2022 LST 110 Lecture 3 - Unit 2 (Referencing)

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LST 110

Theme 2: The basic principles of writing


Unit 2: Basic research skills
Learning outcomes of this unit:

understand the purpose of referencing;

know how to avoid plagiarism;

understand what paraphrasing is and how to use it;

make use of in-text references and a final reference list.


What is referencing?
Referencing:
Balfour, Mitchell, Nchidila, Seligmann and Shober
(2014:169) emphasise that "an important part of meeting the
requirements of academic writing is not only being able to
assemble information into a coherent text but being able to
show exactly where you found that information. This is
known as referencing or acknowledging sources."
Referencing
Three of the most important reasons to acknowledge the sources you use when
writing are presented below:
Referencing is a call on authority: By referring to authors and sources you demonstrate that you are informed
on the subject and have acknowledged what scholars and other researchers have said or found. When you
give credit to the source you have made use of, you elevate your own work. The more accredited an author is
in your field of work, the more valid and valuable their ideas are in your paper/report/essay/presentation.

Readers need information on the sources you used if they wish to locate and consult those sources.

A successful piece of academic writing, regardless of its genre, will incorporate sources in order to ensure its
validity. The author of any piece of writing has an ethical and legal obligation to give other people credit for
their work. If you do not recognise the sources you used to inform your thoughts you are committing
plagiarism. Proper referencing guards against inadvertent plagiarism.
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a serious problem at universities today. Current technology has made it
extremely easy to download, cut and paste from the internet.

Social media, such as Facebook, Instagram and Pinterest are based almost
exclusively on information downloaded, or cut and pasted from a variety of sources –
and in these media such practices are completely 'legitimate’.
Given how easy it is to appropriate information generated by others, students may be
tempted to submit work that has already been researched and compiled by another
person.
This is a serious offence within the academic world as it amounts to intellectual theft.
When caught out these students often claim that they were not aware that they had
committed a criminal offence.
What is the difference between
cheating and plagiarism?
 Plagiarism: usually the student unintentionally copies
work from a source. This is either achieved through
incorrect referencing, not acknowledging sources or
working too closely with another student.
What is the
 Cheating: this is intentional. The student has bought
their paper, copied on purpose or stolen ideas and
difference?
sources from the internet.
1. Never copy from another person.
 By all means, discuss your work with others working in the same

How to avoid
or similar fields, but you may not copy their work. Stick to verbal
discussion to limit any chance of copying others, or others

plagiarism:
copying you.

2. Take care when making notes from sources.


 A common mistake is taking verbatim (word for word) notes from
a source and then including these in your own written work. To
Balfour et al.
prevent this happening, either make notes in your own words
(paraphrasing, summarising or precising) or put the verbatim (2014:171) provide
words in quotation marks and include the author’s surname, year
of publication and page number, even when making very rough the following
guidelines for
or hasty notes. Every time you write or subsequently type up
these notes, include the quotation marks and citation details.

3. Always acknowledge the source of an idea borrowed from someone


else. avoiding
 However, it is not necessary to acknowledge generally accepted
facts and ideas. For example, if you refer to Newton’s Law of
plagiarism:
Gravity, or quote Karl Marx’s phrase about religion being “the
opium of the people”, you do not have to cite the source in which
this information was first presented.
4. Even a single sentence or phrase copied from another source must be
included in quotation marks and referenced.
 It is easy to fall into the trap of cutting and pasting material from web
sources or online material into your own work. This is as bad as
copying from print sources. All quotations (including those from
interviews or personal communications) must be clearly indicated.
 Use quotations only when necessary. Your work should not consist of a
string of quotations, even if these are all fully acknowledged. The
purpose of a higher degree is to demonstrate your capacity for
original analysis, critique, and research.

5. Do not follow the structure of other people’s work too closely.


 This comes close to simply rewording someone else’s argument. You
need to establish a structure, shape or pattern in your writing or
Continued…
argument that is your own work.

There are different referencing systems or conventions, such as APA, Harvard,


footnotes, etc. Even within referencing systems there is variation. In this module
we follow the Harvard method.

Referencing is done both in the text (in-text referencing) and at the end of the
document (in a reference list).
When selecting a source, you want to ensure that it is the best ‘fit’ for the topic and
genre of your task. Initially, before you integrate your source into your arguments,
you want to determine that it will be a strong source. To achieve that ask yourself:

 Is this source peer-reviewed (e.g. is it from an academic journal or book?)

