Review of Energy Efficiency Technologies in The Fo

This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2979077, IEEE Access
Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
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Review of Energy Efficiency

Technologies in the Food Industry:
Trends, Barriers, and Opportunities
JEAN-MICHEL CLAIRAND1,2 , (Member, IEEE), MARCO BRICEÑO-LEÓN1,3 , GUILLERMO
ESCRIVÁ-ESCRIVÁ3 , AND ANTONIO MARCO PANTALEO.2,4
1
Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad de las Américas, 170122 Quito, Ecuador
2
Department of Agro-environmental Sciences, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy
3
Institute for Energy Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
4
Clean Energy Processes (CEP) Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ London, United Kingdom
Corresponding author: Jean-Michel Clairand (e-mail: [email protected]).
ABSTRACT The industry sector has a significant responsibility for the depletion of fossil fuels and
emission of carbon dioxide. Thus, several initiatives have been implemented by the industry sector to
mitigate those issues. One initiative corresponds to the implementation of energy efficiency strategies.
In particular, the food industry is heavily dependent on fossil fuels, and the food demand is expected to
grow significantly in the coming years. Therefore, developing energy efficiency strategies for this particular
industrial sector is crucial. This paper investigates the different opportunities for energy efficiency in
the food industry. It first provides a brief overview of the various food industries and related energy
consumption. Then, the different options for energy efficiency in the thermal and electric sector are
discussed. New trends and opportunities, arising from industry 4.0 and demand response, are also presented.
INDEX TERMS Energy Efficiency, Food Industry, Industry 4.0, Renewable Energy, Waste-to-Energy
I. INTRODUCTION reduce their consumption and improve their operational out-

