UNIT IV ROBOT KINEMATICS AND ROBOT PROGRAMMING

4.1 Forward Kinematics, Vs Inverse Kinematics;

4.2 Forward and Reverse Kinematics of Manipulators with Two Degrees of Freedom
4.3 Forward and Reverse Kinematics of Manipulators of Three Degrees of Freedom (In 2
Dimensional),
4.4 Four Degrees of Freedom (In 3 Dimensional)
4.5 Matrix transformation and problems
4.6 Robot Programming
4.6.1 Lead through programming,
4.6.2 Teach pendent programming
4.7 Robot programming Languages
4.8 VAL Programming
4.8.1 Motion Commands
4.8.2 Sensor Commands
4.8.3 End effecter commands
4.8.4 Sample programs

4.1 FORWARD KINEMATICS, VS INVERSE KINEMATICS

Study of the motion of the robot arm with respect to a fixed reference coordinate system as a function of time.
Forward kinematics:Position and orientation of the end effector are derived from given joint angles and link parameters.
Reverse kinematics:Joint angles and different configurations of the manipulator are derived from the position and
orientation of the end effector.
ROBOT KINEMATICS: INTRODUCTION

 In order to control and programme a robot we must have knowledge of both it’s arrangement and a means
of reference to the environment.
 KINEMATICS - the analytical study of the geometry of motion of a robot arm:
 with respect to a fixed reference co-ordinate system
 Without regard to the forces or moments that cause the motion.
Kinematics
• The calculation of position via odometry is an example of kinematics.
• Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the forces that cause it.
• It refers to all time-based and geometrical properties of motion.
• It ignores concepts such as torque, force, mass, energy, and inertia.
Forward Kinematics
 Given the starting configuration of the mechanism and joint angles, the new configuration is computed. For a
given mechanism of a robot, this would mean calculating the position and orientation of the end effectors given
all the joint variables.
Why coordinates transform?

 A simple leg movement needs the three joints to rotate and cooperate carefully
 If the foot-tip move along a curve, the function of each joint becomes a complex equation.
 In order to control the torque of each motor, we must solve the dynamic equations, which are based on the kinematics equations and the
mass of the robot.
More complex example: the 9 joints for the three legs changes complexity to make the body move forward.

Some basic concept

 User space and kernel space
 Kernel thread and device driver
 Data communicate: FIFO
 Implementation of control algorithm
 High level: dynamics equation, kinematics equation
 Low level: PID control

Mechanism design and mechanic elements

 Without mechanism, a robot needs: powerful motor, huge cost, expensive devices, powerful motor, huge cost, expensive
devices, complex software.
 Well designed mechanism helps save money ,less powerful motor is OK, simplify the control program.

Trajectory Error Compensation

 If a robot is attempting to follow a path, it will typically veer off eventually. Controllers design to correct this
error typically come in three types:
– P controllers provide force in negative proportion to measured error.
– PD controllers are P controllers that also add force proportional to the first derivative of measured error.
– PID controllers are PD controllers that also add force proportional to the integral of measured error.
 The movement of the Roomba can be hard-coded ahead of time as an example of open-loop control.
 A path can be converted to Robot wheel movement commands via inverse kinematics.
Inverse Kinematics
 Inverse Kinematics is the reverse of Forward Kinematics. (!)
 It is the calculation of joint values given the positions, orientations, and geometries of mechanism’s parts.
 It is useful for planning how to move a robot in a certain way.

Definition: Study of the motion of the robot arm with respect to a fixed reference coordinate system as s function of time.
Forward kinematics: Position and orientation of the end effectors are derived from given joint angles and link parameters.
Reverse kinematics: Joint angles and different configurations of the manipulator are derived from the position and
orientation of the end effectors.
Robot kinematics
It is the study of the motion (kinematics) of robots. In a kinematic analysis the position, velocity and acceleration of all
the links are calculated without considering the forces that cause this motion. The relationship between motion, and the
associated forces and torques is studied in robot dynamics. One of the most active areas within robot kinematics is the
screw theory
Types of Robot kinematics
1. Forward kinematics
Inverse kinematics

Forward kinematics is also known as direct kinematics. In forward kinematics, the length of each link and the angle of
each joint is given and we have to calculate the position of any point in the work volume of the robot.