 Are the credentials of the author noted?

 If there is no author, is the organisation credible?

How to evaluate 


Does the author base their findings on credible evidence?

Is the information recent?

a source: 


Is the purpose or aim of the text obvious?

Is this relevant to my topic?

Another important deciding factor is whether or not the author predominantly uses
facts or opinions in their work. Remember: a fact is not open to debate. It should
not change in the hands of various authors. Whereas an opinion is based on an
author’s interpretation of the facts and can vary. An opinion is open for debate, but
you should always support your opinion with well-documented facts and a well
thought-out argument.
The CRAAP test helps you to evaluate source to determine whether or not they are appropriate for an academic assignment

Currency
When was this information published or posted?
Has the information been revised or updated?
Does your topic require current information, or will older sources work as well?
If it is a web source, are the links functional?

Relevance
Does the information relate to the topic or answer your question?
Who is the intended audience?
Is the information at an appropriate level (not too elementary or advanced for your needs?)
Would you be comfortable citing this source for your assignment?

Authority
Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
What are the author’s credentials or organisational affiliations?
Is the author qualified to write on this topic?
Is there contact information, such as the publisher or email address?
If a web source is given, does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? (.org .edu .gov)

Accuracy
Where does the information come from?
Is the information supported by evidence?
Has the information been reviewed or referred?
Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?
Are there spelling, grammar or topological errors?

Purpose
What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade?
Do the authors make their intentions clear?
Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda?
Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?
Ways of referencing:
In-text and your final reference list
In-text referencing:

In-text referencing can be done in two ways:

 Record the original author’s exact words, and include a


source reference: citation

 Reformulate the primary author’s words and include a source


reference: paraphrase

Before writing an assignment for one of your content lecturers,


make sure whether in your subject-field it is acceptable to
use citations. In, for instance, medicine and veterinary science
citations are rarely found.
Citations are the exact words of the original author. They are
used when the reader needs to know what the original
author wrote, or when one quotes norms, standards or as
specifications that have to be stated exactly like in the
original source. Compare for instance:
 “All the climaxes produced mountainous islands or
Citation (plus in- highlands that shed vast amounts of debris westward to
form clastic wedges or delta complexes on the continental

text referencing) OR
margin” (Rodgers, 1983:229).

 According to Rodgers (1983:229) “[a]ll the climaxes


produced mountainous islands or highlands that shed vast
amounts of debris westward to form clastic wedges or
delta complexes on the continental margin”.
Paraphrasing is used when:

Paraphrase (plus
 the original text is written in a language your
audience may not understand;

in-text  you wish to capture only the essence of what


another author has said (and then you
referencing): paraphrase and summarise at the same time);
 you want to embed what another author has said
in your own style of writing.
Paraphrase (plus in-text referencing)

Original Paraphrase

To the extent that a woman's If a woman interprets the media's


self-image is challenged or
threatened by an unattainable
representation of thinness as the ideal
she must achieve, her sense of self-
 Compare, for instance, the wording of the
ideal of an impossibly thin esteem might be threatened and even original in the table with the paraphrase.
female physique, she may damaged, making her more likely to
well become susceptible to exhibit disordered eating patterns
disruption of her self-regard (Polivy & Herman, 2004:2).
and may be more likely to
develop an eating disorder.
Balfour et al. (2014:180) provide an example of the different ways to use and

Different acknowledge the same information. The following is a slightly adapted version:

Citation/Direct quotation

ways to use  As Nelson Mandela observed, "Mass action was perilous in South Africa [in
1950], where it was a criminal offence for an African to strike, and where the
rights of free speech and movement were unmercifully curtailed."

and (Mandela, 1994:135.)

Paraphrase

acknowledge  Mandela (1994:135) pointed out that mass action was dangerous for a black
person in the 1950s, as he or she might be charged with committing a

the same
crime. Freedom of speech and movement were severely limited.