Environmental concerns and fossil fuel depletion are forcing put, thereby improving their benefits [7]. However, industrial
the development of policies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) processes are mostly rigid due to production constraints of
emissions. Renewable Energies (REs), such as solar and the plants, which discourage some industries from adopting
wind, are among the most frequently adopted options. How- these initiatives [8]–[10].
ever, fossil fuels correspond to 80% of the total worldwide Among the others, growing attention has been devoted to
energy usage, and half of all electricity generated comes from the food industry. The food industry also includes energy-
fossil fuelled plants [1], [2]. intensive activities, and the energy-related costs among the
Another policy includes industrial energy efficiency [3], total productions costs are between 20% and 50% [11].
which is a major concern particularly in developing coun- Moreover, the food industry represents a high percentage (ap-
tries, and it is defined as the ratio of service output of a proximately 12%) of the total electricity consumed in the in-
process to the energy input into that process [2]. The goal dustrial sector [12]. However, the energy in the food sector is
of industries could be to maximize the useful outputs or not always appropriately used due to many inefficiencies are
minimize the energy inputs. Energy efficiency can be used, observed in the food processing technologies [9], [13], [14].
particularly at the macrolevel, to analyze industrial activity Food industries are also responsible for greenhouse (GHG)
and its performance. Energy efficiency indicators could be di- emissions like carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and
vided into thermodynamic, thermophysic, thermoeconomic, nitrous oxide (N2 O). Once fossil fuels are burned for energy
and economic [2]. generation, carbon dioxide is released. Methane is produced
In particular, industrial factories are high energy con- from paddy fields, from the fermentation of livestock and
sumers and thus represent an opportunity for electricity from the decomposition of food waste in land-fills, while
utilities to properly manage electricity consumption [4]– nitrous oxide emanates from the application of fertilizers to
[6]. Energy efficiency initiatives enable large industries to grow crops [15]. The emissions are divided in direct and indi-
VOLUME 4, 2016 1
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
J.-M. Clairand et al.: Review of Energy Efficiency Technologies in the Food Industry: Trends, Barriers, and Opportunities
rect emissions. Direct use of energy is for on-farm operations II. BACKGROUND: CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD
at the processing of raw materials and during various stages PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES AND RELATED ENERGY
of manufacturing processes, while indirect use of energy is CONSUMPTION PATTERNS
during storage, transport and use of electricity to run the food In the food industry, to convert edible raw materials into more
industry [16]. Moreover, industrial sector customers usually high-value food products, food processes use considerable
participate less in energy efficiency activities, mainly because amounts of labor, technology, and energy. The amount of en-
of their smaller individual contributions to grid management ergy used is different in each country, although in developing
as well as the technical barriers of integrating these customers countries, the energy consumed by the food industry is gen-
due to the rigidity of their activities [17]. Significant efforts erally very high. For example, in certain African countries,
are needed towards more sustainable agriculture to face the share of the national energy consumed by the agri-food
the growing population, especially for developing countries, chain may contribute to as high as 55%, while in USA is
where the population growth rates are higher. In particular, around 15.7% [18]. Note that of the energy consumed for
a gap will likely occur between energy and food production agri-food in African countries, around 65-75 % corresponds
growth, with the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) for cooking and preparation, which is typically inefficient.
estimating that food production will need to increase by 70% Moreover, the energy consumption and energy type used
by 2050 but forecasting that energy production will only in- for the processing of a certain quantity of goods depends
crease by one third [11]. The main energy types are electrical, heavily on their nature. For example, in fruit and vegetable
thermal, and mechanical. All these types can be supplied by processing in the UK, 13.68 MJ/kg product of fuel and only
REs, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy. Moreover, 1.48 MJ/kg product of electricity are required for French
in developing countries, many farms and food industries fries; 9 MJ/kg product of electricity and 8.3 MJ/kg product of
are located in isolated places, which increases the expenses fuel are required for crisps production; while only 0.43 MJ/kg
required for a distribution system; thus, distribution in RES- product of electricity and 1.50 MJ/kg product of fuel are
based microgrids becomes more economically beneficial. required for jam production [21]. The energy consumption
Opportunities are available to reduce energy consumption by the end users mostly includes process heat, refrigeration,
in the food industry in all stages; however, the success of motor drives, heat, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
energy efficiency measures depends mostly on behavioral systems [22].
change [18].
In the food industry, the energy consumption is spread all A. SIZE OF THE FOOD INDUSTRY
over the various food treatment processes, although energy Food processing systems can be categorized based on their
consumption is observed in the global agri-food chain, such size and range from small family consumption to large
as in the input agriculture products (e.g., water pumping, live- commercial consumption, which could supply huge amounts
stock housing, greenhouse climate control, storage, etc.) and of food across the world [18]. Although energy efficiency
the delivery process, such as transportation and refrigeration. can be improved across all food processing systems, the
The aim of energy efficiency in the food industry is to dependence on fossil fuels varies significantly based on the
produce more or similar amounts of food using a lower size of the food processing system; thus, greater attention
amount of energy [18]. must be devoted to high energy-consuming systems to reduce
With new advances in Information and Communication their consumption [23].
Technology (ICT), new techniques are available to improve • Subsistence: Subsistence producers are families en-
the use of energy in various industries, such as the food gaged in the most basic forms of small-scale farming
industry, especially through the application of the Internet of and fishing, and they produce food for their own use
things (IoT) [19], [20]. solely. Subsistence producers use very low inputs of
The aim of this paper is to identify the main technologies energy, usually from human and animal power. These
of energy efficiency in food industry. It explains the typical inputs of energy are generally not included in world
strategies, highlighting the new trends, barriers, and opportu- energy statistics.
nities. • Small farms: Small family farming units can engage in
different activities depending on modernization, includ-
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section II
ing the development of small gardens or rice fields, or-
presents an overview of the classification of food process-
ganic vegetables, orchards, cattle rearing, private fishing
ing technologies, and related energy consumption patterns.
boats and dairy herds (from a few to dozens of cattle).
Section III discusses the thermal energy efficiency options.
Depending on the type of modernization, these farms
Section IV studies the Waste to Energy technology in food
can engage in different activities.
processing. Section V presents the new trends in Smart food
• Small business: These farms can be managed by a fam-
processing. Finally, Section VI highlights the main conclu-
ily but are often private. They work slightly more and
sions and future challenges.
hire more people than small farms. These companies can
reduce their fossil fuel dependence by improving energy
2 VOLUME 4, 2016
efficiency and generating RE on-farm, which may offer storage moisture content [23]. This step could be one
the local community additional benefits. of the more energy-intensive operations, especially for
• Large farms: Corporate food systems depend on high developing countries.
direct external supply chain energy inputs, and they • Storage: This process consists of maintaining food at the
include fish trawler fleets, feed farms, sugar companies proper temperature conditions to avoid degrading the
and palm oil farms. A processing mill company may quality of the product and provide both safe and high-
own and manage large farm estates. Some benefits are quality foods. The typical machines used for storage in
more likely to flow to local communities that belong the food industry are energy consuming and include re-
to a growing cooperative. In general, large corporate frigerators and freezers. Storage involves approximately
companies have access to investment financing for clean 1-3 MJ/kg product of retail food product.
energy and energy efficient equipment. For additional • Food and beverage processing: this process represents
sales, energy can be used on-farm or off-farm. the transformation of agricultural products into food
Table 1 summarizes the energy consumption based on and requires energy for heating, cooling, and electricity.
the food industry scale. It should be noted that the capital The amount of energy needed is approximately 50-100
availability depends considerably on the willingness to invest MJ/kg.
in energy efficiency strategies. • Food cooking: this process involves applying heat to
food. It consumes approximately 5-7 MJ/kg of food.
B. TYPE OF FOOD INDUSTRY • Evaporation: this process involves partially removing
There are various food industries, although we can identify water from liquid food via boiling. It consumes approx-
some of the main industries that are the focus of this work: imately 2.5-2.7 MJ/kg.
• Dehydration: this process involves reducing moisture in
• Dairy farms
food to low levels for improved shelf life by adding one
• Meat farms
or more forms of energy to the food.
• Grain and oilseed milling
• Filtration: this process involves separating solids from
• Sugar and confectionary processing
a suspension in a liquid via a porous medium, screen or
• Fruit and vegetable processing
filter cloth, which retains the solids and allows the liquid
• Bakery industry
to pass through.
The techniques to save energy on these processes are pre-
C. ENERGY-CONSUMING TECHNOLOGIES
sented in the next sections.
The main energy-consuming technologies are present in vari-
ous steps, and they are detailed as follows, as depicted in Fig. III. THERMAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPTIONS IN FOOD
1. PROCESSING
A. WASTE HEAT RECOVERY
Food industry processes have a high demand for energy, and
the main one is heating. Due to some inherent constraints in
processes, a portion of heat is wasted. Heat recovery consists
of using this waste heat by power generation technologies
[24].
Chowdhury et al. [25] analyzes techniques to recover a
portion of heat in the same processes. One strategy is re-
covering heat in processes with heat exchangers, and it was
also validated in [26], where a milk process was analyzed
and demonstrated an increase of 10% in energy efficiency by
rescheduling the process and using heat exchangers. Another
technique used in this industry is recovering heat for other
processes or storing heat. This strategy was implemented in
[27], where photovoltaic energy is used to run the refrig-
eration cycle of a cold chamber when the grid electricity
FIGURE 1: Processes or End-uses Technologies in food cost is high and cold temperatures are stored in a phase
industry. change material for use when conditions are suitable. Finally,
a strategy of using heat from a low-temperature process in
• Drying: This process consists of artificially drying ce- a high-temperature process is discussed. All of these pro-
reals after harvesting and before storage and trans- cesses show a clear benefit for energy efficiency. However,
port. The energy used is approximately 0.5-0.75 MJ/kg, the barriers to implementing these strategies depend on the
which could be electricity, natural gas, or liquefied policies, social-technical framework, or even fuels used. This
petroleum gas (LPG), to dry wet grain to an appropriate work stated that the key factor to overcoming the barriers
VOLUME 4, 2016 3
Food industry scale Fossil fuel Capital availability Major food markets Energy intensity
dependence
Subsistence level Zero Micro-finance Own use Low
Small family unit Low/medium Limited Local own use Low to high
Small business High Medium Local/regional/export Low to high
Large corporate High Good Regional Low to high
process/export
TABLE 1: Energy dependency based on the scale of the food industry [23]
are business models. [28] simulated different thermodynamic an evaporator, expansion valves and a pump. This pro-
fluids to improve the performance of the Organic Rankine cess uses an absorption solution and a refrigerant so-
Cycle, which is one of the most used thermodynamic cy- lution, and low-grade waste heat is used in the heat
cles in heat recovery. They analyzed three fluids and three exchanger in an absorption-desorption process. This
different heat source temperatures to analyze different-sized cooling cycle has a low COP because the cycle uses low-
processes. Finally, the results of the fluids performance were grade heat. Yildirim et al. [33] analyzed the absorption-
compared in terms of the lowest specific-investment cost and desorption cycle in the pasteurization process of the
power output. milk industry and showed that is possible to use low
heat from geothermal for cooling. However, the source
B. NOVEL THERMODYNAMICS CYCLES of the heat could be any low-grade waste heat coming
Some novel thermodynamic cycles are presented that use low from other processes.
grade heat or RE for heating or cooling processes in the food • Adsorption system: it is another mechanical refriger-
industry. ation machine that consists of a condenser, an evap-
orator, a valve and an adsorber, which replaces the
1) Heat Pumps compressor. During adsorption, refrigerant vapor from
A heat pump is a thermodynamic equipment that consists the evaporator produces a cooling effect, and in the
of two heat exchangers, a condenser and an evaporator, a desorption period, heat is transported to the absorber
compressor and a valve. This device uses a heat source that to discharge the refrigerant, which is transferred to the
could come from waste heat or a RE that is transferred in the condenser. Finally, the liquid refrigerant is transferred
evaporator, and with the help of the compressor, it improves to the evaporator in a closed loop [34]. Ndyabawe et
heat conditions, which are transferred with the condenser al. [35] analyzed zeolite as an adsorber and biogas
[29]. Heat pumps are classified by the temperature of the and found that it performed well for a small-size-batch
heat source in three main categories as described in Table cooler for milk.
2 adapted from [30]. • Ejector refrigeration system: it consists of an ejector, a
Depending of the food industry, heat pumps could be condenser, an evaporator, a boiler and a valve. The cycle
used directly in certain processes, such as the pasteurization starts when the fluid refrigerant is boiled to form vapor
process. However, other systems require high temperatures, that is transferred to the ejector to join with the vapor
and in these cases, they are used to upgrade low-quality waste coming from the evaporator. Then, the vapor is pressur-
heat up to 150◦ C, which is required in many food indus- ized with the ejector and transferred to the condenser,
tries. However, adequate working fluids must be selected to where the fluid loses heat to the environment. Then,
overcome various problems, such as flammability, toxicity, the fluid is pumped back to the boiler to start over the
and required compressor technology [31]. [32] analyzed heat cycle. The remaining fluid is transferred to a throttling
recovery from a spray-drying process in a milk powder plant valve to reduce the pressure, and in the evaporator, the
by a combined system with a heat pump and a conventional fluid is evaporated, and then the cooling cycle takes
air-to-air heat exchanger. The results show that heat pumps place. Finally, the refrigerant vapor joins with the vapor
can recover up to 40% of waste heat and lead to 20% coming from the boiler and the cycle starts again [34].
lower energy costs in the operation. Furthermore, heat pumps Zhang et al. [36] analyzed a new freeze drying system,
represent other benefits as stated in [26], where heat pump and ejectors are used in the equipment. The results show
technology was analyzed in the dairy and meat industries in that heat consumption can be reduced by up to 46.1%
Germany and showed reduced global gas heating emissions compared with conventional freeze dryers.
at up to 52%.
3) Heat Pipes
2) Novel Refrigeration Cycles This method consists of using a pipe with two ends as heat
Novel refrigeration cycles were analyzed in small plants like exchangers and a working fluid. One side of the pipe that
smallholder dairy farms or simulated with software. has fins works as a condenser, and the other side works as
• Absorption-desorption cycle: it consists of an absorber, an evaporator. This method has some advantages, such as al-
a heat exchanger, a generator or desorber, a condenser, most no maintenance and less operational costs compared to
4 VOLUME 4, 2016
Heat pump classification

