink ever used.”45 Then
in 2020, NASA selected Nokia to provide a 4G network on the Moon
44
Wikipedia, “Earth–Moon–Earth Communication,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Earth%E2%80%93Moon%E2%80%93Earth_communication.
45
Colin Schultz, “You Can Now Get High-Speed Internet on the Moon,” Smithsonian
Magazine, May 30, 2014, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/
you-can-now-get-high-speed-internet-moon-180951614/.
100 Space Education
in preparation for the upcoming Artemis missions; this would provide

local bandwidth of approximately 20 Mbps, and Nokia announced
they would pursue a 5G network, which would provide local rates of
over 100 Mbps.46 SpaceX has also announced plans to deploy Starlink
satellites around the Moon. Currently, Starlink is expected to offer 300
Mbps by the end of 2020, with plans for a 1000 Mbps network in the
near future47—so that level of bandwidth might be expected in Lunar
space by the time the Moon Village School is established. If this is the
case, the bandwidth should be sufficient for most expected academic
uses, depending on the level of shared bandwidth back to Earth.
Currently, cloud computing for space exploration actually happens
back on Earth, with even the Perseverance rover on Mars sending data
back to Earth for processing. 48 If local resources are required on the
Moon (for caching of websites, videos, and other data… or for more
responsive collaborative applications like Google Docs), then data
centers could be established on or around the Moon relatively easily.
Microsoft already produces self-contained Azure data centers for use
in remote environments on Earth,49 and it is not difficult to imagine a
version that might be shipped to the Moon aboard a SpaceX Starship.
Amazon and others are developing LEO-based cloud infrastructure,50
and like Starlink, similar constellations of satellites might also be
implemented in lunar orbit. So, it seems likely that if necessary, local
cloud computing resources could be provided for the Moon Village
46
Nicolás Rivero, “The Moon is Getting 4G Internet Before 4 Billion
Earthlings,” Quartz, October 19, 2020, https://qz.com/1919694/
the-moon-is-getting-4g-internet-before-4-billion-earthlings/.
47
Crist, “Elon Musk.”
48
IEEE, “Why We’re Using Cloud Computing for Space Exploration,”
IEEE Transmitter, June 23, 2021, https://transmitter.ieee.org/
why-were-using-cloud-computing-for-space-exploration/.
49
Tom Keane, “Azure Space—Cloud-Powered Innovation on and off
the Planet,” Microsoft, https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2020/10/20/
azure-space-cloud-powered-innovation-on-and-off-the-planet/.
50
Alan Boyle, “Amazon Web Services is Creating its Very Own Space Force for
Cloud Computing,” GeekWire, June 30, 2020, https://www.geekwire.com/2020/
amazon-web-services-creates-space-force-cloud-computing/.
Chapter 6 101
settlement, and shared with the school as necessary.

These local cloud computing resources might be important if virtual
reality (VR) is to be a viable learning opportunity on the Moon. From
an instructional perspective, it may be valuable to give students at least
a virtual experience with the environments and biomes on Earth, for
example. However, VR headsets won’t respond well when the necessary
server resources are 2500ms away. Generally, latency should be 50ms
or less (and ideally 20ms or less) for virtual reality, otherwise disori-
entation or motion sickness may occur.51 With a delay more than 100
times the ideal, the effect on the Moon would more likely be comical
or unusable, with objects and landscapes adjusting several seconds after
a student turns their head. The result would hardly be immersive. But
local cloud resources on the Moon may be used to support classroom
headsets if needed.
Similarly, if artificial intelligence (AI) is going to be used in educa-
tion, local cloud resources might be necessary… not just to alleviate user
frustration, but also because latency should ideally be under 200ms for
AI models to accurately represent the world. 52 Still, for instructional
purposes, a two and a half second delay would probably be acceptable,
especially with predictive algorithms and filler words to offer both a
sense of natural speech and time for answers to arrive. If not, then local
cloud resources should not be an insurmountable obstacle (as discussed
above). So plans for the Moon Village School might reasonably include
both VR and AI to provide students rich experiences in a remote envi-
ronment if local cloud computing resources are available.
51
Jan-Philipp Stauffert, Florian Niebling, and Marc Erich Latoschik, “Latency and
Cybersickness: Impact, Causes, and Measures. A Review,” Frontiers in Virtual Reality,
November 26, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2020.582204.
52
Google, “Minimizing Real-Time Prediction Serving Latency in Machine Learning,”
Google Cloud Architecture Center, https://cloud.google.com/architecture/
minimizing-predictive-serving-latency-in-machine-learning.
102 Space Education
OTHER ISSUES
The Moon Village School will face some scheduling challenges, though
these are not so daunting as they might be on Mars. A single lunar day
is so long as to be more or less irrelevant, particularly at a location like
Shackleton Crater. Because the Moon is tidal locked to the Earth, a
lunar day (at the Moon’s equator) is just over 29 and a half Earth days
long (the same as a lunar month on Earth), with approximately two
weeks of sunlight and two weeks of darkness. 53 Shackleton Crater is
located at the South Pole of the Moon, where there would be sunlight
all year long (at least on the peaks of the crater rim and many of the
regions where communities are planned). As with elsewhere on the
Moon, human settlers will therefore likely keep an Earth-like schedule
with 24 hour days… and will likely choose a specific Earth time zone
to synchronize with. Perhaps UTC will be observed, especially since it
is only a couple of hours different from CET where the Moon Village
Association is based in Austria and is already a recognized standard.
That said, contributors to the Moon Village Association live all around
the globe today, and the same may be true for the Earth-based peers and
experts with who students want to communi in the course of their edu-
cation.Thus, some consideration for scheduling across time zones will
likely still be necessary, but no more so than for a school with a global
cohort of students or educators on Earth. Naturally, the lunar year is
the same as an Earth year, so the academic calendar could be the same,
though it too would likely be synchronized to a particular region of
the Earth—probably the Northern Hemisphere like many international
schools do, even those in the Southern Hemisphere, today.
Another scheduling challenge that may be an issue is student
supervision. In a small settlement like the Moon Village Association
is planning at Shackleton Crater (with only around 100 adults and
25 children), at least one adult would likely need to be a professional
educator. In this case, the Moon Village School would operate in many
ways like a one-room schoolhouse, with the one teacher overseeing
53
Wikipedia, “Lunar Day,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_day.
Chapter 6 103
children of all ages, which is certainly a challenge in itself, even if it is

not without precedence. It might be more effective to have at least two
professional educators, though, one credentialed for primary educa-
tion and one for secondary education. Ideally, there would be multiple
secondary teachers (for the four core subjects, at least: language arts,
social studies, math, and science), but perhaps in a space settlement one
highly qualified teacher could hold multiple credentials and manage
the school as a single individual. To supplement the teacher, parents
might also fill in to help facilitate small group activities or to mentor
individual students (and all parents would need to at least support their
own children regardless). If there were no professional teacher, this
co-op approach would be required even during the school day, perhaps
following the model of microschools or “pods” of homeschooled stu-
dents on Earth. 54 In any case, this would of course be a challenge for
Moon Village parents, who would likely be busy with their own work
as a member of such a small settlement in very challenging conditions.
Even during the COVID-19 pandemic on Earth, parents found it dif-
ficult to juggle their work with supervising students’ remote learning…
and parents on the Moon would face the same challenge in even more
trying circumstances.
Providing appropriate learning spaces for students will also require
significant resources on the Moon. Especially for a one-room school-
house, the learning space has to be more than just a classroom. It has to
support traditional academic pursuits, and also more creative hands-on
experiences, from art in different media to making of all kinds, includ-
ing a wide range of materials, such as construction paper, shop tools,
and 3D printers. For students to practice the skills and mindsets needed
to generate innovative solutions to unforeseen problems (a necessary
development in a small lunar settlement), the learning space has to
be a maker space as well. This space cannot just be a 30-foot by 30=-
foot underground room with stone or metal walls; it must be more
Gina Adams with Margaret Todd, “Meeting the School-Age Child Care Needs of
54
Working Parents Facing COVID-19 Distance Learning: Policy Options to Consider,”

Urban Institute, 2020, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED610005.pdf.
104 Space Education
creatively designed.55 An “inspiring space” should be comfortable, beau-

tiful, and flexible—and should reflect the culture of learning desired
for the school. 56 Pressurized space (and building materials) may be at
a premium on the Moon, but it is at least easy to imagine a large area
with high ceilings, movable furniture, and nooks for various learning
centers, all brightly colored and lit by redirected natural sunlight.
In addition to the classroom and maker space needs, students will
require space for exercise and physical education. While there may be
a gym or exercise equipment that older students can share with adults,
there should also be space for play (consider a playground for young-
er children) and for sports (especially for older students). Clearly, an
indoor playground would take up considerable pressurized space, and
for sports to be possible, either a large enough area would need to be
established for an underground field (or pool), or else some form of
safe outdoor sport would need to be established. Apollo 14 astronauts
played golf on the Moon (more accurately, Alan Shepard hit a couple
of golf balls with a makeshift club),57 and Moon surfing (think surfing
or snowboarding, but on lunar regolith)58 could be spectacular given
the slopes in and around Shackleton Crater. Of course, safety would
be a significant concern for these or any other outdoor sports, even
something as simple as cross-country running (of course, you really
can’t run on the Moon), when a fall could mean a torn space suit and
even accident-free excursions would mean additional radiation expo-
sure for the children.
Other effects of the lunar environment might also affect students’
learning experiences. For instance, the lower gravity could have a variety
55
Rebecca Louise Hare and Robert Dillon, The Space: A Guide for Educators, 2nd ed.
(Salem, OR: Blend Education, 2016).
56
Mark Wagner, More Now: A Message from the Future for the Educators of Today
(Irvine, CA: EdTechTeam Press, 2018).
57
Bradley Blackburn, “The Conversation: Golfing on the Moon,” ABC News,
February 3, 2011, https://abcnews.go.com/US/40th-anniverary-golf-shot-moon/
story?id=12834145.
58
Christian Schnellmann, Moon Surfing (Video Game), Google Play, https://play.goo-
gle.com/store/apps/details?id=com.schnellmann.moonsurfing.
Chapter 6 105
of effects that impact learning, from frequent stuffiness and headaches59

to more serious physical issues such as trouble walking or even imper-
fect development of the throat mechanisms for children born on the
Moon. In low gravity, students may also suffer from reduced muscle
or bone density (which would impact sports as well), compromised
immune systems, and long-term cardiovascular problems. 60 It is also
not well understood what the effects of life separated from a biosphere
might have on a developing human body; for instance, would the gut
biome need to be tended to in order to develop normally and not det-
rimentally affect the brain and nervous system? 61 At the very least
health education specifically for the lunar environment should be an
important part of the curriculum at the Moon Village School. Natu-
rally, students would also need to learn all about protecting themselves
from the dangers of radiation and the vacuum of space on the lunar
surface, and all about operation and emergency troubleshooting of life
support systems.
If safety considerations are addressed, the settlement location
identified by the Moon Village Association would offer spectacular
opportunities for field trips, from the rim and depths of Shackleton and
neighboring craters, to nearby peaks that are among the tallest on the
Moon. The constant view of the Earth over the horizon at the South
Pole would also be ideal for teaching about the Overview Effect and
humanity’s role in the solar system.62 63 Also, with the low lunar grav-
ity and relative ease of achieving orbit, perhaps plans could be made
for students to go into orbit at least once in their school years, in order
59
European Space Agency, “Gravity and Weightlessness,” February 10,
2011, https://www.esa.int/kids/en/learn/Life_in_Space/Living_in_space/
Gravity_and_weightlessness.
60
Robin Marks, “Traveling to Mars Will Wreak Havoc on Our Bodies—Can
We Prevent It?” July 21, 2017, https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2017/07/407806/
traveling-mars-will-wreak-havoc-our-bodies.
61
Cassandra Willyard, “How Gut Microbes Could Drive Brain Disorders,” Nature,
February 8, 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00260-3.
62
Frank White, The Cosma Hypothesis: Implications of the Overview Effect (Denver:
63
Multiverse, 2018).
106 Space Education
to experience an overview of their own world (the Moon) and of the

entire Earth-Moon system traveling through space. They could even
visit the Gateway station for a better understanding of their world’s
supply chain. Given the relative ease of changing orbits once in space,
an overnight trip might be planned to visit other stations or habitats
in cis lunar space (including something like an O’Neill cylinder at a
lagrange point if humanity were ever to build one).64
CONCLUSION
The technical challenges of educating the first students on the Moon

are not nearly so daunting as what may be faced later on other planets
such as Mars. The minimal delay in communications with the Earth
means that synchronous learning opportunities would be available,
including real-time text, audio, and video communications. Similar-
ly, local bandwidth should be sufficient for most academic uses, and
it would not be an insurmountable challenge to establish local cloud
computing resources on the Moon. This would mean that educational
technologies requiring virtual reality and artificial intelligence could
be options as well.
Other issues need to be part of our planning, but would not be
insurmountable. Though there would be scheduling challenges, partic-
ularly with student supervision in such a small community, the school
could adopt an Earth time zone such as UTC and a traditional academ-
ic calendar could be followed. Also, though safety would be a significant
concern in constructing learning spaces and planning student activities,
it is easy to imagine inspiring spaces (and spectacular field trips) on the
Moon. With these considerations in mind, the Moon Village School
might follow a format similar to top-tier International Schools around
the globe, with well-established academic programs, cutting-edge tech-
nology, and the best of modern learning spaces.
That being the case, this inquiry does suggest a number of areas for
64
O’Neill, The High Frontier.
Chapter 6 107
additional research so that the designs for a Moon Village School might
be even more concrete and better articulated:
1. What specific educational technologies (such VR headsets or tab-

lets that serve as an AI-driven primer65) might be provided for
students of the Moon Village School, and what additional infra-
structure would be required?
2. What curriculum might be adopted? How might it meet the

needs for a foundation in traditional subjects while also providing
students with experience navigating open-ended problem-solving
of the sort necessary for frontier living?
3. What professional background and professional development

would be required for the teacher(s) of the Moon Village School?
And how might experts on Earth provide supplemental skill sets?
4. If the Moon Village School provides a primary and secondary

education experience, how might it matriculate with pre-school
experiences on the Moon and post-secondary experiences on
Earth (or elsewhere)?
It is the author’s hope that this chapter and the further research
that follows might serve as a model for the actual Moon Village School,
and for future interplanetary or space-based education institutions of
other kinds.
65
Neal Stephenson, The Diamond Age: Or, a Young Lady's Illustrated Primer (New
York: Bantam Spectra, 1995).
Chapter 7
This chapter picks up right where the previous chapter left off,
digging into the Moon Village School at another level of detail.
The chapter is organized into three parts: addressing the physical
spaces, the learning experiences, and a handful of other design con-
siderations.
The consequences of the low gravity were surprising to me, in
a way that was similar to my experience thinking through the com-
munication delay on Mars. It wound up being fun to dream up an
inspiring space that took advantage of the situation rather than
seeing it as a limitation. A school on the moon might require high
ceilings, but it could also have a fireman’s pole instead of stairs. It
might also not be able to have direct sunlight due to the radiation,
but it could have windows looking out over a massive crater.
When it came to considering the curriculum and education
programs implemented in the space, the papers from part one of
this book (not to mention my doctoral dissertation in education
technology) very much influenced the vision for how the Moon
Village School might work. You’ll also recognize concepts like mul-
tidisciplinary studies (featuring classical philosophy of course),
and a collaborative constructivist approach to learning. And you’ll
see the Japanese concept of hansei expanded to include a very
Japanese approach to student participation in maintenance and
custodial duties.
109
110 Space Education
This is also the first paper in the collection to address the need
for teacher professional development in order to effectively deliv-
er such a program—especially in such a challenging context. This
theme is revisited in part three of the book.
Physical Plant,
Curriculum, and Other
Design Considerations
INTRODUCTION
Previous research has presented novel approaches to K12 edu-

cation that are appropriate to prepare students for humanity’s
multi-planet future. 66 The possibility of then applying these
approaches to educate students on other planets, or other space
habitats has also been explored.67 In particular, the potential chal-
lenges and consequences of establishing a Moon Village School
for 25 students as part of a small community at Shackleton Cra-
ter near the lunar South Pole have also been articulated.68 In light
of these potential challenges, additional consideration should be
given to design of the physical plant, the curriculum, and other
needs associated with the regular operation of a school. The
66
See Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 4.
67
See Chapter 5.
68
See Chapter 5.
111
112 Space Education
following discussion is a first effort at exploring these topics and

might serve as a foundation for further research and design in
more detail. At this stage of development, budget is not a specif-
ic consideration, though it is assumed that in the context of the
Moon Village, the budget will be sufficient for a well-equipped
school—but necessarily limited by the expense of building in the
lunar environment.
PHYSICAL PLANT AND TECHNOLOGY
The physical design of a school has a significant impact on learning. A

focus on cognitive knowledge should not disregard the bodily experi-
ence of the learner,69 and just because the Moon Village students will be
among the first settlers in a forbidding environment, their learning spac-
es should not look like the inside of the International Space Station—or
like a radiation shelter. Rather, the learning spaces should reflect the
culture desired for the school. 70 Effective learning spaces encourage
movement, provide natural lighting, and offer beautiful views.71 Ideally,
“inspiring spaces” are comfortable and flexible environments that invite
students to learn by engaging their curiosity, wonder, and natural phys-
ical energy.72 With this in mind, design considerations fall into three
broad categories: the building (including furniture and finishings), the
network infrastructure, and the individual educational technologies
used by the students and teachers. (Note that virtual learning spaces
will also need to meet these aspirations.)
For the purposes of this discussion, a single three-story learning
space will be developed to meet most needs of the 25 students expected
69
Sarah Gilloran, “Consciousness of Design: Transforming the Academic Environment”
(Master’s thesis, University of Maryland, 2018), https://drum.lib.umd.edu/
handle/1903/21229.
70
Wagner, More Now.
71
C. Kenneth Tanner, “Effects of School Design on Student Outcomes,”
Journal of Educational Administration 47, no. 3 (2009): 381-99. https://doi.
org/10.1108/09578230910955809.
72
Wagner, More Now, 95.
Chapter 7 113
in the school. Though their education will undoubtedly spill outside

of this area, those elements will remain beyond the scope of this paper.
This hypothetical space is a cube of 15 meters per side. A traditional
classroom is 10 meters square, but this is often a cramped arrangement,
with students spending most of their time seated in rows. With 15
meters squared, more than doubling the area of each floor, there will
be room for considerably more flexibility, which will be necessary for
the multi-age demographic and the variety of active learning experi-
ences planned for the school. Also, because gravity on the Moon is
only 17 percent of gravity on Earth, ceilings are set much higher than
they would be traditionally… with five meters allocated per story. The
average adult or high school student will be able to jump approximate-
ly three meters high on the Moon,73 and would likely grow to be taller
(at least two meters), so five meters might be an appropriate minimum
height. Thus, the planned space is 15 meters cubed, with three floors
of 15 by 15 meters each.
In keeping with the whimsical designs of effective collaborative
workspaces today, perhaps the three levels could be accessible via a
spiral staircase; due to the low gravity environment, the stairs could
be large enough to sit on, thus doubling as gathering stairs or learn-
ing stairs,74 and a central fireman’s pole or slide could be included for
descending in a way that would be fun and safe on the Moon.75 If the
school is built into the side of a crater facing away from the sun (and/
or beneath a protective overhang) each level could have windows to
the outside allowing both stunning views and indirect sunlight, and the
bottom floor could include an airlock for outdoor activities. The three
73
Dave Mosher, “Here’s How High You Could Jump on Other
Worlds in the Solar System,” https://www.sciencealert.com/
here-s-how-high-you-could-jump-on-other-worlds-in-the-solar-system.
74
Adele Willson and Peter Winebrenner, “Learning Stairs: The Heart of the
Student-Centered Space,” https://www.hcm2.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/
WP-Learning-Stairs.pdf.
75
John Koetsier, “This Google Office Has a Real Fireman’s Pole, Slide, Cattle
Walkway, and More (Gallery),” https://venturebeat.com/2013/05/08/
this-google-office-has-a-real-firemans-pole-slide-cattle-walkway-and-more-gallery/.
114 Space Education
stories would be broadly organized to provide a library or study space

on the top floor, a flexible classroom space on the middle floor, and a
well-equipped makerspace on the bottom floor.
The library level will include areas near the windows with soft seat-
ing appropriate for studying or for story time,76 and private rooms on
the opposite side of the space where small groups can meet without
being disturbed or disturbing others. 77 Dividers, furniture, and deco-
rations on this level will be chosen to reduce sound pollution 78 and to
support students’ science education.79
The classroom level will be a more open and even more flexible space
in order to support a variety of activities. 80 Such open arrangements
lead to improved student perceptions of teaching and learning, espe-
cially when coupled with 1:1 technology access.81 Similarly, flexible and
easily movable furniture will be selected to support student autonomy
and satisfaction,82 as well as collaboration and concentration levels. 83
76
“When Designing a Modern School Library, Here Are Some Ideas to Inspire You,”
Learning Spaces, School Specialty, November 25, 2019, https://blog.schoolspecialty.
com/when-designing-a-modern-school-library-here-are-some-ideas-to-inspire-you/.
77
American Library Association, “Meeting Rooms, Exhibit Spaces, and Programs,”
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/spaces.
78
Brad Grimes, “Nowhere to Meet? How Google and Others Are Changing How
Workers Collaborate,” Work Design Magazine, https://www.workdesign.com/2020/03/
how-google-and-others-are-changing-collaborative-technology/.
79
Barbara Schultz-Jones and Cynthia Ledbetter, “School Libraries as Learning
Environments: Examining Elementary School Students’ Perceptions,” https://doi.
org/10.29173/iasl7673.
80
Melissa L. Rands and Ann M. Gansemer-Topf, “The Room Itself Is Active: How
Classroom Design Impacts Student Engagement,” Journal of Learning Spaces 6, no. 1
(2017): 26-33, https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/edu_pubs/49/.
81
Wesley Imms and Terry Byers, “Impact of Classroom Design on Teacher Pedagogy
and Student Engagement and Performance in Mathematics,” Learning Environments
Research 20, no. 1 (2017): 139-52, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-016-9210-0.
82
Shanna L. Attai, Jorge C. Reyes, John L. Davis, Judy York, Kerri Ranney, and Truell
W. Hyde, “Investigating the Impact of Flexible Furniture in the Elementary Classroom,”
Learning Environments Research 24 (2021): 153–67, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10984-020-09322-1.
83
Louise Starkey, Victoria Leggett, Craig Anslow, and Aniebietabasi Ackley, “The
Use of Furniture in a Student-Centred Primary School Learning Environment,” New
Zealand Journal of Educational Studies 56, (2021): 61–79, https://doi.org/10.1007/
Chapter 7 115
Ideally, we would plan for decoration to be colorful and playful.84 There

will be multiple focal points for projection in the classroom, for when
a teacher, guest, or student presenter requires the attention of a group;
and multiple projections could be used at once by small groups. For
larger groups, the room will also include a sound system for one-to-
many instruction (and auditory ambiance).85
We can imagine that the makerspace level would include a variety
of workstations, large tables, and storage areas, plus a staging area near
the airlock, which could be used for preparing robots, drones, or other
creations for use in the outside environment. In addition to construc-
tion tools and modern 3D printers, the space will be well supplied
with building materials (and plans for regular resupply from elsewhere
on the Moon or from Earth will be in place). 86 Design-based activi-
ties will dominate in this space, in order to support development of
STEM skills, multimodal literacies, and students’ identities as pioneers,
even among the youngest students.87 Furthermore, the space will not
be arranged at all for focusing on a teacher, instead providing an envi-
ronment focused on distributing power for student agency.88
s40841-020-00187-9.
84
“Four Things That Make Google’s Offices So Googly,” Office Snapshots, https://offic-
esnapshots.com/articles/what-makes-googles-offices-so-googly/.
85
Suzanne Carrington, Beth Saggers, Keely Harper-Hill, and Michael Whelan,
Supporting Students on the Autism Spectrum in Inclusive Schools: A Practical Guide
to Implementing Evidence-Based Approaches (New York: Routledge, 2021), https://
www.google.com/books/edition/Supporting_Students_on_the_Autism_Spectr/
CxgoEAAAQBAJ.
86
Anna Keune and Kylie Peppler, “Materials-to-Develop-with: The Making of a
Makerspace,” British Journal of Educational Technology 50, no. 1 (2019): 280-93, https://
doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12702.
87
Alyse C. Hachey, Song A. An, and Diane E. Golding, “Nurturing Kindergarteners’
Early STEM Academic Identity Through Makerspace Pedagogy,” Early Childhood
Education Journal (2021), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01154-9.
88
Jill Bradley-Levine and Gina Mosier, “Examination of the New Tech Model as a
Holistic Democracy,” Democracy & Education 25, no. 1 (2017): 1-13, https://www.
researchgate.net/profile/Jill-Bradley-Levine/publication/342746699_Examination_of_
the_New_Tech_Model_as_a_Holistic_Democracy/links/5f0485f9299bf1881607fc6c/
Examination-of-the-New-Tech-Model-as-a-Holistic-Democracy.pdf; Shannon Mersand,
“The State of Makerspace Research: A Review of the Literature,” TechTrends 65 (2021):
174–86, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-020-00566-5.
116 Space Education
Outside of these three levels, separate spaces might provide a play-

