Helium

Helium (from Greek: ἥλιος, romanized: helios,

Helium, 2He
lit. 'sun') is a chemical element; it has symbol He and
atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless,
non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and the first in the
noble gas group in the periodic table.[a] Its boiling
point is the lowest among all the elements, and it
does not have a melting point at standard pressures.
It is the second-lightest and second most abundant
element in the observable universe, after hydrogen.
It is present at about 24% of the total elemental Helium
mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all Pronunciation /ˈhiːliəm/ ​(HEE -lee-əm)
the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is Appearance colorless gas, exhibiting a
similar to this in both the Sun and Jupiter, because of gray, cloudy glow (or
the very high nuclear binding energy (per nucleon) reddish-orange if an
of helium-4, with respect to the next three elements especially high voltage is
after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also used) when placed in an
accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear electric field
fusion and radioactive decay. The most common
isotope of helium in the universe is helium-4, the Standard atomic weight Ar°(He)
vast majority of which was formed during the Big 4.002 602 ± 0.000 002[1]
Bang. Large amounts of new helium are created by 4.0026 ± 0.0001 (abridged)[2]
nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.
Helium in the periodic table
Helium was first detected as an unknown, yellow –
spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar ↑
He
eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet,[14] Captain C. T. ↓
Ne
Haig,[15] Norman R. Pogson,[16] and Lieutenant hydrogen ← helium → lithium
John Herschel,[17] and was subsequently confirmed
by French astronomer Jules Janssen.[18] Janssen is Atomic number (Z) 2
often jointly credited with detecting the element, Group group 18 (noble gases)
along with Norman Lockyer. Janssen recorded the Period period 1
helium spectral line during the solar eclipse of 1868,
Block s-block
while Lockyer observed it from Britain. However,
only Lockyer proposed that the line was due to a Electron 1s2

new element, which he named after the Sun. The configuration

formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 Electrons per 2
by chemists Sir William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve, shell
and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium Physical properties
emanating from the uranium ore cleveite, which is Phase at STP gas
now not regarded as a separate mineral species, but
as a variety of uraninite.[19][20] In 1903, large Boiling point 4.222 K ​(−268.928 °C, ​
reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields −452.070 °F)
in parts of the United States, by far the largest Density (at STP) 0.1786 g/L
supplier of the gas today.
when liquid (at b.p.) 0.125 g/cm3
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics (its largest Triple point 2.177 K, ​5.043 kPa
single use, consuming about a quarter of Critical point 5.1953 K, 0.22746 MPa
production), and in the cooling of superconducting
Heat of fusion 0.0138 kJ/mol
magnets, with its main commercial application in
Heat of 0.0829 kJ/mol
MRI scanners. Helium's other industrial uses—as a
vaporization
pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective
atmosphere for arc welding, and in processes such Molar heat 20.78 J/(mol·K)[3]
as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—account capacity
for half of the gas produced. A small but well- Vapor pressure (defined by ITS-90)
known use is as a lifting gas in balloons and P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
airships.[21] As with any gas whose density differs
from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium at T (K) 1.23 1.67 2.48 4.21

temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the Atomic properties

human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of
Oxidation states 0
the two fluid phases of helium-4 (helium I and
helium II) is important to researchers studying Electronegativity Pauling scale: no data
quantum mechanics (in particular the property of Ionization 1st: 2372.3 kJ/mol
superfluidity) and to those looking at the energies 2nd: 5250.5 kJ/mol
phenomena, such as superconductivity, produced in
matter near absolute zero. Covalent radius 28 pm
Van der Waals 140 pm
On Earth, it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume radius
in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present
today is created by the natural radioactive decay of
heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium,
Spectral lines of helium
although there are other examples), as the alpha
particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 Other properties

nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with Natural primordial

natural gas in concentrations as great as 7% by occurrence
volume, from which it is extracted commercially by Crystal structure ​ exagonal close-packed
h
a low-temperature separation process called (hcp)
fractional distillation. Terrestrial helium is a non-
renewable resource because once released into the
atmosphere, it promptly escapes into space. Its Thermal 0.1513 W/(m⋅K)
conductivity
supply is thought to be rapidly diminishing.[22][23]
However, some studies suggest that helium Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[4]
produced deep in the Earth by radioactive decay can Molar magnetic −1.88 × 10−6 cm3/mol
susceptibility (298 K)[5]
Speed of sound 972 m/s
CAS Number 7440-59-7
History
collect in natural gas reserves in larger-than- Naming after Helios, Greek god of
expected quantities,[24] in some cases having been the Sun
released by volcanic activity.[25] Discovery Norman Lockyer (1868)
First isolation William Ramsay, Per Teodor
History Cleve, Abraham Langlet
(1895)
Isotopes of helium
Scientific discoveries
The first evidence of helium was observed on Main isotopes[6] Decay
August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line with a abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of
3
the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected He 0.0002% stable

by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total 4

He 99.9998% stable
solar eclipse in Guntur, India. [26][27] This line was
initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of
the same year, English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he
named the D3 because it was near the known D1 and D2 Fraunhofer lines of sodium.[28][29] He concluded
that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer named the element with the Greek
word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).[30][31] It is sometimes said that English chemist Edward Frankland was
also involved in the naming, but this is unlikely as he doubted the existence of this new element. The
ending "-ium" is unusual, as it normally applies only to metallic elements; probably Lockyer, being an
astronomer, was unaware of the chemical conventions.[32]

In 1881, Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detected helium on Earth

for the first time through its D3 spectral line, when he analyzed a
material that had been sublimated during a recent eruption of Mount
Vesuvius.[33]
Spectral lines of helium
On March 26, 1895, Scottish
chemist Sir William Ramsay
isolated helium on Earth by treating the
mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with
at least 10% rare-earth elements) with
mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for
argon but, after separating nitrogen and
oxygen from the gas, liberated by sulfuric
acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that
matched the D3 line observed in the
spectrum of the Sun.[29][35][36][37] These
samples were identified as helium by
Lockyer and British physicist William
Crookes.[38][39] It was independently Sir William Ramsay, the
discoverer of terrestrial
The cleveite sample from isolated from cleveite in the same year by
helium
which Ramsay first purified chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham
helium[34] Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected
enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight.[40][41][27][42]
Helium was also isolated by American geochemist William Francis Hillebrand prior to Ramsay's discovery,
when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however,
attributed the lines to nitrogen.[43] His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of
discovery, and near-discovery, in science.[44]

In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei by
allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the
tube, to study the spectrum of the new gas inside.[45] In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than 5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F).[46][47] He tried to
solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed, because helium does not solidify at atmospheric
pressure. Onnes' student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926
by applying additional external pressure.[48][49]

In 1913, Niels Bohr published his "trilogy"[50][51] on atomic structure that included a reconsideration of the
Pickering–Fowler series as central evidence in support of his model of the atom.[52][53] This series is named
for Edward Charles Pickering, who in 1896 published observations of previously unknown lines in the
spectrum of the star ζ Puppis[54] (these are now known to occur with Wolf–Rayet and other hot stars).[55]
Pickering attributed the observation (lines at 4551, 5411, and 10123 Å) to a new form of hydrogen with
half-integer transition levels.[56][57] In 1912, Alfred Fowler[58] managed to produce similar lines from a
hydrogen-helium mixture, and supported Pickering's conclusion as to their origin.[59] Bohr's model does not
allow for half-integer transitions (nor does quantum mechanics) and Bohr concluded that Pickering and
Fowler were wrong, and instead assigned these spectral lines to ionised helium, He+.[60] Fowler was
initially skeptical[61] but was ultimately convinced[62] that Bohr was correct,[50] and by 1915
"spectroscopists had transferred [the Pickering–Fowler series] definitively [from hydrogen] to
helium."[53][63] Bohr's theoretical work on the Pickering series had demonstrated the need for "a re-
examination of problems that seemed already to have been solved within classical theories" and provided
important confirmation for his atomic theory.[53]

In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no viscosity at
temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity.[64] This phenomenon is related to
Bose–Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures
much closer to absolute zero, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C.
Richardson. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make
bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.[65]

In 1961, Vignos and Fairbank reported the existence of a different phase of solid helium-4, designated the
gamma-phase. It exists for a narrow range of pressure between 1.45 and 1.78 K.[66]

Extraction and use

After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas
state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the
University of Kansas at Lawrence where, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland,
he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage
only with sufficient oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas.[27][67] With further analysis,
Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was
helium.[68][69] This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth,
helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American
Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural
gas.[70]

Following a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the United States

Navy sponsored three small experimental helium plants during
World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the
Historical marker, denoting a
non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 5,700 m3
massive helium find near Dexter,
(200,000 cu ft) of 92% helium was produced in the program even Kansas
though less than a cubic meter of the gas had previously been
obtained.[29] Some of this gas was used in the world's first helium-
filled airship, the U.S. Navy's C-class blimp C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads,
Virginia, to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1921,[71] nearly two years before the
Navy's first rigid helium-filled airship, the Naval Aircraft Factory-built USS Shenandoah, flew in
September 1923.

Although the extraction process using low-temperature gas liquefaction was not developed in time to be
significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-
than-air craft. During World War II, the demand increased for helium for lifting gas and for shielded arc
welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.[72]

The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas, with
the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime.[29] Because of
the Helium Act of 1925, which banned the export of scarce helium on which the US then had a production
monopoly, together with the prohibitive cost of the gas, German Zeppelins were forced to use hydrogen as
lifting gas, which would gain infamy in the Hindenburg disaster. The helium market after World War II was
depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to
create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use
in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.[73]

After the Helium Acts Amendments of 1960 (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for
five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau
built a 425-mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants with the government's
partially depleted Cliffside gas field near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and
stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, at which time it was further purified.[74]

By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4 billion in debt,
prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to discontinue the reserve.[27][75] The resulting
Helium Privatization Act of 1996[76] (Public Law 104–273) directed the United States Department of the
Interior to empty the reserve, with sales starting by 2005.[77]

Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was adequate for
airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial
quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.[78]
For many years, the United States produced more than 90% of commercially usable helium in the world,
while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-
1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria, producing 17 million cubic metres (600 million cubic feet) began
operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe's demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption
of helium within the U.S. had risen to more than 15 million kg per year.[79] In 2004–2006, additional plants
in Ras Laffan, Qatar, and Skikda, Algeria were built. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer
of helium.[80] Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased.[81]
From 2002 to 2007 helium prices doubled.[82]

As of 2012, the United States National Helium Reserve accounted for 30 percent of the world's helium.[83]
The reserve was expected to run out of helium in 2018.[83] Despite that, a proposed bill in the United States
Senate would allow the reserve to continue to sell the gas. Other large reserves were in the Hugoton in
Kansas, United States, and nearby gas fields of Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. New
helium plants were scheduled to open in 2012 in Qatar, Russia, and the US state of Wyoming, but they
were not expected to ease the shortage.[83]

In 2013, Qatar started up the world's largest helium unit,[84] although the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis
severely affected helium production there.[85] 2014 was widely acknowledged to be a year of over-supply
in the helium business, following years of renowned shortages.[86] Nasdaq reported (2015) that for Air
Products, an international corporation that sells gases for industrial use, helium volumes remain under
economic pressure due to feedstock supply constraints.[87]

Characteristics

Atom

In quantum mechanics
In the perspective of quantum mechanics, helium is the second
simplest atom to model, following the hydrogen atom. Helium is
composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals surrounding a nucleus
containing two protons and (usually) two neutrons. As in
Newtonian mechanics, no system that consists of more than two
particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical
approach (see 3-body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus,
numerical mathematical methods are required, even to solve the
system of one nucleus and two electrons. Such computational The helium atom. Depicted are the
chemistry methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud
picture of helium electron binding which is accurate to within < 2% distribution (black). The nucleus
of the correct value, in a few computational steps.[88] Such models (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality
show that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from spherically symmetric and closely
resembles the electron cloud,
although for more complicated nuclei
this is not always the case.
the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Zeff which each electron sees is about 1.69 units, not the 2
charges of a classic "bare" helium nucleus.

Related stability of the helium-4 nucleus and electron shell

The nucleus of the helium-4 atom is identical with an alpha particle. High-energy electron-scattering
experiments show its charge to decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does
the charge density of helium's own electron cloud. This symmetry reflects similar underlying physics: the
pair of neutrons and the pair of protons in helium's nucleus obey the same quantum mechanical rules as do
helium's pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject to a different nuclear binding potential),
so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular
momentum, and each cancelling the other's intrinsic spin. Adding another of any of these particles would
require angular momentum and would release substantially less energy (in fact, no nucleus with five
nucleons is stable). This arrangement is thus energetically extremely stable for all these particles, and this
stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature.

For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for the element's
chemical inertness, and also the lack of interaction of helium atoms with each other, producing the lowest
melting and boiling points of all the elements.

In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium-4 nucleus, produced by similar effects,
accounts for the ease of helium-4 production in atomic reactions that involve either heavy-particle emission
or fusion. Some stable helium-3 (two protons and one neutron) is produced in fusion reactions from
hydrogen, but it is a very small fraction compared to the highly favorable helium-4.