Summary (= paraphrase + shortening)

information
 Strikes and other forms of action were forbidden to black people during the
1950s, as Mandela has noted (1994:135).
Compiling a reference list

After you have completed your writing (e.g. an essay or


report), you should list all the sources referred to in the
body of your report in an alphabetic reference list. (If you
use a numbering style, the sources are arranged
chronologically by number.)
What is the difference between a
bibliography and reference list?
A distinction is made between a bibliography and
a reference list:
 A reference list refers to all the sources that
informed your investigation – whether you quote

Reference list vs
from them directly or rephrase their content in
your own words. In other words, all the sources

bibliography: referred to in your text are listed in your


reference list.

 A bibliography may include additional reading


matter that one believes to be of interest to your
reader.
Type of source Format of entry
Book (1 author) Hauptfleisch, A.C. 2014. Basic Construction Technology, 1st ed. Pretoria: Construction Economics
Associates.
Book (more than 1 author) Adams, D.M. & Raynor, J.B. 1965. Advanced practical inorganic chemistry. 1965. Concrete Dictionary.
London: John Wiley and sons.
Edited book Campbell-Platt, G. (Ed.). 2009. Food Science and Technology. London: Wiley-Blackwell.
Report McKenzie, R.S., Buckle, H., Wegelin, W.A. & Meyer, N. 2003. Water demand management cookbook.
United Nations Human Settlement Program and Rand Water Report.
Chapter/in a multi-author book Stapp, H.P. 2011. Quantum reality and mind. In: Penrose, R, & Hameroff, S. (Eds.). Quantum physics of
consciousness. Cambridge: Cosmology Science Publishers. pp. 104-168.
Journal article Polivy, J., & Herman, C.P. 2004. Sociocultural idealization of thin female body shapes: An introduction to
the special issue on body image and eating disorders. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 23:1-
6. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460
Product standard American National Standards Institute. 1998. American National Standards for Product Safety Signs and
Labels. ANSI Z335. New York: American National Standards Institute.
Conference paper published in proceedings Sunindijo, R.Y. & Zou, P.X.W. 2014. An integrated framework for strategic safety management in
construction and engineering, Achieving sustainable construction health and safety, Conference
Proceedings, Lund, Sweden, 2 – 3 June 2014.
Electronic journal Botha, B., Adendorff, C. & Smallwood, J. 2014. Property development: a business process model. Journal
of Construction Project Management and Innovation, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1012-1033. Online available at:
http://reference.sabinet.co.za/document/EJC165613. Accessed 21 May 2014.
Internet source (author’s name appears on the web page) Novak, J.D. & Cañas, A.J. 2009. The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them.
Online available at:
http://cmap.ihmc.us/publications/researchpapers/theorycmaps/theoryunderlyingconceptmaps.
htm. Accessed 24 September 2015.
Internet source (no author) American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1989, 1990. The nature of science. Online
available at: http://www.project2061.org.publications/sfaa/online/chap1.htm. Accessed 18
December 2015.
Internet source (no author or organisation) Tips on paraphrasing. n.d. Online available at: https://web.williams.edu/wp-etc/acad-
resources/survival_guide/CitingDoc/ParaphrasingAPA.php. Accessed 20 July 2015.
News story or feature Keeton, C, 2015. Huge solar power projects take a shine to the Northern Cape. Sunday Times. 13
December: 8.
Video/TV programme Making things work. 2005. Mechanics, television programme, New York: New York Broadcasting
Company.
Blog Hagon, P. 2009. Immediate sharing, [blog] What's New. Online available at: http://www.paulhagon.com/
blog/2009/09/27/immediate-sharing/. Accessed 10 January 2009.
Adams, D.M. & Raynor, J.B. 1965. Advanced practical inorganic chemistry. 1965. Concrete Dictionary. London: John
Wiley and sons.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1989, 1990. The nature of science. Online available:
http://www.project2061.org.publications/sfaa/online/chap1.htm. Accessed 18 December
2015.

American National Standards Institute. 1998. American National Standards for Product Safety Signs and Labels.
ANSI Z335. New York: American National Standards Institute.

Botha, B., Adendorff, C. & Smallwood, J. 2014. Property development: a business process model. Journal of
Construction Project Management and Innovation, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1012-1033. Online available:
http://reference.sabinet.co.za/document/EJC165613. Accessed 21 May 2014.