Type Heat source temperature Heat sink temperature
Heat pump 0 - 40◦ C 0 - 80◦ C
High temperature heat pump 40 - 60◦ C 80 - 100◦ C
Very high temperature heat pump 60 - 120◦ C 100 - 160◦ C
TABLE 2: Heat pump classification by temperature
conventional heat transfer methods. However, this method re- indicated that they were good sterilization processes that did
quires analyzing the fluid used, wick type and pipe material. not affect the sensory characteristics.
The heat pipe method works with latent heat, which makes
it efficient for heat transfer with no changes in temperature. 2) Pulsed Electric fields
This method could improve cooking and cooling processes The process consists of applying an electric field to biological
by reducing processing time [34] [29]. Brahim et al. [37] cells to damage the cell membrane, thereby causing cell
simulated the performance of a heat pipe, and the results death. This technology presents some benefits; for example,
showed a better performance compared with a conventional the temperature of the treated food or beverage is not in-
tubular heat exchanger. creased. Nevertheless, the amount of energy required is 100
kJ/kg at 30◦ C, which is higher than that of thermal processes
4) Hybrid Heating Systems with recovery [34]. Pulsed electric fields could be used to
In general, food processes are too rigid, which increases pasteurize beverages to minimize physical and nutritional
the difficulty of implementing the demand respond strategy. changes [40]. When operating at high temperatures and as-
However, when a process relies on different sources of en- suming a 95% of heat recovery, the pulsed electric fields
ergy, this issue can be overcome. For example, [6] studied energy input might be reduced to the amount of 20 kJ/kg like
an option of implementing a low-temperature hybrid heating conventional thermal pasteurization [41].
system in the dairy industry. The study analyzes additional
3) High-Pressure processing
sources of energy, such as RE, heat pumps and grid electric-
ity, to generate heat as a supplement to the high-temperature This technique applies high pressure to liquids, which causes
source of energy. The study demonstrates that it is possible the alternation of proteins or lipids, thereby damaging the
to implement hybrid-heating systems without affecting the membranes of biological cells. However, this process de-
process. However, this technique requires an analysis of mands 52 kJ/kg to reach a pressure of 600 MPa, which also
the constraints, such as RE availability, inherent processes increases the temperature of beverages by 3◦ C for every 100
constraints, and grid prices, which are also analyzed for the MPa of pressure applied. This process was analyzed in [34]
DR method. and [38], and the results showed a reduction in microbial
activity. [42] described several health benefits of this tech-
nique compared to conventional pasteurization; however, the
C. APPLICATION OF NON-THERMAL FOOD
investment cost is still a constraint compared to conventional
PROCESSES
pasteurization.
Some processes in the food industry were developed with
heat, such as pasteurization; however, these processes could 4) Membrane processing
be developed with other technologies to accomplish the same The separation process is quite common in the food industry,
goal. For instance, pasteurization processes are generally de- and it changes the concentration or clarity of liquid food,
veloped with heat to destroy harmful microorganisms. How- which is generally performed by evaporation of water. Nev-
ever, other techniques will be presented that can accomplish ertheless, this activity generally has a high demand of energy,
the same goal. although separation could be perform by membrane filtration,
which saves up to 50% energy compared with conventional
1) Food Irradiation processes [34]. This process is the most widely applied
This process consists of applying very high energy electrons nonthermal process in juice processing since it is performed
to food for a short time period. These rays are in a wavelength at low temperatures, thereby conserving the nutrients and
range from λ = 10−7 − 10−12 m, which correspond to quality of the fruit, and it also leads to increased production
ultraviolet rays, X-rays, beam rays and gamma rays. The yields [38]. Nazir et al. [43] analyzed the ability of this
emitted irradiation damages the DNA of living cells, thereby technique to recover nutrients from waste food or byproducts
inactivating bacterial and viral microorganisms. Some advan- and found that it has wide applicability in the food industry.
tages of this process are that it is a cold process and has lower
costs compared to the conventional pasteurization process D. NOVEL HEATING METHODS
[34]. Bhattacharjee et al. [38] and Bouzarjomehri et al. [39] 1) Infrared, microwave and radio frequency heating
analyzed this technology by applying ultraviolet rays to juice These techniques use electromagnetic waves to sterilize food.
and an electron beam in sausages, respectively, and the results Infrared radiation exhibits low penetration in food, which is
VOLUME 4, 2016 5
why it is used for sterilizing the surfaces of food. However, A. BIODIESEL