The unusual stability of the helium-4 nucleus is also important

cosmologically: it explains the fact that in the first few minutes after
the Big Bang, as the "soup" of free protons and neutrons which had
initially been created in about 6:1 ratio cooled to the point that
nuclear binding was possible, almost all first compound atomic
nuclei to form were helium-4 nuclei. Owing to the relatively tight
binding of helium-4 nuclei, its production consumed nearly all of
the free neutrons in a few minutes, before they could beta-decay, Binding energy per nucleon of
and thus few neutrons were available to form heavier atoms such as common isotopes. The binding
lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium-4 nuclear binding per nucleon energy per particle of helium-4 is
is stronger than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and significantly larger than all nearby
binding energy) and thus, once helium had been formed, no nuclides.
energetic drive was available to make elements 3, 4 and 5. [89] It is
barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next
element with a lower energy per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this
process requires three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple-alpha process).
There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the few minutes after the Big Bang, before
the early expanding universe cooled to the temperature and pressure point where helium fusion to carbon
was no longer possible. This left the early universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen/helium as is
observed today (3 parts hydrogen to 1 part helium-4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe
trapped in helium-4.
All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or
other life) have thus been created since the Big Bang in stars which were hot enough to fuse helium itself.
All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the
universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe's ordinary matter—nearly all the
ordinary matter that is not hydrogen.

Gas and plasma phases

Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon, and thus the
second least reactive of all elements.[90] It is chemically inert and
monatomic in all standard conditions. Because of helium's relatively low
molar (atomic) mass, its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound
speed in the gas phase are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen.
For these reasons and the small size of helium monatomic molecules,
helium diffuses through solids at a rate three times that of air and around
65% that of hydrogen.[29]
Helium discharge tube
Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas,[91] and one of the least
shaped into 'He', the
element's symbol.
water-soluble of any gas (CF4 , SF6 , and C4 F8 have lower mole fraction
solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x2 /10−5 , respectively, versus
helium's 0.70797 x2 /10−5 ),[92] and helium's index of refraction is closer to
unity than that of any other gas.[93] Helium has a negative Joule–Thomson coefficient at normal ambient
temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule–Thomson inversion
temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.[29] Once precooled
below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.

Most extraterrestrial helium is plasma in stars, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In
a plasma, helium's electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even
when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric
fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, the particles interact with the Earth's
magnetosphere, giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.[94]

Liquid phase
Helium liquifies when cooled below 4.2 K at atmospheric
pressure. Unlike any other element, however, helium
remains liquid down to a temperature of absolute zero.
This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically,
the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow
freezing. Pressures above about 25 atmospheres are
required to freeze it. There are two liquid phases: Helium I
is a conventional liquid, and Helium II, which occurs at a
lower temperature, is a superfluid. Phase diagram of helium-4. (Atmospheric
pressure is about 0.1 MPa)

Helium I
Below its boiling point of 4.22 K (−268.93 °C; −452.07 °F) and
above the lambda point of 2.1768 K (−270.9732 °C;
−455.7518 °F), the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless
liquid state, called helium I.[29] Like other cryogenic liquids,
helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature
is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium does not boil,
and it expands as the temperature is lowered further. Liquefied helium. This helium is not
only liquid, but has been cooled to
Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its the point of superfluidity. The drop of
surface so hard to see that floats of Styrofoam are often used to liquid at the bottom of the glass
show where the surface is.[29] This colorless liquid has a very low represents helium spontaneously
viscosity and a density of 0.145–0.125 g/mL (between about 0 and escaping from the container over the
side, to empty out of the container.
4 K),[95] which is only one-fourth the value expected from classical
The energy to drive this process is
physics.[29] Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property supplied by the potential energy of
and thus both states of liquid helium (helium I and helium II) are the falling helium.
called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a
macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being
so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic
properties.[29]

Helium II
Liquid helium below its lambda point (called helium II) exhibits very unusual characteristics. Due to its high
thermal conductivity, when it boils, it does not bubble but rather evaporates directly from its surface.
Helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about
the properties of the isotope.[29]

Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state of matter with strange properties. For example, when
it flows through capillaries as thin as 10 to 100 nm it has no measurable viscosity.[27] However, when
measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was
observed. Existing theory explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium
below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground state, which are
superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which
behave more like an ordinary fluid.[96]

In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered
disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If
the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to
maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the
pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.[97]

The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that
of helium I and several hundred times that of copper.[29] This is because heat conduction occurs by an
exceptional quantum mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free
electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts
heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to
characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K
through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second sound.[29]
Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the
level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force
of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping
along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It
moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface material. This film is
called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this
trait, Bernard V. Rollin.[29][98][99] As a result of this creeping behavior and
helium II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to
confine. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will
creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere
warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are
governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but
Unlike ordinary liquids,
rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force.[100] These
helium II will creep along
waves are known as third sound.[101] surfaces in order to reach an
equal level; after a short
while, the levels in the two
Solid phases containers will equalize. The
Helium remains liquid down to absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, but it Rollin film also covers the
freezes at high pressure. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K interior of the larger
(about −272 °C or −457 °F) at about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure.[102] It is container; if it were not
sealed, the helium II would
often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index
creep out and escape.[29]
of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp melting point
and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying
pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.[103] With a bulk modulus of about 27
MPa[104] it is ~100 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214 ± 0.006 g/cm3
at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar (2.5 MPa) is 0.187 ± 0.009 g/cm3 .[105] At
higher temperatures, helium will solidify with sufficient pressure. At room temperature, this requires about
114,000 atm.[106]

Helium-4 and helium-3 both form several crystalline solid phases, all requiring at least 25 bar. They both
form an α phase, which has a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure, a β phase, which is face-
centered cubic (fcc), and a γ phase, which is body-centered cubic (bcc).[107]

Isotopes
There are nine known isotopes of helium of which two, helium-3 and helium-4, are stable. In the Earth's
atmosphere, one atom is 3 He for every million that are 4 He.[27] Unlike most elements, helium's isotopic
abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope,
helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that
emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are
arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang
nucleosynthesis.[108]

Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts. Most of it has been present since Earth's formation,
though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust.[109] Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay
of tritium.[110] Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and
these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth's mantle.[109]
3 He is much more abundant in stars as a product of nuclear fusion. Thus in the interstellar medium, the
proportion of 3 He to 4 He is about 100 times higher than on Earth.[111] Extraplanetary material, such as
lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The
Moon's surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 10 ppb, much higher than the
approximately 5 ppt found in the Earth's atmosphere.[112][113] A number of people, starting with Gerald
Kulcinski in 1986,[114] have proposed to explore the Moon, mine lunar regolith, and use the helium-3 for
fusion.

Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 K (−272.15 °C; −457.87 °F) using evaporative cooling in a 1-K
pot. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in a helium-
3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid 3 He and 4 He below 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due
to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statistics: helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3
atoms are fermions).[29] Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few
millikelvins.[115]

It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-
lived heavy helium isotope is the unbound helium-10 with a half-life of 2.6(4) × 10−22 s.[6] Helium-6
decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half-life of 0.8 second. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in
certain nuclear reactions.[29] Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.[29]

Properties
Table of thermal and physical properties of helium gas at atmospheric pressure:[116][117]

Specific Dynamic Kinematic Thermal Thermal

Temperature Density Prandtl
heat viscosity viscosity conductivity diffusivity
(K) (kg/m^3) number
(kJ/kg °C) (kg/m s) (m^2/s) (W/m °C) (m^2/s)

100 5.193 9.63E-06 1.98E-05 0.073 2.89E-05 0.686

120 0.406 5.193 1.07E-05 2.64E-05 0.0819 3.88E-05 0.679

144 0.3379 5.193 1.26E-05 3.71E-05 0.0928 5.28E-05 0.7

200 0.2435 5.193 1.57E-05 6.44E-05 0.1177 9.29E-05 0.69

255 0.1906 5.193 1.82E-05 9.55E-05 0.1357 1.37E-04 0.7

366 0.1328 5.193 2.31E-05 1.74E-04 0.1691 2.45E-04 0.71

477 0.10204 5.193 2.75E-05 2.69E-04 0.197 3.72E-04 0.72

589 0.08282 5.193 3.11E-05 3.76E-04 0.225 5.22E-04 0.72

700 0.07032 5.193 3.48E-05 4.94E-04 0.251 6.66E-04 0.72

800 0.06023 5.193 3.82E-05 6.34E-04 0.275 8.77E-04 0.72

900 0.05451 5.193 4.14E-05 7.59E-04 0.33 1.14E-03 0.687

1000 5.193 4.46E-05 9.14E-04 0.354 1.40E-03 0.654

Compounds
Helium has a valence of zero and is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions.[103] It is an
electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that
allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential.[29] Helium
can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungsten,
iodine, fluorine, sulfur, and phosphorus when it is subjected to a
glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or reduced to plasma by
other means. The molecular compounds HeNe, HgHe10 , and
+ +
WHe2 , and the molecular ions He+2, He2+ 2 , HeH , and HeD have
been created this way. [118] +
HeH is also stable in its ground state
but is extremely reactive—it is the strongest Brønsted acid known,
and therefore can exist only in isolation, as it will protonate any
molecule or counteranion it contacts. This technique has also
produced the neutral molecule He2 , which has a large number of
band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently held together only by Structure of the helium hydride ion,
polarization forces.[29] HHe+

Van der Waals compounds of helium can also be formed with

cryogenic helium gas and atoms of some other substance, such as
LiHe and He2 .[119]

Theoretically, other true compounds may be possible, such as

helium fluorohydride (HHeF), which would be analogous to HArF,
discovered in 2000.[120] Calculations show that two new
compounds containing a helium-oxygen bond could be stable.[121]
Two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and
Structure of the suspected
N(CH3 )4 FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable FHeO− anion first fluoroheliate anion, OHeF−
theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by
experiment, the only remaining element with no known stable
compounds would be neon.[122]

Helium atoms have been inserted into the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under
high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable at high temperatures. When chemical
derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside.[123] If helium-3 is used, it can be readily
observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.[124] Many fullerenes containing helium-3
have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these
substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.

Under high pressures helium can form compounds with various other elements. Helium-nitrogen clathrate
(He(N2 )11 ) crystals have been grown at room temperature at pressures ca. 10 GPa in a diamond anvil
cell.[125] The insulating electride Na2 He has been shown to be thermodynamically stable at pressures above
113 GPa. It has a fluorite structure.[126]

Occurrence and production

Natural abundance
Although it is rare on Earth, helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe,
constituting 23% of its baryonic mass. Only hydrogen is more abundant.[27] The vast majority of helium
was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements
of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen
in proton–proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.[108]

In the Earth's atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million.[127][128] The
concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most
helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into space by several processes.[129][130][131] In the Earth's
heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant
elements.

Most helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of
uranium and thorium, including uraninite and its varieties cleveite and pitchblende,[19][132] carnotite and
monazite (a group name; "monazite" usually refers to monazite-(Ce)),[133][134] because they emit alpha
particles (helium nuclei, He2+) to which electrons immediately combine as soon as the particle is stopped by
the rock. In this way an estimated 3000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the
lithosphere.[135][136][137] In the Earth's crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater,
the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas,
and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in the subsurface under conditions that also trap natural gas,
the greatest natural concentrations of helium on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most
commercial helium is extracted. The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm to more than 7%
in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico.[138][139]

As of 2021, the world's helium reserves were estimated at 31 billion cubic meters, with a third of that being
in Qatar.[140] In 2015 and 2016 additional probable reserves were announced to be under the Rocky
Mountains in North America[141] and in the East African Rift.[142]

Modern extraction and distribution

For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which can contain as
much as 7% helium.[143] Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperatures
and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane). The resulting
crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the
remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as
a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.[29] The principal impurity in
Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a
cryogenic process. This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium
suppliers to reduce the cost of long-distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more
than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.[80][144]

In 2008, approximately 169 million standard cubic meters (SCM) of helium were extracted from natural gas
or withdrawn from helium reserves, with approximately 78% from the United States, 10% from Algeria,
and most of the remainder from Russia, Poland, and Qatar.[145] By 2013, increases in helium production in
Qatar (under the company Qatargas managed by Air Liquide) had increased Qatar's fraction of world
helium production to 25%, making it the second largest exporter after the United States.[146] An estimated
54 billion cubic feet (1.5 × 109 m3 ) deposit of helium was found in Tanzania in 2016.[147] A large-scale
helium plant was opened in Ningxia, China in 2020.[148]
In the United States, most helium is extracted from the natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in
Kansas, Oklahoma, and the Panhandle Field in Texas.[80][149] Much of this gas was once sent by pipeline
to the National Helium Reserve, but since 2005, this reserve has been depleted and sold off, and it is
expected to be largely depleted by 2021[146] under the October 2013 Responsible Helium Administration
and Stewardship Act (H.R. 527).[150] The helium fields of the western United States are emerging as an
alternate source of helium supply, particularly those of the "Four Corners" region (the states of Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico and Utah).[151]

Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another
method to recover and purify helium.[152] In 1996, the U.S. had proven helium reserves in such gas well
complexes of about 147 billion standard cubic feet (4.2 billion SCM).[153] At rates of use at that time (72
million SCM per year in the U.S.; see pie chart below) this would have been enough helium for about 58
years of U.S. use, and less than this (perhaps 80% of the time) at world use rates, although factors in saving
and processing impact effective reserve numbers.