ground for younger students, and for older students a gym or indoor
field, which they might share with adults. Similarly, a cafeteria or kitch-
en and dining room would be separate from this space, and might also
be shared with adults in the settlement. These areas are beyond the
scope of this book. However, the network infrastructure and education-
al technologies in use within this space are addressed in this discussion.
Though there is no way around the 2500ms delay in communica-
tion between users on the Moon and computing resources on Earth,89
it is reasonable to assume that the Moon Village School will have a
network bandwidth of at least 20 Mbps and perhaps as high as 1000
Mbps, at least locally. Lasers have already been proven to deliver 20
Mbps data transfer rates between the Earth and Moon, 90 and NASA
has contracted with Nokia to provide similar bandwidth for a lunar
network. 91 SpaceX has also announced plans to deploy Starlink satel-
lites around the Moon, likely with a bandwidth of 1000 Mbps.92 The
school could provide local WiFi connected to this infrastructure, but
if student devices (and others in the Moon Village) were compatible
with the cellular and/or satellite connections, then local WiFi might
not even be necessary. Also, while the 2500ms delay would not be dis-
ruptive for synchronous learning activities, it might be troublesome
for interacting with Virtual Reality or Artificial Intelligence. Still, local
cloud computing resources (such as Amazon Web Services satellites or
a Microsoft Azure bunker, for instance) could easily be established for
use by the Moon Village, including the school.93
Naturally, the Moon Village School will employ a number of net-
worked computing devices for each student. We envision that each
student will have a small portable phone or handheld computer, a 2-in-
1 or convertible device that can function as a tablet or laptop, and a
89
Wikipedia, “Earth–Moon–Earth Communication.”
90
Schultz, “You Can Now Get High-Speed Internet.”
91
Rivero, “The Moon is Getting 4G Internet.”
92
Crist, “Elon Musk: SpaceX Will Double.”
93
Keane, “Azure Space—Cloud-Powered Innovation.”
Chapter 7 117
Virtual Reality headset. For several years, smartphones have already

been replacing personal computers as students’ devices of choice.94 This
is a trend seen around the world in many fields, and Google now devel-
ops applications with a “mobile first” philosophy.95 Naturally, there are
many specialized apps available only on mobile phones, and the phone
can operate as a bluetooth hub for any number of other personal devic-
es (such as headphones, smartwatches, augmented reality goggles, and
other wearables, which might likely include health monitoring devices
for residents of the Moon Village). The phone might also provide the
“hotspot” for other student devices, such as their laptop or VR headset.
These other devices would still be necessary in order for students
to have access to additional functionality. Laptops are associated with
higher student engagement, 96 and are already a given in primary and
secondary schools today (at least in affluent schools), especially fol-
lowing the COVID-19 pandemic and “emergency distance learning.”
They’re much better suited to written communication and composition
than a phone, and larger screen sizes significantly improve productivi-
ty.97 (For this reason, there should also be workstations on each level of
the school with even larger monitors students can use.) A convertible
laptop form factor would also allow students to take advantage of tablet
applications, especially those allowing more analog activities, such as
drawing. This might be especially important for younger learners, but
has also been shown to be useful for science education at the primary,
94
Fuxin (Andrew) Yu, “Mobile/Smart Phone Use in Higher Education,” http://www.
swdsi.org/swdsi2012/proceedings_2012/papers/papers/pa144.pdf.
95
Google, “Mobile-First Indexing Best Practices,” Google Search Central, https://devel-
opers.google.com/search/mobile-sites/mobile-first-indexing.
96
Kleopatra Nikolopoulou, “Secondary Education Teachers’ Perceptions of
Mobile Phone and Tablet Use in Classrooms: Benefits, Constraints and Concerns,”
Journal of Computers in Education 7 (2020): 257–75, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s40692-020-00156-7.
97
James A. Anderson et al., “Productivity, Screens, and Aspect Ratios: A Comparison
of Single, Traditional Aspect, Dual, Traditional Aspect, and Single, Widescreen Aspect
Computer Displays Over Simulated Office Tasks Across Performance and Usability,”
2007, https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=214166.
118 Space Education
secondary, and even higher education levels.98

Virtual Reality (VR) headsets (similar to the Oculus Quest 2 today)
would also be available for more immersive applications, especially 3D
design in virtual spaces. VR allows students to interact and experiment
with the concepts they are learning about,99 creating enhanced educa-
tional environments and enriched learning opportunities for students.100
Perhaps surprisingly for some, VR also helps improve both productivity
and social interaction, which may be even more important for students
relatively isolated on the moon.101 VR is particularly valuable for learn-
ing math and engineering (and for health-based education, which will
be particularly important to the first children on the Moon).102 Because
students would have limited access to any other real-world learning
environments while living on the Moon, their VR headsets would also
allow them to experience Earth-based biomes and locations, includ-
ing museums and other sites related to arts or culture.103 In addition,
students as pioneers themselves could virtually visit other planets or
locations throughout the solar system.
Through their personal devices, students and educators would also
98
Eva Hamhuis, Cees Glas, and Martina Meelissen, “Tablet Assessment in Primary
Education: Are There Performance Differences Between TIMSS’ Paper-and-Pencil
Test and Tablet Test Among Dutch Grade-Four Students?” British Journal of Education
Technology 51, no. 6 (2020): 2340-58, https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12914; Pao-Nan
Chou and Shu-Tzu Feng, “Using a Tablet Computer Application to Advance High
School Students’ Laboratory Learning Experiences: A Focus on Electrical Engineering
Education,” Sustainability 11, no. 2 (2019): 381, https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020381.
99
Dimiter Velev and Plamena Zlateva, “Virtual Reality Challenges in Education and
Training,” International Journal of Learning and Teaching 3, no. 1 (2017): 33-37, https://
doi.org/10.18178/ijlt.3.1.33-37.
100
Noureddine Elmqaddem, “Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in Education:
Myth or Reality?” International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning 14, no. 3,
(2019): 234-42, https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i03.9289.
101
Yoana Slavova and Mu Mu, “A Comparative Study of the Learning Outcomes and
Experience of VR in Education,” in 2018 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D
User Interfaces (VR), ed. Kiyoshi Kiyokawa (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2018), 685-86,
https://doi.org/10.1109/VR.2018.8446486.
102
Dorota Kamińska et al., “Virtual Reality and Its Applications in Education: Survey,”
Information 10, no. 10 (2019): 318, https://doi.org/10.3390/info10100318.
103
Google, “Google Arts and Culture,” https://artsandculture.google.com/.
Chapter 7 119
have access to Artificial Intelligence (AI) resources, likely running on

local cloud computing resources. Because there will be only one pro-
fessional teacher for all 25 students across at least 12 grades, the help
of an AI with personalization of the curriculum for each student and
with administrative productivity will be valuable.104 Due to the remote
nature of the Moon Village School location, AI modeling would also be
valuable for helping students interact with other environments, partic-
ularly for science education.105 AI would even be valuable in providing
students a greater variety of experiences for physical education, includ-
ing customized instruction, evaluation, and counseling.106 While an AI
can help alleviate a teacher’s human bias107 (or at least balance it with
machine bias), the teacher of the Moon Village School will need to be
trained in how best to work with the AI, including how to evaluate
both its effectiveness and its ethical operation. The significant profes-
sional development needs of the Moon Village School educator will
be further addressed in the following section.
CURRICULUM, PEDAGOGY, AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
When considering what will happen in the Moon Village School (using
the spaces and technologies detailed above), the next questions are
related to what students will learn, how they will learn it, and how edu-
cators might best be prepared to facilitate these experiences.
Based on the model provided by the Academy for the Relent-
less Exploration of Space (or ARES Learning), the Moon Village
School will offer a flexible multidisciplinary curriculum, exposure to
104
Shubham Joshi, Radha Krishna Rambola, and Prathamesh Churi, “Evaluating
Artificial Intelligence in Education for Next Generation,” Journal of Physics: Conference
Series 1714 (2021): 012039, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1714/1/012039.
105
Ron Good, “Artificial Intelligence and Science Education,” Journal of Research in
Science Teaching 24, no. 4 (1987): 325-42, https:/doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660240406.
106
Hyun Suk Lee and Junga Lee, “Applying Artificial Intelligence in Physical
Education and Future Perspectives,” Sustainability 13, no. 1 (2021): 351, https://doi.
org/10.3390/su13010351.
107
Joshi et al., “Evaluating Artificial Intelligence.”
120 Space Education
the mindsets of an explorer, and a culture built around critical reflec-

tion. 108 An interactive, customizable, blended learning platform like
CK-12 might be ideal for delivery of the core curriculum, including
language arts, social studies, math, science, and more (such as an intro-
duction to philosophy).109 The teacher can facilitate independent study
as much as possible, and connect students to experts on Earth when
needed. The Moon Village School will also provide an extended cur-
riculum, including exposure to domains relevant to frontier living in
space: anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and political science for
instance—as well as forward-looking pursuits like Science Fiction as
Literature, Fictional Languages, Data Science, and Engineering. 110 In
this extended curriculum, students will also be exposed to the Explorer’s
Mindset,111 so they become comfortable with being flexible, adaptable,
and prepared to make critical decisions with incomplete information.112
Working from these foundational skill sets and mindsets, Moon Village
students will apply their learning in the makerspace lab, where they
will utilize “Moonshot Thinking”113 (which will likely need a new and
more inspirational name at that point), coupled with design methodol-
ogies114 to solve real-world programs they are passionate about; student
projects may very well improve life for others in the Moon Village at
the time and well into the future. To this end, each day will include
opportunities for metacognition, synthesis, and critical reflection as
typified by the japanese practice of Hansei.115
108
Ares Learning, “Home,” https://areslearning.com.
109
CK12, “Home,” https://ck12.org.
110
Ares Learning, “The 10X-PLORE Student Experience,” https://www.areslearning.
com/experience.
111
National Geographic, “The National Geographic Learning Framework.”
112
Robinson, “Introduction: An Explorer’s Mindset Matters.…”
113
X Company, “Moonshot Thinking.”
114
Harvard University, “Design Thinking in Education.”
115
Subikash Roy, “Hansei: Continuously Engaging People in
Improvement, Process Excellence Network,” https://www.processex-
cellencenetwork.com/lean-six-sigma-business-performance/articles/
hansei-continuously-engaging-people-in-improvement.
Chapter 7 121
This is an explicitly constructivist approach to teaching, focused

on student agency, and rich with opportunities to develop (what are
perhaps anachronistically called) 21st century skills. Constructivist ped-
agogy is a learning philosophy that recognizes the way students actively
construct their own meaning (rather than passively accepting meaning
provided by a teacher); it typically supports learning experiences that
are context-embedded, inquiry-driven, and socially-negotiated (or col-
laborative).116 A hallmark of constructivist learning environments is a
focus on student agency, which is a culture of learning in which stu-
dents have voice and choice in how their education progresses; in short
some of the power traditionally held by a teacher is distributed back to
the students, who control the direction of their own learning and the
focus of their own projects.117 This approach allows students to develop
higher order “21st Century Skills” such as curiosity, creativity, and risk
taking—in addition to personal, social, and civic responsibility, which
will be critical in a small frontier settlement like the Moon Village.
Traditionally trained teachers are not well prepared to facilitate
learning in this environment, whether on the Earth or the Moon.
Significant professional development will be needed for the unique
learning spaces and learning culture of the school. Because of the multi-
age reality of the “one room schoolhouse” at the Moon Village (with
25 students spread across 12 grade levels), the teacher will need to hold
multiple credentials, likely in primary education and at least one sin-
gle subject secondary credential, if not all four core subjects: language
arts, social studies, math, and science. Additional supplementary cre-
dentials, such as cross-cultural education or special education, might
also be valuable. In addition to initial credentials, ongoing high quality
professional development is also important for student achievement,
particularly in science education. 118 The ongoing teacher training
116
117
Renaissance, “Student Agency,” https://www.renaissance.com/edwords/
student-agency/.
118
Christian Fischer et al., “Investigating Relationships Between School Context,
Teacher Professional Development, Teaching Practices, and Student Achievement in
122 Space Education
should be active, collaborative, and include an element of coaching.119

Coaching is particularly effective for job embedded professional devel-
opment, although it typically scales poorly in large education systems;120
but for one very special teacher on the Moon it would require relatively
few resources to connect regularly with a remote coach on Earth.
Specific professional development will be required for the teacher
to be well prepared to facilitate learning in a flexible space according to
constructivist ideals. The teacher will need to be trained in the use of a
blended learning platform like CK-12, in the various supplemental sub-
jects (such as Science Fiction for Literature), and in helping students
to develop new mindsets (such as the Explorer’s Mindset, Moonshot
Thinking, and design methodology). Undoubtedly, different forms
of professional development will be required as the community and
school evolve, and plans should be made for ongoing job-embedded
professional growth opportunities for the Moon Village teacher, even
if most of these occur remotely or in virtual reality. It may be partic-
ularly valuable for the teacher to be trained in action research, both
because this is an effective form of professional development,121 122 and
so that their experiences at the Moon Village School might be docu-
mented to inform future educational endeavors in space. In order to
build capacity and remain up to date on emerging trends in education,
the Moon Village teacher should also cultivate an online Professional
Response to a Nationwide Science Reform,” Teaching and Teacher Education 72 (2018):

107-21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.02.011.
119
Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler, and Madelyn Gardner, “Effective Teacher
Professional Development,” https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED606743.
120
Matthew A. Kraft, David Blazar, and Dylan Hogan, “The Effect of Teacher
Coaching on Instruction and Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of the Causal
Evidence,” Review of Educational Research 88, no. 4 (2018): 547–88, https://doi.
org/10.3102/0034654318759268.
121
Roland van Oostveen, “Purposeful Action Research: Reconsidering Science and
Technology Teacher Professional Development,” College Quarterly 20 no. 2 (2017),
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1142550.
122
Allan Feldman, Herbert Altrichter, Peter Posch, and Bridget Somekh, Teachers
Investigate Their Work: An Introduction to Action Research Across the Professions
(New York: Routledge, 2018), https://www.google.com/books/edition/
Teachers_Investigate_Their_Work/UR9WDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
Chapter 7 123
Learning Network (PLN) for their own professional development and

improvement of the school.123 Clearly, these are high expectations for
any professional, and these skill sets will likely be an ongoing work
in progress throughout the teacher’s career. Eventually, a process (of
apprenticeship or mentorship) will need to be in place for developing
the next generation of teachers on the Moon as well.
ADDITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
There are many other necessary tasks common among schools, includ-
ing providing custodial services, planning for community participation,
accommodating students with special needs, organizing activities out-
side the school (such as excursions or field trips), and maintaining
a team of stakeholders to make decisions or design changes mov-
ing forward.
The Moon Village School taps a Japanese model of Hansei (relent-
less self reflection) to help students build character. Similarly, with only
one teacher and no full-time staff or custodians, the school will follow
the Japanese model of expecting students to clean the learning spac-
es, eating spaces, and even toilets themselves; this teaches students to
work collaboratively in support of their community, and encourages
them to respect their own efforts and the efforts of others.124 A co-op
model can also involve parents and other members of the Moon Vil-
lage community in the operation of the school… as guest instructors,
subject matter experts, moderators or facilitators, mentors or coaches,
or in other support roles, such as maintenance, for instance. Remote-
based adults might be able to serve in many (though not all) of these
capacities as well. Local adults might also be able to host or lead outside
123
Chris Brown and Cindy L. Poortman, eds., Networks for Learning: Effective
Collaboration for Teacher, School and System Improvement (New York:
Routledge, 2018).
124
Mahfud Junaedi and Fatah Syukur, “Moral Education in Japanese Schools: A Model
for Improving Character Education in Indonesia,” Analisa: Journal of Social Science and
Religion 2, no. 1 (2017): 23-40, https://doi.org/10.18784/analisa.v2i01.41.
124 Space Education
activities or field trips, as might residents on the Gateway station or

other orbital platforms. Students might even visit the old Internation-
al Space Station in Low Earth Orbit as a historical site (if it remains in
place), without the need to travel down Earth’s gravity well.
Because the community will either initially or eventually include
students with physical disabilities, learning disabilities, and other spe-
cial needs, the school will need to accommodate these issues. Also,
unforeseen special needs may come to be associated with children
growing up in a low gravity, high radiation, and otherwise physically or
psychologically stressful environment. Over time, the teacher will inev-
itably require specific professional development to meet these needs
effectively.125 The physical plant may need to be altered, and additional
community members may need to be involved.
In short, school operation and governance is not a one-person activ-
ity. In the co-op model, parents, community members, and even remote
stakeholders will serve on committees dedicated to setting policies,
making decisions as the school evolves, and general operation of the
school as a nonprofit entity.126 This approach has the additional bene-
fit of improving social relations in schools, particularly among special
needs students.127
CONCLUSION
The previous discussion addresses a number of design considerations

relevant for the Moon Village School, an educational institution meant
for the first 25 K12 students living on the Moon. These issues fall into
125
Kevin C. Costley, “Ongoing Professional Development: The Prerequisite for and
Continuation of Successful Inclusion Meeting the Academic Needs of Special Students
in Public Schools,” https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED541075.
126
Dorothy W. Hewes, “Co-Ops—Preschools with Parents in Charge,” Child Care
Exchange, https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.462.7028&rep=
rep1&type=pdf.
127
Robert J. Stevens and Robert E. Slavin, “The Cooperative Elementary
School: Effects on Students’ Achievement, Attitudes, and Social Relations,”
American Educational Research Journal 32, no. 2 (1995): 321-51, https://doi.
org/10.3102/00028312032002321.
Chapter 7 125
the broad categories of the physical plant, the learning experiences, and
other additional needs. It is clear that the physical plant must be well
designed to accommodate a quiet space for study, a flexible space for
a wide variety of classroom learning experiences, and a makerspace for
hands-on projects. The network infrastructure will need to be sufficient
for supporting all the appropriate educational technologies, including
handhelds, tablets, laptops, virtual reality headsets, and artificial intel-
ligence applications. With these physical resources, the Moon Village
School will be able to provide students with an individualized blended
learning platform for the core curriculum, exposure to appropriately
enriching learning experiences, and the opportunity to solve problems
relevant to them and their community. Plans will also be made for stu-
dents to care for the school themselves, for parents and others to be
involved in coop arrangements for managing the school, and for a vari-
ety of other needs to be met (including the special needs of students
with disabilities).
This discussion is only the beginning of engaging with these issues
and many questions would benefit from additional research:
1. Who should be involved in designing the physical plant of the

Moon Village School, and how might they best be engaged?
(Eventually, students themselves should be involved to the great-
est degree possible in determining the furniture and finishings
in the environment.)
2. As the foundation of the school approaches, what changes should

be made in the plans for network infrastructure and education-
al technology?
3. In considerably more detail, what curriculum and learning expe-

riences should be provided to students on the Moon? And how
might this also change over time?
4. How might students on the Moon engage in physical education?

126 Space Education
In exploring the surface of the Moon? Or in visiting nearby orbit-

al facilities? This too will change as realities become apparent.
5. What lessons are there to be learned from the Moon Village

School that might be valuable to later schools on other planets,
in space-based habitats, or elsewhere?
6. And, looking farther into the future, how might schools have to
change as the nature of human beings changes in space, on other
worlds, and in virtual reality?
Also, the concrete questions of how much energy the school will
require, what materials will need to be imported, what might be mined
or manufactured on the Moon (and how much it will all cost to estab-
lish and maintain) also need to be explored in more detail. It is the
author’s hope that the initial thoughts presented here will be valuable
to those who follow, and that many other researchers, educators, and
space settlers will take up the challenge of pursuing better answers to
these questions in more detail.
Chapter 7 127
The Moon Village School
Figure 4. This cut away view illustrates the basic layout of the Moon Village School.
The middle level is the main classroom, including flexible furniture, and both small
group workspaces and a shared focus area for a large group. The top level then is a
quiet workspace with separate small glass meeting rooms as well. Furthest removed
from the quiet space is the Maker lab on the bottom floor, full of tools and resources
for fabrication and prototyping. All three floors have a window down to the crater,
with year-round protection from the solar radiation from above and behind. There
is a tunnel to the village and an airlock to the crater for outdoor experiments.
Chapter 8
This chapter is drawn from mythird paper focused on the Moon

Village School. Where the previous two were essentially literature
reviews driven by my own experience as an educational technolo-
gist, this paper once again includes the results of an original study
synthesizing opinions solicited from other experts.
The results are rich, and really bring together the educational
philosophies in Part One of the book with the physical realities of
living on the Moon. Though themes emerged around topics like
authentic challenges and project-based learning, I was most inter-
ested and gratified to see the way experts looked to the best of
innovative schools on Earth for models. I found it inspiring to imag-
ine integrating the best of small one-room school houses, the best
of individualized remote learning programs, and the best of elite
international schools into a single program for the first students
on the Moon. In the face of the additional challenges presented by
the lunar environment, the need for positive psychology and stu-
dent resilience was also a strong theme, which now runs through
the rest of the book.
As I did after completing the first two studies in the book, I
found myself once again grateful for the additional expertise and
insights shared by the participants, and this book is much better
for their contributions.
129
An Ideas Unlimited Study
By Mark Wagner, Ph.D., Abdulaziz Alareedh,

Athena Brensberger, Kristin Clayton Bobb, Andrew Dobbie,
Lawrence Downing, D.Div., Daniel J Klopp, Bob Krone, Ph.D.,
Leona Laurie, Emmy Leleu, J. N. Nielsen, Kevin P. Russell,
Ivan Rosel, K atie Sandberg, Rebecca Schembri, Gianna Torres,
Barbara Wagner, Claudia Welss, Frank White,
Jacquelyn Whiting, and Richard Garriott de Cayeux
INTRODUCTION
In conjunction with the Moon Village Association’s planning pro-

cess for a settlement at the South Pole of the Moon, this is the
third paper exploring the educational needs of children in the
proposed community. The first paper explored the potential chal-
lenges and consequences of educating students on the Moon. 128
The second discussed design considerations for the physical plant
and the educational program.129 This study used the qualitative
Ideas Unlimited method, bringing together a panel of experts
to provide additional guidance in response to a target prompt.
128
See Chapter 6.
129
See Chapter 7.
131
132 Space Education
A number of themes emerged from analysis of participants’

responses, including a focus on relevant learning experiences, a
long-term vision for the school, and a recognition of the challeng-
es involved. These themes are reported in more depth below, along
with 10 recommendations to the Moon Village Association, and
eight additional questions for further research.
SUMMARY OF MOON VILLAGE SCHOOL PLANS
The Moon Village Association (MVA) is currently preparing concrete

plans for a settlement near Shackleton Crater at the Moon’s South
Pole, where solar power is available all-day year-round, temperatures
are relatively stable, water ice is readily available for mining, and the
Earth hangs always over the horizon.130 131 The Moon Village is meant
to support 125 multigenerational settlers, including approximately 25
school-age children. To meet the needs of this population, plans are
being made for a Moon Village School.
The technical challenges of educating the first students on the Moon
are not nearly so daunting as what may be faced later on other planets
such as Mars.132 The minimal delay in communications with the Earth
means that synchronous learning opportunities would be available to
students on the Moon, including real-time text, audio, and video com-
munications. Similarly, local bandwidth should be sufficient for most
academic uses, and it would not be an insurmountable challenge to
establish local cloud computing resources on the Moon. This would
mean that educational technologies requiring virtual reality and arti-
ficial intelligence could be options as well.
Other issues need to be anticipated, but would not be insurmount-
able.133 Though there would be scheduling challenges, particularly with
130
See Chapter 1.
131
See Chapter 4.
132
See Chapter 6.
133
See Chapter 6.
Chapter 8 133
student supervision in such a small community, the school could adopt

an Earth time zone such as UTC and could follow a traditional aca-
demic calendar. Also, though safety would be a significant concern in
constructing learning spaces and planning student activities, it is easy
to imagine inspiring spaces (and spectacular field trips) on the Moon.
With these considerations in mind, the Moon Village School might
follow a format similar to top-tier International Schools around the
globe, with well-established academic programs, cutting-edge technol-
ogy, and the best of modern learning spaces.
A number of other design considerations related to making such a
school a reality have already been explored; these issues fall into the
broad categories of the physical plant, the learning experiences, and
other additional needs.134 It is clear that the physical plant must be well
designed to accommodate a quiet space for study, a flexible space for
a wide variety of classroom learning experiences, and a makerspace for
hands-on projects. The network infrastructure will need to be sufficient
for supporting all the appropriate educational technologies, including
handhelds, tablets, laptops, virtual reality headsets, and artificial intel-
ligence applications. With these physical resources, the Moon Village
School will be able to provide students with an individualized blended
learning platform for the core curriculum, exposure to appropriately
enriching learning experiences, and the opportunity to solve problems
relevant to them and their community. Plans will also be made for stu-
dents to care for the school themselves, for parents and others to be
involved in a coop arrangements for managing the school, and for a
variety of other needs to be met (including the special needs of stu-
dents with disabilities).
With these initial thought experiments in mind as background, the
present study was designed to poll a panel of experts regarding ways a
school might best be designed to serve the first students living on the
Moon. It is hoped that this will inspire additional research on the topic
and be a relevant resource for the educators, architects, and engineers
134
See Chapter 7.
134 Space Education
responsible for making decisions about the first school actually built
on the Moon in the not-too-distant future.
METHOD
This qualitative study followed the Ideas Unlimited method to engage a

panel of experts and make their tacit knowledge explicit for real-world
implementation, and for further research. The researcher operated from
a social constructivist paradigm, a common foundation for education
research which rests on the belief that the human mind is constantly
engaged in developing subjective meanings from the environment in
which it lives, and that meaning-making is a process of social negotia-
tion via dialogs or conversations between individuals.135 136
making a qualitative approach more appropriate, especially when con-
cerning an emerging future context such as space settlement. Trochim
defined qualitative research as a process involving any measures where
the data are not recorded in numerical form, and he included short
written responses on surveys among his examples of qualitative data.137
These measures are especially appropriate in a social constructivist con-
text because qualitative researchers are interested in the meaning that
ity in communication.139 140
Because no K12 schools yet exist on the Moon, a grounded theory
135
136
Jonassen et al., Learning to Solve Problems.
137
Trochim, The Research Methods Knowledge Database.
138
139
140
Chapter 8 135
approach is an effective choice for generating new ideas. According to