Note: you should always list sources


Campbell-Platt, G. (Ed.). 2009. Food Science and Technology. London: Wiley-Blackwell.

alphabetically according to the


Hagon, P. 2009. Immediate sharing, [blog] What's New. Available at: http://www.paulhagon.com/
blog/2009/09/27/immediate-sharing/. Accessed 10 January 2009.

author’s surname (or name of web Hauptfleisch, A.C. 2014. Basic Construction Technology, 1st ed. Pretoria: Construction Economics Associates.

page if no author is mentioned). The Keeton, C, 2015. Huge solar power projects take a shine to the Northern Cape. Sunday Times. 13 December: 8.

sources in the table above will


Making things work. 2005. Mechanics, television programme, New York: New York Broadcasting Company.

appear as follows in a reference list:


McKenzie, R.S., Buckle, H., Wegelin, W.A. & Meyer, N. 2003. Water demand management cookbook. United
Nations Human Settlement Program and Rand Water Report.

Polivy, J., & Herman, C.P. 2004. Sociocultural idealization of thin female body shapes: An introduction to the
special issue on body image and eating disorders. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology
23:1-6. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460

Stapp, H.P. 2011. Quantum reality and mind. In: Penrose, R, & Hameroff, S. (Eds.). Quantum physics of
consciousness. Cambridge: Cosmology Science Publishers. pp. 104-168.

Sunindijo, R.Y. & Zou, P.X.W. 2014. An integrated framework for strategic safety management in construction and
engineering, Achieving sustainable construction health and safety, Conference
Proceedings, Lund, Sweden, 2 – 3 June 2014.

Tips on paraphrasing. n.d. Online available at: https://web.williams.edu/wp-etc/acad-


resources/survival_guide/CitingDoc/ParaphrasingAPA.php. Accessed 20 July 2015.
The basic
principles of
effective writing
The basic principles of effective writing

Writing is a process of communication, and ensuring that our ideas are transmitted effectively to
the target audience is very important in all academic disciplines.

Although scientists now use different technologies to teach and perform science experiments, “the
written word remains one of the most important means of communicating that information to
others” (Pololi, Knight & Dunn, 2004: 64).

Understanding and applying the basic principles of effective academic writing is of paramount
importance to all students in higher education, including science students.

Langan (2011) identifies four basic principles which can ensure effective academic writing: unity,
support, coherence and sentence skills.
Unity

To facilitate the reading of a text,


the writer would normally divide
Any academic text in your field
In the text, the writer is trying to it into sections made of
of study is a body of knowledge
appeal to the target audience paragraphs, although they must
on a specific topic, which is often
through their interpretation of ensure that all the sections
divided into several connected
the topic. connect seamlessly with the
sections.
topic and to the central
argument.
Although the notion of unity in
Langan (2011) is limited to the
relation between sentences and
the thesis statement, it does not
exclude the fact that the
For Langan (2011:150), “to
principle of unity also means a
achieve unity is to have all the
logical relationship between
details in your paper related to
the paragraphs and sections of
your thesis and to your three
the paper. For example, a
supporting topic sentences”.
simple academic essay is
divided into an introduction,
body and conclusion, each of
which should demonstrate your
understanding of the topic.
Unity
 The principle of unity simply means that every
time you think of a new idea to include in your
writing, ask yourself whether the idea
supports your main argument.
 If it does not strengthen your main argument
or thesis statement, then it has no place in
your writing.
 Equally if the paragraphs in the body of the
essay do not support the thesis statement in
your introduction and the overall topic of the
essay, your essay will not be unified.
If the main purpose of your paper is to inform and possibly convince your
reader, then you need to provide sufficient support when explaining each
point. For instance, to explain how stress affects the performance of students,
you should provide causes and effects. In other words, give some explanation
with specific examples and research evidence to support your claims.
Beekman, Dube and Underhill (2011:43) outline three possible questions that
readers are likely to ask the writer:

 What grounds does the writer have for this claim or viewpoint?

Support  How does s/he know this?


 On what authority does the writer make this claim or hold this viewpoint?
 Substantiating your viewpoints is one of the keys to effective academic
writing because, by providing sufficient explanations in the form of
examples and research evidence, you are able to make your writing more
convincing. When using research evidence, make sure it is credible, recent,
reliable and relevant to the topic of the essay (see Section 1.3 on ‘Evaluating
a source’).
Coherence
To ensure that your essay reads coherently from the introduction to conclusion, you should
learn how to use transition words correctly.