Helium is generally extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon,
yet the demand for it is far higher. It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium,
0.1% of the world's helium demands would be satisfied. Similarly, only 1% of the world's helium demands
could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants.[154] Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of
lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons, but these
processes are a completely uneconomical method of production.[155]

Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small
insulated containers called dewars which hold as much as 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers,
which have nominal capacities as large as 42 m3 (around 11,000 U.S. gallons). In gaseous form, small
quantities of helium are supplied in high-pressure cylinders holding as much as 8 m3 (approximately . 282
standard cubic feet), while large quantities of high-pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers, which have
capacities of as much as 4,860 m3 (approx. 172,000 standard cubic feet).

Conservation advocates
According to helium conservationists like Nobel laureate physicist Robert Coleman Richardson, writing in
2010, the free market price of helium has contributed to "wasteful" usage (e.g. for helium balloons). Prices
in the 2000s had been lowered by the decision of the U.S. Congress to sell off the country's large helium
stockpile by 2015.[156] According to Richardson, the price needed to be multiplied by 20 to eliminate the
excessive wasting of helium. In the 2012 paper Stop squandering helium published in 2012, it was also
proposed to create an International Helium Agency that would build a sustainable market for "this precious
commodity".[157]

Applications
While balloons are perhaps the best-known use of helium, they are a minor part of all helium use.[75]
Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point,
low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2014 world helium total
production of about 32 million kg (180 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the largest use
(about 32% of the total in 2014) is in cryogenic applications, most of which involves cooling the
 superconducting magnets in
medical MRI scanners and
NMR spectrometers.[159]
Other major uses were
pressurizing and purging
systems, welding, maintenance
of controlled atmospheres, and
leak detection. Other uses by
The largest single use of liquid
category were relatively minor
helium is to cool the superconducting fractions.[158]
magnets in modern MRI scanners.
Estimated 2014 U.S.
Controlled fractional helium use by
category. Total use is 34
atmospheres
million cubic meters.[158]
Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium
crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas Cryogenics (32%)
chromatography,[103] because it is inert. Because of its inertness, Pressurizing and purging
thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high (18%)
value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind Welding (13%)
Controlled atmospheres
tunnels[160] and impulse facilities.[161]
(18%)
Leak detection (4%)
Gas tungsten arc welding Breathing mixtures (2%)
Other (13%)
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials
that, at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or
nitrogen.[27] A number of inert shielding gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, but helium is used
instead of cheaper argon especially for welding materials that have higher heat conductivity, like aluminium
or copper.

Minor uses

Industrial leak detection

One industrial application for helium is leak detection. Because
helium diffuses through solids three times faster than air, it is used
as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment (such as
cryogenic tanks) and high-pressure containers.[162] The tested
object is placed in a chamber, which is then evacuated and filled
with helium. The helium that escapes through the leaks is detected
by a sensitive device (helium mass spectrometer), even at the leak
A dual chamber helium leak
rates as small as 10−9 mbar·L/s (10−10 Pa·m3 /s). The measurement
detection machine
procedure is normally automatic and is called helium integral test. A
simpler procedure is to fill the tested object with helium and to
manually search for leaks with a hand-held device.[163]
Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk material. While
helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation rate) through glasses, ceramics,
and synthetic materials, inert gases such as helium will not permeate most bulk metals.[164]

Flight
Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with
helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is more buoyant and escapes
permeating through a membrane at a lower rate, helium has the
advantage of being non-flammable, and indeed fire-retardant.
Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage
Because of its low density and
incombustibility, helium is the gas of
medium to backfill rocket propellant tanks in flight and to condense
choice to fill airships such as the hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge
Goodyear blimp. fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch
and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the
Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000
cubic metres (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch.[103]

Minor commercial and recreational uses

Helium as a breathing gas has no narcotic properties, so helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair
are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis, which worsen with increasing depth.[165][166] As
pressure increases with depth, the density of the breathing gas also increases, and the low molecular weight
of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing by lowering the density of the mixture.
This reduces the Reynolds number of flow, leading to a reduction of turbulent flow and an increase in
laminar flow, which requires less breathing.[167][168] At depths below 150 metres (490 ft) divers breathing
helium-oxygen mixtures begin to experience tremors and a decrease in psychomotor function, symptoms of
high-pressure nervous syndrome.[169] This effect may be countered to some extent by adding an amount of
narcotic gas such as hydrogen or nitrogen to a helium–oxygen mixture.[170]

Helium–neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam, had various practical
applications which included barcode readers and laser pointers, before they were almost universally
replaced by cheaper diode lasers.[27]

For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form
radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled
nuclear reactors.[162]

Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the
resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number.[171] The inertness of helium has environmental
advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global
warming.[172]

Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.[173]

Scientific uses
The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in
some telescopes due to its extremely low index of refraction.[29] This method is especially used in solar
telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy.[174][175]

Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography.

The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of
helium with a process known as helium dating.[27][29]

Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics and in certain cryogenic applications. As examples of
applications, liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for
superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging. The Large Hadron
Collider at CERN uses 96 metric tons of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 K (−271.25 °C;
−456.25 °F).[176]

Medical uses
Helium was approved for medical use in the United States in April 2020 for humans and animals.[177][178]

As a contaminant
While chemically inert, helium contamination impairs the operation of microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS) such that iPhones may fail.[179]

Inhalation and safety

Effects
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in
human blood.

Effect of helium on a human voice

0:00 / 0:00

The effect of helium on a human voice

Problems playing this file? See media help.

The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. Because the natural resonance
frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled, a
corresponding increase occurs in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract, which is the amplifier of vocal
sound.[27][180] This increase in the resonant frequency of the amplifier (the vocal tract) gives increased
amplification to the high-frequency components of the sound wave produced by the direct vibration of the
vocal folds, compared to the case when the voice box is filled with air. When a person speaks after inhaling
helium gas, the muscles that control the voice box still move in the same way as when the voice box is filled
with air; therefore the fundamental frequency (sometimes called pitch) produced by direct vibration of the
vocal folds does not change.[181] However, the high-frequency-preferred amplification causes a change in
timbre of the amplified sound, resulting in a reedy, duck-like vocal quality. The opposite effect, lowering
resonant frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon.

Hazards
Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces
oxygen needed for normal respiration.[27][182] Fatalities have been recorded, including a youth who
suffocated in Vancouver in 2003 and two adults who suffocated in South Florida in 2006.[183][184] In 1998,
an Australian girl from Victoria fell unconscious and temporarily turned blue after inhaling the entire
contents of a party balloon.[185][186][187] Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders or even
balloon filling valves is extremely dangerous, as high flow rate and pressure can result in barotrauma, fatally
rupturing lung tissue.[182][188]

Death caused by helium is rare. The first media-recorded case was that of a 15-year-old girl from Texas
who died in 1998 from helium inhalation at a friend's party; the exact type of helium death is
unidentified.[185][186][187]

In the United States, only two fatalities were reported between 2000 and 2004, including a man who died in
North Carolina of barotrauma in 2002.[183][188] A youth asphyxiated in Vancouver during 2003, and a 27-
year-old man in Australia had an embolism after breathing from a cylinder in 2000.[183] Since then, two
adults asphyxiated in South Florida in 2006,[183][184][189] and there were cases in 2009 and 2010, one of
whom was a Californian youth who was found with a bag over his head, attached to a helium tank,[190]
and another teenager in Northern Ireland died of asphyxiation.[191] At Eagle Point, Oregon a teenage girl
died in 2012 from barotrauma at a party.[192][193][194] A girl from Michigan died from hypoxia later in the
year.[195]

On February 4, 2015, it was revealed that, during the recording of their main TV show on January 28, a 12-
year-old member (name withheld) of Japanese all-girl singing group 3B Junior suffered from air embolism,
losing consciousness and falling into a coma as a result of air bubbles blocking the flow of blood to the
brain after inhaling huge quantities of helium as part of a game. The incident was not made public until a
week later.[196][197] The staff of TV Asahi held an emergency press conference to communicate that the
member had been taken to the hospital and is showing signs of rehabilitation such as moving eyes and
limbs, but her consciousness has not yet been sufficiently recovered. Police have launched an investigation
due to a neglect of safety measures.[198][199]

The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen; its extremely low temperatures
can result in cold burns, and the liquid-to-gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief
devices are installed. Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid
helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is
warmed to room temperature.[103]
At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead
to high-pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to
the mixture can alleviate the problem.[200][169]

See also
Abiogenic petroleum origin Superfluid
Helium-3 propulsion Tracer-gas leak testing method
Leidenfrost effect Hamilton Cady

Notes
a. A few authors dispute the placement of helium in the noble gas column, preferring to place it
above beryllium with the alkaline earth metals. They do so on the grounds of helium's 1s2
electron configuration, which is analogous to the ns2 valence configurations of the alkaline
earth metals, and furthermore point to some specific trends that are more regular if helium is
placed in group 2.[7][8][9][10][11] These tend to relate to kainosymmetry and the first-row
anomaly: the first orbital of any type is unusually small, since unlike its higher analogues, it
does not experience interelectronic repulsion from a smaller orbital of the same type.
Because of this trend in the sizes of orbitals, a large difference in atomic radii between the
first and second members of each main group is seen in groups 1 and 13–17: it exists
between neon and argon, and between helium and beryllium, but not between helium and
neon. This similarly affects the noble gases' boiling points and solubilities in water, where
helium is too close to neon, and the large difference characteristic between the first two
elements of a group appears only between neon and argon. Moving helium to group 2
makes this trend consistent in groups 2 and 18 as well, by making helium the first group 2
element and neon the first group 18 element: both exhibit the characteristic properties of a
kainosymmetric first element of a group.[12] However, the classification of helium with the
other noble gases remains near-universal, as its extraordinary inertness is extremely close to
that of the other light noble gases neon and argon.[13]