Leedy and Ormrod, “the major purpose of a grounded theory approach
is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theory.”141 In this
case, the study works from the expert opinions of the participants to
then derive an abstract theory meant to guide policy makers.142
According to Downing et al, "Ideas Unlimited collects and organizes
ideas from people to solve strategy, policy, planning, program, process,
task, or procedural problems.” 143 Traditionally, ideas are collected on
small slips of paper, thus the original name of C.C. Crawford’s “Craw-
ford Slip Method” before Dr. Bob Krone coined the name “Ideas
Unlimited.” 144 For this current study, an online Google Form was
experience. 145 Their responses were then submitted to a process of
tagging, keyword classification, and data reduction, with a focus on
making recommendations for performance improvements.146 An out-
line of the results was created, and this paper is the final outcome of
the study. The researcher was personally responsible for all aspects of
implementing the Ideas Unlimited process. He composed the target
(and associated instructions, though these were adapted from a target
sheet created by Dr. Bob Krone at Kepler Space Institute), recruited all
participants, analyzed all data, and interpreted all findings.
Twenty participants were included in the study, each an expert in
141
Leedy and Ormrod, Practical Research, 140.
142
143
144
145
146
136 Space Education
either space settlement, space education, or (more broadly) K12 edu-

cation. All participants are credited as co-authors of this paper. Their
names, titles, and professional affiliations also appear in Appendix A.
The following is the target to which each of them responded:
The Moon Village School: How might an education system be
designed for the first students living on the moon?
RESULTS
Participant responses to the target prompt fell into three broad cat-
egories: those related to improving the learning process itself, those
advocating an optimistic long-term vision for the school, and those
acknowledging the challenges that will need to be addressed to ensure
the resiliency of the students. In general, the participants want to see
many authentic learning opportunities for the students, including proj-
ect-based learning, technology-rich experiences, and the best of both
small schools and remote learning combined. They called for an inclu-
sive vision, representative not only of Earth’s many cultures but also the
unique context of the Moon—and the potential for expansion into the
solar system and beyond. Acknowledging challenges from relatively
mundane Human Resources (HR) concerns to more serious issues of
physical survival on the Moon, the participants also suggested a focus
on positive psychology, including tolerance, acceptance, and gratitude.
The opportunity to create the first school on the Moon (or any-
where other than Earth) is an opportunity to step away from the
mistakes and rote methods of the past—to intentionally create some-
thing better. The study participants envisioned a school built around
learning experiences that are more authentic, based more clearly in real-
world challenges. Authentic learning aligns with how the human mind
transforms information into useful knowledge, motivates students to
make new connections, and to persevere in pursuit of solutions.147 Stu-
147
Marilyn M. Lombardi and Diana G. Oblinger, "Authentic Learning for the 21st
Century: An Overview," Educause Learning Initiative 1, https://library.educause.edu/
resources/2007/1/authentic-learning-for-the-21st-century-an-overview.
Chapter 8 137
dent agency would be key, with students involved in everything from

original research to collaborating in the design and evolution of the
school itself. Students would undertake meaningful volunteer proj-
ects in the Moon Village, and they would be actively (and knowingly)
involved in defining new methods of education for the space communi-
ties to come. The role distinctions between student and teacher would
be blurred, with older students teaching younger children—and serving
as experts among their peers. And all community members would serve
as mentors or coaches, if not facilitators or guest lecturers, to students
in the village school. One study participant even suggested having no
permanent teachers, so that the community engagement would work
both ways… students working in the settlement and adults working in
the school to share in responsibility of passing on what they know; but
one or more professional educators might be required to make other
parts of the vision a reality. For instance, another participant called for
teachers to be well trained to identify a student’s learning styles and
passions, around which appropriate experiences or challenges could
be built. In this case, there would be a more flexible curriculum, with
fewer required classes, more opportunities for inquiry, and a focus on
positive psychology.
Learning experiences at the Moon Village School might also be
project based, with a focus on “career skills” that would be meaningful
and valuable in their adult lives on the Moon. (Consider airlock repair,
robot maintenance, or hydroponic gardening, for instance.) Similarly,
adults in the settlement might also participate in reskilling, profes-
sional development, and other forms of lifelong learning, which could
take place in the school and using similar systems. Student projects
might also be inquiry-driven, with adults prompting children to ask
questions or compose “I wonder…” statements. The methods of Under-
standing By Design (UbD) might be used to consider big questions or
long term learning goals, around which learning plans might be devel-
oped.148 Ultimately, such project-based approaches have been shown to
148
Jay McTighe and Grant Wiggins, Understanding by Design Framework (Alexandria,
138 Space Education
increase student creativity and critical thinking,149 capacities that will

be important to problem-solving in the challenging Lunar environment.
In support of more authentic project-based learning experiences,
the Moon Village School might look to both small schools and remote
learning for inspiration, ideally combining the best of both models.
Small schools, like the Moon Village School, might include a multi-
age classroom, where students would be broken out into smaller age
or subject-appropriate groups for particular lessons or projects, thus
emphasizing student responsibility and independence—not to mention
interdependence. (One participant dubbed this “Sunday School Style”
learning, and cited Amish schools as another example of small isolat-
ed education experiences.) This model is also ideal for authentic and
project-based learning discussed above, complete with older students
helping to teach their younger classmates. If the best of “tradition-
al American one-room schoolhouses” can be combined with modern
remote learning (considering the best of what was experienced during
the COVID-19 pandemic), a new model for early lunar education
might emerge. Since the initial Moon Village would be too small for
a complete education system, students could collaborate with peers,
experts, and other educators on Earth. The Moon Village School might
even have a partner school on Earth, or be part of a larger school system,
such as an online school or global network of international schools. The
minimal delay in communications would allow synchronous text, audio,
and video communication, in addition to asynchronous experiences,
even open-ended searches. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Real-
ity (AR) might also supplement online remote learning to allow more
embodied experiences of remote locations, on Earth and throughout
the solar system. Students might even create their own VR simula-
tions,150 perhaps of places they’d like to visit… or places on the Moon
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2012).

149
R. D. Anazifa and D. Djukri, "Project-Based Learning and Problem-Based Learning:
Are They Effective to Improve Student's Thinking Skills?" Jurnal Pendidikan IPA
Indonesia 6, no. 2 (2017): 346-55.
150
Claudia Lindner, Andreas Rienow, and Carsten Jürgens, "Augmented Reality
Chapter 8 139
that students on Earth could then visit. (Note that some local cloud
computing resources might be necessary for current VR technology to
be effective.151) In any case, lessons learned during the COVID-19 pan-
demic suggest that remote learning might best be implemented with:
equity of access for all students, communication of clear expectations,
use of high quality free resources, a focus on student-centered learn-
ing, adhering to established standards (such as the ISTE standards for
remote learning), and providing the necessary emotional support for
isolated students.152
The study participants shared many even more visionary elements
in their hopes for the Moon Village School. In keeping with its loca-
tion overlooking the entire Earth, the school could be a global school,
representing many human cultures… not just those in which students
would have ancestors. In order to avoid the potential for imperialism
in a remote location, the school should be multicultural, with expo-
sure to many different languages, customs, and historical perspectives.
The universal connections between people (and their world) would
be a valuable focus for understanding the unique context of humans
on the Moon. The curriculum could be organized around Big Histo-
ry through the lens of the sciences: cosmology, geology, and biology
being initial gateways to learning. Lewis Dartnell’s Origins: How Earth's
History Shaped Human History 153 was suggested as a model. (On the
Moon, the sciences can also be taught with an explicitly space-based
focus, including subjects such as astrobiology, lunar geology, and orbit-
al mechanics.) Taking this idea further, the Overview Effect could be a
focus for teaching about the Earth as a whole interconnected system,
within the greater solar system (including the Moon), and the galactic
Applications as Digital Experiments for Education–An Example in the Earth-Moon

System," Acta Astronautica 161 (2019): 66-74.
151
See Chapter 6.
152
Hani Morgan, "Best Practices for Implementing Remote Learning During a
Pandemic," The Clearing House 93, no. 3 (2020): 135-41.
153
Lewis Dartnell, Origins: How Earth's History Shaped Human History (New York:
Basic Books, 2019).
140 Space Education
system. 154 On Earth, international schools often have the freedom to

innovate in more agile ways than traditional schools, and perhaps the
best of international schools might also provide guidance for the Moon
Village School, with future-focused learning experiences that are play-
based, concept-based and enquiry-based… with themes of new literacies
and intercultural competence. 155 The first generation to grow up in
space might thus serve well as ambassadors of humanity to the stars,
even if it is only future humans that they encounter. May the people of
Earth export tolerance and optimism.
Despite these lofty aspirations, the study participants also acknowl-
edged the challenges of living on the Moon, and the realities that a
school there will need to address. Some of these challenges might be
considered Human Resources problems: recruiting faculty and staff
(to travel to the Moon and work in dangerous conditions), emergency
training, ongoing professional development, and remote collaboration
with peers or experts. Some challenges will be familiar to educators:
the need to localize curriculum (for the Moon in this case), to provide
for students physical education (fitness might be even more important
in low gravity—and in potential life or death situations), and to sup-
port students’ emotional needs (in an isolating frontier context). Other
challenges are related to simple survival: providing students with safe
breathable atmosphere, ample water, good nutrition, and protection
from dangerous levels of radiation. Students will need to be taught to
recognize emergencies (like high CO2 levels, or slow depressurization)
and to make sense of sensor data (such as radiation levels or their own
bio feedback data, including blood oxygen levels, which will likely be
provided by wearable technology similar to the Apple Watch or Oura
Ring of today). Some participants suggested that students might be
actively involved not only in monitoring and emergency operations
but also in iterating on the design of the school (and settlement) to
improve safety and comfort over time—and for generations to come.
154
155
Anssi Roiha and Eryn Wiseman, eds., Teaching and Learning in International Schools:
Lessons from Primary Practice (St. Alban’s: Critical Publishing, 2021).
Chapter 8 141
To live under these conditions, and to contribute in this way, the

first students on the moon will need to be particularly resilient individ-
uals, even when they most wish their parents never brought them to the
Moon (or gave birth to them there). Biofeedback might also be useful
in helping students to moderate their mood, and to harness the power
of positive psychology. Social interactions will also be key to student
happiness, 156 so building and caring for the community of students
would be an important function of any professional educators, and
especially of all adults in the Moon Village. Life skills such as conflict
resolution and team-building would be important. With only 25 mem-
bers, the student body might function more like a large family than a
traditional school, and the sorts of coping strategies offered to families
in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (a form of modern science-backed
Stoicism) might be valuable to teach and practice in the classroom;
students could then recognize and address their own cognitive dis-
tortions such as filtering, personalization, and fallacies of fairness or
control. 157 Shawn Achor’s work on The Happiness Advantage, which
is already being modified for use in schools, might also prove a valu-
able model; with a focus on gratitude and spreading positive attitudes
through a ripple effect, this approach also increases teacher satisfac-
tion and engagement.158 The sort of routines for resilience that Moon
Village students might observe are captured well in this suggestion sub-
mitted by one of the participants:
“Each day… would begin with expressions of gratitude, perhaps as
they gaze out upon the Earth, a hope for their role as a resident of the
Moon and a hope for the future that might be out of their control.”
156
Jim Davies, “New Evidence That Therapy Can Make You Happier,” Nautilus, 2021,
https://nautil.us/blog/new-evidence-that-therapy-can-make-you-happier.
157
Sandra Silva Casabianca and Karen Gepp, “Stuck in the Negatives? 15
Cognitive Distortions to Blame,” Psychcentral, 2021, https://psychcentral.com/lib/
cognitive-distortions-negative-thinking.
158
Jillian Sagan, "Happiness Advantage: The Impact on School Culture," (EdD diss.,
National Louis University, 2019).
142 Space Education
CONCLUSION
Based on current plans, the Moon Village Association is preparing for a

small 125 person settlement at Shackleton Crater near the South Pole
of the Moon, and this essay explores the question of how best to design
an education system for the 25 K12 students in the community. The
author conducted a qualitative Ideas Unlimited study with 20 expert
participants responding (usually multiple times) to the target prompt.
A number of themes emerged from analysis of the responses. The par-
ticipants described a research-based vision of learning at the Moon
Village School, including authentic problems, project-based learning,
and the best of both traditional small schools and modern remote learn-
ing. They saw a cosmopolitan school representing a diversity of Earth
cultures, embracing the Overview Effect, and looking forward to set-
tlement of the solar system and beyond. Many responses also included
a nod to the challenges the school will face, from HR issues to the
physical dangers of surviving on the Moon.
Based on expert feedback in response to the target prompt, the
following ten recommendations can be made to the Moon Village Asso-
ciation, and to any other organization planning a similar school on the
Moon (or in a similarly isolated context):
1. Curriculum at the Moon Village School should be focused on

providing students with authentic learning experiences that are
relevant, meaningful, hands-on, and student-driven. (Ideally,
these are context-embedded within real-world problems so stu-
dents can contribute to their community and to future space
faring communities.)
2. This goal can be supported by student-focused learning design

models, such as Project-Based Learning (PBL), Understanding
by Design (UbD), and Inquiry-Driven Learning.
3. The best elements of small one-room schools should be incorpo-

rated into the Moon Village School.
Chapter 8 143
4. The best elements of remote learning should also supplement the

Moon Village School design.
5. The best elements of international schools should also be integrat-

ed into the model.
6. Curriculum, especially history and science, should be localized

to the lunar context; literature and resources should be selected
for their relevance to students living on the Moon.
7. Students should be treated as if they are (and should be encour-

aged to be) ambassadors to future human space settlements; they
are pioneers laying long-term cultural foundations, with a respon-
sibility to set a positive example of tolerance and optimism.
8. The Moon Village School will require at least one dedicated

Human Resources expert, and perhaps a significant supporting
team on Earth. (One expert in the Moon Village might work
with the school as part of their overall responsibilities.)
9. Not only should survival training be a part of the school routines

but students can also be actively involved in facility maintenance
and the design of improved safety measures for the settlement—
and future lunar settlements.
10. Positive psychology should be included in the instructional

design, the curriculum, and the culture of the school (and indeed
the entire settlement) in order to ensure the resilience of the stu-
dents and community.
Each of these recommendations is merely a high-level suggestion,

painted in broad strokes and leaving a great deal of detailed work for
further research, planning, and school design. Some additional ques-
tions for further research are apparent already:
144 Space Education
1. What sorts of activities might result in authentic learning experi-

ences in the context of the Moon Village settlement?
2. How might Project-Based Learning (PBL), Understanding by

Design (UbD), or similar inquiry-driven learning processes be
adapted for use in the relatively isolated context of the Moon?
3. What elements of successful small schools might beneficially be

integrated into a school on the Moon? And, what elements of
effective remote learning might serve to extend the learning expe-
riences available on the Moon? How might these two approaches
be combined into something greater and uniquely lunar?
4. In what ways might innovative International Schools serve as a

model for a cosmopolitan school on the Moon?
5. How might the Overview Effect serve as a focus for education

on the Moon? Consider ways it might offer a gateway to other
learning in science, history, and systems thinking.
6. What models exist for creating a school culture that values not
only tolerance but also diversity, equity, and inclusion? How
might these be applied with students on the Moon?
7. How might science be taught in a relevant and hands-on way on

the Moon’s surface, deep below it, or in lunar orbit? Might lunar
telescopes offer students unique opportunities not available on
the Earth? What other unique opportunities might be available,
in lunar lava tubes or with the low escape velocity for instance?
8. In what ways might a Moon Village School lay the founda-

tion for a long-term vision for education in the solar system (and
beyond)?
Chapter 8 145
Eventually, if there are large communities of humans on the Moon,

and on Mars as Elon Musk has planned, then there will need to be an
education system to serve these populations. Perhaps this vision for
the Moon Village School can serve as a model for these later efforts.
It may also be that humanity is better served by settling deep space in
O’Neill-style habitats engineered for the purpose of supporting an idyl-
lic human lifestyle, providing full gravity, full pressure atmosphere, safe
sunlight, and plenty of space for recreation and enjoyment of natural
beauty. If that is the case, the school designs suggested here might still
serve as a valuable model for improving on the traditional terrestrial
schools and helping humanity better prepare itself for the coming set-
tlement of the solar system—and the human diaspora throughout the
galaxy beyond. Perhaps this vision might also prove to be inspirational
to school designers, school leaders, and teachers here on Earth as they
work to prepare today’s students for humanity’s rapidly approaching
multi-planet future.
146 Space Education
APPENDIX A
PARTICIPANTS TITLES AFFILIATIONS
Abdulaziz Alareedh Physics Teacher Technical Industrial Institute

Athena Brensberger Astronomer Astroathens, LLC
Kristin Clayton Bobb Parent
Andrew Dobbie Grade 6 Teacher Peel Board
Dr. Lawrence Downing Faculty Kepler Space Institute
Richard Garriott de Cayeux Private Astronaut
Daniel J Klopp Director ILC Dover
Dr. Bob Krone President Kepler Space Institute
Leona Laurie Community Member
Emmy Leleu Head of Innovation CVO Scala
J. N. Nielsen Scholar Icarus Interstellar
Ivan Rosel Minister of Citizenship Asgardia
Kevin P. Russell Independent Scholar
Katie Sandberg Director of Innovation California League of Schools
Rebecca Schembri Space Ambassador Harvard University
Gianna Torres Scholar Kepler Space Institute
Barbara Wagner Curriculum Designer Kids Are The Solution Project
Claudia Welss Chairman Institute of Noetic Sciences
Frank White Faculty Kepler Space Institute
Jacquelyn Whiting Instructional Coach Cooperative Educational Services
Chapter 9
Inspired by the recent documentary, The High Frontier: The Untold

Story of Gerard K. O’Neill, about the life and work of O’Neill, I focused
this next essay on the possibility of designing a school to serve chil-
dren living inside a large-scale human-made space habitat orbiting
the Earth. Similar to The Moon Village School, The O’Neill School (as
I’ll call it) would enjoy all the benefits of being relatively close to the
Earth. Living on the inside of a giant spinning cylinder, the inhabi-
tants would also not need to worry about the effects of low gravity,
except when they chose to. O’Neill’s idyllic vision for these habitats
would make them not only a beautiful place to live and be human
but also an ideal place for a rich cosmopolitan education of the kind
advocated so far in this book.
Of course, the sheer size of the habitat would mean all new
challenges not faced by a smaller settlement on the Moon or Mars.
(In some ways this would also be true of larger settlements on the
Moon or Mars… imagine the difficulty of establishing the first school
district on another planet; that would be fodder for at least another
paper.) The unique location would also offer exciting new learning
opportunities as well, such as the ability to literally suit up and go
outside to experience microgravity—or the ability to “fly” in the open
center of the habitat. We will explore a number of other challenges
and opportunities as well.
The last section is then dedicated to the possibility of
147
148 Space Education
establishing a school in a smaller lower-altitude habitat of the sort

more recently proposed by Al Globus. However more attainable
the construction might be, this design would reintroduce some
of the problems inherent in smaller settlements, as well as some
unknowns related to the higher rate of rotation. In the long run, the
O’Neill style habitats might be superior for permanent settlements—
and fully realized education systems.
The O’Neill School:
Education in
Deep Space Habitats
INTRODUCTION
Gerard K. O’Neill’s work in the 1970’s inspired a generation of

space explorers, space philosophers, and space entrepreneurs,
including some high-profile billionaires today.159 His designs for
large-scale habitats in deep space still serve as the model for long-
term human habitation of the solar system. Though he focused
on engineering a physical environment, the more philosophical
passages in O’Neill’s writing reveal a reverence for education as
a human right—and a necessary foundation for future societies.
However, O’Neill spent very little effort planning schools for the
habitats he designed. The purpose of this chapter is to address
that need by providing an overview of how O’Neill-style hab-
itats might resolve many of the issues that would face schools
on the Moon or Mars, and by exploring the new challenges and
opportunities such designs might represent for education systems
serving the inhabitants. The chapter also includes consideration
of newer habitat designs derived from O’Neill’s work, particularly
Ryan Stuit, dir., The High Frontier: The Untold Story of Gerard O’Neill ( Jacksonville:
159
Multiverse Media, 2021), https://thehighfrontiermovie.com/.
149
150 Space Education
Al Globus’ smaller, more attainable plans, and the discussion con-

cludes with recommendations for further research in this field.
O’NEILL ON EDUCATION
O’Neill saw his designs not only as solutions to engineering prob-

lems, but also as “a powerful force for social change,” 160 offering the
possibility of a future rich with abundance for all, “without recourse
to war or punitive action against those already in material comfort.”161
An important part of this vision was his aim to create the conditions
necessary for a universally educated human population. 162 He explicit-
ly wanted children (as well as elders) in the habitats he envisioned, 163
anticipating better economic conditions for the young (as well as
opportunities for new learning far into old age). 164 He noted that
about a quarter of the population would be school- or college-aged,
thus requiring a small university, as well as (presumably) a K12 educa-
tion system.165 And, the detailed engineering studies he led explicitly
allocated public space for schools.166
Though he didn’t expand on how the education system might be
organized or where its focus might be, his hopes for society do invite a
degree of inference when imagining what schools might be like in one
of his habitats. O’Neill believed it was “essential to maintain a posi-
tive vision of the future”167 and that all humanity should share in arts,
160
161
162
O’Neill, The High Frontier, 34-35.
163
164
165
166
Edward Bock, Fed Lambrou, Jr., and Michael Simon, “Effect of Environmental
Parameters on Habitat Structural Weight and Cost,” in Space Resources and Space
Settlements, ed. John Billingham, William Gilbreath, and Brian O'Leary (Honolulu:
University Press of the Pacific, 1979), 33-60.
167
O’Neill, The High Frontier, Preface.
Chapter 9 151
music, and literature, 168 so it is reasonable to project that the schools

would be grounded in a liberal arts foundation. He aimed for a future of
abundant access to energy and materials,169 so science, technology, engi-
neering, and math would clearly also be included. He further described
a society built around individual freedoms—of choice, thought, and
lifestyle—with plentiful opportunities to exercise the pursuit of happi-
ness,170 from which we might infer additional curriculum (and school
governance) based on liberal democratic ideals. Furthermore, he want-
ed people to have opportunities to widen their horizons by interacting
with others following different lifestyles, and he imagined people’s lives
rich with healthy diversity and experimentation; 171 In today’s terms,
these schools would be inclusive and equitable for a diversity of indi-
viduals and cultures.
O’Neill referred to spacecraft (and by extension his habitats) as “fly-
ing school houses” where people learn new languages, train for new
vocations, and benefit from cross-disciplinary conversations. 172 He
described towns filled with bookshops and libraries 173 (though perhaps
he didn’t foresee the rise of electronic books—or the Internet)…and
with tennis courts, playing fields, and parks (not to mention beaches),174
So it may be appropriate to imagine a campus not unlike a beautiful
high school or university on Earth, with groves of trees where students
can gather in the shade, and a track and field area (and pool or lagoon)
where student athletes compete.
Ultimately, O’Neill wanted to “attack poverty and ignorance.” 175
He also saw education as a means to peace, both between human set-
tlements (there are no Expanse-like violent factions in his vision of
168
169
170
O’Neill, The High Frontier, 14, 17, 21, 39, 49, 273.
171
172
173
174
O’Neill, The High Frontier, 211
175
152 Space Education
the solar system) and between humanity and whoever else we might
meet in space someday (in a way more reminiscent of Star Trek’s Prime
Directive):
“the same characteristics which render a civilization immune to intel-
lectual decay and stagnation… are accompanied by a repugnance to
inflict harm on others, in particular to other ‘emerging’ civilizations
more primitive than its own.”176
Despite these ambitious visions, O’Neill himself did not go into any
detail about how schools might be organized in one of the habitats he
proposed. What little planning he did envision at NASA can be seen
to be laughably inadequate, providing only one square meter per person
of public space allocated to schools. 177 If this is meant to be per stu-
dent, it is barely room for desks in rows, and even if the number is four
times higher (because it is based on the total population of the habi-
tat rather than just students) it only barely allows for a standard sized
classroom, to say nothing of more flexible modern learning spaces—or
of cafeterias, multipurpose rooms, speciality spaces (for arts, music, sci-
ence labs, or maker spaces), or the sorts of athletic fields and campus
grounds mentioned above. Much larger spaces (on the order of 27 m2
per student) have been proposed for the Moon Village School, which
didn’t include outdoor space.178 Obviously, O’Neill left it to later gen-
erations of designers to sort out the details of how best to plan schools
for a space community.
Though we clearly have a long way to go before realizing O’Neill’s
vision for education in space, there are already examples of this sort
of thinking in practice and in original research. Today’s International
Space Station, which was also envisioned as an education platform, 179
might be seen as a first stepping stone toward O’Neill’s habitats. In 2001
Susan N. Behel imagined a space settlement design that included very
176
177
Bock et al., “Effect of Environmental Parameters,” 39.
178
See Chapter 7.
Robert W. Brown, “Space Station Freedom—A resource for Aerospace Education,”
179
IAF PAPER 88-467, 1988, https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19890030460.