its heat transfer coefficient is higher than that of convective This technology consists of transforming vegetable oil into
heated air or water. In microwave technology, food needs biodiesel based on several steps. First, oil is subjected to
to be exposed for a short period of time for sterilization, hydrolysis, where two components are obtained: free fatty
although the process leads to the loss of energy in moisture. acids (FFAs) and glycerol. Then, the FFAs are subjected to
Radio frequency heating is a more controlled technique since an esterification process under critical conditions, and finally,
the penetration of the wave is greater than that of microwaves this liquid is filtered to obtain biodiesel [50]. This tech-
[34]. Guo et al. [44] analyzed the radio frequency heating nology has been analyzed in several studies because of the
process in the food industry, and the results showed a high importance of biodiesels in the biofuel production market as
potential due to the low cost and other previously mentioned well in the consumption market, especially for transportation.
advantages. Hossain et al. [50] and Prussi et al. [51] used edible oil
coming from the food industry and final consumers as the
2) Ohmic heating feedstock and applied a re-esterification process to generate
This method consists of applying an electric current directly biodiesel. The results showed that biodiesel from waste has
to a beverage to generate heat; therefore, no losses will be a similar performance to conventional diesel, which was
generated due to the conductivity of the material, which is analyzed in different types of generators. In addition, in the
an advantage compared to other methods. The heat generated study, biodiesel was found to generate fewer emissions than
depends on the voltage difference in the field and conductiv- conventional diesel in certain cases. Hossain et al. [50] used a
ity of the beverage, which should be in a range between 0.01 different catalyst material in the re-esterification process and
S/m and above 10 S/m. This process has some advantages, showed an improvement in the process relative to conven-
such as ensuring uniform heating, which prevents thermal tional processes.
damage or nutritional losses [38].
B. BIOGAS
Another important technology is biogas, which is generated
IV. WASTE MANAGEMENT IN FOOD PROCESSING
via an anaerobic process under a temperature generally be-
(WASTE-TO-ENERGY)
tween 20 and 60◦ C. In this process, organic feedstock is
Waste management has become crucial due to the grow- digested by microorganisms, and several days later, biogas
ing problem of natural resource depletion and contaminant and sludge is generated. The authors of [53], [54], and [55]
generation. In particular, the concept of waste-to-energy has analyzed biogas with different sources of feedstock. The
gained attention in recent years, as a waste management strat- studies demonstrate the importance of the type of feedstock
egy. Waste-to-energy is the process of transforming waste and feeding ratio in the process. The analysis in [54] demon-
into a useful form of energy, such as electricity, heat, or strates that a plant that uses residues sourced from the vicinity
other type [45]. In agroindustry, waste has become also a as feedstock has less impact on the environment and less
huge problem because it requires especial treatment due to cost in biogas generation. Additionally, the location of the
environmental regulations before disposal. This waste treat- biogas plant is a key factor for achieving positive impacts.
ment could increase the cost of processes and the energy In fact, an adequate location presents more sources for the
demand of this industry. An effective solution to overcoming transportation of feedstock and possible usage of heat from
these problems is to apply the waste to the energy concept, factories or residences near the biogas plant. [62] analyzed
which can reduce waste disposal, generate energy for the different-sized anaerobic digestion plants that used cattle
agroindustry or provide an energy surplus that can be sold manure and energy crops in Italy, and the results showed
to other industries. This concept of waste-to-energy is also that the key factors for profitability in such projects are the
widely used in other industries like in waste treatment, where manure recovery rate, slurry reuse and cogeneration system.
the main goal of the process is to reduce waste, which is The importance of this technology was determined in [55],
mainly organic. For instance, some municipal solid waste who analyzed the use of brewery residues and household
plants use plasma gasification technology, where waste un- organic waste and determined that such technology had the
dergoes a thermochemical process to generate synthetic gas potential to meet 72% of the energy demand in the brewery
used as source of energy [46]. Therefore, plasma gasifi- industry or 1% of the energy demand in 27 EU countries.
cation technology could be used with agriculture residues
to generate heat or electricity [47]. Moreover, the waste C. BIOMASS
from food industries could offer the possibility to produce, Biomass is used as fuel for combustion, and is generally sub-
apart from electricity, byproducts such as single-cell protein, jected to a mechanical pretreatment that removes moisture to
photosynthesis plant fertilizer, and waste heat [48]. Table 3 enhance the calorific value of the substrate. Biomass has a
describes the main waste-to-energy technologies used in the high demand, especially for heating. In [63] was estimated
agroindustry. Fig.2 depicts the Waste-to-Energy technologies that in British Columbia in Canada, biomass potential com-
for food industry. ing from residue crops could reduce up to 2% of GHG. Tech-
nical and economic evaluations of waste management have
6 VOLUME 4, 2016
Waste to Energy technologies