References
1. "Standard Atomic Weights: Helium" (https://www.ciaaw.org/helium.htm). CIAAW. 1983.
2. Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson,
Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden,
Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021
(IUPAC Technical Report)" (https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pac-2019-060
3/html). Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2
Fpac-2019-0603). ISSN 1365-3075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1365-3075).
3. Shuen-Chen Hwang, Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan (2005). "Noble Gases". Kirk Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley. pp. 343–383.
doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01.
4. Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http://www-d0.fnal.gov/ha
rdware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elementmagn.pdf), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
81st edition, CRC press.
5. Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida:
Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
 6. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020
evaluation of nuclear properties" (https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.p
df) (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae (https://doi.or
g/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2Fabddae).
7. Grochala, Wojciech (1 November 2017). "On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic
Table of Elements" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-017-9302-7). Foundations of
Chemistry. 20 (2018): 191–207. doi:10.1007/s10698-017-9302-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2
Fs10698-017-9302-7).
8. Bent Weberg, Libby (18 January 2019). " "The" periodic table" (https://cen.acs.org/articles/9
7/i3/Reactions.html). Chemical & Engineering News. 97 (3). Retrieved 27 March 2020.
9. Grandinetti, Felice (23 April 2013). "Neon behind the signs" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnche
m.1631). Nature Chemistry. 5 (2013): 438. Bibcode:2013NatCh...5..438G (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/2013NatCh...5..438G). doi:10.1038/nchem.1631 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F
nchem.1631). PMID 23609097 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23609097).
10. Kurushkin, Mikhail (2020). "Helium's placement in the Periodic Table from a crystal structure
viewpoint" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342152661). IUCrJ. 7 (4): 577–578.
Bibcode:2020IUCrJ...7..577K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020IUCrJ...7..577K).
doi:10.1107/S2052252520007769 (https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS2052252520007769).
PMC 7340260 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7340260). PMID 32695406 (h
ttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32695406). Retrieved 19 June 2020.
11. Labarca, Martín; Srivaths, Akash (2016). "On the Placement of Hydrogen and Helium in the
Periodic System: A New Approach" (https://web.archive.org/web/20211129140234/https://w
ww.academia.edu/27974090). Bulgarian Journal of Science Education. 25 (4): 514–530.
Archived from the original (https://www.academia.edu/27974090) on 29 November 2021.
Retrieved 19 June 2020.
12. Siekierski, S.; Burgess, J. (2002). Concise Chemistry of the Elements. Horwood. pp. 23–26.
ISBN 978-1-898563-71-6.
13. Lewars, Errol G. (5 December 2008). Modeling Marvels: Computational Anticipation of Novel
Molecules (https://books.google.com/books?id=IoFzgBSSCwEC). Springer Science &
Business Media. pp. 69–71. ISBN 978-1-4020-6973-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20160519021952/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoFzgBSSCwEC) from the original
on 19 May 2016.
14. Rayet, G. (1868) "Analyse spectral des protubérances observées, pendant l'éclipse totale de
Soleil visible le 18 août 1868, à la presqu'île de Malacca" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018
0817142616/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951d000083928;view=1up;seq=76
3) (Spectral analysis of the protuberances observed during the total solar eclipse, seen on
18 August 1868, from the Malacca peninsula), Comptes rendus ... , 67 : 757–759. From p.
758: " ... je vis immédiatement une série de neuf lignes brillantes qui ... me semblent devoir
être assimilées aux lignes principales du spectre solaire, B, D, E, b, une ligne inconnue, F, et
deux lignes du groupe G." ( ... I saw immediately a series of nine bright lines that ... seemed
to me should be classed as the principal lines of the solar spectrum, B, D, E, b, an unknown
line, F, and two lines of the group G.)
15. Captain C. T. Haig (1868) "Account of spectroscopic observations of the eclipse of the sun,
August 18th, 1868" (https://books.google.com/books?id=glFJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA74)
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 74–80. From p. 74: "I may state at once
that I observed the spectra of two red flames close to each other, and in their spectra two
broad bright bands quite sharply defined, one rose-madder and the other light golden."
16. Pogson filed his observations of the 1868 eclipse with the local Indian government, but his
report wasn't published. (Biman B. Nath, The Story of Helium and the Birth of Astrophysics
(New York, New York: Springer, 2013), p. 8. (https://books.google.com/books?id=Zko_Na5IQ
L8C&pg=PA8)) Nevertheless, Lockyer quoted from his report. From p. 320 (https://babel.hath
itrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015038750884;view=1up;seq=360;size=150) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180817113022/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015038750
884;view=1up;seq=360;size=150) 17 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine of Lockyer, J.
Norman (1896) "The story of helium. Prologue," Nature, 53 : 319–322 : "Pogson, in referring
to the eclipse of 1868, said that the yellow line was "at D, or near D." "
17. Lieutenant John Herschel (1868) "Account of the solar eclipse of 1868, as seen at Jamkandi
in the Bombay Presidency," (https://books.google.com/books?id=glFJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA10
4) Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 104–120. From p. 113: As the moment of
the total solar eclipse approached, " ... I recorded an increasing brilliancy in the spectrum in
the neighborhood of D, so great in fact as to prevent any measurement of that line till an
opportune cloud moderated the light. I am not prepared to offer any explanation of this." From
p. 117: "I also consider that there can be no question that the ORANGE LINE was identical
with D, so far as the capacity of the instrument to establish any such identity is concerned."
18. In his initial report to the French Academy of Sciences about the 1868 eclipse, Janssen
made no mention of a yellow line in the solar spectrum. See:
Janssen (1868) "Indication de quelques-uns des résultats obtenus à Cocanada, pendant
l'éclipse du mois d'août dernier, et à la suite de cette éclipse" (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=hpZDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA838) (Information on some of the results obtained at
Cocanada, during the eclipse of the month of last August, and following that eclipse),
Comptes rendus ... , 67 : 838–839.
Wheeler M. Sears, Helium: The Disappearing Element (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer,
2015), p. 44. (https://books.google.com/books?id=5SvABgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44)
Françoise Launay with Storm Dunlop, trans., The Astronomer Jules Janssen: A
Globetrotter of Celestial Physics (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2012), p. 45. (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=3YaAup49nqoC&pg=PA45)
However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-
Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that :
"Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the
prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light
was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent
studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here." (See: (Launay, 2012), p.
45.)
19. "Cleveite" (https://www.mindat.org/min-29957.html). Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
20. "Uraninite" (https://www.mindat.org/min-4102.html). Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
21. Rose, Melinda (October 2008). "Helium: Up, Up and Away?" (http://www.photonics.com/Artic
le.aspx?AID=35225). Photonics Spectra. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2010082217
2353/http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=35225) from the original on 22 August
2010. Retrieved 27 February 2010. For a more authoritative but older 1996 pie chart
showing U.S. helium use by sector, showing much the same result, see the chart reproduced
in "Applications" section of this article.
22. Connor, Steve (23 August 2010). "Why the world is running out of helium" (https://www.indep
endent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html). The
Independent. London. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130927231657/http://www.in
dependent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html) from
the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
23. Siegel, Ethan (12 December 2012). "Why the World Will Run Out of Helium" (http://sciencebl
ogs.com/startswithabang/2012/12/12/why-the-world-will-run-out-of-helium/). Starts with a
Bang. Scienceblogs.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130914120934/http://scie
nceblogs.com/startswithabang/2012/12/12/why-the-world-will-run-out-of-helium/) from the
original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
24. Szondy, David (24 August 2015). "We may not be running out of helium after all" (http://www.
gizmag.com/helium-source-natural-gas-fields/39038/). www.gizmag.com. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20160325044958/http://www.gizmag.com/helium-source-natural-gas-fiel
ds/39038/) from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
25. Sample, Ian (28 June 2016). "Huge helium gas find in east Africa averts medical shortage" (h
ttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jun/28/huge-helium-gas-tanzania-east-africa-avert
s-medical-shortage). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160629022834/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jun/28/huge-helium-gas-tanzania-east-africa-ave
rts-medical-shortage) from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
26. Kochhar, R. K. (1991). "French astronomers in India during the 17th – 19th centuries".
Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 101 (2): 95–100.
Bibcode:1991JBAA..101...95K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991JBAA..101...95K).
27. Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 175–
179. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5.
28. Lockyer, J. N. (October 1868). "Notice of an observation of the spectrum of a solar
prominence" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044106279359;view=1up;seq=10
9). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 17: 91–92. Bibcode:1868RSPS...17...91L (h
ttps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1868RSPS...17...91L). doi:10.1098/rspl.1868.0011 (https://d
oi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1868.0011). JSTOR 112357 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/112357).
S2CID 163097539 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163097539). Retrieved 3 June
2018.
29. Hampel, Clifford A. (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 256–268. ISBN 978-0-442-15598-8.
30. Harper, Douglas. "helium" (https://www.etymonline.com/?term=helium). Online Etymology
Dictionary.
31. Thomson, William (August 3, 1871). "Inaugural Address of Sir William Thomson" (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=IogCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA268). Nature. 4 (92): 261–278 [268].
Bibcode:1871Natur...4..261. (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1871Natur...4..261.).
doi:10.1038/004261a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F004261a0). PMC 2070380 (https://www.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2070380). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161202
011154/https://books.google.com/books?id=IogCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA268) from the original
on December 2, 2016. Retrieved February 22, 2016. "Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow
prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with
any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call
Helium"
32. Jensen, William B. (2004). "Why Helium ends in "-ium" ". Journal of Chemical Education. 81
(7): 944. Bibcode:2004JChEd..81..944J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JChEd..81..
944J). doi:10.1021/ed081p944 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed081p944).
33. Palmieri, Luigi (1881). "La riga dell'Helium apparsa in una recente sublimazione vesuviana"
(https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hnl7mr;view=1up;seq=251) [The line of helium
appeared in a recently sublimated material [from Mt.] Vesuvius.]. Rendiconto dell'Accademia
delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche (Naples, Italy). 20: 223. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20180901111504/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hnl7mr;view=1up;seq=25
1) from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2017. "Raccolsi alcun tempo fa
una sostanza amorfa di consistenza butirracea e di colore giallo sbiadato sublimata sull'orlo
di una fumarola prossima alla bocca di eruzione. Saggiata questa sublimazione allo
spettroscopio, ho ravvisato le righe del sodio e del potassio ed una lineare ben distinta che
corrisponde esattamente alla D3 che è quella dell'Helium. Do per ora il semplice annunzio
del fatto, proponendomi di ritornare sopra questo argomento, dopo di aver sottoposta la
sublimazione ad una analisi chimica. (I collected some time ago an amorphous substance
having a buttery consistency and a faded yellow color which had sublimated on the rim of a
fumarole near the mouth of the eruption. Having analyzed this sublimated substance with a
spectroscope, I recognized the lines of sodium and potassium and a very distinct linear line
which corresponds exactly to D3, which is that of helium. For the present, I'm making a mere
announcement of the fact, proposing to return to this subject after having subjected the
sublimate to a chemical analysis.)"
34. Kirk, Wendy L. "Cleveite [not Clevite] and helium" (https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/museums/2013/01/
11/cleveite-and-helium-not-clevite/). Museums & Collections Blog. University College
London. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181018054313/http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/muse
ums/2013/01/11/cleveite-and-helium-not-clevite/) from the original on 18 October 2018.
Retrieved 18 August 2017.
35. Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of
D3, One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note" (https://zenodo.org/record/1
432083). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 58 (347–352): 65–67.
Bibcode:1895RSPS...58...65R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1895RSPS...58...65R).
doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0006 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1895.0006). S2CID 129872109
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129872109).
36. Ramsay, William (1895). "Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part I" (https://
doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1895.0010). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 58 (347–
352): 81–89. Bibcode:1895RSPS...58...80R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1895RSPS...
58...80R). doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0010 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1895.0010).
37. Ramsay, William (1895). "Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part II –
Density". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 59 (1): 325–330.
Bibcode:1895RSPS...59..325R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1895RSPS...59..325R).
doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0097 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1895.0097). S2CID 96589261
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96589261).
38. Lockyer, J. Norman (1895). "On the new gas obtained from uraninite. Preliminary note, part
II" (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1895.0008). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.
58 (347–352): 67–70. doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0008 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1895.000
8).
39. See:
Crookes, William (1895). "The spectrum of the gas from clèveite" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=YCLOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA151). The Chemical News and Journal of
Physical Science. 71 (1844): 151.
Crookes, William (1895). "The spectrum of helium" (https://books.google.com/books?id=l
SLOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA87). The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science. 72
(1865): 87–89.
40. See:
Clève, P.T. (1895). "Sur la présence de l'hélium dans le clévéite" (https://babel.hathitrust.
org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015035451122&view=1up&seq=844&skin=2021) [On the presence
of helium in cleveite]. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des
sciences (in French). 120: 834.
English translation: Clève, P.T. (1895). "On the presence of helium in clèveite" (https://ba
bel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044048675458&view=1up&seq=272&skin=2021). The
Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science. 71 (1849): 212.
Thorpe, T. E. (1895). "Terrestrial helium?" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.3121
0011061270&view=1up&seq=632&skin=2021). Nature. 51 (1329): 586.
Clève (1895). "Sur la densité de l'hélium" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.3901
5035451122&view=1up&seq=1226&skin=2021) [On the density of helium]. Comptes
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (in French). 120: 1212.
41. Langlet, N. A. (1895). "Das Atomgewicht des Heliums" (https://books.google.com/books?id=s
HcWAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA289) [The atomic weight of helium]. Zeitschrift für Anorganische
Chemie (in German). 10 (1): 289–292. doi:10.1002/zaac.18950100130 (https://doi.org/10.10
02%2Fzaac.18950100130).
42. Weaver, E.R. (1919). Circular of the Bureau of Standards No. 81: Bibliography of Scientific
Literature Relating to Helium (https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/circ/nbscircular81.pdf)
(PDF). Washington, D.C., USA: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 6.
43. Hillebrand (1890) "On the occurrence of nitrogen in uraninite and on the composition of
uraninite in general," (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b2968310&view=1up&seq=5
11) Bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey, no. 78, pp. 43–79.
44. Munday, Pat (1999). John A. Garraty; Mark C. Carnes (eds.). Biographical entry for W.F.
Hillebrand (1853–1925), geochemist and U.S. Bureau of Standards administrator in
American National Biography. Vol. 10–11. Oxford University Press. pp. 808–9, 227–8.
45. Rutherford, E.; Royds, T. (1908). "XXIV.Spectrum of the radium emanation" (https://babel.hat
hitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951000614205r;view=1up;seq=349). Philosophical Magazine.
series 6. 16 (92): 313–317. doi:10.1080/14786440808636511 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14
786440808636511).
46. Onnes, H. Kamerlingh (1908) "The liquefaction of helium," (https://web.archive.org/web/2018
0809111624/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x002433831;view=1up;seq=309)
Communications from the Physical Laboratory at the University of Leiden, 9 (108) : 1–23.
47. van Delft, Dirk (2008). "Little cup of Helium, big Science" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080
625064354/http://www-lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/cold/VanDelftHKO_PT.pdf) (PDF).
Physics Today. 61 (3): 36–42. Bibcode:2008PhT....61c..36V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2008PhT....61c..36V). doi:10.1063/1.2897948 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2897948).