Chapter 9 153
O’Neillian elements, such as a cross-disciplinary format incorporating

Earth and space sciences,180 and in 2015 Navdeeo Sharma proposed a
settlement “to act as an all-encompassing education and training hub
in space.”181 The Asgardian community today aims to “unite people in
a transnational, equal and progressive society to build a new home for
humanity in space”182 and is currently involved in efforts to create an
academy providing education to their “citizens” around the globe. Sim-
ilarly, the nonprofit Human Space Program (first proposed by Frank
White in 1987)183 has recently launched its Proto Task Force focused
on Education. The author of this book is involved in both efforts, and
hopes this research will serve as a valuable contribution to the literature
and to these ongoing discussions.
ISSUES RESOLVED BY DEEP SPACE HABITATS
O’Neill’s habitat designs resolve many of the issues schools will face on
other planetary bodies, such as Mars—and even the Moon. This is espe-
cially true if the first habitats are placed in Earth orbit or at a LaGrange
Point between the Earth and the Moon.. The communication delay is
negligible for most learning applications, and concerns about low gravi-
ty, the vacuum of space, and the threat of radiation are all but alleviated.
Psychological isolation is not likely to be a problem with a population
in the thousands (or tens of thousands… or more). Also, O’Neill’s focus
on limiting bureaucracy might save schools in space from some of the
most intractable challenges facing Earth’s large public school systems.
Communications throughout the solar system, whether by radio
or laser, are limited to the speed of light. For instance, the round trip
for signals between the Earth and Mars is between 6 minutes and 45
180
Susan N. Behel, “Space Settlement Design: A Unifying Theme for Skill Development
Through Scientific Inquiry,” Space Congress Proceedings 18.
181
Navdeep Sharma, “Educational Space Settlement: Mantavya,” Astropolitics 13, no. 1
(2015): 88-99.
182
Asgardia: The Space Nation, “Mission,” https://asgardia.space/en/pages/mission.
183
154 Space Education
minutes (depending on the current positions of the planets), which

makes synchronous exchanges impossible and significantly limits the
educational applications of any computing resources tied to the Earth,
from an open-ended Internet search to virtual reality (VR) or any task
requiring a cloud-based artificial intelligence (AI).184 Though it is much
closer, the Moon still requires a 2.5 second delay in round-trip com-
munications with the Earth; this mostly alleviates concerns related to
synchronous learning (by text or video) and related to using Earth-
based cloud computing… but without Moon-based resources, VR and
some AI applications would still be ineffective due to a the 2500 ms
delay. 185 O’Neill-style habitats in the Earth system, including those
located at L5 and most other Lagrange points, would enjoy a similarly
minimal delay, with similar flexibility for most synchronous education-
al technology and similar local requirements for effective VR and AI.
O’Neill estimated a “time lag of less than two seconds” for his proposed
communities. 186 But In low Earth orbit, the situation would be even
better; a habitat would be as connected to the Internet as Starlink satel-
lites (for instance) and would enjoy near instantaneous communication
with most of the planet, with almost no limits on the effectiveness
of educational technologies. (See the section focused on the Globus
School below for more about this option.)
Education on Mars would also be subject to the dangers of low
gravity, the lack of an atmosphere, and deadly solar radiation on a reg-
ular basis. On the Moon, all of these threats would be even worse, with
lower gravity, no atmosphere at all, and much more sunlight. Learning
spaces would need to be hardened against the vacuum and radiation
(most likely underground), and students would still need special exer-
cise routines and dietary supplements to cope with the low gravity. In
addition, the cost of delivering any educational materials or resourc-
es from Earth would be considerable; learning spaces would likely
184
See Chapter 5.
185
See Chapter 6.
186
Chapter 9 155
be small, supplies would be limited, and areas for physical education

would either be underground or very dangerous.187 However, a rotating
O’Neill-style habitat in space would provide a full gravity experience, a
fully pressurized atmosphere (likely similar to a high altitude city such
as Denver or Mexico City), and plenty of land area for multiple school
campuses, including full-size athletic fields.
Another concern related to small distant settlements, is the effect
of psychological isolation, particularly on the development of any chil-
dren in the community. Living in space is already associated with health
deterioration, behavior deterioration, and sociomoral performance
deterioration. 188 And, as the world learned during the COVID-19
pandemic, children and adolescents are more likely to experience high
rates of depression as a consequence of forced isolation. 189 Also, the
first facilities on Mars or the Moon would likely be extremely spartan,
meaning students might very well suffer the negative social, psycho-
logical, and spiritual implications of nature deficit due to the lack of
exposure to green spaces, trees, and a wild biosphere. 190 The sheer dis-
tance between Mars and Earth might amplify these effects, as might
a very low population such as is proposed for the Moon Village (125
individuals, with only 25 of them school-aged children, or about two
per grade). 191 However, once again, an O’Neill-style habitat would
largely alleviate these problems. There would be many square miles of
living green space, a population in the thousands, negligible commu-
nication delays with Earth, and relatively inexpensive opportunities to
187
188
Koji Tachibana, “A Hobbesian Qualm with Space Settlement.” Futures 110 ( June
2019): 28-30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2019.02.011.
189
Maria Elizabeth Loades et al., “Rapid Systematic Review: The Impact of Social
Isolation and Loneliness on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in the
Context of COVID-19,” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry 59, 11 (2020): 1218-39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009.
190
Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit
Disorder (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2008).
191
See Chapter 6.
156 Space Education
visit other settlements.192 Such a context would offer students an expe-

rience similar to a small town, even an agrarian small town where
they might be meaningfully embedded in food production and aid-
ing adults not only with crops, but also with maintenance, operations,
and inspections—perhaps even piloting (or developing) drones and
other scientific equipment. 193 It could be a healthy, if not idyllic, life-
style for growing up.
As an aside, O’Neill also expressed the need to limit bureaucracy
in the habitats he envisioned.194 This would not only make it easier for
students to have meaningful roles in their communities but would also
help alleviate some of the most vexing concerns facing large terrestrial
school systems. Studies reveal negative relationships between bureau-
cracy and student performance.195 An O’Neill-inspired school, on the
other hand, would enjoy local control with the flexibility to iterate and
innovate on its programs in a way similar to the best of modern inde-
pendent schools today.
NEW CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
O’Neill’s designs also present a number of new potential problems and

opportunities, of course. The sheer scale of the settlements means a
school system is required, not just a one room schoolhouse like the Moon
Village School. 196 Learning spaces can be dramatically different and
transportation may be a factor, both inside the habitat and in near-
by space. On the other hand, students will have relatively easy access
to microgravity—and space travel. There will be ample opportunities
for space science, but new safety concerns as well. O’Neill’s long-term
vision is inspiring, but also misses the mark in some respects. Luckily,
192
193
Al Globus, Personal Interview ( June 11, 2021).
194
195
John Bohte, “School Bureaucracy and Student Performance at the Local Level,” Public
Administration Review 61, no. 1 (2002): 92-99.
196
See Chapter 5.
Chapter 9 157
others like Al Globus of the National Space Society have already begun
iterating on his designs, with surprising consequences for schools.
O’Neill considered habitat designs for housing very large numbers
of people, from a population of about 10,000 up to the millions.197 This
would mean a school-age population of approximately 2,500 students
even at the low end of his plans. In keeping with O’Neill’s approach of
optimizing the human experience in these habitats, one might expect
school size to be only 300-400 students per primary school and up to
800 per secondary school.198 This means a system of schools (or a small
school district) would be necessary… perhaps three or four primary
schools, a middle school and a high school. Alternatively, perhaps a
network of many smaller schools with multi-age classrooms (like the
proposed Moon Village School199) might be built throughout the set-
tlement. In any case, with the ideal class size more like 18 than the
usual 30 to 40 students per teacher,200 this would also mean a need for
approximately 140 professional educators in the community, plus some
support staff and administrators (though these roles would be mini-
mized to reduce bureaucracy and increase student participation in the
care of their own learning spaces).
Physical learning spaces can be very different in the context of an
O’Neill-style habitat. They neither have to protect students from vac-
uum and radiation as schools on Mars or the Moon would, nor have to
follow the traditions of terrestrial designs. Globus has suggested that
walls might not even be necessary; schools would not need to protect
students from weather or natural disasters (for instance), so there is no
reason class couldn’t be regularly held in an open space or under the
197
Gerard K. O’Neill, “The Colonization of Space,” Physics Today 27, no. 9 (1974): 32,
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3128863.
198
Kathleen Cotton, “School Size, School Climate, and Student Performance,” School
Improvement Research Series: Research You Can Use, May 1996, https://education-
northwest.org/sites/default/files/SizeClimateandPerformance.pdf.
199
See Chapter 5.
Westin Kieschnick, “Does Class Size Matter? The Answer Is Yes,” Houghton Mifflin
200
Harcourt, 2021, https://www.hmhco.com/blog/class-size-matters.

158 Space Education
trees. 201 Appropriate technology could still be provided, and protect-

ed or put away if needed in the case of any planned weather (like an
overnight rain). In any case, even if planners opt for traditional build-
ings and classrooms (to provide privacy, quiet, and a sense of place for
learning), designs could, like the Moon Village School, provide the
best in flexible learning spaces, maker spaces, and rooms for focused
small group or individual work—and still offer outdoor gathering spac-
es on campus as well. Designed from the ground up to be more human
than the typical prison-like school on Earth, and modeled after highly
effective collaborative work places in the corporate world, the learn-
ing spaces in an O’Neill School could be truly inspiring: “comfortable,
beautiful, and flexible environments that invite students to learn by
engaging their curiosity, wonder, and natural physical energy.”202
It is worth noting one potential drawback of the “outdoor” spaces
being inside a giant structure. Where the Moon Village School would
have an extraordinary view of Earth providing students with an excel-
lent example of the overview effect (seeing humanity’s home planet
hanging in space),203 that would not be possible from a school built on
the inside surface of a cylinder. Even though sunlight would be angled
into the habitat via mirrors and giant land-mass sized windows, inhab-
itants wouldn’t see the Earth, except perhaps sometimes at night as the
massive construction rotated (depending on the orientation compared
to the Earth). That said, one proposal O’Neill suggested for homes
might also be possible for schools, at least on the ground floor or in a
basement of sorts:
“A window set at an angle in one wall… through which the immen-
sity of space and the brilliant unclouded stars will always be visible
drifting majestically across the field of view as [the habitat] rotates in
it’s unvarying two minute cycle.”204
201
Globus, Personal Interview.
202
Wagner, More Now, 95.
203
See Chapter 6.
204
Chapter 9 159
And of course, students could easily travel to better viewing

positions within (or even outside) the habitat. Maglev trains 205 or
low-powered electric cars (or shuttle buses) might be used not only to
transport students to and from school but also on field trips… to the
low gravity end caps perhaps, where they could experience flying bicy-
cles inside,206 non-rotating observation rooms outside the main cylinder,
or even EVAs to nearby agriculture facilities or other space stations.
With interorbit transportation, perhaps on solar-powered ferries, visits
to other settlements in the Earth system would be possible—even to
various Lagrange points or in orbit around the Moon with relatively
little energy needed. O’Neill foresaw families traveling together,207 and
this could be true for school field trips as well. So inside there would
be wilderness recreation areas to help students develop appreciation
for natural biomes, 208 and outside there would still be ample oppor-
tunities to experience an Overview Effect, and to even see their own
habitat spinning in space. In this way, students might experience the
solar system as their extended home, a perspective O’Neill shared with
Frank White.209
The rotation of the habitat would also provide unique opportu-
nities for students to experience various levels of gravity at different
altitudes (at least at the end caps)… and the natural consequences of
the varying coriolis effect. Consider how ball sports might be changed
by apparent curvature in a ball's path as participants rotate around it.
Globus describes the experience as similar to playing catch on a merry-
go-round.210 The potential for students to participate in unique sports
and performance arts are dramatically illustrated by physicist Adam
Dipert, who has discovered mesmerizing patterns of archimedean spi-
rals that are possible when a juggler (or jugglers) are tossing balls in
205
206
207
208
209
210
160 Space Education
straight lines while spinning in zero gravity.211

The deep space location (outside a natural gravity well) would also
offer many opportunities for students to be involved with space science,
simply by conducting an EVA or launching a drone (or small satellite
with experiments on board) outside the habitat. O’Neill also consid-
ered the potential for building large optical and radio telescopes on or
near a habitat.212 In fact, he saw the settlements inside as self-sufficient
laboratory villages, not unlike a university town,213 and there would be
no reason students should not be involved in original research from an
early age rather than waiting for graduate school.
Deep space would also of course present unique risks compared to
schools based on a planetary body. However, with the lack of natural
disasters and other terrestrial dangers (including traffic or pollution for
instance), O’Neill estimated the overall risk to be “less than those to
which we are exposed everyday here on Earth.”214 Even fire risk would
be less than on Earth, with reduced pressure, a large volume of atmo-
sphere, and plenty of water.215 Surprisingly, even if a panel of the large
windows were to be blown out entirely, it would be several years before
the atmosphere would leak out. 216 Radiation would still be a factor,
requiring, according to O’Neill’s estimates, fifty centimeters of sand
(or its equivalent) between the inhabitants and the direct sunlight in
open space.217
The internal environment might also include its own risks. O’Neill
anticipated a relatively low pressure atmosphere (to reduce structural
needs) with effects similar to a high altitude city like Denver or Mexico
City. While this is clearly livable for many, for others high altitude can
have detrimental consequences ranging from symptoms like headaches,
211
Space Juggler, “Space Juggling,” https://www.thespacejuggler.com/.
212
213
214
215
216
217
Chapter 9 161
dizziness, or nausea218 to more serious neurological conditions.219 The

relatively high rate of rotation needed for full gravity might also have
an effect on some, though Globus cites research that suggests most
people can handle higher rotation than O’Neill recommended.220 How
immigrant children (or children born on the habitat) might react
to these conditions over time remains unknown and requires addi-
tional research.
Even decades before the attacks of September 11th 2001, O’Neill
acknowledged the dangers of terrorism; he beleived there was safety in
mutually assured destruction that might protect habitats from attacking
each other, but knew there would be little to stop a malicious individual
actor inside a habitat.221 Countermeasures such as lasers, point-defense
cannons, or anti-missile missiles could protect against external attacks,
especially with modern computing power behind them, but would the
settlement also require an internal surveillance culture and something
like the department of homeland security to ensure safety from ter-
rorists? In this context, how might the population value things like
encryption and privacy? To what degree would students be monitored
to ensure that teenage angst or ignorance didn’t lead to dangers for the
whole community? Though O’Neill clearly had (arguably libertarian)
American ideals in mind when he envisioned space settlements of the
future, others like science fiction author Charles Stross have expressed
concern over exporting American culture (especially right-wing Amer-
ican libertarianism) into space, where there is no opportunity to walk
away from failures of the open market to protect people.222
218
Andrew M. Luks, Erik R. Swenson, and Peter Bärtsch, “Acute High-Altitude
Sickness,” European Respiratory Review 26 (2017): 160096, https://doi.
org/10.1183/16000617.0096-2016.
219
Buddha Basnyat, Tianyi Wu, and Jeffrey H. Gertsch, “Neurological Conditions at
Altitude That Fall Outside the Usual Definition of Altitude Sickness,” High Altitude
Medicine & Biology 5 (2004): 2, https://doi.org/10.1089/1527029041352126.
220
Al Globus, “Space Settlement Population Rotation Tolerance,” NSS Space Settlement
Journal ( June 2017): 1-25, http://space.alglobus.net/papers/RotationPaper.pdf.
221
222
Charles Stross, “A Game of Consequences,” 2016, http://www.antipope.org/charlie/
blog-static/2016/06/a-game-of-consequences.html.
162 Space Education
Naturally, there are still many unknowns associated with the poten-
tial risks of raising children in space. The team at Spaceborn United is
only now studying conception in space,223 and more research is needed
into embryo development, giving birth, and early childhood develop-
ment in orbit. Bruce Mackenzie of MIT and the Mars Foundation
raises questions ranging from genetic diversity needs to how best to
include remote or robotic support for parents in space, and a variety
of ethical issues related to safety. 224 A study of student perceptions of
space habitat acceptability also revealed a variety of multidimensional
opinions, and that the conditions and circumstances around the uses
of an environment can be significant. 225 It is also worth noting that
this is not a single species problem… children are likely to want pets in
their homes or to visit petting zoos in their settlement. Clearly, addi-
tional inquiry into all of these elements of childhood are needed in
order to better plan an education system for large scale settlements
like O’Neill describes.
In O’Neill’s long-term plan, he projected habitats throughout the
solar system providing a land area 3000 times that of the earth,226 thus
supporting humanity for thousands of years into the future. 227 The
decades since have not changed his underlying calculations. Rather,
recent data suggests that with greater prosperity and greater education
levels around the globe, population growth is already slowing228 if not
reversing,229 meaning the resources of the solar system may actually last
223
Spaceborn United, “Home,” https://spacebornunited.com/.
224
Bruce Mackenzie, “Issues of Raising the First Children in Space,” in AIAA Space
2007 Conference & Exposition (Long Beach, CA: AIAA, 2007), https://doi.
org/10.2514/6.2007-6077.
225
Albert A. Harrison, Nancy J. Struthers, and Bernard J. Putz, “Mission Destination,
Mission Duration, Gender, and Student Perceptions of Space Habitat Acceptability,”
Environment and Behavior 23 (1991): 2, https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916591232005.
226
227
228
Hans Rosling, Ola Rosling, and Anna Rosling Rönnlund, Factfulness: Ten Reasons
We’re Wrong about the World—and Why Things Are Better than You Think (New
York: Flatiron Books: 2018).
229
Damien Cave, Emma Bubola, and Choe Sang-Hun, “Long Slide Looms for World
Chapter 9 163
considerably longer. O’Neill did foresee that “nearly every common

predictable task would be computer-controlled, and will be carried out
by machinery which in its turn will have been constructed in factories
requiring very little human intervention.”230 But he could not possibly
have foreseen the reality of the Internet, and the impact it has already
had on nearly every industry, and especially on education (particu-
larly post-COVID-19 and Emergency Distance Learning on a global
scale). Today’s networked reality will significantly impact the idyllic
countryside lifestyle that O’Neill envisioned. Similarly, it is reasonable
to assume that while he imagined using habitats as generation ships
to the stars as well, the realities (including the technologies to come
and the surprises we will discover as we expand into the solar system
and beyond) will significantly impact the future of such settlements.
The education system will need to be flexible in preparing students
for an uncertain future of accelerating (and potentially monumental)
cultural change. These subjects must not remain in the niche genre of
science fiction, but must become integral to educating the first gener-
ations in space.
THE GLOBUS SCHOOL
One might easily imagine a version of The O’Neill School specifi-

cally tailored to the environment of Globus’ smaller, more attainable
habitats, which may likely be built first. The stations might be smaller,
lighter, and more efficient, but they will also have higher rotation rates,
lower populations, and flexible physical layouts, all of which are not for
everyone and may change things in the context of school design, with
potentially significant consequences.
In recent years, Al Globus of the National Space Society has pub-
lished papers suggesting that habitat designs similar to O’Neill’s might
be successful at a much smaller size. He reported that most people
Population, with Sweeping Ramifications,” New York Times, May 22, 2021, https://www.
nytimes.com/2021/05/22/world/global-population-shrinking.html.
230
164 Space Education
can handle significantly higher rates of rotation than O’Neill’s designs

assumed,, which would allow for smaller constructions to achieve 1 G
of acceleration on the interior of a ring or cylinder.231 Also, he explained
that placing a habitat in a low Earth orbit (rather than at a more distant
Lagrange point, as O’Neill planned) would allow the inhabitants to
benefit from the natural radiation protection provided by Earth’s mag-
netosphere, thus requiring less shielding on the habitat itself. 232 Both
of these changes would mean significantly less mass would be neces-
sary to construct an initial habitat… so little that it might be feasible
with a reasonable number of Starship launches—just over 100 launches,
assuming 100 tons of cargo (with no need for lunar mass drivers for
initial construction).233
Globus conducted original research (via online survey) to answer
the question of how many people might be comfortable in a small set-
tlement similar in size to a cruise ship for a population of around 500
people. Only about six percent of respondents thought they would be
comfortable living permanently under such conditions (especially if
it were to cost 75 percent of their wealth to make the move). 234 This
sounds like very little, but in the US alone this might represent a poten-
tial market of nearly 20 million people, or 500 million globally… more
than enough for early proof-of-concept settlements.
That said, for a multigenerational settlement, this context would
increase concerns about how young students might adapt to the higher
rate of rotation. It would also reintroduce concerns about psychological
isolation from growing up in such a small remote community; a pop-
ulation of only 125 students or so would mean only about 10 students
per grade, a very small pool of peers for developing youth and teens.
231
Globus, “Space Settlement Population Rotation Tolerance.”
232
Al Globus, “Orbital Space Settlement Radiation Shielding,” 2015 Preprint,
https://space.nss.org/wp-content/uploads/Orbital-Space-Settlement-Radiation-
Shielding-2015.pdf.
233
Al Globus and Tom Marotta, The High Frontier: An Easier Way (Privately print-
ed, 2018), 102.
234
Al Globus and Tom Marotta, “How Small of a Free-Space Settlement Can People Be
Happy Living In?” NSS Space Settlement Journal (September 2018): 1-86.
Chapter 9 165
The comparably smaller volume would also mean potentially greater

danger from decompression—with much more threat from debris in
low Earth orbit as well. Orbital decay would also be a significant con-
cern closer to the planet and the atmosphere. Thus, this design also
increases ethical concerns about raising students in an environment
that is potentially unsafe both psychologically and physically. Globus’s
Kalpana One design would alleviate some of this with a larger volume
and higher population (of more like 3,000 residents and approximately
750 students, or closer to 60 students per grade).
A school system for such a settlement would only require one cam-
pus (or possibly two), thus further reducing the likelihood of stifling
school bureaucracies. These smaller habitats would also offer different
opportunities for student learning experiences. The multi-level concen-
tric ring designs would allow residents to experience different levels of
gravity in more places than just the end caps of a larger habitat (perhaps
even on different stories of a single building due to the smaller diameter
of the design), and would also potentially allow flexible flooring to be
moved to the appropriate gravity level for any given pursuit (such as
construction or athletic events in lower G environments).235 Also, the
smaller populations might allow students to be even more meaning-
ful contributors to community pursuits from farming to maintenance.
School design in this case might provide flexible space (similar to the
Moon Village School 236), and programs that send students out into
other areas of the habitat even more often than in a larger O’Neill style
settlement. This might be more like living in a remote village, rather
than among several neighboring villages, as O’Neill envisioned in his
larger Island 3 design. But it could still be idyllic, with a well planned
temperate environment, ample greenspace, and plenty of outdoor learn-
ing opportunities.
235
236
See Chapter 7.
166 Space Education
CONCLUSION
In keeping with O’Neill’s vision, the school system of a deep space

habitat could sustain progressive social change in an idyllic agrarian
environment. School cultures could be nimble, inclusive, and grounded
in liberal democratic values, providing greater opportunities for young
learners to have agency in their own learning and be well prepared for
their futures. There would be limited concerns about psychological
isolation, particularly in the larger communities. Physically, children
would grow up in full gravity, with protection from the vacuum of space
and from radiation—with constant access to flexible learning spaces
and lush outdoor environments. Also, with full access to the terres-
trial Internet, synchronous communication with planetside peers and
experts would be trivial and commonplace. Easy access to microgravity
and EVAs in space would also provide many unique opportunities for
learning, athletics, and performance art—not to mention opportuni-
ties to develop an “Overview Effect” related not only to the Earth but
also to the habitat itself and the entire cislunar system. The physical
risks would be minimal, especially in comparison to potential disasters
on Earth (never mind the Moon or Mars), and technical countermea-
sures could be employed to protect against both external attacks and
internal threats such as terrorism. Someday, such habitats could serve
as flying school houses or mobile university towns if propelled as gener-
ation ships throughout the solar system and beyond. And, to begin on
this path, very similar benefits could be derived for students living in a
much smaller Globus-style habitat created using today’s launch vehicles.
Though O’Neill didn’t prescribe any of this, his work lays the foun-
dation for others to explore the consequences for students, educators,
and their community. The thought experiments discussed in this
paper only scratch the surface of what’s possible—and of the thorough
planning that would be needed to make any of this a reality. Several
questions requiring additional research are clear already:
1. How might schools be designed differently for cultures other

than European and American academic traditions?
Chapter 9 167
2. What might be learned from small school systems in isolated

communities on the Earth today that could better inform design
of space-based education?
3. What other unique learning opportunities might easy access to

microgravity and open space allow?
4. What unique elements might be possible (and valuable) in indoor

and outdoor learning spaces within these habitats?
5. Considering elements of school change, how might the context

of a deep space habitat open up new possibilities for courageous
leadership, empowered teachers, student agency, inspiring spaces,
robust infrastructure, and engaged community?
6. How might the risks of raising children in space (both physical

and psychological) be mitigated by school design?
7. Though schools are already meant to be systems of cultural trans-

mission (and development) over generations, how might the
greater isolation of a generation ship affect school design?
Ideally, this paper will inspire many more and be only the beginning
of a rich tradition of academic literature focused on making the most
of education in deep space habitats.
168 Space Education
Elements of School Change
Figure 5. This honeycomb represents the elements of successful school change.