Technology Type of Residue Reference
Bio-diesel palm oil, waste cooking oil [49], [50], [51]
Bio-ethanol fruit lignocellulose [52]
Biogas grease trap waste, livestock manure, brewery [53] [54] [55]
residues, household organic waste
Biomass residue crops, olive mills solid waste, digestate [56] [57] [58]
Pyrolysis swine manure, sugar cane bagasse, rice straw [59] [60] [61]
TABLE 3: Technologies used in agroindustry for Waste to Energy
FIGURE 2: Waste to Energy technologies for food industry.
been previously performed. For example, the authors of [57] have also been presented by [62], [64], [65].
performed a multidisciplinary technical and cost analysis for
the production of olive mill solid waste pellets for the case of D. PYROLYSIS
Cyprus. The results indicated that the solid waste of a three- Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that consists of ap-
phase process has less moisture content than that of a two- plying heat in the absence of oxygen to organic substrates
phase process. The mean calorific value was 21,645 MJ/kg, to generate energy fuels, such as liquid pyrolytic oil, solid
which was between the values observed in other studies. charcoal and light gases (e.g., hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
Cyprus generates 13000 tons of olive solid waste generated carbon dioxide, and methane) [66]. [60] subjected sugarcane
via two processes technologies. The annual estimated energy bagasse to a pyrolysis process at temperature between 200
potential is 38 GWh in Cyprus. Pellets from olive waste have and 300◦ C at different residence times. The results showed
been estimated to provide 0.9% of the total energy consumed an improvement in the substrate, such as a higher carbon
in households for heating at 2784 toe, and this sector has content and a higher heating value of 24.01 MJ/kg. [61] found
a higher energy demand than industry and agriculture in an improvement of the thermochemical process using CO2 ,
Cyprus. Key factors for project viability are the working days which shows an increase of CO formation and suppression
and capacity of the plant. The plant could generate pellets of H2 . However, the process requires temperatures above
with a cost of 142 Euro/ton, which is competitive with wood 520◦ . Amer et al. [59] analyzed a microwave pretreatment
pellets. Chen et al. [58] analyzed the digestate produced via to reduce the moisture content in substrate in four agriculture
anaerobic digestion. This waste went through a granulation wastes: rice straw, rice husk, sugarcane bagasse and cotton
process to obtain a type of pellet. The results showed that stalk. The study shows that this pretreatment helps to reach
this material has a similar energy potential as wood fuels, higher heating values similar to bituminous coal. Dai et al.
although this material could have higher nitrogen monoxide [67] estimated that biochar could reduce up to 1.41x106 t
emissions. Some examples of waste-to-energy approaches CO2e coming for residue crops in China.
VOLUME 4, 2016 7
V. SMART FOOD PROCESSING: POTENTIAL FOR Other technology has been considered to optimize the
ELECTRICITY REDUCTION, ACTIVE DEMAND food defrosting system. In [80], the benefits of two energy
RESPONSE, AND INDUSTRY 4.0 optimization strategies to improve the overall process effi-
Several industries are currently trying to reduce their en- ciency of a food defrosting system are studied. Simulation
ergy consumption to save costs. In the food industry, sev- results show the benefits of the on-line energy optimization
eral processes are used to obtain the end product and the strategies, which significantly increase the overall process
processes differ depending on the end product. Therefore, efficiency.
several energy efficiency techniques focus on one or various Climate control is another significant source of electricity.
processes to reduce energy consumption. In many cases, The authors of [81] focus on the optimal operation of energy
energy efficiency could even improve the quality of the end- systems in greenhouses within the context of smart grids. The
products when considering the monitoring of external con- developed models incorporated weather forecasts, electricity
ditions. For example, in cold rooms, the temperature could price information, and end-user preferences to minimize the
be constant and too low, which limits the quality of the total energy costs and peak demand charges while consider-
product. Therefore, reducing the refrigeration consumption ing important parameters of greenhouse climate control.
will reduce energy consumption and improve the quality of Ventilation could also be optimized with new techniques,
the product [68]. such as sequential ventilation. For cheese processing, using
this energy efficiency technique is more convenient not only
for electricity savings but also because the end-product could
A. ENERGY SAVINGS TECHNIQUES
have better quality [82], [83].
The potential for electricity savings by the type of food In food production, machining processes consume a large
industry is detailed below. amount of energy. Therefore, various techniques have been
Water heating is responsible for nearly 40% of the total proposed to improve this consumption. In [84], an on-line
electricity consumption of dairy farms. Thus, efficient sys- approach for monitoring machine tools was presented, and
tems should be implemented to avoid electricity losses [69]– various power reduction experiments were performed to
[71]. Through data envelopment analysis, it is possible to obtain the management measure that consumed the lowest
reduce 12 % the energy consumption and around 12% the power.
CO2 emissions of dairy farms [70]. According to Xu et al.
[71], it is possible to reduce 50-80 % of specific energy B. DEMAND RESPONSE
consumption and 9-14 million metric tons of carbon in dairy Demand response (DR) is a technique that motivates changes
industries, with USA having the biggest potential. Other in electricity usage of end-use customers depending on the
areas with the potential for reduction include refrigeration, electricity price, grid reliability or incentivized revenue when
pumping, air compressors, and other electric machines [18], system reliability is jeopardized via the reduction in energy
[72]. Moreover, the process of milking requires significant consumption, transferal of energy consumption to other peri-
power over short times, which can lead to power peaks in the ods, or use of distributed energy resources instead of the main
distribution systems. Thus, the authors of [73] propose that grid [85]. Additionally, DR may facilitate the integration
the milking starting time should be varied by participating of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) and energy storage,
in different electricity tariffs. The results indicate that cost which are unpredictable and inflexible generators, thereby
savings in electricity could achieve between 33% to 39% increasing the flexibility of the overall power system, as
depending on the size of the dairy farm; however, whether the shown in Fig 3. This technique was first considered a solution
milking process time could change is difficult to determine for the residential and commercial sector; however, due to
because of the cows and other processes. the significant load in the industrial sector, the application
For meat production, specific efficiency techniques have of DR in the industry sector has attracted attention [4], [86].
not be found. However, various energy audits demonstrate However, implementing DR in industries is more difficult
that several inefficiencies exist, and fuels are overused; there- because the traditional processes have been considered rigid
fore, the energy inputs could be limited with the proper [87]; however, previous studies have demonstrated that there
control of energy meters [74]–[77]. For example, electricity are processes with certain flexibility that may be explored.
savings could reach up to 24% [78]. Moreover, DR has been evaluated in the food industry.
Several approaches have been developed to reduce elec- For example, [88] presented an evaluation and assessment
tricity consumption in the different steps of food processing. of DR in the meat industry. The most energy-consuming pro-
In the case of wines, the technique of cold prefermentation cess in this industry is the cooling production and distribution
is a process that gained popularity in recent years, and it process, which account for between 45% and 55% of the total
consists of reducing the temperature of the product to an es- final electricity consumption in the analyzed industry. DR
tablished temperature for the process. Then, the temperature actions cannot be applied in sensitive production areas and in
has to be maintained within the considered limits by compen- sensitive processes directly related to the quality of the final
sating for fluctuations of temperature that could occur during product. The main production processes in the meat industry
the maceration process [79]. are working rooms, preserving chambers, freezing chambers
8 VOLUME 4, 2016
involved processes as well as the preparation and recovery