Archived from the original (http://www-lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/cold/VanDelftHKO_PT.pd
f) (PDF) on June 25, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
48. See:
Preliminary notice: Keesom, W. H. (17 July 1926) Letters to the Editor: "Solidification of
helium," Nature, 118 : 81.
Preliminary notice: Keesom, W. H. (1926) "L'hélium solidifié," (https://archive.org/stream/
ComptesRendusAcademieDesSciences0183/ComptesRendusAcadmieDesSciences-To
me183-Juillet-dcembre1926#page/n25/mode/2up) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20161022075647/https://archive.org/stream/ComptesRendusAcademieDesSciences018
3/ComptesRendusAcadmieDesSciences-Tome183-Juillet-dcembre1926#page/n25/mod
e/2up) 2016-10-22 at the Wayback Machine Comptes rendus ... , 183 : 26.
Keesom, W. H. (1926) "Solid Helium," Communications from the Physical Laboratory at
the University of Leiden, 17 (184) .
49. "Coldest Cold" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081206015739/http://www.time.com/time/mag
azine/article/0,9171,751945,00.html). Time Inc. 1929-06-10. Archived from the original (http://
www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,751945,00.html) on 2008-12-06. Retrieved
2008-07-27.
50. Hoyer, Ulrich (1981). "Constitution of Atoms and Molecules" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=zGczmJjSO6kC&pg=PA117). In Hoyer, Ulrich (ed.). Niels Bohr – Collected Works:
Volume 2 – Work on Atomic Physics (1912–1917). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing
Company. pp. 103–316 (esp. pp. 116–122). ISBN 978-0720418002.
51. Kennedy, P. J. (1985). "A Short Biography" (https://archive.org/details/nielsbohrcentena00bo
hr). In French, A. P.; Kennedy, P. J. (eds.). Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume. Harvard
University Press. pp. 3–15. ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
52. Bohr, N. (1913). "On the constitution of atoms and molecules, part I" (http://web.ihep.su/dbser
v/compas/src/bohr13/eng.pdf) (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 26 (151): 1–25.
Bibcode:1913PMag...26....1B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913PMag...26....1B).
doi:10.1080/14786441308634955 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441308634955).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190404184145/http://web.ihep.su/dbserv/compas/sr
c/bohr13/eng.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2017-12-27.
Bohr, N. (1913). "On the constitution of atoms and molecules, part II: Systems Containing
Only a Single Nucleus" (http://web.ihep.su/dbserv/compas/src/bohr13b/eng.pdf) (PDF).
Philosophical Magazine. 26 (153): 476–502. Bibcode:1913PMag...26..476B (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/1913PMag...26..476B). doi:10.1080/14786441308634993 (https://doi.org/
10.1080%2F14786441308634993). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017121504135
5/http://web.ihep.su/dbserv/compas/src/bohr13b/eng.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2017-
12-15. Retrieved 2017-12-27.
Bohr, N. (1913). "On the constitution of atoms and molecules, part III: Systems containing
several nuclei" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430922). Philosophical Magazine. 26 (155): 857–
875. Bibcode:1913PMag...26..857B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913PMag...26..857
B). doi:10.1080/14786441308635031 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441308635031).
53. Robotti, Nadia (1983). "The Spectrum of ζ Puppis and the Historical Evolution of Empirical
Data". Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences. 14 (1): 123–145. doi:10.2307/27757527
(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27757527). JSTOR 27757527 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2775
7527).
54. Pickering, E. C. (1896). "Stars having peculiar spectra. New variable stars in Crux and
Cygnus". Harvard College Observatory Circular. 12: 1–2. Bibcode:1896HarCi..12....1P (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1896HarCi..12....1P). Also published as: Pickering, E. C.;
Fleming, W. P. (1896). "Stars having peculiar spectra. New variable stars in Crux and
Cygnus" (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F140291). Astrophysical Journal. 4: 369–370.
Bibcode:1896ApJ.....4..369P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1896ApJ.....4..369P).
doi:10.1086/140291 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F140291).
55. Wright, W. H. (1914). "The relation between the Wolf–Rayet stars and the planetary nebulae"
(https://doi.org/10.1086%2F142138). Astrophysical Journal. 40: 466–472.
Bibcode:1914ApJ....40..466W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1914ApJ....40..466W).
doi:10.1086/142138 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F142138).
56. Pickering, E. C. (1897). "Stars having peculiar spectra. New variable Stars in Crux and
Cygnus" (https://zenodo.org/record/1424755). Astronomische Nachrichten. 142 (6): 87–90.
Bibcode:1896AN....142...87P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1896AN....142...87P).
doi:10.1002/asna.18971420605 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.18971420605). Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190824143848/https://zenodo.org/record/1424755/files/articl
e.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2019-08-24. Retrieved 2019-08-24.
57. Pickering, E. C. (1897). "The spectrum of zeta Puppis" (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F140312).
Astrophysical Journal. 5: 92–94. Bibcode:1897ApJ.....5...92P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1897ApJ.....5...92P). doi:10.1086/140312 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F140312).
58. Lakatos, Imre (1980). "Bohr: A Research Programme Progressing on Inconsistent
Foundations" (https://books.google.com/books?id=RRniFBI8Gi4C&pg=PA62). In Worrall,
John; Currie, Gregory (eds.). The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 55–68. ISBN 9780521280310.
59. Fowler, A. (1912). "Observations of the Principal and other Series of Lines in the Spectrum of
Hydrogen" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F73.2.62). Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society. 73 (2): 62–63. Bibcode:1912MNRAS..73...62F (https://ui.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/abs/1912MNRAS..73...62F). doi:10.1093/mnras/73.2.62 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2F
mnras%2F73.2.62).
60. Bohr, N. (1913). "The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen" (https://zenodo.org/record/1429570).
Nature. 92 (2295): 231–232. Bibcode:1913Natur..92..231B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913Natur..92..231B). doi:10.1038/092231d0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F092231d0).
S2CID 11988018 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11988018).
61. Fowler, A. (1913). "The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen" (https://zenodo.org/record/142956
8). Nature. 92 (2291): 95–96. Bibcode:1913Natur..92...95F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1913Natur..92...95F). doi:10.1038/092095b0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F092095b0).
S2CID 3972599 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3972599).
62. Fowler, A. (1913). "Reply to: The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen" (https://zenodo.org/recor
d/1429568). Nature. 92 (2295): 232–233. Bibcode:1913Natur..92..232F (https://ui.adsabs.har
vard.edu/abs/1913Natur..92..232F). doi:10.1038/092232a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F0922
32a0). S2CID 3981817 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3981817).
63. Bohr, N. (1915). "The Spectra of Hydrogen and Helium" (https://zenodo.org/record/1429597).
Nature. 95 (6–7): 6–7. Bibcode:1915Natur..95....6B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1915N
atur..95....6B). doi:10.1038/095006a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F095006a0).
S2CID 3947572 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3947572).
64. Kapitza, P. (1938). "Viscosity of Liquid Helium below the λ-Point" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2
F141074a0). Nature. 141 (3558): 74. Bibcode:1938Natur.141...74K (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1938Natur.141...74K). doi:10.1038/141074a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F141074
a0). S2CID 3997900 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3997900).
65. Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (1972). "Evidence for a New Phase of Solid
He3" (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.28.885). Phys. Rev. Lett. 28 (14): 885–888.
Bibcode:1972PhRvL..28..885O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972PhRvL..28..885O).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.28.885).
S2CID 89609083 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:89609083).
66. Vignos, James H.; Fairbank, Henry A. (1961-03-15). "New Solid Phase in
${\mathrm{He}}^{4}$" (https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.265). Physical Review
Letters. 6 (6): 265–267. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.265 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRe
vLett.6.265).
67. McFarland, D. F. (1903). "Composition of Gas from a Well at Dexter, Kan". Transactions of
the Kansas Academy of Science. 19: 60–62. doi:10.2307/3624173 (https://doi.org/10.2307%
2F3624173). JSTOR 3624173 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3624173).
68. "Discovery of Helium in Natural Gas at the University of Kansas" (http://www.acs.org/content/
acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/heliumnaturalgas.html). National Historic
Chemical Landmarks. American Chemical Society. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
140226053732/http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/heli
umnaturalgas.html) from the original on 2014-02-26. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
69. Cady, H. P.; McFarland, D. F. (1906). "Helium in Natural Gas" (https://zenodo.org/record/1447
970). Science. 24 (611): 344. Bibcode:1906Sci....24..344D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1906Sci....24..344D). doi:10.1126/science.24.611.344 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.
24.611.344). PMID 17772798 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17772798).
S2CID 27441003 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27441003).
70. Cady, H. P.; McFarland, D. F. (1906). "Helium in Kansas Natural Gas". Transactions of the
Kansas Academy of Science. 20: 80–81. doi:10.2307/3624645 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3
624645). JSTOR 3624645 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3624645).
71. Emme, Eugene M. comp., ed. (1961). "Aeronautics and Astronautics Chronology, 1920–
1924" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190714112810/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/His
tory/Timeline/1920-24.html). Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chronology of
Science and Technology in the Exploration of Space, 1915–1960. Washington, D.C.: NASA.
pp. 11–19. Archived from the original (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Timeline/19
20-24.html) on 2019-07-14. Retrieved 2006-10-27.
72. Hilleret, N. (1999). "Leak Detection" (http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/455564) (PDF). In S.
Turner (ed.). CERN Accelerator School, vacuum technology: proceedings: Scanticon
Conference Centre, Snekersten, Denmark, 28 May – 3 June 1999. Geneva, Switzerland:
CERN. pp. 203–212. doi:10.5170/CERN-1999-005.203 (https://doi.org/10.5170%2FCERN-1
999-005.203). "At the origin of the helium leak detection method was the Manhattan Project
and the unprecedented leak-tightness requirements needed by the uranium enrichment
plants. The required sensitivity needed for the leak checking led to the choice of a mass
spectrometer designed by Dr. A.O.C. Nier tuned on the helium mass."
73. Williamson, John G. (1968). "Energy for Kansas". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of
Science. 71 (4): 432–438. doi:10.2307/3627447 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3627447).
JSTOR 3627447 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3627447).
74. "Conservation Helium Sale" (http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2005/pdf/05-20084.pdf) (PDF).
Federal Register. 70 (193): 58464. 2005-10-06. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081
031082452/http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2005/pdf/05-20084.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
2008-10-31. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
75. Stwertka, Albert (1998). Guide to the Elements: Revised Edition. New York; Oxford
University Press, p. 24. ISBN 0-19-512708-0
76. Pub. L. 104–273: Helium Privatization Act of 1996 (text) (https://www.govinfo.gov/link/plaw/1
04/public/273?link-type=html) (PDF) (https://www.govinfo.gov/link/plaw/104/public/273?link-t
ype=pdf&.pdf)
77. Executive Summary (http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309070384). nap.edu. 2000.
doi:10.17226/9860 (https://doi.org/10.17226%2F9860). ISBN 978-0-309-07038-6. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080327004306/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030
9070384) from the original on 2008-03-27. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
78. Mullins, P. V.; Goodling, R. M. (1951). Helium (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatR
es/EcoNatRes-idx?type=div&did=ECONATRES.MINYB1949.PVMULLINS&isize=text).
Bureau of Mines / Minerals yearbook 1949. pp. 599–602. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20081206011210/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=
div&did=ECONATRES.MINYB1949.PVMULLINS&isize=text) from the original on 2008-12-
06. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
79. "Helium End User Statistic" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/helium-use.pdf) (PDF).
U.S. Geological Survey. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080921114913/http://miner
als.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/helium-use.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2008-09-21. Retrieved
2008-07-20.
80. Smith, E. M.; Goodwin, T. W.; Schillinger, J. (2003). "Challenges to the Worldwide Supply of
Helium in the Next Decade". Advances in Cryogenic Engineering. 49. A (710): 119–138.
Bibcode:2004AIPC..710..119S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AIPC..710..119S).
doi:10.1063/1.1774674 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1774674). S2CID 109060534 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109060534).
81. Kaplan, Karen H. (June 2007). "Helium shortage hampers research and industry". Physics
Today. 60 (6). American Institute of Physics: 31–32. Bibcode:2007PhT....60f..31K (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhT....60f..31K). doi:10.1063/1.2754594 (https://doi.org/10.106
3%2F1.2754594).
82. Basu, Sourish (October 2007). Yam, Philip (ed.). "Updates: Into Thin Air" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20081206032004/http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePr
eview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=E0D18FB2-3048-8A5E-104115527CB01ADB). Scientific
American. Vol. 297, no. 4. Scientific American, Inc. p. 18. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=E0D18
FB2-3048-8A5E-104115527CB01ADB) on 2008-12-06. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
83. Newcomb, Tim (21 August 2012). "There's a Helium Shortage On—and It's Affecting More
than Just Balloons" (http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/08/23/theres-a-helium-shortage-on-and-i
ts-affecting-more-than-just-balloons/). Time.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2013
1229061210/http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/08/23/theres-a-helium-shortage-on-and-its-affec
ting-more-than-just-balloons/) from the original on 29 December 2013. Retrieved
2013-09-16.
84. "Air Liquide | the world leader in gases, technologies and services for Industry and Health"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140914141342/http://www.airliquide.com/en/qatar-start-up-of-
worlds-largest-helium-unit.html). 19 February 2015. Archived from the original (http://www.airl
iquide.com/en/qatar-start-up-of-worlds-largest-helium-unit.html) on 2014-09-14. Retrieved
2015-05-25. Air Liquide Press Release.
85. "Middle East turmoil is disrupting a vital resource for nuclear energy, space flight and
birthday balloons" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/26/middle-east-
turmoil-is-disrupting-a-vital-resource-for-nuclear-energy-space-flight-and-birthday-balloons).
washingtonpost.com. 26 June 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017062621165
3/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/06/26/middle-east-turmoil-is-disrupti
ng-a-vital-resource-for-nuclear-energy-space-flight-and-birthday-balloons/) from the original
on 26 June 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
86. Cockerill, Rob (25 December 2014). "2015 – What lies ahead? Part 1" (http://www.gasworld.
com/2015-what-lies-ahead-part-1/2004706.article). Gasworld. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20150117012529/http://www.gasworld.com/2015-what-lies-ahead-part-1/2004706.a
rticle) from the original on 2015-01-17. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
87. "Will Air Products' (APD) Earnings Surprise Estimates in Q2? - Analyst Blog" (https://www.na
sdaq.com/article/will-air-products-apd-earnings-surprise-estimates-in-q2-analyst-blog-cm470
472). NASDAQ.com. April 28, 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019071508514
5/https://www.nasdaq.com/article/will-air-products-apd-earnings-surprise-estimates-in-q2-an
alyst-blog-cm470472) from the original on July 15, 2019. Retrieved August 4, 2019.
88. Watkins, Thayer. "The Old Quantum Physics of Niels Bohr and the Spectrum of Helium: A
Modified Version of the Bohr Model" (http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/helium.htm). San
Jose State University. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090526074018/http://www.sjs
u.edu/faculty/watkins/helium.htm) from the original on 2009-05-26. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
89. Vangioni-Flam, E.; Cassé, M. (1999). "Cosmic lithium-beryllium-boron story". Astrophysics
and Space Science. 265: 77–86. arXiv:astro-ph/9902073 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902
073). Bibcode:1999Ap&SS.265...77V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Ap&SS.265...7
7V). doi:10.1023/A:1002197712862 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1002197712862).
S2CID 10627727 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10627727).
90. Lewars, Errol G. (2008). Modelling Marvels (https://books.google.com/books?id=IoFzgBSSC
wEC&pg=PA70). Springer. pp. 70–71. Bibcode:2008moma.book.....L (https://ui.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/abs/2008moma.book.....L). ISBN 978-1-4020-6972-7.
91. Weiss, Ray F. (1971). "Solubility of helium and neon in water and seawater". J. Chem. Eng.
Data. 16 (2): 235–241. doi:10.1021/je60049a019 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fje60049a019).
92. Scharlin, P.; Battino, R.; Silla, E.; Tuñón, I.; Pascual-Ahuir, J. L. (1998). "Solubility of gases in
water: Correlation between solubility and the number of water molecules in the first solvation
shell" (https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac199870101895). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 70 (10):
1895–1904. doi:10.1351/pac199870101895 (https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac199870101895).
S2CID 96604119 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96604119).
93. Stone, Jack A.; Stejskal, Alois (2004). "Using helium as a standard of refractive index:
correcting errors in a gas refractometer" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23106494
6). Metrologia. 41 (3): 189–197. Bibcode:2004Metro..41..189S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/2004Metro..41..189S). doi:10.1088/0026-1394/41/3/012 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F002
6-1394%2F41%2F3%2F012). S2CID 250809634 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
250809634).
94. Buhler, F.; Axford, W. I.; Chivers, H. J. A.; Martin, K. (1976). "Helium isotopes in an aurora". J.
Geophys. Res. 81 (1): 111–115. Bibcode:1976JGR....81..111B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/1976JGR....81..111B). doi:10.1029/JA081i001p00111 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJA0
81i001p00111).
95. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton
(FL): CRC Press. p. 6-120. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
96. Hohenberg, P. C.; Martin, P. C. (2000). "Microscopic Theory of Superfluid Helium". Annals of
Physics. 281 (1–2): 636–705 12091211. Bibcode:2000AnPhy.281..636H (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/2000AnPhy.281..636H). doi:10.1006/aphy.2000.6019 (https://doi.org/10.100
6%2Faphy.2000.6019).
97. Warner, Brent. "Introduction to Liquid Helium" (https://web.archive.org/web/2005090106295
1/http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html). NASA. Archived from
the original (http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html) on 2005-09-
01. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
98. Fairbank, H. A.; Lane, C. T. (1949). "Rollin Film Rates in Liquid Helium". Physical Review.
76 (8): 1209–1211. Bibcode:1949PhRv...76.1209F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1949P
hRv...76.1209F). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.1209 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.76.120
9).
 99. Rollin, B. V.; Simon, F. (1939). "On the 'film' phenomenon of liquid helium II". Physica. 6 (2):
219–230. Bibcode:1939Phy.....6..219R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939Phy.....6..219
R). doi:10.1016/S0031-8914(39)80013-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-8914%2839%2
980013-1).
100. Ellis, Fred M. (2005). "Third sound" (http://fellis.web.wesleyan.edu/research/thrdsnd.html).
Wesleyan Quantum Fluids Laboratory. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200706212021
45/http://fellis.web.wesleyan.edu/research/thrdsnd.html) from the original on 2007-06-21.
Retrieved 2008-07-23.
101. Bergman, D. (1949). "Hydrodynamics and Third Sound in Thin He II Films". Physical
Review. 188 (1): 370–384. Bibcode:1969PhRv..188..370B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1969PhRv..188..370B). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.188.370 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRe
v.188.370).
102. "Solid Helium" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080531145546/http://www.phys.ualberta.ca/~t
herman/lowtemp/projects1.htm). Department of Physics University of Alberta. 2005-10-05.
Archived from the original (http://www.phys.ualberta.ca/~therman/lowtemp/projects1.htm) on
May 31, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
103. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton
(FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
104. Grilly, E. R. (1973). "Pressure-volume-temperature relations in liquid and solid 4He". Journal
of Low Temperature Physics. 11 (1–2): 33–52. Bibcode:1973JLTP...11...33G (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/1973JLTP...11...33G). doi:10.1007/BF00655035 (https://doi.org/10.1007%
2FBF00655035). S2CID 189850188 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189850188).
105. Henshaw, D. B. (1958). "Structure of Solid Helium by Neutron Diffraction". Physical Review
Letters. 109 (2): 328–330. Bibcode:1958PhRv..109..328H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1958PhRv..109..328H). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.109.328 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.
109.328).
106. Pinceaux, J.-P.; Maury, J.-P.; Besson, J.-M. (1979). "Solidification of helium, at room
temperature under high pressure" (https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00231630/file/ajp-jphy
slet_1979_40_13_307_0.pdf) (PDF). Journal de Physique Lettres. 40 (13): 307–308.
doi:10.1051/jphyslet:019790040013030700 (https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fjphyslet%3A019790
040013030700). S2CID 40164915 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40164915).
107. Keller, William E. (1969). "Compressed He3 and He4". Helium-3 and Helium-4. Boston, MA:
Springer US. pp. 347–404. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-6485-4_9 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F97
8-1-4899-6485-4_9). ISBN 978-1-4899-6232-4.
108. Weiss, Achim. "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20100729042805/http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/BBN_obs/?set
_language=en). Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/BBN_obs/?set_language=en) on 2010-07-29.
Retrieved 2008-06-23.; Coc, Alain; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre;
Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004). "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements". Astrophysical
Journal. 600 (2): 544–552. arXiv:astro-ph/0309480 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0309480).
Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApJ...600..544C).
doi:10.1086/380121 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F380121). S2CID 16276658 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:16276658).
109. Anderson, Don L.; Foulger, G. R.; Meibom, A. (2006-09-02). "Helium Fundamentals" (http://w
ww.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html). MantlePlumes.org. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20070208194933/http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html)
from the original on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
110. Novick, Aaron (1947). "Half-Life of Tritium". Physical Review. 72 (10): 972.
Bibcode:1947PhRv...72..972N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947PhRv...72..972N).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.72.972.2 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.72.972.2).
111. Zastenker, G. N.; Salerno, E.; Buehler, F.; Bochsler, P.; Bassi, M.; Agafonov, Yu. N.; Eisomont,
N. A.; Khrapchenkov, V. V.; et al. (2002). "Isotopic Composition and Abundance of Interstellar
Neutral Helium Based on Direct Measurements". Astrophysics. 45 (2): 131–142.
Bibcode:2002Ap.....45..131Z (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Ap.....45..131Z).
doi:10.1023/A:1016057812964 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1016057812964).
S2CID 116957905 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116957905).
112. "Lunar Mining of Helium-3" (http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/research/he3). Fusion Technology
Institute of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 2007-10-19. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20100609234057/http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/research/he3) from the original on 2010-06-
09. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
113. Slyuta, E. N.; Abdrakhimov, A. M.; Galimov, E. M. (2007). "The estimation of helium-3
probable reserves in lunar regolith" (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf)
(PDF). Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (1338): 2175.
Bibcode:2007LPI....38.2175S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007LPI....38.2175S).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080705122316/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lps
c2007/pdf/2175.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2008-07-05. Retrieved 2008-07-20.
114. Hedman, Eric R. (2006-01-16). "A fascinating hour with Gerald Kulcinski" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110109082500/http://thespacereview.com/article/536/1). The Space Review.
Archived from the original (http://www.thespacereview.com/article/536/1) on 2011-01-09.
Retrieved 2008-07-20.
115. Zu, H.; Dai, W.; de Waele, A.T.A.M. (2022). "Development of Dilution refrigerators – A
review". Cryogenics. 121. doi:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2021.103390 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2
Fj.cryogenics.2021.103390). ISSN 0011-2275 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0011-2275).
S2CID 244005391 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244005391).
116. Holman, Jack P. (2002). Heat Transfer (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
pp. 600–606. ISBN 9780072406559.
117. Incropera, Frank P.; Dewitt, David P.; Bergman, Theodore L.; Lavigne, Adrienne S. (2007).
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
pp. 941–950. ISBN 9780471457282.
118. Hiby, Julius W. (1939). "Massenspektrographische Untersuchungen an Wasserstoff- und
+ − + + −
Heliumkanalstrahlen (H3, H2, HeH , HeD , He )". Annalen der Physik. 426 (5): 473–487.
Bibcode:1939AnP...426..473H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939AnP...426..473H).
doi:10.1002/andp.19394260506 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19394260506).
119. Friedrich, Bretislav (8 April 2013). "A Fragile Union Between Li and He Atoms" (https://physic
s.aps.org/featured-article-pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.153201). Physics. Vol. 6. p. 42.
Bibcode:2013PhyOJ...6...42F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PhyOJ...6...42F).
doi:10.1103/Physics.6.42 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysics.6.42). hdl:11858/00-001M-
0000-000E-F3CF-5 (https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-000E-F3CF-5).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170829154727/https://physics.aps.org/featured-artic
le-pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.153201) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved
24 August 2019.
120. Wong, Ming Wah (2000). "Prediction of a Metastable Helium Compound: HHeF". Journal of
the American Chemical Society. 122 (26): 6289–6290. doi:10.1021/ja9938175 (https://doi.or
g/10.1021%2Fja9938175).
121. Grochala, W. (2009). "On Chemical Bonding Between Helium and Oxygen". Polish Journal
of Chemistry. 83: 87–122.
122. "Collapse of helium's chemical nobility predicted by Polish chemist" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20090319180147/http://www.uw.edu.pl/en/strony/news/chemist.pdf) (PDF). Archived
from the original (http://www.uw.edu.pl/en/strony/news/chemist.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-03-19.
Retrieved 2009-05-15.
123. Saunders, Martin; Jiménez-Vázquez, Hugo A.; Cross, R. James; Poreda, Robert J. (1993).
"Stable Compounds of Helium and Neon: He@C60 and Ne@C60". Science. 259 (5100):
1428–1430. Bibcode:1993Sci...259.1428S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Sci...259.
1428S). doi:10.1126/science.259.5100.1428 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.259.5100.1
428). PMID 17801275 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17801275). S2CID 41794612 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41794612).
124. Saunders, Martin; Jiménez-Vázquez, Hugo A.; Cross, R. James; Mroczkowski, Stanley;
Freedberg, Darón I.; Anet, Frank A. L. (1994). "Probing the interior of fullerenes by 3He NMR
spectroscopy of endohedral 3He@C60 and 3He@C70". Nature. 367 (6460): 256–258.
Bibcode:1994Natur.367..256S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Natur.367..256S).
doi:10.1038/367256a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F367256a0). S2CID 4273677 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4273677).
125. Vos, W. L.; Finger, L. W.; Hemley, R. J.; Hu, J. Z.; Mao, H. K.; Schouten, J. A. (1992). "A high-
pressure van der Waals compound in solid nitrogen-helium mixtures". Nature. 358 (6381):
46–48. Bibcode:1992Natur.358...46V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Natur.358...46
V). doi:10.1038/358046a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F358046a0). S2CID 4313676 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4313676).
126. Dong, Xiao; Oganov, Artem R.; Goncharov, Alexander F.; Stavrou, Elissaios; Lobanov,
Sergey; Saleh, Gabriele; Qian, Guang-Rui; Zhu, Qiang; Gatti, Carlo; Deringer, Volker L.;
Dronskowski, Richard; Zhou, Xiang-Feng; Prakapenka, Vitali B.; Konôpková, Zuzana;
Popov, Ivan A.; Boldyrev, Alexander I.; Wang, Hui-Tian (2017). "A stable compound of helium
and sodium at high pressure". Nature Chemistry. 9 (5): 440–445. arXiv:1309.3827 (https://arx
iv.org/abs/1309.3827). Bibcode:2017NatCh...9..440D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/201
7NatCh...9..440D). doi:10.1038/nchem.2716 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnchem.2716).
ISSN 1755-4330 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1755-4330). PMID 28430195 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28430195). S2CID 20459726 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2
0459726).
127. Oliver, B. M.; Bradley, James G. (1984). "Helium concentration in the Earth's lower
atmosphere". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 48 (9): 1759–1767.
Bibcode:1984GeCoA..48.1759O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984GeCoA..48.1759O).
doi:10.1016/0016-7037(84)90030-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2884%299003
0-9).
128. "The Atmosphere: Introduction" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080113234621/http://www.sr
h.weather.gov/jetstream/atmos/atmos_intro.htm). JetStream – Online School for Weather.
National Weather Service. 2007-08-29. Archived from the original (https://www.srh.weather.g
ov/jetstream/atmos/atmos_intro.htm) on January 13, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-12.
129. Lie-Svendsen, Ø.; Rees, M. H. (1996). "Helium escape from the terrestrial atmosphere: The
ion outflow mechanism". Journal of Geophysical Research. 101 (A2): 2435–2444.
Bibcode:1996JGR...101.2435L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JGR...101.2435L).
doi:10.1029/95JA02208 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F95JA02208).
130. Strobel, Nick (2007). "Atmospheres" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100919031142/http://ast
ronomynotes.com//solarsys/s3.htm). Nick Strobel's Astronomy Notes. Archived from the
original (http://www.astronomynotes.com/solarsys/s3.htm) on 2010-09-19. Retrieved
2007-09-25.
131. G. Brent Dalrymple. "How Good Are Those Young-Earth Arguments?" (http://www.talkorigins.
org/faqs/dalrymple/creationist_age_earth.html). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110
607162749/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dalrymple/creationist_age_earth.html) from the
original on 2011-06-07. Retrieved 2011-02-13.
132. "Pitchblende" (https://www.mindat.org/min-3222.html). Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February
2020.
133. "Monazite" (https://www.mindat.org/min-2750.html). Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
134. "Monazite-(Ce)" (https://www.mindat.org/min-2751.html). Mindat.org. Retrieved 14 February
2020.
135. Cook, Melvine A. (1957). "Where is the Earth's Radiogenic Helium?" (https://doi.org/10.103
8%2F179213a0). Nature. 179 (4552): 213. Bibcode:1957Natur.179..213C (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/1957Natur.179..213C). doi:10.1038/179213a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F1
79213a0). S2CID 4297697 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4297697).
136. Aldrich, L. T.; Nier, Alfred O. (1948). "The Occurrence of He3 in Natural Sources of Helium".
Phys. Rev. 74 (11): 1590–1594. Bibcode:1948PhRv...74.1590A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/1948PhRv...74.1590A). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.74.1590 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhy
sRev.74.1590).
137. Morrison, P.; Pine, J. (1955). "Radiogenic Origin of the Helium Isotopes in Rock". Annals of
the New York Academy of Sciences. 62 (3): 71–92. Bibcode:1955NYASA..62...71M (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955NYASA..62...71M). doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1955.tb35366.x
(https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1955.tb35366.x). S2CID 85015694 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:85015694).
138. Zartman, R. E.; Wasserburg, G. J.; Reynolds, J. H. (1961). "Helium Argon and Carbon in
Natural Gases" (https://authors.library.caltech.edu/51508/1/jgr2272.pdf) (PDF). Journal of
Geophysical Research. 66 (1): 277–306. Bibcode:1961JGR....66..277Z (https://ui.adsabs.har
vard.edu/abs/1961JGR....66..277Z). doi:10.1029/JZ066i001p00277 (https://doi.org/10.102
9%2FJZ066i001p00277). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170809221530/http://auth
ors.library.caltech.edu/51508/1/jgr2272.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-09.
Retrieved 2019-01-29.
139. Broadhead, Ronald F. (2005). "Helium in New Mexico—geology distribution resource
demand and exploration possibilities" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120330094105/http://g
eoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/downloads/27/n4/nmg_v27_n4_p93.pdf) (PDF).
New Mexico Geology. 27 (4): 93–101. doi:10.58799/NMG-v27n4.93 (https://doi.org/10.5879
9%2FNMG-v27n4.93). S2CID 29360086 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2936008
6). Archived from the original (http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/download
s/27/n4/nmg_v27_n4_p93.pdf) (PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
140. "Helium" (https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-helium.pdf) (PDF). Mineral
Commodity Summaries. U.S. geological survey. January 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
141. "Press release: The unbearable lightness of helium..." (https://web.archive.org/web/2015090
6100157/http://www.eag.eu.com/about/media/lightness-of-helium/) European Association of
Geochemistry. Archived from the original (http://www.eag.eu.com/about/media/lightness-of-h
elium/) on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 5 March 2017.
142. Science, Ian (28 June 2016). "Huge helium gas find in east Africa averts medical shortage"
(https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jun/28/huge-helium-gas-tanzania-east-africa-av
erts-medical-shortage). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201702221854
52/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jun/28/huge-helium-gas-tanzania-east-africa-
averts-medical-shortage) from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2017.
143. Winter, Mark (2008). "Helium: the essentials" (http://www.webelements.com/helium/).
University of Sheffield. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080714102813/http://www.w
ebelements.com/helium/) from the original on 2008-07-14. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
144. Cai, Z.; et al. (2007). Modelling Helium Markets (https://web.archive.org/web/200903260725
13/http://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/programmes/phd/downloads/conference_spring2007/papers/ca
i.pdf) (PDF). University of Cambridge. Archived from the original (http://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/pr
ogrammes/phd/downloads/conference_spring2007/papers/cai.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-03-26.
Retrieved 2008-07-14.
145. Helium (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/mcs-2009-heliu.pdf)
(PDF). Mineral Commodity Summaries. U.S. Geological Survey. 2009. pp. 74–75. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20090814020157/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/comm
odity/helium/mcs-2009-heliu.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2009-08-14. Retrieved
2009-12-19.
146. "Air Liquide and Linde in Helium Hunt as Texas Reserves Dry Up" (https://www.bloomberg.c
om/news/articles/2014-07-10/air-liquide-and-linde-in-helium-hunt-as-texas-reserves-dry-up).
Bloomberg. 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170310193243/https://www.bloo
mberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-10/air-liquide-and-linde-in-helium-hunt-as-texas-reserves-
dry-up) from the original on 2017-03-10. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
147. Briggs, Helen (28 June 2016). "Helium discovery a 'game-changer' " (https://www.bbc.com/n
ews/science-environment-36651048). BBC News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
60628131948/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-36651048) from the original
on 28 June 2016. Retrieved 2016-06-28.
148. Chen, Stephen (28 Jul 2020). "China opens first large-scale helium plant as it tries to reduce
reliance on US imports" (https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3094905/china-o
pens-first-large-scale-helium-plant-it-tries-reduce). South China Morning Post. Beijing,
China. Retrieved 28 Jul 2020.
149. Pierce, A. P., Gott, G. B., and Mytton, J. W. (1964). "Uranium and Helium in the Panhandle
Gas Field Texas, and Adjacent Areas", Geological Survey Professional Paper 454-G,
Washington:US Government Printing Office
150. "Responsible Helium Administration and Stewardship Act (H.R. 527)" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170306033258/http://naturalresources.house.gov/newsroom/documentsingle.asp
x?DocumentID=320460). House Committee on Natural Resources. Committee on Natural