Innovative schools benefit from courageous leadership willing to take risks on new
ideas. Teachers are empowered to make decisions and experiment at the classroom
level too. More importantly, all learning is focused on student agency. Inspiring
spaces reflect the culture of learning the school aspires to, while technical (and
policy) infrastructure is in place to support this. The most successful schools also
actively engage community stakeholders.
Part III ::
Preparing Educators
and Leaders
Chapter 10
The philosophy courses at the Kepler Space Institute focus heavily

on ethics and moral decision-making. Systems thinking and gover-
nance are also frequent themes in class and in KSI’s Journal of Space
Philosophy. The opportunity to write about these topics, which will
undoubtedly be important as we navigate human migration into
distant communitiesdispersed throughout the solar system, led to
the four papers included in this part of the book. This section can
thus be seen both as an effort to prepare the leaders of today for
what lies ahead, and an effort to look even further into the future
than the previous two sections, asking what social systems human-
ity might want to purposefully export beyond the Earth.
This first essay considers both the standards of moral decision
making, and the ideal qualities of a moral leader. The discussion
is written from my perspective, of course, informed by a review
of relevant literature. And though I recognize the complexity of
accountability in this context, I made some effort to answer Dr. Larry
Downing’s challenge asking what the appropriate response might
be when a leader violates agreed-upon moral values. My hope is that
the paper might be thought-provoking for educators, leaders, and
space philosophers today—and that it might also serve as a contri-
bution to the literature that leaders on the Moon, Mars, or elsewhere
would find helpful in the future.
173
174 Space Education
I also want to take the opportunity here to acknowledge the

role of the late Dr. Bob Krone, Professor Emeritus and president of
KSI, in driving the focus and content of the graduate coursework
and the journal. His mentorship of Kepler scholars was central to
my experience of the space philosophy program. His legacy is evi-
dent throughout this section (and the whole of the book), and will
be evident at Kepler and in the field of space philosophy for many
years to come.
Moral Decision-Making
and Leadership for
Space Exploration
INTRODUCTION
In 2012, Dr. Bob Krone of the Kepler Space Institute identified

the need for a foundation of morality and ethics in the deci-
sion-making of leaders, especially as humanity expands into the
rest of the solar ecosystem. His colleague at KSI, Dr. Larry Down-
ing, was also concerned with the moral and ethical implications of
leadership in space.1 Their work has inspired further exploration
of these critical questions: What should be the standards that
guide in making a moral decision? What are the important qual-
ities of a moral leader? And what are appropriate responses when
someone violates moral values? The purpose of this essay is to pro-
vide a cohesive but brief answer to each of these questions, with
responses grounded in the existing literature of space philosophy.
1
Lawrence G. Downing, “Long-Term Space Inhabitants: Their Needs, Care, and
Support,” Journal of Space Philosophy 9, no. 1 (2020): 9.
175
176 Space Education
WHAT SHOULD BE THE STANDARDS THAT GUIDE

IN MAKING A MORAL DECISION?
As humanity faces increasing existential threats as well as a growing

opportunities to achieve greater creative potential, it is critical that
decisions are made for the good of humanity with the aim of creating
a better future for all, rather than focusing on the narrow needs of the
self, certain individuals, any tribe, or even a nation. In short, the stan-
dards that guide moral decision-making as humanity expands into space
should be utilitarian, inclusive, and long term.
It is clear that humanity faces a greater number of existential threats
than ever before in history…from natural threats such as impact from
an asteroid to self-inflicted dangers such as climate change, nuclear
war, or a pandemic.2 Thus, Dror called for global leaders to make deci-
sions based on what’s best for their country “on condition that it is
good for the future of humankind.’3 White took this considerably fur-
ther, arguing that decisions should be made for the good of the future
solar-system wide society, and the potential galaxy-wide civilization
that could follow.4 In the same vein, Ord suggested that humanity as
we know it may only be the beginning of the potential for intelligent
life in the universe that may follow from us in a posthuman future.5
So, with a global society in clear view now, leaders can make a util-
itarian decision to maximize happiness around the world, with some
consideration for these more distant futures as well. From the works
of Aristotle in ancient Greece to modern space philosophers like
Munévar 6 and Arthur, 7 happiness has been recognized as a self-suf-
ficient goal. Similarly, educational philosopher—and science fiction
fan—Todd advocated for "success in the form of self-actualization,
2
Downing et al., Values Analysis for Moral Leadership; Ord, The Precipice;
Pyle, Space 2.0.
3
Dror, “Becoming a Singularity Policy Scientist,” 82.
4
5
Ord, The Precipice.
6
Munévar, “Space Exploration and Human Survival.”
7
Chapter 10 177
happiness, mutual aid, and freedom,” 8 while psychiatrists Rusk and

Miller acknowledged the power of happiness as an end goal.9
In order to maximize human happiness, moral decision-making
should also be inclusive and equitable, benefiting a wide diversity of
people. Space philosopher Thangavelu extolled the benefits of cosmo-
politanism, acceptance of all peoples, and the strengths of plurality
and diversity.10 Schorer, an educator, also promoted evangelizing space
exploration to a broad spectrum of the populace.11 We must also con-
sider the much greater diversity of humanity that may exist in a future
where genetic engineering and artificial intelligence are commonplace,
especially in space or on other worlds.12 Dror also warned against the
dangers of not being equitable with who benefits from new technolo-
gies, such as human enhancements in particular.13
Diversity of spiritual tradition should also be considered and
included. Peeters saw the necessity of addressing religion, even in mat-
ters of science,14 and as Krone recognized, spirituality will be essential
for the future of humans on Earth and in space. 15 Connor et. al. point-
ed out that a universal ethic is needed that is applicable to all people
regardless of their religion,16 while Downing envisioned future habitats
that explicitly include Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and
hundreds of other religions.17 White advocated that leaders, regardless
of their religion, tap into their spirituality and listen to the messages
8
Todd, “A Utopian Mirror,” 147.
9
Rusk and Miller, The Power of Ethical Persuasion.
10
Thangavelu, “Human Space Activity.”
11
12
Ord, The Precipice.
13
Yehezkel Dror, “Singularity Contour,” Journal of Space Philosophy 7, no. 2
(2018): 53-70.
14
15
Krone, Robert M., “Singularity Space Contour,” Journal of Space Philosophy 7, no. 2
(2018): 71-81.
16
Connor et al., “A Code of Ethics for Humans in Space.”
17
Downing, “Long-Term Space Inhabitants.”
178 Space Education
coming to them from the universe.18

Even within a single society or religion, the diversity of individu-
als—and the diverse parts of whole individuals—should be considered.
Krone articulated the need for the arts in space. 19 Later, Krone and
Arthur noted that a successful future will also require the soft sciences
and the arts,20 and Downing called for creativity in future leadership. 21
Decision-makers should also consider the diversity of the inner human
experience, respecting a wide variety of emotions that shape individuals’
lives and memories.22 In addition, Kirby and Kiker recognized humans’
need to connect with nature even while in space,23 and it follows that
a diverse biosphere and environment should also be considered when
it comes to planning for human happiness.
Like a race car driver who must look not just at where he is or even
where he’s going, but rather as many turns down the road as possible, 24
leaders must now adopt a perspective of looking as far ahead as they can.
Dror advocated for a focus on long-term perspectives and persistence
in moving toward goals—in contrast with the short-term thinking
and attention deficit that often dominates contemporary leadership.25
Ord coined this healthy concern for the future “longtermism.”26 This
view is also inclusive of the Overview Effect and White’s conclusion
that “everything is interconnected and interrelated.”27 Interconnected-
ness extends even to other planets. Munévar urged leaders to respect
non-terrestrial environments by not only ensuring there is no native
18
19
Krone, “Music and Arts for Humans in Space.”
20
Robert M. Krone and Gordon Arthur. “Preface.” Journal of Space Philosophy 7, no. 2
(2018): 3-6.
21
Downing, “Long-Term Space Inhabitants.”
22
23
24
Ross Bentley, Speed Secrets: Professional Race Driving Techniques (Osceola, WI:
Motorbooks, 1998).
25
26
Ord, The Precipice.
27
White, The Overview Effect, 2.
Chapter 10 179
life to be disturbed, but also by learning all there is to be learned before

disturbing and exploiting the in situ resources. 28 Peeters called such
preservationist stewardship the “gardening instinct” and an important
part of “cosmocentric ethics.”29 This sort of long-term thinking is remi-
niscent of both Star Trek’s Prime Directive, a policy of noninterference
meant to allow alien life (and culture) to develop naturally,30 and Asi-
mov’s Zeroeth law, an amendment to the three laws of robotics which
placed avoiding harm to humanity as a higher guiding principle than
avoiding harm to any individual human…and which inspired some of
the long-lived robot characters to implement a 20,000 year plan to save
humanity from itself.31
WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT QUALITIES

OF A MORAL LEADER?
Each year volumes are written on the qualities of effective leaders, but
this question is focused specifically on moral qualities, and on the con-
text of future space exploration. As humanity expands into space, moral
leadership needs to exhibit the qualities of purpose, optimism, resil-
ience, wisdom, and balance.
Perhaps a leader’s effectiveness can best be measured by how well
they achieve their purpose, and based on the answer to the first question
in this paper…the fundamental purpose of a leader should now be to
make moral decisions based on standards of utilitarianism, inclusion,
and long-term thinking for the good of humanity. Connor et al. also
believed that planning for the future of people in space needs to be
purposefully directed.32 Downing et al. saw a similar purpose for moral
28
Munévar, “Humankind in Outer Space.”
29
Peeters, “Space Science as a Cradle for Philosophers,” 32.
30
Gene Roddenberry, prod., Star Trek: The Original Series (Television Broadcast).
Hollywood: NBC, 1966-68.
31
Isaac Asimov, Foundation and Earth (New York: Doubleday, 1986); Isaac Asimov,
Robots and Empire (New York: Del Rey, 1986).
32
180 Space Education
leadership, “to increase the quality of life for humanity,”33 and Krone
placed the preservation of humanity in perpetuity as the foundational
purpose for leading civilization ethically. 34 White also acknowledged
the importance of vision and purpose in the long-term health of any
human society.35
In order to best move their purpose forward, and to give their high-
est aspirations the best chance of coming to pass, a moral leader should
nurture an optimistic view of the world. Munévar typified this with
his belief that the exploration of space “will make a richer, cleaner and
more humane future.” 36 Dror, too, concluded that the sort of policy
scientists saw as necessary would have to be optimistic dreamers,37 and
Ord subscribed to Asimov’s brand of optimism, relying on rationali-
ty, collaboration, and a willingness to leave behind tribal pride.38 The
science fiction franchise Star Trek also frequently depicts this sort of
optimism, as in the episode “The Brightest Star” where the inspirational
character Saru declares, “I saw hope in the stars. It was stronger than
fear. And I went toward it.”39
However, sometimes optimism is not enough to sustain long-term
efforts, and it is certain that space exploration will face many chal-
lenges and setbacks. As astronaut Chris Hadfield said, NASA training
includes the mantra that “there is no problem you can’t make worse”
with your own response to it.40 Moral leaders in the space age will thus
also require a high degree of resilience. Dror considered it an imperative
for leaders to “acquire crisis coping skills” 41 and suggested that “stoic
33
34
Krone, “Philosophy for Humans in Space.”
35
36
Munévar, “A Philosopher Looks at Space Exploration,” 170-71.
37
Dror, “Becoming a Singularity Policy Scientist.”
38
Ord, The Precipice.
39
Alex Kurtzman, prod., “The Brightest Star,” Star Trek: Discovery (Video) (Hollywood:
CBS All Access, 2018).
40
Chris Hadfield, What I Learned from Going Blind in Space (Video), TED Talk, 2014,
http://www.ted.com/talks/chris_hadfield_what_i_learned_from_going_blind_in_space.
41
Dror, “Singularity Contour,” 82.
Chapter 10 181
enthusiasm is a must.”42 Developing a stoic mindset is a theme in space

philosophy, with Todd noting stoic lessons in Brave New World43 and
Ord citing the ancient stoic Seneca in his call to change global insti-
tutions for better resilience to catastrophe.44 John Stockdale, a veteran
pilot of the Vietnam war who was shot down and spent brutal years
at the hands of his captors, summarized the powerful combination of
optimism and resilience that perfectly illustrates the stoic philosophy:
You must never confuse faith that you will prevail in the end —
which you can never afford to lose — with the discipline to confront
the most brutal facts of your current reality, whatever they might be.45
Even well prepared with an optimistic attitude and stoic resilience,
leaders will require a broad education and rich experience of the world
so that they might also apply wisdom to their decisions. It is clear that
the space philosophers at KSI feel wisdom is a critical component of
moral leadership in the space age,46 and they recommend study of Eth-
ical Persuasion as a guide to leading wisely. 47 Elsewhere in the field,
Munévar called for a dynamic pursuit of science so that leaders would
have the chance to act wisely,48 and Ord explicitly sought to close the
gap between human wisdom and human power—particularly scientific
power that might be an existential threat to the species.49 Furthermore,
Peeters pointed out the need to reconcile science and philosophy,50 and
many others in the field illustrate the need for leaders to have training
in philosophy as well.51
42
Dror, “Singularity Contour,” 93.
43
44
Ord, The Precipice.
45
Quoted in Jim Collins, Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap and
Others Don’t (New York: HarperBusiness, 2001).
46
Krone, “Utopia: Space Philosophy and Reality”; Downing, “Ethics, Values, and Moral
Leadership”; Arthur, “Why Go to Space?”
47
48
Munévar, “A Philosopher Looks at Space Exploration.”
49
Ord, The Precipice.
50
51
Dror, “Becoming a Singularity Policy Scientist”; Hetzler, “Man and Space”; Krone,
182 Space Education
While a leader wisely pursues their purpose with optimism and resil-
ience, they must also be able to balance other needs, opportunities, and
obstacles as they come up—and should be sure to refrain from losing
their humanity or becoming neurotic in pursuit of their goals. The
whole human needs to be important to leaders—in themselves and in
others. Leaders should not reject the value of feelings52 or the arts, 53
and should embrace a wide variety of subjects and disciplines in space
communities. 54 Also, leaders should recognize that connection with
nature makes people happier, healthier, and more creative,55 and thus
should balance space technologies with opportunities to experience a
more biological environment. 56 Ultimately, leaders must balance the
cultural dimensions inherent in any human community,57 and though
NASA has not implemented Hetlzer’s recommendation to convene
a cultural council, 58 they have had a space art program since 1963 59
and future leaders can strike a better cultural balance as settlement
becomes a reality. Balance will also be necessary in serving both the
needs of the present and the future60 as leaders strive to bring a peace-
ful balance to human civilization 61 that maximizes both human and
post-human potential.62
“Philosophy for Space”; Krone, “Philosophy for Humans in Space”; Ord, The Precipice;
Peeters, “Space Science as a Cradle for Philosophers”; White, The Overview Effect.
52
53
54
Kirby and Kiker, “Planning the Oasis in Space”; Robert M. Krone and Gordon Arthur,
“The Yehezkel Dror Legacy,” Journal of Space Philosophy 7, no. 2 (2018): 8-27.
55
Florence Williams, The Nature Fix: Why Nature Makes Us Happier, Healthier, and
More Creative (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017).
56
Kirby and Kiker, “Planning the Oasis in Space”; Todd, “A Utopian Mirror.”
57
58
Hetzler, “Man and Space.”
59
Krone, “Music and Arts for Humans in Space,”
60
Dror, “Singularity Contour.”
61
62
Munévar, “Space Exploration and Human Survival.”
Chapter 10 183
WHAT ARE APPROPRIATE RESPONSES WHEN SOMEONE

VIOLATES MORAL VALUES?
So moral decisions should be made on the basis of utilitarian, inclusive,

and long-term standards…and moral leaders should display qualities
of purposefulness, optimism, resilience, wisdom, and balance as they
pursue these ends. But what should be done in the case of a violation
of these standards or qualities? White cautioned space settlers against
the moral abuses of colonialism in recent centuries, 63 and Downing
asked what the consequences of moral transgressions should be in
space.64 When a citizen or leader violates moral values in space, there
must be broad conditions for forgiveness, ample opportunities for edu-
cation, and only measured consequences with minimal punishment or
incarceration. Anything else would be an unnecessary waste of human
resources and potential.
Given the likelihood of small tight-knit communities in the first
space settlements, and given the resources necessary to keep humans
alive in space, the highest priority should be limiting the cultural and
logistical costs of transgressions. Therefore, although Dror argued for
strict enforcement and harsh punishments in the space environment,65
Forgiveness is instead a critical first step. Clearly, forgiveness is easier
in the case of accidents, but Downing et al. suggest that “intentional
immoral or unethical behavior is unforgivable.”66 However, this doesn’t
recognize the opportunity for remorse, and in a case where a perpetra-
tor is truly remorseful, forgiveness may also be the best way forward.
This is in keeping with the KSI approach to choose optimism and then
manage wisely to achieve a self-fulfilling prophecy.67
Sometimes forgiveness from the aggrieved and a willingness to
improve on the part of the transgressor may be sufficient, but in many
instances (whether accidental or intentional) additional education or
63
64
Downing, “Ethics, Values, and Moral Leadership.”
65
66
67
184 Space Education
rehabilitation may be necessary to improve future behavior—and give

others the confidence that it will indeed change. A focus on education
as response to moral violation is in keeping with the philosophies of
promoting learning,68 encouraging continual learning,69 and teaching
ethical communication to help individuals develop their own personal
power and spiritual center.70 This is also consistent with the construc-
tivist educational philosophy of learning by doing (such as is taught
at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo), and the modern corporate philosophy
of “moonshot thinking,” which requires failing forward—and failing
fast (such as implemented by Alphabet’s X, formerly Google’s X Lab).
Reflection is important for making connections between actions taken
and the consequences of those actions, and it should be a key com-
ponent of any education, especially following a transgression. Todd
acknowledged the importance of reflection in future societies,71 and
opportunities for deep reflection are part of Ord’s vision for the future
of humanity.72
In the case of an infraction that is more serious, or where educa-
tion has been shown to be ineffective, additional consequences may be
required, up to and including incarceration. In keeping with Rusk and
Miller’s philosophy that absolute limits be kept to a minimum and that
any enforced limit involves caring for the human spirit,73 so, too, should
consequences in space communities be measured, appropriate, and as
much as possible natural outcomes of the transgression. In the case
of damage caused to a habitat, for instance, the consequences might
involve the perpetrator paying for or personally performing the repair—
or being responsible for future preventative measures. Even Dror, who
advocates for harsher punishments, acknowledges the need for due
68
69
70
71
72
Ord, The Precipice.
73
Chapter 10 185
process and for a focus on fairness and human welfare. 74 Given the
moral standards of utilitarianism and inclusivity, where there are con-
sequences, they should be less harsh than Dror has argued, measured
instead to maximize utility and minimize impediments to freedom.
Of course, it may be that widespread practice of ethical persuasion75
might help citizens better communicate and better understand the con-
sequences of their actions, thus removing much of the need for the
enforcement of punitive measures in the first place.
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH
Based on a literature review of space philosophy and related resources,

answers to the questions posed in this paper are clear. The standard
that guides moral decision-making as humanity expands into space
should be utilitarian, inclusive, and long-term. In this context, moral
leadership needs to exhibit the qualities of purpose, optimism, resil-
ience, wisdom, and balance. And when a citizen or leader violates moral
values in space, there must be broad conditions for forgiveness, ample
opportunities for education, and only measured consequences with
minimal punishment or incarceration.
These conclusions illuminate a number of opportunities for addi-
tional research. In particular, how different is moral leadership off the
planet from that which should prevail on it? How might a “better
future” for humanity be defined and agreed upon? What are the lim-
its to inclusivity in the forbidding environment of a space settlement?
How are the needs of the present to be weighed against the potential
of the future? Can a series of case studies illustrate ways modern moral
leaders might best exemplify qualities like optimism, resilience, or bal-
ance? Could a justice system based on natural consequences scale to a
settlement or society? And how might lifelong learning opportunities
integrate the need for rehabilitation after moral lapses? The answers to
74
75
186 Space Education
these questions could easily be the work of a career or lifetime, and are
a meaningful focus for the long term collaborative efforts of an insti-
tution such as the Kepler Space Institute.
Moral Decision Making
Figure 6. Each of these elements might be seen as rings on a target, or as planets

orbiting the larger goal. Moral decision making happens at the center where all
three overlap and are bound together. Decisions should be Utilitarian and focused
on the greater good, while being inclusive of all stakeholders, and considering the
long term ramifications for future generations.
Chapter 10 187
5 Points of Leadership
Figure 7. Star leaders exhibit all five of these qualities. They are dedicated to their
purpose. Their optimistic outlook presumes (and draws out) the best in others,
while they are resilient enough to overcome obstacles, including their own doubts.
They draw wisdom from many sources, and also maintain a balance in their lives,
acknowledging dark realities while still enjoying all that the universe has to offer.
Chapter 11
Like chapter three, the following is a shorter discussion captur-