periods.
Other interesting options for DR in the food industry
correspond to the use of ice storage. An ice storage system
makes ice during off-peak periods to partly or entirely serve
the requirements of on-peak periods [91]. Isolated systems
could consider the integration of DR, PV and ice storage,
in which ice is made during PV generation and used for
storage where PV or other generation is not available [92],
[93]. Since most types of the food industry use refrigeration
machines, producing enough ice during valley periods for
storage and use in peak periods while shutting down the
refrigeration and maintaining the temperature at proper levels
through the produced ice could be advantageous.
C. POTENTIAL OF INDUSTRY 4.0 IN SUSTAINABLE

FOOD PROCESSING
The term Industry 4.0 refers to the fourth big current trend
FIGURE 3: Overview of DR in food industries. of industrialization concepts, and it implies the industrial use
of recent trends in electrical, communications, and computer
systems. The main topics of Industry 4.0 include smart facto-
and drying lines. In DR, actions that reduce the power and ries, cyber-physical systems, self-organization, new systems
response time are important. The DR action proposed in this in distribution and procurement, new systems in product
paper is based on the interruption of the electricity supply and service development, adaptation of human needs, and
used in cooling production so that the thermal inertia of corporate social responsibility, as illustrated in Fig. 4 [94].
the system can maintain both the temperature and humidity In Industry 4.0, two main focuses of research have emerged:
within acceptable limits. In the process, two hour interrup- smart factories, which are based on intelligent manufactur-
tions of 450 kW in the peak period were performed. The ing systems and processes and networked distributed pro-
results showed that with DR, savings of 5% of the total duction facilities; and intelligent production, which focuses
annual cost and power reductions in the range of 50% of on human-computer interaction, logistics management, 3D
the total peak demand could be achieved in the analyzed printing and other advanced technologies that can be applied
facilities. to the entire industrial process to create a highly flexible,
Furthermore, [89] demonstrated the considerable potential personalized and networked industrial chain [95]. Thus, In-
of meat industry customers to provide DR flexibility. Effec- dustry 4.0 enables more sustainable and efficient processes
tive competition in electricity markets needs to be enhanced, during food processing to cover the growing demands in
including demand response programs that allow customers food markets and ensure the quality and the quantity of the
to participate in such markets. Flexibility actions include not products [96], [97].
consuming energy or shifting energy use to cheaper periods,
and the costs that the customer incurs when a flexibility
action is performed have been analyzed. In the meat industry,
DR actions, such as the interruption of cooling production
and control of cooling distribution in drying rooms, have
been implemented using the inertia of the systems. The
study proves that approximately 6% of the cost of balancing
markets and secondary regulation could have been avoided
using the DR potential of the meat-producing segment. In
[90], the participation of a meat factory in the Spanish tertiary
was also studied by using a parallel particle swarm optimiza-
tion, resulting in an improvement of 40 % of the maximum
profit per unit of reduced energy, significantly improving the
economic performance.
According to previous studies, the implementation of
DR actions must be completely automated (communication,
monitoring and control) to avoid human errors and reduce FIGURE 4: Industry 4.0 Topics.
the required advance notification time. The notification time
must consider the ramping up and down periods of the With intelligent manufacturing, it is expected that ad-
VOLUME 4, 2016 9
vanced robotics and artificial intelligence will be imple- variations of solar radiation. The PTSC system works in a
mented to allow for the precise control of all production lines low/medium temperature range.
[98]. Therefore, possible energy losses could be monitored To increase the performance of solar PV in food industries,
to implement solutions immediately and avoid such losses it is possible to integrate it in a trigeneration system. These
[99]. For example, the logistics management of Industry 4.0 systems are designated as PV and combined cooling, heating,
allows for the safe, secure, and reliable transportation of raw and power (PV-CCHP) systems or PV-trigeneartion (PV-
foods, and the energy of transportation in the factory could T) systems [109], [110]. Since most of the food industries
be minimized. The temperature of the equipment, especially require heating and cooling, these systems could improve
refrigeration equipment, could be controlled and adjusted to the energy efficiency, but they could require up to 25 years
a specific range to avoid temperature losses, thereby reducing to generate Net profit [111]. Furthermore, the PV-T systems
energy bills. Finally, during food processing, some machines could include electric storage such as batteries, and pumped
could be working improperly, and Industry 4.0 could enable hydro [112]; and thermal storage such as molten salts, phase
fault diagnostics and management to allow for the immediate change materials, concrete storage tanks [64], [113], [114].
repair of machines and avoid long-term losses [100].
VII. CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO ENERGY
VI. RENEWABLE ENERGY IN FOOD PROCESSING EFFICIENCY IN FOOD INDUSTRY
In the new grid, RE is expected to have a larger share The issues of energy efficiency, environmental protection,
in the total electricity production. Therefore, RE was also food processing waste management, improvement of pro-
proposed for the supply of energy loads to the food industry. duction quality and safety have attracted increasing atten-
Photovoltaic (PV) and wind generators are considered suit- tion in the food industry. Effective energy utilization and
able alternatives to conventional diesel generators or electric energy sources management in food processing facilities
distribution lines. For example, in [101], the RE planning (PV are desirable for reducing processing costs, saving fossil
and wind) of a dairy farm was studied, and it demonstrated energy resources and minimizing environmental impact. The
that the introduction of RE could provide a sizeable backup food processing industry, however, faces several challenges
of 136 GWh/year to the Algerian grid while mitigating 80 to develop advanced energy conservation and conversion
million tons of CO2 . This work was complemented by [102], technologies. The barriers can be classified as technical
[103], who validated the technical and economic feasibility and not technical ones. The technical barriers are mostly
of introducing PVs in dairy farms in Algeria. Solar energy related to the complexities of some food processing sectors,
integrated with energy storage could avoid peaks for milking where cascade, intermittent and inter-connected processes
[104]. are implemented, and some energy saving measures should
Solar energy could also be useful for thermal processes, be integrated with particular attention to the implications in
such a drying. In rural areas, drying of agricultural products terms of quality of final product, safety issues, effectiveness
is performed directly via solar energy. However, it presents of processes. This is valid, as examples, when it comes to
some disadvantages, such as longer drying times, difficulty the optimal setting of processing temperature levels or waste
controlling the drying process, or contamination. Solar dryers heat recovery options to mimimize energy consumption and
have emerged as a solution to tackle these issues. These at the same time to secure the end products quality standards.
dryers present proper energy and exergy results, such as the Other barriers regard the difficulties and/or profitability to
one analyzed by [105], who successfully dried ghost chili recover low temperature and/or intermittent/seasonal dis-
pepper and sliced ginger. Solar energy could also be useful charged heat, which is often available in such processes.
for heating water for processes that need it. These solar sys- In addition, environmental/amenity issues are often major
tems are already implemented and could be very appropriate drawbacks, and these aspects can be related for instance to
for developing countries and isolated food industries [106]. the use of waste by products for on site energy production,
In particular, the performance of the solar dryers depends on to space/logistic constraints arising from the location and op-
the solar radiation, and most of the developing countries are eration of renewable energy and energy saving technologies
located close to or within the equatorial belt, where the solar (i.e. solar panels, biomass storage and biomass logistics of
radiation is high, and they can take advantage of this property supply). The non technical barriers mostly regard the limited
[107]. specific know how, knowledge and skills of food sector
In [108], an existing conventional system in an ice cream operators in energy saving technologies, which are out of the
factory in Isparta, Turkey was changed to a RE system. The core business of the industrial operators. In the following, a
processes analyzed in the factory were those that require description of the typical challenges to energy efficiency in
heating and cooling, and the study proposed changing the food industry is provided, with comments on the most viable
energy source from grid electricity to heat from a parabolic to options to overcome these issues. The challenges and barriers
solar collector (PTSC) system. The PTSC system shows up to energy efficiency in food industry could be divided into the
to 98.56% energy savings compared with the current system. following aspects: economic, technological, environmental,
However, the proposed system has some limitations, such and regulatory.
as the high cost of investment, 8.5-year payback time, and
10 VOLUME 4, 2016
A. ECONOMIC that the entrepreneurial focus is mostly on the food pro-