Resources United States House of Representatives. Archived from the original (http://natural
resources.house.gov/newsroom/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=320460) on 2017-03-
06. Retrieved 5 March 2017.
151. Fresne, Patrick (2023-07-23). "When a Rush Begins: A Field Guide to the Helium Hopefuls
of the United States" (https://www.goldandrevolution.com/when-a-rush-begins-a-field-guide-t
o-the-helium-hopefuls-of-the-usa/). Gold and Revolution. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
152. Belyakov, V. P.; Durgar'yan, S. G.; Mirzoyan, B. A. (1981). "Membrane technology—A new
trend in industrial gas separation". Chemical and Petroleum Engineering. 17 (1): 19–21.
doi:10.1007/BF01245721 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01245721). S2CID 109199653 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109199653).
153. Committee on the Impact of Selling, Table 4.2 (http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id
=9860&page=44) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140910195702/http://www.nap.ed
u/openbook.php?record_id=9860&page=44) 2014-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
154. Committee on the Impact of Selling, see page 40 (http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record
_id=9860&page=40) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140529150642/http://www.na
p.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9860&page=40) 2014-05-29 at the Wayback Machine for
the estimate of total theoretical helium production by neon and liquid air plants
155. Dee, P. I.; Walton E. T. S. (1933). "A Photographic Investigation of the Transmutation of
Lithium and Boron by Protons and of Lithium by Ions of the Heavy Isotope of Hydrogen" (http
s://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1933.0151). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 141
(845): 733–742. Bibcode:1933RSPSA.141..733D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933R
SPSA.141..733D). doi:10.1098/rspa.1933.0151 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1933.0151).
S2CID 96565428 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96565428).
156. Connor, Steve (23 August 2010). "Richard Coleman campaigning against US Congress'
decision to sell all helium supplies by 2015" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/w
hy-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html). London: Independent.co.uk. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20101114015435/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/
why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html) from the original on 14 November
2010. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
157. Nuttall, William J.; Clarke, Richard H.; Glowacki, Bartek A. (2012). "Resources: Stop
squandering helium" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F485573a). Nature. 485 (7400): 573–575.
Bibcode:2012Natur.485..573N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.485..573N).
doi:10.1038/485573a (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F485573a). PMID 22660302 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22660302). S2CID 10351068 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
0351068).
158. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (2015). "Helium" (https://minerals.us
gs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/mcs-2015-heliu.pdf) (PDF). Mineral Commodity
Summaries 2014 (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/index.html). pp. 72–73.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140404122859/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pu
bs/mcs/index.html) from the original on 2014-04-04. Retrieved 2014-05-31.
159. Helium sell-off risks future supply (http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2010/jan/27/heli
um-sell-off-risks-future-supply) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120610175902/htt
p://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2010/jan/27/helium-sell-off-risks-future-supply) 2012-
06-10 at the Wayback Machine, Michael Banks, Physics World, 27 January 2010. accessed
February 27, 2010.
160. Beckwith, I. E.; Miller, C. G. (1990). "Aerothermodynamics and Transition in High-Speed
Wind Tunnels at Nasa Langley". Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 22 (1): 419–439.
Bibcode:1990AnRFM..22..419B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990AnRFM..22..419B).
doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.22.010190.002223 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.22.010190.
002223).
161. Morris, C.I. (2001). Shock Induced Combustion in High Speed Wedge Flows (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20090304210445/http://thermosciences.stanford.edu/pdf/TSD-143.pdf) (PDF).
Stanford University Thesis. Archived from the original (http://thermosciences.stanford.edu/pd
f/TSD-143.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-03-04.
162. Considine, Glenn D., ed. (2005). "Helium". Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry.
Wiley-Interscience. pp. 764–765. ISBN 978-0-471-61525-5.
163. Hablanian, M. H. (1997). High-vacuum technology: a practical guide (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=5L8uIAFm4SoC&pg=PA493). CRC Press. p. 493. ISBN 978-0-8247-9834-5.
164. Ekin, Jack W. (2006). Experimental Techniques for Low-Temperature measurements (https://
archive.org/details/experimentaltech0000ekin). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
857054-7.
165. Fowler, B.; Ackles, K. N.; G, Porlier (1985). "Effects of inert gas narcosis on behavior—a
critical review" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101225052236/http://archive.rubicon-foundati
on.org/3019). Undersea Biomedical Research. 12 (4): 369–402. PMID 4082343 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4082343). Archived from the original on 2010-12-25. Retrieved
2008-06-27.
166. Thomas, J. R. (1976). "Reversal of nitrogen narcosis in rats by helium pressure" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20081206035952/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2771). Undersea
Biomed. Res. 3 (3): 249–59. PMID 969027 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/969027).
Archived from the original on 2008-12-06. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
167. Butcher, Scott J.; Jones, Richard L.; Mayne, Jonathan R.; Hartley, Timothy C.; Petersen,
Stewart R. (2007). "Impaired exercise ventilatory mechanics with the self-contained
breathing apparatus are improved with heliox". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 101
(6): 659–69. doi:10.1007/s00421-007-0541-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00421-007-0541-
5). PMID 17701048 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17701048). S2CID 7311649 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7311649).
168. "Heliox21" (http://www.bochealthcare.co.uk/en/products/heliox/index.shtml). Linde Gas
Therapeutics. 27 January 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110910232729/htt
p://www.bochealthcare.co.uk/en/products/heliox/index.shtml) from the original on 10
September 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
169. Hunger, W. L. Jr.; Bennett, P. B. (1974). "The causes, mechanisms and prevention of the high
pressure nervous syndrome" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101225053451/http://archive.ru
bicon-foundation.org/2661). Undersea Biomed. Res. 1 (1): 1–28. ISSN 0093-5387 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/issn/0093-5387). OCLC 2068005 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2068005).
PMID 4619860 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4619860). Archived from the original on
2010-12-25. Retrieved 2008-04-07.
170. Rostain, J. C.; Gardette-Chauffour, M. C.; Lemaire, C.; Naquet, R. (1988). "Effects of a H2-
He-O2 mixture on the HPNS up to 450 msw" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081206035912/
http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2487). Undersea Biomed. Res. 15 (4): 257–70.
OCLC 2068005 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2068005). PMID 3212843 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/3212843). Archived from the original on 2008-12-06. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
171. Belcher, James R.; Slaton, William V.; Raspet, Richard; Bass, Henry E.; Lightfoot, Jay
(1999). "Working gases in thermoacoustic engines" (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.426884).
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 105 (5): 2677–2684.
Bibcode:1999ASAJ..105.2677B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ASAJ..105.2677B).
doi:10.1121/1.426884 (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.426884). PMID 10335618 (https://pubm
ed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10335618).
172. Makhijani, Arjun; Gurney, Kevin (1995). Mending the Ozone Hole: Science, Technology, and
Policy. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13308-1.
173. Gallagher, Sean (November 4, 2013). "HGST balloons disk capacity with helium-filled 6TB
drive" (https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/11/hgst-balloons-disk-capacity-
with-helium-filled-6tb-drive/). Ars Technica. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170707
231259/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/11/hgst-balloons-disk-capacity-
with-helium-filled-6tb-drive/) from the original on July 7, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
174. Jakobsson, H. (1997). "Simulations of the dynamics of the Large Earth-based Solar
Telescope". Astronomical & Astrophysical Transactions. 13 (1): 35–46.
Bibcode:1997A&AT...13...35J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997A&AT...13...35J).
doi:10.1080/10556799708208113 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10556799708208113).
175. Engvold, O.; Dunn, R.B.; Smartt, R. N.; Livingston, W. C. (1983). "Tests of vacuum VS.
helium in a solar telescope". Applied Optics. 22 (1): 10–12. Bibcode:1983ApOpt..22...10E (ht
tps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983ApOpt..22...10E). doi:10.1364/AO.22.000010 (https://do
i.org/10.1364%2FAO.22.000010). PMID 20401118 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/204011
18).
176. "LHC: Facts and Figures" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110706223231/http://visits.web.cer
n.ch/visits/guides/tools/presentation/LHC_booklet-2.pdf) (PDF). CERN. Archived from the
original (http://visits.web.cern.ch/visits/guides/tools/presentation/LHC_booklet-2.pdf) (PDF)
on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
177. "Helium, USP: FDA-Approved Drugs" (https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/inde
x.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=213990). U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Retrieved 30 April 2020.
178. "FDA approval letter" (https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2020/2139
90orig1s000MGltr.pdf) (PDF). 14 April 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
179. Oberhaus, Daniel (30 October 2018). "Why a Helium Leak Disabled Every iPhone in a
Medical Facility" (https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/gye4aw/why-a-helium-leak-dis
abled-every-iphone-in-a-medical-facility). Motherboard. Vice Media. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20181101015429/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/gye4aw/why-a-he
lium-leak-disabled-every-iphone-in-a-medical-facility) from the original on 1 November 2018.
Retrieved 31 October 2018.
180. Ackerman, M. J.; Maitland, G. (1975). "Calculation of the relative speed of sound in a gas
mixture" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110127113335/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/
2738). Undersea Biomed Res. 2 (4): 305–10. PMID 1226588 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/1226588). Archived from the original on 2011-01-27. Retrieved 2008-08-09.
181. "Why does helium make your voice squeaky?" (http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1
803/why-does-helium-make-your-voice-squeaky). 14 July 2000. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20130324072558/http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1803/why-does-heli
um-make-your-voice-squeaky) from the original on 24 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
182. Grassberger, Martin; Krauskopf, Astrid (2007). "Suicidal asphyxiation with helium: Report of
three cases Suizid mit Helium Gas: Bericht über drei Fälle". Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift
(in German and English). 119 (9–10): 323–325. doi:10.1007/s00508-007-0785-4 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2Fs00508-007-0785-4). PMID 17571238 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/175
71238). S2CID 22894287 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22894287).
183. Montgomery B.; Hayes S. (2006-06-03). "2 found dead under deflated balloon" (http://www.s
ptimes.com/2006/06/03/Tampabay/2_found_dead_under_de.shtml). Tampa Bay Times.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235619/http://www.sptimes.com/2006/06/03/
Tampabay/2_found_dead_under_de.shtml) from the original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved
2013-12-29.
184. "Two students die after breathing helium" (http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/two-students-die-aft
er-breathing-helium-1.623684). CBC. 4 June 2006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
131231000044/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/two-students-die-after-breathing-helium-1.623
684) from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
185. "Helium inhalation – it's no laughing matter – Article courtesy of BOC Gases" (http://balloona
rtists.com.au/helium-dangers.html). Balloon Artists & Suppliers Association of Australasia
Ltd. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140114214605/http://www.balloonartists.com.a
u/helium-dangers.html) from the original on 2014-01-14. Retrieved 2014-01-03.
186. "Dangers of Helium Inhalation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032013/http://www.lo
usballoons.com.au/dangers-of-helium.html). Lou's Balloons. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.lousballoons.com.au/dangers-of-helium.html) on 2014-01-04.
187. "Helium Gas Safety & Data Sheet" (http://www.bouncetime.co.uk/others_files/helium-gas-saf
ety.htm). bouncetime. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150422003602/http://www.bo
uncetime.co.uk/others_files/helium-gas-safety.htm) from the original on 2015-04-22.
Retrieved 2014-01-03.
188. Engber, Daniel (2006-06-13). "Stay Out of That Balloon!" (http://www.slate.com/articles/news
_and_politics/explainer/2006/06/stay_out_of_that_balloon.html). Slate.com. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20111020154111/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/expl
ainer/2006/06/stay_out_of_that_balloon.html) from the original on 2011-10-20. Retrieved
2008-07-14.
189. Josefson, D. (2000). "Imitating Mickey Mouse can be dangerous" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC1117755). BMJ: British Medical Journal. 320 (7237): 732.
PMC 1117755 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1117755). PMID 10720344 (h
ttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10720344).
190. "Teen Dies After Inhaling Helium" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120109032345/http://www.
ktla.com/news/landing/ktla-riverside-teen-helium%2C0%2C6589649.story). KTLA News.
RIVERSIDE: ktla.com. January 6, 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.ktla.com/new
s/landing/ktla-riverside-teen-helium,0,6589649.story) on January 9, 2012. Retrieved
2010-11-19.
191. "Tributes to 'helium death' teenager from Newtownabbey" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-no
rthern-ireland-11795984). BBC Online. 19 November 2010. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20101120085647/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-11795984) from the
original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
192. Mather, Kate (24 February 2012). "Parents of Eagle Point girl who died from inhaling helium
hope to save others from same fate" (http://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/inde
x.ssf/2012/02/parents_of_eagle_point_girl_wh.html). The Oregonian. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20131206170024/http://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/index.s
sf/2012/02/parents_of_eagle_point_girl_wh.html) from the original on 6 December 2013.
Retrieved 2013-06-08.
193. Barnard, Jeff (22 February 2012). "Ashley Long, Oregon Teenager, Dies After Inhaling
Helium at Wild Party (VIDEO)" (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/22/oregon-teenager-
ashley-long_n_1294989.html). Huffington Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131
231000509/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/22/oregon-teenager-ashley-long_n_1294
989.html) from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
194. Barnard, Jeff (23 February 2012). "Teen girl dies after inhaling helium at party" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20131230233944/http://www.today.com/id/46487997). Today. AP. Archived
from the original (http://www.today.com/id/46487997) on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 2013-12-30.
195. The Oxford Leader Newspaper, Sherman Publications, Inc., December 3, 2012.
196. "テレ朝事故で分かったヘリウム変声缶の危険性 意識を失うケースの大半が子ども " (http://w
ww.j-cast.com/2015/02/05227178.html) (in Japanese). 5 February 2015. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150205172253/http://www.j-cast.com/2015/02/05227178.html) from the
original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-05.
197. Rayman, Noah (5 February 2015). "J-Pop Teen Star Left in Coma After Inhaling Helium for
TV Stunt" (http://time.com/3697523/jpop-3b-junior-helium-stunt/). Time. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20150205195944/http://time.com/3697523/jpop-3b-junior-helium-stunt/)
from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-06.
198. "アイドルが収録中に倒れ病院搬送 テレ朝、ヘリウムガス吸引 " (http://www.sponichi.co.jp/en
tertainment/news/2015/02/04/kiji/K20150204009750570.html) (in Japanese). 4 April 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150204230036/http://www.sponichi.co.jp/entertainm
ent/news/2015/02/04/kiji/K20150204009750570.html) from the original on 4 February 2015.
Retrieved 2015-02-04.
"テレビ番組収録中、 歳アイドルが意識失い救急搬送 ヘリウムガスが原因か
12 " (http://www.
sankei.com/affairs/news/150204/afr1502040032-n1.html) (in Japanese). 4 February 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150204230008/http://www.sankei.com/affairs/news/
150204/afr1502040032-n1.html) from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved
2015-02-04.
"テレ朝謝罪、 歳アイドルがヘリウム吸い救急搬送
12 " (https://web.archive.org/web/2015020
4090914/http://www.hochi.co.jp/entertainment/20150204-OHT1T50098.html) (in Japanese).
4 February 2015. Archived from the original (http://www.hochi.co.jp/entertainment/20150204-
OHT1T50098.html) on 2015-02-04. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
"3b Junior idol in coma after inhaling helium on TV Asahi program" (http://www.tokyoreporter.
com/2015/02/04/3b-junior-idol-in-coma-after-inhaling-helium-on-tv-asahi-program/). 4
February 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150204230158/http://www.tokyorep
orter.com/2015/02/04/3b-junior-idol-in-coma-after-inhaling-helium-on-tv-asahi-program/) from
the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
"アイドル救急搬送騒動で制作会社が実績削除の不可解 " (http://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/entam
e/entertainment/363851/) (in Japanese). 4 February 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20150204124022/http://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/entame/entertainment/363851/) from the
original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-04.
199. "Japanese child star in coma after helium stunt goes wrong" (https://www.bbc.com/news/ente
rtainment-arts-31147038). BBC. 5 February 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
50205195830/http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-31147038) from the original on 5
February 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-06.
200. Rostain J.C.; Lemaire C.; Gardette-Chauffour M.C.; Doucet J.; Naquet R. (1983). "Estimation
of human susceptibility to the high-pressure nervous syndrome". J Appl Physiol. 54 (4):
1063–70. doi:10.1152/jappl.1983.54.4.1063 (https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjappl.1983.54.4.106
3). PMID 6853282 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6853282).