ing a specific thought experiment related to the greater subject of
the book. That said, perhaps it will prove illuminating as a real-world
example of the values discussed in the previous chapter. This is a
review of President Barack Obama’s one significant speech on space
policy, considered through the lens of the framework for moral lead-
ership laid out in the previous paper. Obama does embody many
of the values discussed, and though it was not a particularly histor-
ic or meaningful speech, it could have been. It turns out I’m just as
impatient as a space philosopher as I was as an educational tech-
nologist. I was inspired by Obama’s presidency (and more so by
his candidacy), but I would love to see our future leaders be more
ambitious, unfailingly optimistic, and fully supportive of humanity’s
multi-planet future and purpose in spreading life and civilization to
other worlds.
189
Moral Leadership and
Space Exploration:
Barack Obama’s Speech
at Kennedy Space Center
April 15, 2010
On April 15, 2010, as Space Shuttle Discovery orbited the Earth

for its second-to last flight and one of the first Falcon 9 rockets sat on
a launch pad at Kennedy Space Center, ready for its first test flight,
President Barack Obama gave his most important speech about NASA
and the American role in future global space exploration efforts. It
was clear that his guidance for NASA took a utilitarian approach, was
inclusive of all humanity, and focused on the long term. It was also
clear that Obama exhibited the moral leadership qualities of purpose,
optimism, resilience, wisdom, and balance. What’s more, he also offered
opportunities for forgiveness and education, rather than consequences
or punishment for his political opponents and detractors. Even so, the
speech fell short of what it could’ve been.
Obama was utilitarian in his approach to the space program, rec-
ognizing that the Apollo project inspired a generation of scientists and
191
192 Space Education
produced immeasurable technological advances. He acknowledged that

the space race helped America achieve new heights of prosperity, and
of course considered the importance of jobs to the happiness of the
American people—and the importance of discovery to the American
character. More importantly, he acknowledged the program’s contri-
butions “not only to America, but to the world.”
In fact, he was inclusive of a wide variety of demographics through-
out his speech. He began by thanking scientists, engineers, business
leaders, public servants, astronauts, and everyone else in attendance.
He was clear to acknowledge men and women throughout the speech,
and he highlighted the fact that the space program had gone from
being a global competition to being a global collaboration. He was
also inclusive and respectful of his critics’ perspectives several times
during the speech.
Long-term thinking is evident throughout the performance as well.
He made clear allusions to historical precedence, including internation-
al efforts starting with Sputnik, and painted a clear vision of a future
where NASA is pushing the boundaries of humanity’s reach. He knew
the serendipitous benefits that this exploration would bring, saying that
“broadening our capabilities in space will continue to serve our society
in ways that we can scarcely imagine.” To that end, he set far-reaching
milestones, including a crewed mission to Mars in the mid 2030s. His
purpose was thus clear, and he strove to stand out from his predeces-
sors who were “driven sometimes less by vision than by politics.” In
contrast, he articulated a strong stance that space exploration is essen-
tial to America.
And his vision was optimistic. He chose to believe that the Moon
landings were “only the beginning” and in “the power of a free and open
society to harness the ingenuity of its people.” His milestones included
a new heavy lift rocket years ahead of schedule, as well as challenging
NASA to tackle major scientific and technological challenges. He imag-
ined what he called a “transformative agenda” for NASA.
In order for such optimistic goals to come to fruition, a degree of
resilience is required, and his speech exhibited that as well. He offered
Chapter 11 193
thoughtful responses to ““a number of questions raised” by his crit-

ics, and unlike other politicians, he expressed a willingness to set clear
objectives—and allocate the resources necessary for success. As such,
he increased NASA’s budget significantly (while still dealing with a
national recession). Pragmatically, he aimed to make the most of robot-
ic exploration, the existing investment in the ISS, and the work already
done on Orion and Constellation, though those programs were being
partially or largely abandoned. Naturally, he also addressed the need
for a plan to support people whose jobs might be lost in the transition.
And, perhaps most importantly, he laid out a plan for even more collab-
oration with private companies so that Americans might get to space
faster and more often.
Throughout the speech, the president demonstrated wisdom and
balance as well. He gratefully acknowledged the contributions of his
allies and the concerns of his critics. He also adopted a perspective
much greater than just his own, and greater even than an American
viewpoint, acknowledging the Russian’s achievement in Sputnik and
the international collaborations in more recent decades. And, he was
sure to look beyond just the business at hand, including a measure of
humor in his speech…enjoying jokes about Buzz Aldrin (who was in
attendance), the Air Force One (which can’t even achieve orbit), and
the Hubble Space telescope print in his office (“thank you, Charlie, for
helping decorate my office”).
His balanced approach also included a degree of respect and for-
giveness for his political detractors and opponents. He didn’t hesitate
to disagree with them, but offered clear reasons on common ground for
his decisions…and he was sure to offer “enormous respect and admira-
tion” for them. Similarly, he acknowledged a need for re-education in
moving forward as priorities change, praising Eisenhower’s investment
in science and math education from grade school to graduate school,
and calling for a plan to reeducate displaced workers in the wake of the
current policy changes.
Despite these many admirable qualities evident in President
Obama’s speech and space exploration policies, it can still be said that
194 Space Education
it fell far short of where it could have been. This was a relatively minor
and inconsequential speech in the context of his career, and human-
ity’s multi-planet future deserved much better…more of his time and
more of his administration’s resources. His long term-thinking was
sadly limited and his optimism was not nearly ambitious enough—
with the Space Shuttle fleet retired without replacement, a return to
the Moon taken off the agenda, Mars exploration still pushed decades
off into the future, and no plan beyond Mars. Worse, there was no
increased focus on space education at any level, leaving the general
population arguably less prepared than a generation ago for a now rap-
idly approaching future where space impacts nearly every industry on
Earth—and beyond.
Chapter 12
This chapter pulls the concepts of moral decision-making and gov-

ernance from the previous two papers into sharper focus through
the very specific lens of leading one of the first schools in space.
You’ll see the familiar values of purpose, optimism, resilience, wis-
dom, and balance make a return here. This paper then builds on this
foundation with discussion of broader governance concerns such
as sustainability, inclusivity, building positive culture, and allowing
for self-organization.
This chapter also includes a unique addition to this collection,
an exploration of a particular system of self-governance that may
fulfil many of the identified needs. Holacracy has already been
adopted and proven in corporate contexts on Earth, in addition to
nonprofit and community organizations. It has been suggested
for government use, and to a lesser degree there has been exper-
imentation in educational institutions. In the face of the dynamic
challenges facing a remote space school, holacracy might offer a
number of benefits, including encouraging a culture of entrepre-
neurial creativity.
With these future-focused discussions of self-governance in
mind, we can then turn in chapter thirteen to the concrete task of
how best to prepare the educators and leaders of the future through
graduate programs and professional development efforts today.
195
Leadership, Governance,
and Self-Organization
for Schools in Space
INTRODUCTION
Whether on the Moon, on Mars, or in a deep space habitat, estab-

lishing a school in space is an opportunity to do things better
than they’ve been done on Earth. More importantly, things
may have to be better in order to prepare students to live as pio-
neers in such challenging and dangerous contexts, providing
them with the necessary foundations in survival skills, science,
mathematics, technology, and philosophy.76 For these efforts to
be successful, school leadership and school governance must be
effective. Research suggests that some degree of self-organization
may be necessary for schools to adapt to challenges,77 and this
may be especially true in remote locations throughout the solar
system. The following discussion thus considers the elements of
moral leadership, effective governance, and self-organization for
space schools.
76
See Chapter 1.
77
Tami McCrone, Clare Southcott, and Nalia George, Governance Models in Schools
(Slough, UK: National Foundation for Educational Research, 2011).
197
198 Space Education
In summary, school leaders will need to be moral individ-

uals with a clear focus on their purpose, an optimistic outlook,
resilient dispositions, the wisdom to navigate complex ethical
dilemmas, and the balance to make it all work within the reali-
ties of a small human community. The governance systems they
oversee will need to be sustainable, adaptable, and decentralized,
with effective multi-actor governance, positive cultural climate,
and the capacity to overcome resistance to change. It may be that
a form of self-organization such as holacracy might meet all of
these needs (among others) for the first schools in space. The
paper concludes with a series of recommendations that might be
helpful in preparing future leaders of space schools.
MORAL LEADERSHIP
As humanity expands into the rest of the solar system, moral leadership
needs to exhibit the qualities of purpose, optimism, resilience, wisdom,
and balance.78 These qualities are particularly important for school lead-
ership as well, but what might this look like for schools established in
remote space settlements?
School leadership experts have long recognized education as a
moral undertaking, including teaching and school leadership as moral
endeavors.79 Clearly the moral imperative, or purpose, is to prepare stu-
dents well for their future. In outer space, there will be no room for the
principal as middle manager or the mediocre teacher who rises to the
level of their incompetence as a leader. Leadership of a space school
will require someone laser focused on making every decision with stu-
dent success in mind—with the goal of helping them develop the skill
sets and mindsets they will need to survive in the new environment of
the settlement, or wherever in the solar system they might go when
they grow up. There is also, of course, no room for schools to prepare
78
See Chapter 10.
79
Michael Fullan, The Moral Imperative of School Leadership (Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2003).
Chapter 12 199
students for an irrelevant past context on Earth, so those who lead

a school in space must keep their future-focused purpose central in
their decision-making. To a significant degree, this means school leaders
will need to themselves develop the same skill sets and mindsets their
students will require, and leaders will need to curate a future-focused
perspective of their own, perhaps through reading widely in science,
science fiction, and philosophy. (Astronauts on long-duration missions
have expressed classically stoic ideals,80 as have astronauts in life-threat-
ening situations.81)
To have the best chance to achieve this purpose for their students,
it will be important for the leaders of space schools to maintain an
optimistic outlook, even in the face of significant (and potentially
life-threatening) challenges. It is already clear how important it is for
principals to create a culture of optimism in order to support student
achievement, even on Earth.82 It is also important for school leaders
to be comfortable with distributed decision-making, as this increases
teachers’ academic optimism for their students.83 To this end, the lead-
er will need (or need to develop) strong emotional intelligence skills
in order to encourage a positive mood among the school community.84
Emotional intelligence is also important to leaders’ own resilience.
Life in the first space communities will likely be full of change and
uncertainty as new knowledge is applied and unforeseen challenges are
faced; a resilient organization can thrive under these conditions.85 To
80
Scott Kelly, Endurance: My Year in Space, A Lifetime of Discovery (New York:
Vintage Books, 2017).
81
Hadfield, “What I Learned.”
82
Leigh McGuigan and Wayne K. Hoy, “Principal Leadership: Creating a Culture of
Academic Optimism to Improve Achievement for All Students,” Leadership and Policy in
Schools 5, no 3 (2007): 203-29.
83
Blair Mascall et al., “The Relationship Between Distributed Leadership and Teachers’
Academic Optimism,” Distributed Leadership 7 (2009): 81-100.
84
Aileen Thompson Bumphus, “The Emotional Intelligence and Resilience of School
Leaders: An Investigation into Leadership Behaviors” (PhD diss., University of Southern
Mississippi, 2008).
85
Frederick S. Southwick et al., “Leadership and Resilience,” in Leadership Today:
Practices for Personal and Professional Performance, ed. Joan Marques and Satinder
200 Space Education
achieve resilience in schools, leaders need to personally develop traits

such as courage, decisiveness, curiosity, humility (a willingness to ask
for help), and a sense of fun; not surprisingly, the two most important
traits may be a sense of purpose…and optimism.86 In keeping with the
need for emotional intelligence skills discussed above, school leaders
must also develop their own emotional resilience if they are to help
shepherd their school community, 87 and this may be especially true
in isolated remote communities like a space settlement. Developing a
culture of resilience that extends to students can even help them over-
come disadvantages they bring to school,88 and perhaps this will apply
to the disadvantages of growing up in space as well.
All of the optimism and resilience in the world won’t matter though,
if a school leader doesn’t have the wisdom to successfully navigate diffi-
cult challenges and ethical dilemmas. Today, successful school leaders
embody a degree of practical wisdom (or what Aristotle would call
“phronesis”), including the knowledge, skills, theories, dispositions, and
values that affect their policies, programs, and procedures.89 Undoubt-
edly, school leaders in space will need to be equipped with similarly
practical judgement that results in effective decisions and regular rou-
tines. Already it is clear that future school leaders will need to facilitate
a shift from focusing on test scores to a constructivist paradigm focused
on development of students' intellectual, emotional, moral, spiritual,
and ecological abilities, including a respect for all people and for all of
nature; 90 such a perspective may be ideal to protect against both the
Dhiman (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2017), 315-33.

86
James Hilton, Ten Traits of Resilience: Achieving Positivity and Purpose in School
Leadership (London: Bloomsbury, 2018).
87
Julia Steward, “Sustaining Emotional Resilience for School Leadership,” School
Leadership and Management 34, no. 1 (2014): 52-68.
88
Katalin R. Forray, “Resilience and Disadvantage in Education—A Sociological View,”
Hungarian Educational Research Journal 7 (2017): 112-20. https://doi.org/10.14413/
herj.2017.01.09.
89
Richard Halverson, “Accessing, Documenting, and Communicating Practical
Wisdom: The Phronesis of School Leadership Practice,” American Journal of Education
111, no. 1 (2004): 90-121. https://doi.org/10.1086/424721.
90
Jing Lin, Love, Peace, and Wisdom in Education: A Vision for Education in the 21st
Chapter 12 201
physical dangers and moral dangers that life in space settlements will
surely present.
School leaders who exhibit great wisdom are also deft at striking a
balance between the many demands on their time and attention, while
still maintaining their own humanity—and very human connections
with others in their community. To effectively balance the paradoxes,
dilemmas, and tensions they face, school leaders do well to emphasize
diversity in the school community while balancing development at the
individual and organizational levels.91 If leaders need to build their own
emotional intelligence (see above), they must also develop a balance in
other intelligences, including their rational intelligence (traditional IQ
of course) and spiritual intelligence,92 which might take on increased
importance against a backdrop like the vastness of space.
Moral leaders must also, of course, have the integrity to apply these
values consistently and regularly so that they can be counted on and
trusted by their communities.
GOVERNANCE CONCERNS
Moral leadership is a necessary condition for effective school leadership,

but it is not sufficient for success in challenging conditions. A number
of other governance concerns will also be relevant to the first space
schools. Remote settlements will demand sustainability and adaptabil-
ity. And effective multi-actor governance will need to be decentralized,
equitable, and representative of the population, including parents and
community members. Questions of accountability must be addressed,
even as a positive culture is maintained. Of course, school cultures are
often resistant to change, and this must be overcome for early space
Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006).

91
Bill Mulford, “Balance and Learning: Crucial Elements in Leadership for Democratic
Schools,” Leadership and Policy in Schools 2, no. 2 (2003): 109-24.
92
Timothy Gage and Clive Smith, “Leadership Intelligence: Unlocking the Potential for
School Leadership Effectiveness,” South African Journal of Education 36, no 4 (2016):
1-9. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v36n4a1328.
202 Space Education
settlements to be successful in the long run. Luckily, current research

may provide useful recommendations relevant to schools in space.
Researchers have questioned what role education might play in the
sustainability of space exploration and settlement.93 It may be notewor-
thy that in some ESA member countries it is the Ministry of Education
that is already responsible for space sustainability. 94 Clearly, the first
generation to be educated beyond Earthwill need to both learn how
to care for their new home environment, and produce an education
system that will also be sustainable into the future. Moreover, both the
settlement and its education system will need to adapt rapidly as the
population learns better how to live and thrive in space.
To support adaptability and avoid single points of failure (as well
as other drawbacks of bureaucracy over a distance), multi-actor gover-
nance may be a benefit to any space community, including the education
system; here, the EU may again offer a model of intertwined layers
of decision-making mechanisms.95 The value of decentralization has
also been proven many times in education systems across the world,
including the various challenging contexts of South Africa, where a
model for differentiated school autonomy emerged.96 Space schools
will be even more remote with potentially more difficult challenges…
that no administrator on Earth would be able to judge more effec-
tively than a leader or principal on site. Autonomy should extend not
only to school leaders, though, as teachers and even students can reap
93
Ram S. Jakhu and Joseph N. Pelton, “Capacity-Building in Global Space Governance,”
in Global Space Governance: An International Study, ed. Ram S. Jakhu and Joseph N.
Pelton (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2017), 567-86.
94
Maarten Adriaensen et al., “Priorities in National Space Strategies and Governance of
the Member States of the European Space Agency,” Acta Astronautica 117 (2015): 356-
67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2015.07.033.
95
Florent Mazurelle, Jan Wouters, and Walter Thiebaut, “The Evolution of European
Space Governance: Policy, Legal, and Institutional Implications,” Working Paper, 2009.
https://www.law.kuleuven.be/iir/nl/onderzoek/working-papers/wp135e.pdf.
96
A. du Plessis, “School Governance and Management Decentralisation and
School Autonomy in the South African Education System” (PhD diss., North-West
University, 2019).
Chapter 12 203
the benefits of true representation in decision making.97 Involving par-

ents may also be an important element (perhaps the most important
element) in the success of school innovation.98 With so many local
stakeholders involved in decision-making (and with freedom from a
centralized authority), establishing clear lines of accountability will
be important, especially for parents, teachers, and school leaders. 99
Naturally, this should also extend to students for their role in school
governance, but with allowance for their status and minors and with a
clear focus on their education and personal growth.
The degree of shared decision-making and shared accountability will
require continuous care for the cultural climate of the school. Though
trust and transparency may also be important elements in positive school
culture, research shows that rule of law (agreed-upon governance pro-
cesses) and active participation may be the most important factors, so
space schools should be clear about how each stakeholder can contrib-
ute and what their accountability will be.100 The physical architecture of
a school can also affect the culture, so like a remote rural school, a space
school must ensure that the learning spaces reflect the desired culture
of learning101—and of shared governance. At the very least, classrooms
should not be organized around a teacher’s space at the front of the
room, and boardrooms (if there are any) should not include a raised
dais for a superintendent or board members; these spaces should be
97
Eve Mendez, “Reconceptualizing the Presence of Students on School Governance
Councils: The A/Effects of Spatial Positioning,” Policy Futures in Education 17, no. 4.
(2017): 503-19, https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210317739468.
98
Courtney Prestona et al., “School Innovation in District Context: Comparing
Traditional Public Schools and Charter Schools,” Economics of Education Review 31, no.
2 (2012): 318-30.
99
Simeon Maile, “Accountability: An Essential Aspect of School Governance,” South
African Journal of Education 22, no. 4 (2002): 326-31.
100
Berna Yüner and Berrin Burgaz, “Evaluation of the Relationship Between School
Governance and School Climate,” Education and Science 44, no. 199 (2019): 373-90.
101
Luciene Rocha Silva, Arlete Ramos dos Santos, and Igor Tairone Ramos dos
Santos, “Public Policies for Education of/in the Field and the School Environment in a
Settlement of the MST: The Intimate Relationship with the Pedagogical Policy,” Journal
of Research and Knowledge Spreading 1, no. 1 (2020): 11737, https://doi.org/10.20952/
jrks1111737.
204 Space Education
more egalitarian and flexible. Similarly, traditional school systems tend

to be very resistant to change, but it is imperative that the first space
schools be agile and innovative in order to ensure the best chance of suc-
cess for their students and fledgling community. Resistance to change
has even held back European space programs, and a similar weakness
would be detrimental to a new space settlement.102
A school governance study produced by the University of Bath
makes a number of recommendations that might also be relevant in
the context of the first space settlements, especially where community
members involved in local industry might also get involved in school
governance; chief among them were calls to simplify school governance
and to increase the profile of school governance in the community. 103
Members of the community might also serve as mentors to students,
thus taking advantage of early settlers’ expertise—and ensuring its con-
tinuity for the next generation. This is particularly important because
of the wide variety of interrelated skills required for space settlement,
including aquaponics, hydroponics, renewable energy, robotics, artifi-
cial intelligence, virtual reality, and augmented reality, along with soft
skills such as a willingness to admit ignorance, the importance of obser-
vation, and…teaching and learning skills (self development, pedagogy,
and andragogy).104
SELF-ORGANIZATION
In order to exemplify the elements of moral leadership above, and to

effectively implement the needed sustainability, distributed governance,
and positive community culture, space schools may benefit from some
degree of self-organization, especially in remote locations. In particular,
102
Alain Gauberta and André Lebeau, “Reforming European Space Governance,” Space
Policy 25, no. 1, (2009): 37-44.
103
Maria Balarin et al., Governing our Schools: A Research Study Commissioned by
Business in the Community (Bath, UK: University of Bath, 2008).
104
Melkizedek Owuor, “The Necessary Skills for Space
Colonization,” 2019, https://medium.com/tunapanda-institute/
the-necessary-skills-for-space-colonization-24ba3b15fc2a.
Chapter 12 205
holacracy might offer a decentralized solution that avoids single points

of failure while providing shared purpose, adaptability, and account-
ability across many levels of the school organization from students and
teachers to community members. Though there will undoubtedly be
challenges in implementing holacracy as the governance model for a
new space school, it might just help overcome barriers to innovation,
particularly with an entrepreneurial approach. Even so, many questions
remain, and there are other systems (such as technocracy for example)
to explore as alternatives.
Holacracy is a governance framework that can promote self-or-
ganization in space operations, decentralizing authority in order to
empower those closest to the problem to take action based on their
expertise; systems and processes are provided to support distributed
decision-making, tap into internal crowdsourcing, and work around
points of failure. 105 Like the Ideas Unlimited method of qualitative
research, Holacracy respects and maximizes use of individuals’ expertise
to the benefit of the whole organization. 106 The Holacracy constitu-
tion is also a model meant to improve on representational democracies
(like the United States), which often fail to live up to their promise for
all but the majority, the rich, or property owners,107 thus offering the
possibility of better inclusion and equity in space schools and the set-
tlements they serve.
Many of the benefits of holacracy would be valuable in education,
particularly in a small remote school. In general, holacracy’s post-hier-
archical foundations encourage shared purpose without managers.108
105
Alessandro Donati and Redouane Boumghar, “Operations Technology, Out of the
Box, into the Future,” Paper presented at the 2018 SpaceOp Conference, May 28-June 1,
Marseilles, France, https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/6.2018-2408.
106
107
Holacracy, Holacracy Constitution Version 4.1, 2015, https://www.holacracy.org/
constitution.
108
Eleunthia Wong Ellinger, Robert Wayne Gregory, and Juan Almandoz, “Building
Shared Purpose Without Managers: How Can Holacracy Work?” Academy of
Management Proceedings 2020, no. 1 (2020): 20972, https://doi.org/10.5465/
AMBPP.2020.20972abstract.
206 Space Education
Organizations that adopt holacracy can increase adaptability and reli-