The industrial entrepreneur perception towards innovative duction business. The perception of potential influence of
integrated and sustainable energy saving solutions, which are energy saving intervention on the effectiveness of the food
not well known and understood, may be a major barrier, if the processing and quality of final products constitute further
options are considered too risky. Energy efficiency enables drawbacks. Most of the processes are complex and difficult to
long-term profits for food processing companies, however, in be changed. Moreover, even in some cases the product quality
the short term they have to invest in additional equipment to was improved such as the cheese [82], [83], setting parame-
implement the presented strategies. Due to important market ters modulation to save energy consumption can negatively
competition between food processing companies, it is not influence end product quality. Finally, as previously stated,
possible to assume that energy efficiency strategies will be some food production processes are very rigid due to end
implemented alone, and therefore there is a need of economic quality, and hence it is difficult to accommodate renewable
incentives from governments [18]. Observe also that many energy and energy saving options.
incentives fail to persuade industrial customers to participate
since the costs of modifying the processes could be higher C. ENVIRONMENTAL
than the incentives for adopting energy efficiency strategies. There is a clear relation between agriculture and environ-
The benefits of energy efficiency in the food industry mental problems like greenhouse gas emissions. Where this
could differ significantly, depending of the size and kind of industry represents the second largest GHG emitter as is
processes of the industry. Thus, a first evaluation needs to be mentioned in [115]. On the other hand, renewable energy
performed to evaluate the possible benefits. In this evalua- and energy efficiency contribute to reduce GHG emissions.
tion, some uncertainties appear, which could lead to wrong However, a challenge to assess environmental improvements
evaluations and the benefits could results lower, which could by energy efficiency is the method used, which has some un-
discourage other customers to partipate in these strategies. certainties to quantify their impacts. For instance, greenhouse
gases are quantified based on carbon foot print,and some
B. TECHNOLOGICAL guidelines are used like IPCC. However, these guidelines
Food industry is a sector with high possibilities for improve- are subjective and non universal as is mentioned in [16].
ment since reduced percentages of energy savings involve Slorach et al. [116] analyzed how to reduce environmental
large amounts of energy. Due to the technologies commonly impacts from food waste in UK using different scenarios.
used in this type of industry, thermal energy, electrical energy Although some technologies where analyzed, the best way
and water use are the main technologies on which to focus to reduce environmental impacts was to reduce 2% food
efficiency actions. In all processes in which thermal energy is waste generation, showing that new technologies has less
used, there are important savings opportunities: improvement contribution to overcome environmental impacts.
in the processes, in the equipment and the specific treatment
of the products that is made; improvement in the process D. LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY
as a whole. Global solutions must be proposed that provide Permitting issues and legislative aspects are also relevant
reductions in consumption. For example, in many cases, there barriers in the case of integration of complex technologies,
is a gas boiler to generate heat and an air-water chiller to including biomass waste to energy technologies, consum-
obtain cold. The use of a water-water thermal machine that ing both endogenous and external bio-fuel resources. The
generates cold and heat simultaneously has higher energy ef- financial aspects, and the relatively high investment costs of
ficiency. In processes in which electric power is used directly, some technological options are other typical non technical
they are also susceptible to significant savings: improving barriers, considering that the investment horizon of energy
equipment performance, the use of drives in all processes that saving measures can be longer than what expected/interesting
feed motors, making a record of consumption, that enables for the industrial operators. These legislative and regulatory
subsequent analysis of opportunities to shut down unnec- issues limit the growth of energy efficiency initiatives in the
essary equipment, among others. The reuse of all materials industries, especially in the developing countries. The instal-
and waste energy is essential (waste-to-energy). Finally, the lation of RE or cogeneration plants, the tools for industry
change to industry 4.0 will enable the measurement of many 4.0, or implementation of DR programs are limited by the
variables of the processes, energy consumption. It is crucial local or national electric companies regulations. For example,
to make a historical data base of the variables that enables in countries where there is no electricity markets, these
a later analysis of the information. The search for synergy strategies could not be implemented. Moreover, the benefits
between several actions to be taken is crucial and is what will of the governments for food industries for GHG reduction
cause the improvement in energy efficiency to be greater. must be clear to encourage to implement energy efficiency
Although various opportunities exist, organizational and strategies. Some particular standards for communications
managing issues related to the installation of energy con- need to be adopted in the energy market to facilitate the
sumption measurement systems, or planned stop of produc- communication between the different agents participating in
tion processes to install energy saving technologies, are often energy efficiency strategies. Finally, since many food indus-
remarkable not technical barriers, in particular considering tries are small, an administrative burden could exist. Hence,
VOLUME 4, 2016 11
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14 VOLUME 4, 2016
food waste management in the UK: Current situation and future ANTONIO MARCO PANTALEO was born in
scenarios,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 710, p. 135580, 2019. Roma, Italy in 1974. He received his Ph.D. in
Energy Engineering in 2013 from Imperial Col-
lege London, UK, where he has been research
fellow in the Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing since 2014. He also joined the Department
of Agro-environmental sciences of the Università
JEAN-MICHEL CLAIRAND (S’16,M’18) was degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Italy, in 2006
born in Quito, Ecuador, in 1990. He received the as researcher and he is assistant professor since
M.Sc. degree from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure 2012. Between 2000 and 2003, he worked for a
de l’Electronique et Ses Applications (ENSEA), major energy company, developing renewable energy based projects, and
Cergy-Pontoise, France, in 2014, and the Ph.D. for the Italian transmission system operator, as strategy engineer. During
degree in Industrial Production Engineering from his time as a university professor, he has collaborated in various national
Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain in 2018. and European projects in the fields of biomass energy, waste heat recovery,
He worked in Empresa Eléctrica Quito in 2014. energy efficiency investments, hybrid renewable energy systems. He was
He was an international visiting graduate student Delegate of the Rector of University of Bari in 2017-19, in charge of energy
at the Department of Electrical and Computer En- efficiency investments for Campus University, and co-PI of several research
gineering at the University of Waterloo, Canada, from 2017 to 2018. He has projects related to the integration of energy systems, energy efficiency in
been lecturer in Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador, from 2014 food processing and biomass energy conversion technologies, for a total
to 2017, and assistant professor since 2018. He is also Visiting Researcher budget over 20 MEur in the period 2014-20.
at the Department of Agro-environmental sciences of the Università degli
Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Italy in 2019. His research interests include electric
vehicles, smart grid optimization, energy efficieny, and microgrids.
MARCO BRICEÑO-LEÓN was born in Quito,