Transition words are known as linking devices or conjunctions, and they are the ‘knots’ that
connect your ideas, sentences and paragraphs.

In fact, “they guide readers from one idea or segment of writing to another” (Berger, 2008:49).

We use them between sentences and paragraphs to ensure that our ideas or thoughts are clear,
well-structured and flow logically (Langan, 2011; Beekman et al, 2011 and Berger, 2008).
Examples of transition words
Sequences Examples Opposing views
Firstly For example But
Secondly For instance In contrast
Thirdly As an illustration By contrast
Next Such as However
Finally Specifically Contrarily
Furthermore Nevertheless
Yet
On the other hand
Even though

Time relations Causes Expansion of ideas

Before Because Furthermore


During Since In addition
After Thus Additionally
Meanwhile Moreover
In the meantime
Now
Suddenly
Soon

To express meanings Effects Conclusion

This means Therefore To conclude


This suggests Accordingly In conclusion
This implies Consequently To sum up
As a result In summary
Effective academic writing requires good sentence construction skills. This entails
combining words in such a way that they convey your thoughts or the ideas in your mind.

It also involves stringing the words in the correct order to ensure that the meaning of the
sentence stays intact (Siewierski, 2015 and Moffett et al, 2014). Words form sentences and
sentences build up a paragraph.

Langan (2011:110-1) argues that writing effectively also means revising your entire essay
“so that your sentences flow smoothly and clearly”, making sure that there are no
grammatical and spelling mistakes. He proposes the following strategies for the revision
of sentences:

Sentence
 Use parallelism

 Use a consistent point of view

skills
Use specific words

 Use active verbs

 Use concise words

 Vary your sentences

For example, writing concisely is basically avoiding verbosity – using too many words –
that do not add any value to your writing. Conciseness enhances the quality and efficacy
of the message you wish to communicate.

LOOK AT PAGES 38-40 FOR A LIST OF SUITABLE WORDS TO USE TO EMBODY VERBOSITY
AND CONCISENESS IN YOUR WRITING.
Application
Application part 1

Examine the following reference list and correct any


incorrect citations that you notice. Once you have corrected
the citations, rewrite this list with the correct format:
1. Carstens, Adelia. 2014. Writing research proposals. An advanced academic
literacy course for honours students in Microbiology and Plant Pathology.
Unpublished study manual, Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
2. K. Knisely. 2005. A student handbook for writing in biology. 2nd edition.
Gordonsville, USA: WH Freeman & Co.
3. McCaskill , M.K. (1990.) Grammar, Punctuation, and Capitalization. A
Handbook for Technical Writers and Editors. Washington DC: NASA.
4. McMillan 2006.Writing papers in the biological sciences. 4th edition. Boston
MA: Bedford/St. Martins.

Application 5. Unknown, Pearson Education. 2012. MyFoundationsLab. USA: Pearson


Education.

part 1: 6. Pechenik, J.A. 15 November 2010. A short guide to writing about biology. 7th
edition. New York: Pearson Education.
7. Newfield, D. and Maungedzo, R. 2006. Mobilising and modalising poetry in a
Soweto classroom. English Studies in Africa 49(1):60-92.
8. Abend, G. 2008. ‘The Meaning of ‘Theory’’, Sociological Theory, 26(2), pp.
173–199.
9. Dogan, O.K., Cakir, M. & Yager, R.E. Delineating the roles of scientific inquiry
and argumentation in conceptual change process. Education Research Highlights
in Mathematics, Science and Technology 2017, (2017):113.
Application part 2
Examine the following references and create
in-text citations for them:
Angu, P. E. 2019. Understanding Voices from the Margins:
Social Injustice and Agency in First-Year Students’
Literacy Narratives. Journal of Further and Higher
Education 43(8):1152–1162.
Makalela, L. 2018. Community Elders’ Narrative Accounts
of ubuntu Translanguaging: Learning and Teaching in

Application African Education. International Review of Education:


Journal of Lifelong Learning 64(6):823–843.
part 2: Nishioka, S. and Durrani, N. 2019. Language and Cultural
Reproduction in Malawi: Unpacking the Relationship
between Linguistic Capital and Learning
Outcomes. International Journal of Educational Research,
93(5):1–12.
Any questions?

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