ability as decisions are made closer to the work.109 When applied to
education, holacracy would place responsibility in the hands of experts
(rather than administrators), with teaching for instance being clearly
the responsibility of teachers.110 Feedback loops with other stakeholders
would also be included, thus building transparency and trust.111 Already,
holacracy in schools here on Earth can help teachers deal with the
increasing complexity of expectations in the classroom, without need-
ing to wait for permission from a department head, principal, or district
administrator.112 More importantly, in promoting a “teacher-powered
school” holacracy can encourage highly collaborative cultures (ideal
for space thriving in early space settlements) and invert “the traditional
top-down leadership triangle—in which teachers are accountable to a
principal who is then accountable to district administrators.”113 At the
classroom level, students too could be creative participants in school
governance, moving into different roles based on their expertise and
interest—a situation that would also create more educational value in
the student experience.114
In most traditional schools, the culture of resistance to change may
be a big challenge in implementing a self-organizing system like holacra-
cy, but in the context of an all-new school (as all space schools would
be) holacracy might instead represent an opportunity for innovation
109
Ethan Bernstein et al., “Beyond the Holacracy Hype,” Harvard Business Review 94
( July-August 2016): 38-49.
110
Dagobert Soergel, “Unleashing the Power of Data Through Organization: Structure
and Connections for Meaning, Learning, and Discovery,” Knowledge Organization 42
(2015): 401-27, https://doi.org/10.5771/0943-7444-2015-6-401.
111
Chris Sturgis, “Holacracy: Organizing for Change at District 51,” Getting
Smart, March 17, 2017, https://www.gettingsmart.com/2017/03/
holacracy-organizing-for-change-at-district-51/.
112
Shabana Bashir, “Holacracy for Schools,” Teal School, 2019, https://www.tealschool.
se/2019/07/12/holacracy-for-schools/.
113
“Determining a Collaborative Leadership Model,” Teacher-Powered Schools, 2021,
https://www.teacherpowered.org/guide/storming/leadership.
114
Kami Thordarson, “Holacracy in the Classroom?” 2015, http://www.kamithordarson.
com/blog-1/2015/11/9/holacracy-in-the-classroom.
Chapter 12 207
and new life, as long as the school encourages a culture of creativity and
adaptation where teachers can thrive without the traditional structure
of being told what to do.115 An entrepreneurial approach to school lead-
ership has been suggested as one way to support adoption of holacracy
in education, where stakeholders are encouraged to work in a self-di-
rected way, using their imagination, communicating well, working in
teams, and adapting to continuous change.116 Even in a culture of cre-
ativity, there would be clarity and accountability, with one specific role
responsible for any particular decision…a key to governance for holacra-
cy in education.117 The consulting team at HolacracyOne asks relevant
questions about reinventing education with holacracy, including “What
if the educators develop children’s skills for self-directed learning, indi-
vidual accountability, and adaptability? Would this build a workforce
that could accelerate human development?” 118 This is a particularly
meaningful question for space settlements, and ultimately, the Human
Space Program to spread Earth life and human intelligence throughout
the solar system and beyond.119
It is worth noting that holacracy is not the only alternative gover-
nance structure worth investigating before establishing the first space
settlements and space schools. Faculty at Kepler Space Institute, includ-
ing Dr. Robert Krone and Dr. Lawrence Downing, have suggested
that technocracy might be a valuable model, placing decision making
responsibility with those exhibiting the most expert knowledge in the
115
Sycol, “Can Holacracy Work in Education?” April 13, 2016, https://medium.
com/@_sycol/can-holacracy-work-in-education-e6196ee659e4.
116
Dinant Roode, “Holacracy: An Entrepreneurial Approach to School Leadership,”
Trenducation, September 14, 2015, https://trenducation.wordpress.com/2015/09/14/
holacracy-an-entrepreneurial-approach-to-school-leadership/.
117
Tania Roquette, “My Job in Higher Ed—Carlo Giardinetti, Business
School Lausanne,” Fullfabric Blog, 2018, https://blog.fullfabric.com/
my-job-in-higher-dd-carlo-giardinetti-business-school-lausanne.
118
HolacracyOne Team, “Reinventing Education in Dubai—With
Holacracy!” Enlivening Edge: Accelerating the Evolution of Organizations
and Social Systems, January 5, 2019, https://enliveningedge.org/organizations/
reinventing-education-dubai-holacracy/.
119
208 Space Education
relevant domains. That said, it may be that holacracy could provide

proven systems of self-organization that serve a technocracy well, such
that hydroponics experts are responsible for agriculture and teachers
and responsible for pedagogy.
CONCLUSION
What should we expect from the future leaders of space schools? And
how might we best prepare them for this challenging role? Based on the
discussion above, it seems they must be prepared to lead with purpose,
operate with optimism, maintain their own resilience, and practice
both wisdom and balance in their decision-making. In addition, they
will need effective governance systems that are sustainable, adaptable,
decentralized, equitable, and able to overcome resistance to change.
Perhaps a system of self-organization like holacracy would be a valuable
framework, at both the classroom and school levels (if not throughout
the settlement). With this in mind, it is possible to make a number of
key recommendations to those designing the first space schools and
preparing their leadership:
1. Ensure that school leaders are clear about the purpose of their
work, in service to the settlement community—and to the future
of humanity in space. With this meaningful focus always in mind,
they should be better able to maintain their optimism and resil-
ience while operating with wisdom and balance.
2. Ensure that governance systems are designed for distributed

decision making to those closest to the work, with inclusion and
equity for all stakeholders. This will help create a positive and
robust school culture with the ability to overcome resistance to
change.
3. Consider implementing a system of self-organization like

holacracy to provide processes that support shared purpose and
Chapter 12 209
distributed decision making. An entrepreneurial approach to

holacracy might best empower students, teachers, leaders, and
community members to innovate so the educational institution
(and the settlement) can thrive.
This discussion has touched on many topics, but has only scratched
the surface of any one of them. A great deal of expertise will be required
in order to flesh out these recommendations, design a school, and live
out its implementation on a daily basis…and additional research would
be helpful in providing more concrete guidance. To that end, the fol-
lowing questions for additional research may be fruitful to explore in
preparation:
1. How might a school leader best develop their own optimism and
resilience, and then encourage these traits in others?
2. How might the physical plant of the school be designed to

inspire and support a culture of equity and inclusion in distrib-
uted decision-making?
3. What are meaningful ways that community members in the set-

tlement might be involved in the governance and operation of
the school?
4. In what ways might students authentically contribute to school

governance and operation?
5. How might the holacratic processes of a “Teal” School interact

with the command-and-control structure (or “red” hierarchy)
that may sometimes be required of a space settlement for safety
purposes? How might this dynamic be optimized? (Consider
deeper research into Integral Theory here.)
6. What other models (such as technocracy) be adopted in part or

210 Space Education
in full to further support moral leadership, effective governance,

and self-organization?
Though there is a great deal of research and work ahead before the
first schools in space are a reality, it is clear that there is an opportunity
to create something new and better in space, providing the children of
settlers with a forward-looking educational experience appropriate to
their historical role in human history.
Chapter 12 211
Alternative Governance
Holacracy
Figure 8. This diagram illustrates the key elements of Holacracy, an efficient

system for distributed decision making among expert stakeholders.
Chapter 13
Though Part One of the book built toward a vision for a high school
focused on preparing today’s students for humanity’s multi-planet
future, a school like ARES Learning doesn’t yet exist. Similarly Part
Two considered how best to educate students on other planets, but
those schools won’t exist for many years.
However, Part Three(although it looks even farther forward
in some ways…considering alternative forms of governance, for
instance) culminates in a final paper that is immediately action-
able today. This chapter is relevant to graduate schools like the
Kepler Space Institute (KSI) or International Space University (ISU),
to teacher preparation programs everywhere, and to school dis-
trict professional development efforts meant to empower teachers
to better prepare their students to fully participate in the growing
space economy…never mind giving them the best chance to one
day be able to migrate into space if the opportunity arises.
This final chapter acknowledges the foundation laid by previous
chapters imagining a future for the field of space education. It then
critiques KSI’s graduate certificate program in particular. (This is a
program in which I participated as a scholar.) Proposing improve-
ments to both the literature of the field and the implementation
of such a graduate program. We then integrate the concepts from
effective andragogy (the education of adults) with the mindsets and
skill sets advocated throughout this book: the explorer’s mindset,
213
214 Space Education
moonshot thinking, design methodology, effective synthesis, and

relentless self-reflection. Educators need to experience and inter-
nalize these concepts in order to pass them on to students, and of
course putting them into practice will also help support continual
iteration and improvement in education programs.
The recommendations and questions for further research at the
end of the paper are very much the actionable culmination of the
entire book.
Space Education
Graduate Programs and
Professional Development
INTRODUCTION
If we are to imagine schools on the Moon, on Mars, and in deep

space habitats, how will we prepare the educators who might first
serve those students? 120 Those future space educators may very
well be growing up in today’s classrooms as students themselves,
along with their peers who will one day be space pioneers or oth-
erwise participate in the space economy here on Earth. 121 This
highlights the need for new or better schools right now…schools
that help prepare today’s students for humanity’s multiplanet
future, whatever their role.122 Given this need, how might we pre-
pare teachers and school leaders to provide the space education that
current and future students need?
Space philosophers and space educators have already begun
asking these important questions. Professors Barry Elsey and
120
See Chapter 9.
121
Mann and Sandford, The Martians in Your Classroom.
122
See Chapter 4.
215
216 Space Education
Amina Omarova at the Kepler Space Institute (KSI) are among

them, having published a series of papers that pose very similar
questions as research prompts for Kepler scholars. The insti-
tute itself also offers a graduate certificate in Space Education,
intended as professional development for practicing teachers and
school leaders (among others). It may be worthwhile to explore
Elsey and Omarova’s publications, and to examine the courses
offered through the KSI Space Education program. These can
be critiqued in light of the principles of effective andragogy,
and in light of the skill sets and mindsets that might be needed
in schools that are preparing students well for a rapidly chang-
ing future. 123 This paper concludes with recommendations for
improvements to KSI’s space education certificate program, and
for implementation by other space education programs meant to
empower teachers and school leaders today and into the future.
BARRY ELSEY AND AMINA OMAROVA
In 2019, Barry Elsey and Amina Omarova articulated their philoso-

phy on doctoral research, with an explicit focus on questions related
to space education. Their approach was one of research being a journey,
writing being an art of the possible, and intelligence traveling hand-
in-hand with imagination.124 They invited Kepler scholars to consider
the socio-cultural elements of a permanent civilian settlement in space,
and to specifically address the potential education system.125 Their phi-
losophy on research also extended to their vision for such settlements;
they expected the imagined space education systems to focus not only
on survival or STEM skills but also on “developing intellectual, cre-
ative, and other human talents that enable individuals to experience
123
See Chapter 4.
124
125
Chapter 13 217
self-actualization.”126 (They also asked how humans might be sustained

spiritually on other planets, which leads to questions like what a mod-
ern Earth-based tradition, such as Druidry, for instance,127 might look
like on Mars, but that is a topic for another paper.)
By 2020, Elsey and Omarova had refined their thinking somewhat.
They challenged scholars to consider an education system on Mars
specifically, and focused more on the tension between the presumed
dominance of a military industrial complex (MIC) and more civilian
concerns. 128 They asked pointed questions with a great deal of depth,
like the following for example:
“Will it be possible to remain human and to retain something of
the ordinariness of everyday life? Will it be possible for a civil society
to emerge to balance the domination of the MIC by forming demo-
cratic government under a civil legal framework? Will it be possible to
uphold human values that have a moral and sustainable basis? Will it
be possible to maintain a personal identity, developed through life-on-
Earth experiences, in an extreme environment governed and controlled
by advanced and complex technical systems?”
Their second paper on the subject of space education was also con-
cerned with promoting the concept of citizenship in the population
of the settlement. They extolled “the virtues of moral goodness and
excellence in human behaviour” as a matter of duty, and thus expected
a system of education to help a just society emerge from the everyday
actions of the population.129 In keeping with Howard Gardner’s models,
they hoped for schools that would ensure the citizenry of Mars is made
up of individuals who are disciplined, respectful, and ethical—as well
as creative and adept at synthesizing. 130 Significantly, they recognized
that existing schools are not up to this challenge, and they encouraged
126
Elsey and Omarova, “An Imagined Order,” 20.
127
Philip Carr-Gomm, “What is Druidry?” Order of Bards, Ovates, and Druids, 2019,
https://druidry.org/druid-way/what-druidry.
128
129
Elsey and Omarova, “Space Education for Human Communities,” 29.
130
218 Space Education
scholars to aim higher:

“What is clear is that Space Education on Mars should not be a copy
of the systems that dominate education and training on Earth. The exis-
tential reality is going to be different, and that kind of unknown quality
should be the foundation for Space Education rather than Earth-bound
conventions.”131
Their vision was further clarified in 2021 when Elsey and Omarova
focused on the importance of international cooperation (inspired by the
existing International Space Station). 132 They were explicitly interested
in a diversity of viewpoints represented in a space community, and in
creating social systems that would promote equity of opportunities for
all the population. For potential models and inspiration, they looked
to both philosophy and science fiction, eschewing the dystopian and aim-
ing instead for a social order that provides for human dignity, personal
freedom, and self-actualization. In related personal communications,
Elsey articulated a vision for schools on Mars that encourage critical
thinking, deep questions, and social elements that might help balance
the influence of the MIC in early settlements. Similarly, in reflections
he drafted in response to this article, he further expressed his desire
that schools in space might uphold liberal-democratic values and that
in imagining the school systems that could make this possible, space
philosophers might understand the importance of thinking big. Clearly,
Elsey would support the moonshot thinking advocated as part of a novel
approach to K12 education focused on space exploration.133
Elsey and Omarova are primarily focused on the imaginative and the
abstract, inspiring scholars to dream big about their students' future. To
build on their work, the time has come for space philosophers and space
educators to be a degree more concrete in answering their questions. If
the engineers and scientists of the Moon Village Association can con-
sider the location and construction of a settlement on the Moon, then
131
Elsey and Omarova, “Space Education for Human Communities,” 40.
132
Elsey and Omarova, “Space Education: Earth-Bound Ideas.”
133
See Chapter 4.
Chapter 13 219
philosophers and educators can consider designs for a school to serve

that population. 134 There are still many years between philosophical
discussions like this one and the daily lesson plans teachers might use
on the Moon or Mars, but it is an excellent time to implement relevant
changes in the graduate programs meant to prepare today’s educators.
The space education certificate program at Kepler Space Institute might
be an effective case study. Do the courses offered reflect the ideals Elsey
and Omarova promote? Do they include the skill sets and mindsets
that educators would do well to share with their students, such as the
Moonshot Thinking mentioned above?
KEPLER SPACE INSTITUTE
The Kepler Space Institute (KSI) is a graduate school licensed in the US

state of Florida, currently offering a number of certificate programs to
scholars located around the globe. The mission of the school explicitly
focuses on the need to educate the leaders who will be responsible for
human expansion into space:
“The mission of Kepler Space Institute is to benefit society and
advance human knowledge and expertise. The Institute is dedicated
to the expansion of human civilization from Earth to Space. KSI is
committed to discovery, preservation and dissemination of knowledge,
educating the next generation of leaders, and the development of space
exploration, commercialization, and settlement.”135
The institute aims to aid scholars in the space community to fur-
ther their career and to be well prepared for the challenges ahead, so
the certificate programs can be considered professional development
for those participating. The school’s stated vision and mission are also
in alignment with Elsey’s liberal democratic ideals as explored above,
with a focus on elements such as education, equity, diversity, inclusion,
134
See Chapter 7.
135
Kepler Space Institute Course and Policy Catalog, 1 (2019): 4.
220 Space Education
empowerment, and student inquiry.136 Similar values are expressed in

the description of the space education certificate program in particular:
“Students enrolled in this Graduate Certificate program will study
the evolving contemporary issues in education that impact research,
policy, and practice. This program takes an interdisciplinary approach
and emphasizes collaboration, investigation of novel educational sys-
tems and capacity building in space settlements. In addition to gaining
a core foundational knowledge in theory, methods and research in
education, students will address a range of domains including: human
development, equity, learning and teaching, equality and justice, com-
munities, institutions and societies on Earth and settlements in Space.”
The learning experience is thus meant to be ambitious (but flexi-
ble), interdisciplinary, collaborative, and grounded in ethics, such as
the value of justice. Within this vision and broad description, three
specific courses are offered in space education (see below), and one elec-
tive must be completed from another program. The elective programs
include topics as varied as: cosmic intelligence and information systems;
human factors for space settlement; leadership, policy, and governance;
space commercialization and entrepreneurship; space infrastructure
and sustainable exploration; space science, technology, and engineer-
ing; space architecture; space systems; and, of course, space philosophy
and theory. Thus the scholars participating in the space education pro-
gram also have the opportunity to experience a broader more holistic
view of the space industry, including space science and space explora-
tion. 137 Some scholars take advantage of the chance to pursue more
than one certificate.
The three courses that must be completed for the space education
certificate in particular are EDU 500 Foundations of Quality Educa-
tion, EDU 501 Learning and Development: Theory and Practice, and
EDU 502 Novel Approaches to Education. 138 EDU 500 focuses on
136
Kepler Space Institute Course, 4.
137
Kepler Space Institute Course, 17-20.
138
Chapter 13 221
an examination of education systems and the use of “quality sciences

and management to achieve quality education.”139 The 501 course then
turns to principles of learning (or pedagogy), such as differentiated
instruction, with considerations for diversity and inclusion.140 The third
course, Novel Approaches to Education, is then focused on extending
best practices (including educational technologies) into new models,
with an emphasis on “self-directed, holistic, and experiential learning
in alternative settings.” 141 Scholars are expected to conduct original
research and produce contributions to the literature of space education
as an outcome in each course, with the potential to publish completed
papers in KSI’s Journal of Space Philosophy ( JSP).142
The existing course descriptions thus provide an effective frame-
work for scholars to explore the field of space education, and to make
a contribution to it. At the same time, the descriptions leave a great
deal of flexibility for implementation, depending on the professor’s
interpretation, expertise, and philosophy of learning. Similarly, there
is room for differentiation to appeal to the interests and strengths of
the scholars involved. In his role as professor facilitating the courses
in 2020-2021, Elsey drew on his experience with adult learning the-
ory (andragogy) to provide a largely self-directed learning experience
for participating scholars. These theories, with a focus on the legacy of
Malcolm Knowles, are discussed in more detail below. The flexibility
of the course descriptions also allow inclusion of additional elements
that may be beneficial to future leaders in the field, including the skill
sets and mindsets likely to be needed by those first migrating into space:
the explorer’s mindset, moonshot thinking, design methodology, effec-
tive synthesis, and relentless self-reflection.143 Discussion of potentially
including these elements in the courses thus follows the discussion of
effective andragogy below.
139
Kepler Space Institute Course, 21-22.
140
141
142
Journal of Space Philosophy, https://keplerspaceinstitute.com/jsp/.
143
See Chapter 4.
222 Space Education
EFFECTIVE ANDRAGOGY
Before Malcolm Knowles’ contributions to the field, most adult learn-

ing was based on theories developed by studying how children learn;
Knowles called the relevance of these approaches into question and
instead studied adult learners specifically, which led him to advocate
for a more differentiated approach taking into account their life expe-
rience, their readiness to learn, and their changing self-concept.144 Of
particular importance was his focus on self-directed learning, and he
provided resources for educators of adult learners to help them engage
students in a sort of learning contract.145 In the early 1980’s, Knowles
applied these concepts to the relevant field of training adults to use per-
sonal computers, promoting an approach in which instructors provide
active hands-on learning opportunities where learners discover things
for themselves.146 In the context of KSI’s space education program, the
professor of each course is in a position to engage participating schol-
ars in a learning contract, whereby scholars set their own goals (within
the scope of the course description) and generate an academic paper
as a potential contribution to the literature of the field. Rather than
lecturing and testing, a professor of adult learners would better exem-
plify effective andragogy by thus creating the conditions for scholars
to make their own discoveries and unique contributions.
In the wake of Knowles’ foundational work, the study of andrago-
gy has given rise to significant variations. The American (and British)
tradition of andragogy, based largely on Knowles’ work, focuses on
the development of individual adult learners, however a more social
tradition has developed in Europe, with a perspective more interest-
ed in the social conditions of learning—and in learning as a means of
144
Malcolm Knowles, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (Madison, WI: American
Society for Training and Development, 1973).
145
Malcolm Knowles, Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers (New
York: Association Press, 1975).
146
Christopher Pappas, “The Adult Learning Theory—Andragogy—of Malcolm
Knowles,” eLearning Industry, May 9, 2013, https://elearningindustry.com/
the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles.
Chapter 13 223
social change.147 Though both Elsey and KSI as an institution are explic-
itly interested in self-actualization, Kepler might arguably align best
with the European andragogical tradition because the school’s mission
and vision also aim for the betterment of society, the advancement of
human knowledge, and the ethical settlement of space.
Since Knowles pioneered it, the principles of effective andrago-
gy also continue to be applied in the field of educational technology,
which is integral to the KSI approach and relevant to the subject area
of space education. In fact, KSI’s globally accessible programs are deliv-
ered via eLearning platforms (primarily using Zoom for synchronous
class discussions and Canvas for asynchronous course coordination),
and andragogical approaches have been found to be well matched
to the purpose, content, communication, and social roles at work in
eLearning of this kind. 148 As the COVID-19 pandemic illustrated,
university instructors need to also be competent in providing critical
constructive communication and using effective guidance methodol-
ogy when teaching online. 149 So effective andragogy may be the best
approach for engaging and motivating Kepler scholars. Furthermore,
as the faculty and leadership of KSI consider adoption of new edu-
cational technologies, these can be selected for their effectiveness in
adult education and their likelihood to encourage positive qualitative
changes in the education system,150 thus justifying their inclusion on
147
Svein Loeng, “Various Ways of Understanding the Concept of Andragogy,”
Cogent Education, 5, no. 1 (2018): 1496643, https://doi.org/10.1080/233118
6X.2018.1496643.
148
Olga V. Galustyan et al., “E-learning Within the Field of Andragogy,” International
Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning 14, no. 9, (2019): 148, https://doi.
org/10.3991/ijet.v14i09.10020.
149
Derling José Mendoza Velazco et al., “Digital Andragogical Competences of
Ecuadorian Higher Education Teachers During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” European
Journal of Educational Research 10 (2021): 1341-58, https://doi.org/10.12973/
eu-jer.10.3.1341.
150
Alla Nikishova and Elena Kryvonosova, “Design and Implementation of
Technologies for Professionally Oriented Adult Education,” International Journal of
Current Approaches in Language, Education and Social Sciences 2, no. 1, (2020): 413-24.
224 Space Education
the basis of an improved learning experience for scholars.151 In short,

the following question might be asked of any new technology: would
this technology support scholars’s individual development and KSI’s
shared social mission?
That said, it is worth noting that Andragogy has been criticized for a
lack of empirical evidence that would allow development of a true theo-
ry of adult learning; it is instead characterized as merely a philosophy of
practice, albeit one that has had a tremendous impact at scale on adult
education over several decades.152 As such, it may still be an appropriate
guiding principle for KSI professors in the space education certificate
program, though other approaches, including traditional lectures and
assessments, could be considered as well when appropriate. Some cur-
rent KSI professors, including space philosopher Frank White, make
frequent use of subject matter experts as guest speakers, and this too
is meant to stimulate and inspire scholars to follow their own line of
inquiry in their research and writing.
It is also worth noting that skillful application of effective andrago-
gy by individual instructors takes place within the educational system of
the organization, and of the larger society. Earl Hopper’s foundational
work on educational systems, which has been an explicit inspiration
of Elsey’s, suggests that the institution of higher education (or KSI
in this case) should be designed to serve a number of social purposes;
these include providing an equitable experience for students across class
and status, and providing opportunities for social mobility to avoid
marginalization. 153 Hopper also focused on selection of students (or
admissions) in higher education, emphasising that the actual patterns
of selection in the United States fall short of its stated meritocratic
151
Iwasan D. Kejawa, “The Integral of Education Technology in the Society,”
International Journal of Computer Trends and Technology 69, no. 4, (2021): 11-14.
152
Daniel D. Pratt, “Andragogy After Twenty-Five Years,” in Adult Learning Theory: An
Update, ed. Sharan Merriam (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993), 15-25.
153
Earl Hopper, “Notes on Stratification Education and Mobility in Industrial
Societies,” in Readings in the Theory of Educational Systems, ed. Earl Hopper (London:
Hutchinson, 1972).
Chapter 13 225
ideals. 154 In keeping with fears of an Elysium Effect where access to

space creates an elite class of humanity, 155 the selection process may
suffer from even more equity gaps in the field of space education—
and one day in space itself. This suggests that it is important for KSI
to be welcoming of a wide range of adult learners, based more on their
intrinsic motivation and initiative than on their formal qualifications
or previous experience. For what it’s worth, the author has personally
observed this sort of flexibility and inclusion at work with Kepler’s de
facto admissions process, and it may be beneficial to formally include
this in the published process as well.
SKILL SETS AND MINDSETS
In addition to applying the methods of effective andragogy, the space

education program at Kepler Space Institute might also benefit from
integrating additional course content, particularly the skill sets and
mindsets that could be valuable to space pioneers. These include the
Explorer’s Mindset, Moonshot Thinking, design methodology, effective
synthesis, and the Japanese concept of Hansei, or relentless self-reflec-
tion. All are important in preparing today’s students for humanity’s
multi-planet future, 156 and so all are important for educators to expe-
rience, understand, and know how to pass on. As such, they would be
valuable additions to the KSI space education certificate program.
The Explorer’s Mindset is meant to develop a love of adventure,
exploration, and discovery—and is important for breakthrough think-
ing.157 The mindset can help students to be flexible,158 adaptable, and
ready to make critical decisions without complete information.159 An
154
Earl Hopper, “A Typology for the Classification of Educational Systems,” in Readings
in the Theory of Educational Systems (London: Hutchinson, 1972).
155
Tumlinson, “The Elysium Effect.”
156
See Chapter 4.
157
Sweid, “Significance of the Explorer’s Mindset.”
158
Kola, “The Explorer Mindset.”
159
Robinson, “Introduction: An Explorer’s Mindset Matters.…”
226 Space Education
Explorer’s Mindset can also help leaders shepherd a team through the
process of innovation.160 When it comes to adult learners, the Explorer’s
Mindset can also help in mastering emotions, increasing productivity,
setting goals, and achieving them.161 Perhaps the greatest value though
(in adult learning and in space exploration) would be the increased
competence with pragmatic risk acceptance.162 In addition, with respect
to KSI’s social goals (on Earth and in space), an Explorer’s Mindset can
help encourage environmental stewardship.163
Moonshot Thinking was codified in President John F. Kennedy’s
commitment to putting a man on the Moon even though the technol-
ogy didn’t exist and nobody knew how to do it yet. At Google’s X Lab,
this mindset was further formalized into a system for addressing huge
challenges, applying radical solutions, and developing breakthrough
technology. This mindset doesn’t seek a 10 percent improvement…it
seeks a solution 10 times better than before, and it’s known also as 10X
thinking. It requires failing forward and failing fast. This is exempli-
fied in the Space X approach to developing new spacecraft.164 Among
students, Moonshot Thinking can encourage abundance mindsets,
intelligent optimism, and transhumanist perspectives (regarding the
environment and technology). 165 This sort of thinking is particular-
ly valuable under conditions of chaos and uncertainty (such as one
might find in classrooms…or in space), and can be used to produce
great results, even if the initial target isn’t hit following iterations or
160
Viki, “How Adopting an Explorer’s Mindset.”
161
Francis Shenstone, The Explorer's Mindset: Unlock Health, Happiness and Success
the Fun Way (Habrough, UK: Frashen, 2019).
162
Jeffrey Marlow, “What Tech Entrepreneurs and Polynesian Explorers Have
in Common,” Wired, March 10, 2014, https://www.wired.com/2014/10/
tech-entrepreneurs-polynesian-explorers-common/.
163
“Polynesian Voyaging Society, “Mālama Honua Challenge,” 2021, http://www.hoku-
lea.com/moananuiakea/.
164
See Chapter 4.
Rohan Roberts, Cosmic Citizens and Moonshot Thinking: Education in an Age of
165
Exponential Technologies (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2018).