Ecuador, in 1986. He received the bachelor degree
in mechanical engineering from the Universidad
de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Ecuador, in 2006,
and the M.Sc. degree in Renewable Energy from
the Carl Von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg,
Germany, in 2015. He worked between 2011 and
2013 in the energy sector in EPC companies. He
has been lecturer in Universidad de las Américas,
Quito, Ecuador, since 2017 to present. He is cur-
rently working toward the Ph.D. degree in Industrial Production Engineering
at the Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. His research interests
include renewable energy and energy efficiency.
GUILLERMO ESCRIVÁ-ESCRIVÁ was born in

Gandía, Spain in 1975. He received his Ph.D. in
Industrial Engineering in 2009 from the Universi-
tat Politècnica de València (UPV), Spain, where he
has been a Professor in the Electrical Engineering
Department since 2005. Between 2000 and 2005,
he worked in a large construction company as a
facilities engineer. During his time as a university
professor, he has collaborated in various national
and European projects. He has collaborated with
entities from Spain and from countries such as the United States, Hol-
land and Ecuador in different research projects. Among his publications
are several teaching books, more than 20 papers in high impact research
journals, and communications in international congresses. Prof. Escrivá-
Escrivá is one of the collaborators of the laboratory of distributed energy
resources at UPV (Labder) and was one of the developers of the DERD
energy management system that has controlled the power demand of the
Vera Campus at UPV for more than eight years. He presents high technical
training in research and applied studies and has great interest in the transfer
of knowledge from the university to industry and vice versa. His research
interests include energy efficiency, renewable energies, and quality problems
in power systems.
VOLUME 4, 2016 15

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Review of Energy Efficiency

I. INTRODUCTION reduce their consumption and improve their operational out-

Heat pump classification

TABLE 2: Heat pump classification by temperature

why it is used for sterilizing the surfaces of food. However, A. BIODIESEL

Waste to Energy technologies

TABLE 3: Technologies used in agroindustry for Waste to Energy

FIGURE 2: Waste to Energy technologies for food industry.

involved processes as well as the preparation and recovery

C. POTENTIAL OF INDUSTRY 4.0 IN SUSTAINABLE

A. ECONOMIC that the entrepreneurial focus is mostly on the food pro-

MARCO BRICEÑO-LEÓN was born in Quito,

GUILLERMO ESCRIVÁ-ESCRIVÁ was born in

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