Bibliography
Bureau of Mines (1967). Minerals yearbook mineral fuels Year 1965. Vol. II. U. S.
Government Printing Office.
Committee on the Impact of Selling the Federal Helium Reserve; Commission on Physical
Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications; Commission on Engineering and Technical
Systems; National Research Council (2000). The Impact of Selling the Federal Helium
Reserve (http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9860&page=27). The National
Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-07038-6. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
Emsley, John (1998). The Elements (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-855818-7.
Vercheval, J. (2003). "The thermosphere: a part of the heterosphere" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20050101090349/http://www.oma.be/BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.e
n.html). Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy. Archived from the original (http://www.oma.be/
BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.en.html) on 2005-01-01. Retrieved
2008-07-12.

External links
General

U.S. Government's Bureau of Land Management: Sources, Refinement, and Shortage. (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20080725060842/http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2007/j
anuary/NR0701_2.html) With some history of helium.
U.S. Geological Survey publications on helium (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/com
modity/helium/) beginning 1996: Helium (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodit
y/helium/mcs-2012-heliu.pdf)
Where is all the helium? (https://web.archive.org/web/20121110030719/http://www.aga.com/i
nternational/web/lg/aga/like35agacom.nsf/0/BEF74B49AFC3099DC1257A2200473157)
Aga website
It's Elemental – Helium (http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele002.html)
Chemistry in its element podcast (http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/element.asp)
(MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Helium (http://www.rsc.org/im
ages/CIIE_Helium_48kbps_tcm18-133173.mp3)
International Chemical Safety Cards – Helium (https://web.archive.org/web/2017070919282
0/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0603.html) includes health and safety information
regarding accidental exposures to helium
More detail

Helium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/002.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos

(University of Nottingham)
Helium (http://boojum.hut.fi/research/theory/helium.html) at the Helsinki University of
Technology; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4
Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics (http://www.physics.lancs.ac.uk/resear
ch/condmatt/ult/index.htm) – includes a summary of some low temperature techniques
Video: Demonstration of superfluid helium (http://www.alfredleitner.com/p/liquid-helium.html)
(Alfred Leitner, 1963, 38 min.)
Miscellaneous

Physics in Speech (https://web.archive.org/web/20041210113812/http://www.phys.unsw.ed

u.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html) with audio samples that demonstrate the
unchanged voice pitch
Article about helium and other noble gases (https://web.archive.org/web/20050904191641/ht
tp://du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/helium.htm)
Helium shortage

America's Helium Supply: Options for Producing More Helium from Federal Land: Oversight
Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources of the Committee on
Natural Resources, U.S. House Of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress,
First Session, Thursday, July 11, 2013 (https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo41438)
Helium Program: Urgent Issues Facing BLM's Storage and Sale of Helium Reserves:
Testimony before the Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives (https://pu
rl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo35149) Government Accountability Office
Kramer, David (May 22, 2012). "Senate bill would preserve US helium reserve: Measure
would give scientists first dibs on helium should a shortage develop. Physics Today web
site" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121027123611/http://www.physicstoday.org/daily_editio
n/politics_and_policy/senate_bill_would_preserve_us_helium_reserve). Archived from the
original (http://www.physicstoday.org/daily_edition/politics_and_policy/senate_bill_would_pr
eserve_us_helium_reserve) on October 27, 2012.
 Richardson, Robert C.; Chan, Moses (2009). "Helium, when will it run out?" (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20150614095643/http://eolus.phys.northwestern.edu/CM_Theory_Group/Photo
s/Pages/QFS2009_files/Helium_Shortages_Chan-Richardson.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://eolus.phys.northwestern.edu/CM_Theory_Group/Photos/Pages/QFS2009_file
s/Helium_Shortages_Chan-Richardson.pdf) (PDF) on 2015-06-14.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helium&oldid=1225543362"