Chapter 13 227
pivots.166 After all, as Astro Teller says, “our ambitions are a glass ceiling
on what we can accomplish.”167 It is of course important for educators
to also understand that Moonshot Thinking is not just brainstorming
or dreaming, it is accompanied by rapidly testing ideas, collecting data,
and ultimately validating hypotheses. 168 With these caveats in mind,
moonshot thinking can be an important way for educators to inspire
their students—and themselves.169
Design Methodology (or Design Thinking) of the sort used and
promoted by the Stanford D School begins with understanding those
people the problem effects, through a process of discovery, empathy, or
ethnography. Then, designers define a problem before ideating a variety
of possible solutions (using one of many idea generating exercises), and
choosing one to prototype and test first. They build a prototype online,
in virtual reality, or in a maker space with real-world tools, including
3D printers. Based on the results of their initial tests, they iterate on
their solution, pivot to a new one, or begin the process again. Design
thinking has become popular in higher education because of its rele-
vance across disciplines, it’s support for collaboration, and it’s capacity
building potential.170 It has been used as a catalyst for changing teach-
ing and learning practices in engineering,171 and has seen success as a
166
“Combining the Power of Moonshot Thinking with Actionable Plans to Make
an Impact in Work and Life with Ozan Varol,” Impact Makers Podcast with Jennifer
McClure, 2020, https://podtail.com/en/podcast/impact-makers-podcast-with-jennifer-
mcclure/047-combining-the-power-of-moonshot-thinking-with-/.
167
Edward Capaldi, “What is Moonshot Thinking,” YouTube, September 13, 2017,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pEr4j8kgwOk.
168
Debra Lane, “Moonshot Thinking from the Sidecar,” Lane
Leadership Group, July 27, 2021, https://laneleadershipgroup.com/
moonshot-thinking-from-the-sidecar-by-debra-laneed-d/.
169
Sarah Cordiner, “How to Think Your Way to Success: What I Learned from
John Assaraf About Succeeding,” November 25, 2016, https://sarahcordiner.com/
think-way-success-i-learned-john-assaraf-succeeding/.
170
Gnanaharsha Beligatamulla et al., “Making Pedagogic Sense of Design Thinking in
the Higher Education Context,” Open Education Studies 2019, no. 1 (2019): 91-105.
171
Seda McKilligan et al., “Design Thinking as a Catalyst for Changing Teaching
and Learning Practices in Engineering,” in 2017 IEEE Frontiers in Education (FIE)
Conference (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2017), https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/
document/8190479.
228 Space Education
bridge between the sciences and humanities;172 the very sorts of cross
disciplinary uses that might be valuable when solving wicked prob-
lems in space.
Practicing synthesis is about honing analytical skills and breaking
concepts down into key points. It allows useful conclusions to be drawn
and decisions to be made in order to solve a meaningful problem.173
Ethical dimensions can also be addressed in the process of problem solv-
ing through synthesis. 174 Effective adult learning often includes such
synthesis tasks, allowing participants to pull together elements of their
own learning,175 including new ideas and their past experiences as they
solve problems meaningful to them.176 Synthesis is particularly import-
ant in teaching real-world STEM skills, as students learn to explore
potential solutions, as opposed to memorizing a correct answer.177
The concept of Hansei, or relentless self-reflection, is an important
part of Japanese culture – a continuous practice of subtle meditation
undertaken to look at past mistakes, outline the lessons learned, and
pledge to act on those lessons. “Han" means to change, turn over, or
turn upside down. "Sei" means to look back upon, review, and examine
oneself. In the workplace, Hansei typically involves taking individual
172
Nicholas A. Clegorne and Jason M. M. Mastrogiovanni, “Designing Alternatives:
Design Thinking as a Mediating Learning Strategy to Bridge Science and the Humanities
for Leadership Learning,” Journal of Leadership Education 14 (2015): 46-54, https://doi.
org/10.12806/V14/I4/12.
173
Taylor, “What is ‘Synthesis’?”
174
Andy Kiersz, “Elon Musk’s Secretive LA Private School Doesn’t Just Teach Spelling
and Math—It Also Asks Students Ethics and Critical Thinking Puzzles You Usually
Don't See Elsewhere,” Business Insider, September 3, 2018, https://www.businessinsider.
com/elon-musk-ad-astra-classdojo-conundrum-ethics-puzzles-2018-8.
175
“What Makes for Effective Adult Learning?” Wisconsin Union, https://union.
wisc.edu/assets/Uploads/Events-Activities/Wheelhouse-Studios/MiniCourses-
EffectiveLearning.pdf.
176
Karla Gutierrez, “3 Adult Learning Theories Every E-Learning Designer Must
Know,” Association for Talent Development, March 1, 2021, https://www.td.org/
insights/3-adult-learning-theories-every-e-learning-designer-must-know.
177
Louis S. Nadelson and Anne L. Seifert, “Teaching and Learning Integrated STEM:
Using Andragogy to Foster an Entrepreneurial Mindset in the Age of Synthesis,” in
STEM Education 2.0, ed. Alpaslan Sahin and Margaret J. Mohr-Schroeder (Leiden: Brill,
2019), 53-71, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004405400_004.
Chapter 13 229
responsibility for a problem and developing a plan for avoiding the

issue in the future. 178 Studies show that hansei enhances self-evalua-
tion, improvement, and morality179 (thus also addressing the need for
ethics education), and that this process is effective even for very young
children.180 With adults, self-reflection in the context of life experience
is an important part of the learning process.181 The regular practice of
reflection is increasingly important for those in leadership roles, partic-
ularly if they are pursuing the challenging and complex goals of equity,
justice, and social transformation,182 all of which are important to the
mission of the KSI Space Education Program.
Note that all five of these methods can be taught in a very experi-
ential way in which the methods are used in the process of learning
them. Kepler scholars would be experiencing the Explorer’s Mindset
and putting it to use in their own work as they learn about it. They
would be practicing Moonshot Thinking in their own goal-setting as
an adult learner, and using design methodology to generate solutions
to the problems they explore. Naturally, they could practice synthesis
and hansei regularly throughout their coursework and writing as they
become better acquainted with the concepts.
These methods would all be most relevant in the EDU 502 Novel
Approaches to Education course, but might be more effectively spread
between the three courses. EDU 500 could introduce the Explorer’s
Mindset, ideally at the beginning of scholars’ own journey through the
KSI program. Then, EDU 501 could introduce Moonshot Thinking
and design methodology in tandem, perhaps as part of a capstone proj-
ect including design of an ideal learning environment. Finally, EDU
178
Liker and Morgan, “The Toyota Way in Services.”
179
Taylor et al., “I Think, Therefore, I Improve.”
180
Izumi-Taylor, “Hansei.”
181
John A. Henschke, “Beginnings of the History and Philosophy of Andragogy 1833-
2000,” in Integrating Adult Learning and Technologies for Effective Education: Strategic
Approaches, ed. Viktor Wang (Hershey, NY: Information Science Reference, 2010), 1-30.
182
Kathleen M. Brown, “Leadership for Social Justice and Equity: Evaluating a
Transformative Framework and Andragogy,” Educational Administration Quarterly 42,
no. 5 (2006): 700-45, https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X06290650.
230 Space Education
502 could conclude with more opportunities for synthesis (of the schol-
ar’s learning through all three courses) and for self-reflection as the end
of their journey nears. That said, perhaps hansei and the regular practice
of reflection could be introduced (maybe along with all five concepts)
in EDU 500 so the experience (of each) might be deepened throughout
the progression. This might also avoid introducing the need for courses
to be taken in order. Still, the suggested breakdown here might allow
for more in-depth exploration of just one or two concepts per course,
even if all five are introduced at the beginning of each course.
In any case, armed with these five ways of thinking, educators can
iterate on their own practice, effect change in their organizations, and
better prepare the students in their care for humanity’s multiplanet
future, whatever challenges it may bring. This may be a valuable direc-
tion for graduate programs like KSI’s certificate in Space Education,
and other professional development experiences in space education,
to focus their efforts.
CONCLUSION
Elsey and Omarova articulated a powerful vision for graduate level

space education courses. They advocated for a blend of practical
skills and liberal-humanist ideals, while focusing on a combination of
self-actualization and social change. Their approach was deliberately
imaginative and idealistic. In their role as professors at Kepler Space
Institute, they thus helped to shape early iterations of the Space Educa-
tion certificate program. Considerably more concrete in its stated goals,
the program uses an interdisciplinary systems-thinking approach to
learning experience design, with consideration for differentiation, inclu-
sion, and self-directed inquiry. The course descriptions still leave a great
deal of room for customization and iteration. To that end, the litera-
ture review conducted for this paper suggested that explicitly including
elements of effective andragogy would help ensure the quality of the
program, as would integration of five powerful new ways of think-
ing: the explorer’s mindset, moonshot thinking, design methodology,
Chapter 13 231
effective synthesis, and hansei, or relentless self-reflection. Each of these

skill sets and mindsets is a powerful tool for problem solving in the face
of uncertainty—of the kind that will undoubtedly be faced in coming
decades, both in space and here on Earth.
In summarizing the discussion above, several recommendations can
be made for improvements to the Space Education certificate program
at Kepler Space Institute. The recommendations may also be useful for
other professional development programs meant to empower educa-
tors to better prepare their students for the coming decades of space
exploration and migration.
1. Implement the elements of effective andragogy and put systems in

place (including professional development for faculty) to ensure
that effective strategies are integrated throughout the program.
Such strategies might include learning contracts to encourage
self-actualization, for example.
2. Embrace the social context and social mission of the space edu-
cation field, such that learning is seen as a means of affecting
positive social change.
3. Introduce and encourage the Explorer’s Mindset in all courses, so

that participants develop flexibility, adaptability, and an intelli-
gently optimistic comfort level operating with uncertainty.
4. Challenge scholars to practice Moonshot Thinking, so that their

ambitions are not a glass ceiling to their success and they do not
shy away from big problems. This may just create the condition
for truly transformative innovations to come out of the program.
5. Empower scholars to solve problems and improve on their solu-

tions using design methodology, a process of discovery, ideation,
prototyping, testing, and iteration.
232 Space Education
6. Provide ample opportunities for synthesis tasks as opposed to rote

learning. This provides motivation and context for learning and
respects the experience of an adult learner.
7. Build the practice of hansei (or relentless self reflection) into all
courses, so that scholars are focused on their responsibility for
improvement. Reflection can also be a powerful process for mak-
ing new connections and crystalizing new learning.
Naturally, these recommendations also suggest a number of ques-

tions for further research, particularly in the context of space education.
1. Has effective andragogy been studied in the field of space educa-

tion? Or in adjacent fields like space science or teacher education?
How might an original study be structured to collect data that
could better inform the design of space education programs?
2. What is the role of adult education in affecting social change?

How might graduate level courses be optimized for social out-
comes? Perhaps a school like Walden University, with it’s Berkley
inspired focus on social change, might offer a meaningful case
study.
3. In what ways might the Explorer’s Mindset be taught at the grad-

uate level, particularly in an experiential way for educators and
school leaders?
4. How might truly ambitious Moonshot Thinking be scaffolded

within the constraints of a one semester course? What happens
to a project that is incomplete…or has a great deal of potential
beyond the semester?
5. Design methodology in graduate education is well established

in many fields; how might it best be implemented in space
Chapter 13 233
education in particular? There is potential for a very concrete

and useful study here, with specific activities or challenges as
outcomes.
6. The Ad Astra school posed ethical conundrums to K12 students;

how might a similar approach be adopted in a space educa-
tion program? What sorts of scenarios might be presented to
scholars?
7. How might reflection be effectively built into a distance learning

course, both synchronously and asynchronously? How might the
program encourage development of a personal habit that might
persist long after coursework is complete?
Elsey and Omarova’s imaginative vision and Kepler Space Insti-

tute’s existing Space Education program are powerful resources for
educators and school leaders interested in how best to prepare their
students for humanity’s multi-planet future. With the deliberate inte-
gration of effective andragogy along with the skill sets and mindsets
described above, the vision and program can continue to improve with
each iteration. Hopefully, these recommendations and questions for
further research might also benefit other space education programs
and other motivated educators around the world…and beyond in the
coming years.
Conclusion
Current K12 education systems are equipped neither to pre-

pare students for participation in the growing space economy, nor for
participation in the coming human migration into space. For nearly a
century now we’ve known that the sort of experiential learning advo-
cated by John Dewey183 would better prepare students for the rapidly
changing modern world. The influential educational technologist Sey-
mour Papert recognized that this was even more true in the age of the
computer,184 but ultimately gave up on schools as effective institutions
for change—turning instead to the family.185 But public schools are the
best way to scale education for large portions of the population, if not
everyone. This is why I dedicated my previous book to effective school
change,186 and it is why now the vision for ARES Learning includes fun-
damentally disrupting and transforming the global education system.187
Unfortunately, aerospace engineers and space philosophers are no
better prepared. As chapter 9 of this book made clear, despite his rev-
erence for education, Gerard K. O’Neill gave very little consideration
183
John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1938).
184
Seymour Papert, Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas (New York:
Basic Books, 1980).

185
Seymour Papert, The Connected Family (Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996).
186
Wagner, More Now.
187
Ares Learning, “Mission,” https://www.areslearning.com/mission.
235
236 Space Education
to schools in his designs for deep space habitats.188 This situation hasn’t
changed in the decades since. The most recent winners of the Mars
City State Design Competition hosted by the Mars Society, Nexus
Aurora, included in depth designs for governance, economics, and infra-
structure—but no mention of schools or education systems. 189 Even
forward thinking big picture philosophers like Howard Bloom,190 Frank
White,191 and Christopher Mason192 don’t offer any concrete plans for
education systems, though they each mention educational needs and
are clearly educators themselves.
But we must be looking forward, and making changes to our insti-
tutions today, if we want to be prepared. In recent decades, space
philosophers have provided the foundation upon which we can now
build a philosophy of space education, and it is my hope that this book
now provides some scaffolding.
Part one addressed immediately actionable ways that K12 education
can be better oriented toward preparing today’s students for humanity’s
multiplanet future. Chapter one provided a literature review of existing
space philosophy and a justification for why this might be necessary.
Then chapter 2 explored the inspiration (and warnings) that science
fiction might also offer. By chapter 3 and 4 specific recommendations
were made regarding how educators and school leaders can begin imple-
menting meaningful changes now.
Part two rose to the challenge of looking even further ahead, explor-
ing in chapter 5 the challenges the first school on Mars might face. The
next three chapters dove into greater detail regarding a school design
188
189
Mars Society, “Top 5 Winners of Mars City State Design Competition
Announced,” October 23, 2020, https://www.marssociety.org/news/2020/10/23/
top-5-winners-of-mars-city-state-design-competition-announced/.
190
Howard Bloom, “The Big Picture Jigsaw: How Bloom’s
Seven Books Fit Together,” https://www.howardbloom.net/
the-big-picture-jigsaw-how-blooms-seven-books-fit-together/.
191
Christopher E. Mason, The Next 500 Years: Engineering Life to Reach New Worlds
192
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021).

Conclusion 237
meant to serve the first settlers on the Moon, in keeping with the work
of the Moon Village Society. Then, inspired by O’Neill’s legacy, chapter
9 considered the unique obstacles and opportunities afforded by edu-
cating students in a large-scale man-made orbital habitat. Though these
things will not be realities for many years to come, I hope this book
may serve as an early and useful contribution to the literature that will
inform decision makers when the time comes.
Finally, part three was focused on beginning the work of develop-
ing those decision-makers today. Chapters 10 and 11 focused on moral
decision-making and leadership, and chapter 12 considered broader
issues of school governance, particularly the need for the flexibility
of self-organization. The section concluded with a paper addressing
professional development needs and suggested improvements to the
fledgeling space education programs available today. I hope to have
a hand in moving forward with these next steps myself, particularly
in collaboration with my colleagues at Kepler Space Institute and at
ARES Learning.
The time for action is, after all, now. When the USSR launched
Sputnik and the US government feared losing the space race, the
national education system was realigned around science education.193
In the decades since, iterations have been legislated along the way in
the wake of A Nation at Risk, September 11th, and the great recession.
Arguably, the current focus on STEM education, especially “coding”
falls in the same tradition of changing curriculum to meet national
needs or perceived national crises.194
But this is not a national crisis…it’s much more. It’s a human cri-
sis…a global crisis. And a global opportunity. Chapter 1 included Toby
Ord’s overview of the existential threats facing humanity today, from
nuclear war or malicious AI to a devastating asteroid impact.195 But he
193
https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/10/
how-sputnik-changed-u-s-education/
194
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00228958.2008.10516514
Toby Ord, The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity, (Hachette
195
Books, 2020).
238 Space Education
also imagined a glorious future for humanity as shepherds spreading

Earth life throughout the solar system and beyond, a vision shared
by Howard Bloom, Frank White, and Christopher Mason. Howard
Bloom envisioned gardening the solar system, 196 White imagined
humanity spreading consciousness throughout the galaxy (if we are
indeed alone),197 and Mason concludes his book with the potential for
humans to eventually create new universes to fill with life.198 Even in
the near term, Mason argues, our responsibility to preserve life (and
shepherd it’s evolution) extends beyond ourselves to all terrestrial life. I
imagine that in a shockingly few years, perhaps within a century accord-
ing to Mason’s projections, genetically engineered human descendants
(and descendants of Earth plants and animals) will be the aliens we
encounter on other planets.
This is a vibrant future for all of us, but we must prepare each new
generation, starting with today’s students, to move things forward
ethically and equitably, with flexibility and ingenuity. Education is
an important part (perhaps the most important part) of the unified
Human Space Program White advocates, and each reader of this book
can be a part of it. Whatever your role in education, as a teacher, lead-
er, parent, or concerned community member, you can take action to
better prepare the next generation—and I hope the articles collected
here will help you get started. Ad astra!
196
Bloom, “Garden the Solar System.”
197
Frank White, The Cosma Hypothesis: Implications of the Overview Effect
(Multiverse Publishing, 2018).
198
Christopher E. Mason, The Next 500 Years: Engineering Life to Reach New Worlds,
(The MIT Press, 2021).
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M a r k Wa g n er , P h . D .
D r. Mark Wagner is CEO and co-

founder of ARES Learning, which
prepares students with the skill sets and
mindsets they need to be successful in the
growing space economy — and in humanity’s rapidly approaching
multi-planet future. He also serves as President of the Space Prize
Foundation, a nonprofit organization focused on empowering young
women to pursue STEAM education and to explore careers in the space
industry. In addition, he is the Associate Editor for the Journal of Space
Philosophy and teaches space education courses for teachers.
Dr. Wagner is a former high school English teacher, later serving
as an Educational Technology Coordinator at the site, district, and
county levels. In 2006 he launched EdTechTeam, a professional devel-
opment company dedicated to inspiring and empowering educators
around the world. Each year EdTechTeam served 50,000 educators
through over 100 conference-style events and hundreds of others
workshops in dozens of countries. EdTechTeam was recognized as
the Google for Education Partner of the Year in 2018. As a former
aerospace engineering student and a lifelong space enthusiast (hav-
ing attended Space Camp twice while growing up), he is thrilled to
now apply his educational technology experience in the increasingly
269
270 Space Education
important field of space education.

Mark Wagner has a Ph.D. in Educational Technology and a masters
degree in Cross-Cultural Education. He also holds graduate certificates
in Space Education and Space Philosophy. He is the author of More
Now: A Message from The Future for The Educators of Today (2018)
and Space Education: Preparing Students for Humanity’s Multi-Planet
Future (2022), which explores both the current reality on Earth and
the possibilities for teaching students on the Moon, on Mars, and in
deep space habitats.
Outside his work, Mark loves playing hockey, practicing martial arts,
and obsessing over his ’62 beetle, which runs on an electric motor and
Tesla batteries. He is a certified health coach and biohacking enthusiast,
who also enjoys songwriting, spending time in nature, and exploring
the world with his friends and family.

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SPACE EDUC ATION

Mark D. Wagner, Ph.D.

First printed edition published in 2022 by Multiverse Publishing, LLC.

Print ISBN-13 979-8-9866538-0-8

Book Design by Barbara Tada

Printed in the United States of America

His contributions to the field of Space Philosophy

Part I: Preparing Today’s Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Part II: Serving Students in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

A s the space movement has gathered momentum, we have

repetition of information provided by teachers is not going to shape the

once again, but now experienced directly, like an astronaut. We will

Of course, we cannot know all the answers to the question of how

by Mark Wagner, PhD

T his book was only possible because of the year I spent as a

T he reality of a multi-planet future for humanity is fast

typically resistant to change, and overly reliant on traditional approach-

like this introduction, meant to provide a consistent narrative line

Part 3 then focuses on preparing educators and leaders, and on

others wherever they go in the universe. Similarly, Kepler Space Insti-

Arts), most schools are not focused on student exploration, test-

Mark Wagner, Ph.D., Brendan Brennan, Athena Brensberger,

BENEFITS OF SPACE EXPLORATION

protection of the environment on Earth. 12 Munévar saw space explo-

encourages acceptance and inclusion of people from a diversity of back-

support of space exploration might be the inspiration it offers to people

CRITIQUES AND COUNTER ARGUMENTS

Despite these many benefits of investing in space exploration, there are

carrier. 34 Pyle captured this humorously in his anthropomorphized

CRITICAL REASONS FOR SPACE EXPLORATION

many human-made existential threats as well. Even politicians and dip-

ernance,58 greater participation of the general populace, and ultimately

SHOULD CHILDREN BE EDUCATED FOR SPACE EXPLORATION?

Given these compelling reasons for humanity to invest in space explo-

So, if schools should be redesigned to better prepare students for

SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

in Childhood, Science Fiction, and Pedagogy: Children Ex Machina, ed. David W.

to achieve our highest aspirations as a species—and to move ethically

This qualitative study followed a grounded theory approach using the

experience. 85 Their responses were then copied from the spreadsheet

Several themes emerged from the analysis of participant responses to

characterized by equity, abundance, and humanist or post-humanist

Mark D. Wagner, “Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games as

Constructivist Learning Environments in K-12 Education: A Delphi Study” (PhD diss.,

favor of more meaningful mentorship from people who work in the

students to issues of governance, including the policy sciences, and also

(as opposed to didactic teaching) and on authentic real-world prob-

Figure 1. This framework illustrates the principles and processes of constructivist

Brendan Brennan Co-Founder ARES Learning

*All participants in the study are credited as co-authors on this publication.

At the invitation of Space Education professor Dr. Barry Elsey, I

authentic, and (in a word) constructivist approach the expert opin-

Mark Wagner, Ph.D., K atrina Adkins, Ed.D., Lisa DeLapo,

This paper is in response to Elsey and Omarova, 88 who articu-

Quality Education to Human Communities Living in Outer Space,” Journal of Space

existing literature and the new results of the study highlighted

This literature review was conducted to explore previous publications

explicitly constructivist theme in some depictions, where a “construc-

the teacher as a mentor," 106 citing characters such as Yoda, Morpheus,