Robot kinematics can also be divided as follows:

 serial manipulator kinematics,
 parallel manipulator kinematics,
 mobile robot kinematics and
 humanoid kinematics.
Kinematic Control of Robot
 Non Servo Control- This type of robot move their arm in an open loop fashion. Such control could be executed
by sequence controller or limit switches.
 Servo Controlled Robot-These type of robot incorporates feed back devices on the joints or actuator of the
manipulator. This type of control can position the end-effector anywhere within the total envelop. These is
further classified as
 Point to point control- In it each joint or the axes of the robot is moved individually untill the combination
of the joint positions yields the desired position of the end effector.The way each joint is to move to
achieve final position is practiced before hand and stored in a memory device.
 Continuous path control- Continuous path motion are produced by interpolating each joint control
variable from interpolating each joint control variable from its initial value to desired final value. All the
joints variables are interpolated to make the joints complete their motion simultaneously, thus giving a
 co-coordinated joint motion.
Degrees of Freedom
An n-link kinematics system is made of a chain of links connected to each other by the joints. The system is an open-
chain, each joint can move freely independent from all other joints. For the simplicity of the analysis we assume the first
joint is moving in the base coordinate frame, the second joint is moving in the coordinate frame of the first link, and so
on, the end-point is a fixed position in the n coordinate frame. Then, two joints may either contribute to the movement
of the end-point in two different directions, or, if the joint movements are dependant to each other, then, the end-point
may move only in a single direction. The joints those contribute to the movement of the end effector in a new and
independent direction are called independent joints. The total number of the independent joints determines the degrees of
freedom (DOF) of that kinematics system .

Minimum number of independent axes which define the mechanical motion

DOF =6 for general purpose robot
DOF<6 for deficient robot
DOF> 6 for redundant robot

The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be compared to the way in which the human body moves.
For each degree of freedom a joint is required.
The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the configuration.
Each of the five basic motion configurations discuss previously utilizes three degrees of freedom in the arm.
Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end effector all the flexibility.
a total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any point in its work space.
Although six degrees of freedom are needed for maximum flexibility, most robot employee only three to five degrees of freedom.
The more the degrees of freedom, the greater is the complexity of motions encountered.

the three degrees of freedom located in the arm of a robotic system are:
 The rotational reverse: is the movement of the arm assembly about a rotary axis, such as left-and-right swivel of the robot’s
arm about a base.
 The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction of the arm or the in-and-out motion relative to the base.
 The vertical traverse: provides the up-and-down motion of the arm of the robotic system.
the three degrees of freedom located in the wrist, which bear the names of aeronautical terms, are
 pitch or bend: is the up-and-down movement of the wrist.
 yaw: is the right-and-left movement of the wrist.
 roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.
An n-link kinematics system
An n-link kinematics system is made of a chain of links connected to each other by the joints. The system is an open-chain, each joint can move
freely independent from all other joints. For the simplicity of the analysis we assume the first joint is moving in the base coordinate frame, the
second joint is moving in the coordinate frame of the first link, and so on, the end-point is a fixed position in the n coordinate frame. Then, two
joints may either contribute to the movement of the end-point in two different directions, or, if the joint movements are dependant to each other,
then, the end-point may move only in a single direction. The joints those contribute to the movement of the end effectors in a new and
independent direction are called independent joints. The total number of the independent joints determines the degrees of freedom (DOF) of that
kinematics system .
Fig 1.32 (a) planer space(in the paper plane), a kinematics system
For example in a planer space(in the paper plane), a kinematics system made of two rotational joints is shown in the figure.Inthis case the joint
angular positions α and β contribute to the movement of the end point in both x 0 and y0 directions freely,and thus they are independent joints.If
the two joints were exactly on the same point of the plane, then the two joints would not result in independent movements of the end point in two
different dimensions.The end point would move along a fixed circular trajectory proportional to α – β.

Fig 1.32 (b) Three dimensional world, an end-point frame

In our plane example,the position and orientation of the frame is expressed in the base frame by three
variables(dimension along x0,y0 and the angular orientation with respect to the x0 axis).Thus,we cannot have a planar
kinematics system with four or over four degrees of freedom. Similarly, in a three dimensional world,an end-point frame
is expressed in the base frame by its position along x-y-z axis,and angular rotation with respect to z(roll),y(pitch) and x
axes(yaw),total by six DOF.Thus in 3-D world,a kinematics system cannot have higher than 6 DOF even if it has over 6
joints.
Half independent
In some cases, a joint is not designed to be stable along the range of movement, but it stays stable only at the end points
of the joint range. For example, in some pneumatic joints, the link moves from one end to the other end but cannot stay
somewhere at the mid. These kind of joints are considered only to be half independent, and contributes only 1/2 to DOF
of the system .
N.B.:

Many industrial robots were designed to have only four or five degrees of freedom to reduce the cost and increase the
reliability and stability of the manipulators. On the other side, there are also many robot manipulators particularly
designed for the working environments with many obstacles in workplace with extra one or two joints instead of exactly
six. These kind of kinematics systems are called redundant kinematics systems. The redundancy of extra joints provides
flexibility to approach to the desired position and orientation in various configurations of the joint angles creating
opportunity of obstacle avoidance in the path planning.
To properly understand the motions of robotic systems, mathematicians and engineers had to develop a new system of
kinematics. For this new system of kinematics, they had to develop ideal joints that served as the focal points for relative
motion between links. Three distinct types of joints are necessary: prismatic (linear motion), revolute (rotational motion),
and screw (linear and rotational).
There are several other types of joints theoretically possible in kinematics such as sliding ,spherical, helical
(screw), elliptic, and parabolic movements. However, they are out of the scope of this book because of their rare
application in industrial robotic manipulators .

4.2 Two Degrees of freedom 2-D Manipulator:

Any joint position in the manipulator can be represented in two types of coordinates.Joint coordinates and world
Coordinates.In the joint coordinates the position of the manipulator is given by the angle(θ) of each link with respect to
the previous links.On the other hand in the world coordinates it is given by the value of x,yand z axis.
PJOINT=( θ1, θ2, θ3 ….θn)
PWORLD= (X,Y,Z)

Forward Transformation:
The joint motors have to be driven to move the manipulator to the target point of (X2, Y2).The target point is
reached by first adjusting the link 1 to the position (X1, Y1).This is done by moving link 1of length ‘l1’ through angle θ1
and the values are calculated using simple geometrical relations as follows.
X1=l1cosθ1
Y1=l1sin θ1
X2=X1+ l2cos (θ1 +θ2)
Y2=Y1+ l2sin (θ1 +θ2)
Φ= (θ1 +θ2)
Reverse Transformation:
In reverse transformation,the final coordinates are known .From the values (X2,Y2) the previous positions of the joint
and intial position are calculated using simple geometric relations as follows.
X1=X2 – l2 cosφ
Y1=Y2 – l2sinφ
cosθ1= X1 / l1
sin θ1= Y1 / l1

4.3 Three Degrees of freedom 2-D Manipulator:

This is the extension of the previous type.The expression for the final position and orientation are derived for Forward
and reverse transformation by geometry of the linkages.
Forward Transformation:
Let (X3,Y3) be the final position of the manipulator and ‘ϕ’ be the final orientation of the end effector.
X1=l1cosθ1
Y1=l1sin θ1
X2=X1+ l2cos (θ1 +θ2)
 Y2=Y1+ l2sin (θ1 +θ2)
X3=X2+ l3cos (θ1 +θ2+θ3)
Y3=Y2+ l3sin (θ1 +θ2+θ3)
Φ= (θ1 +θ2+θ3)
Reverse Transformation:
From the final coordinates (X3,Y3) and final orientation ‘ϕ’ the previous positions are calculated using simple
geometrical relationships.
X2=X3 – l3 cosφ
Y2=Y3 – l3sinφ
X1=X2- l2cos (θ1 +θ2)
Y1=Y2- l2sin (θ1 +θ2)
From the given geometry,
X2=l1cosθ + l2cosθ1.cosθ2 – l2sinθ1.sinθ2 ……..(1)
Y2=l1sinθ1 + l2sinθ1.cosθ2 + l2cosθ1.sinθ2…..(2)

4.4 Four DOF 3D Manipulator

Squaring and adding equations (1) and (2),
Cosθ2 =( x22+y22-l12-l22)/(2l1.l2)………………..(3)
Subtituiting the value of θ2 in equation (1) & (2) we get θ1.The value of θ3 can be obtained by the relation, θ3= ϕ – (θ1
+θ2);where ,
θ1=angle of rotation of joint 1.(Base rotation)
θ2=angle of rotation of joint 2.(Elevation angle)
l=length of linear joints(Extension)
θ4=angle of rotation of joint 4.(Pitch angle)

Forward Transformation:
Position of the end effector in world space is given by ,
X = (l.cosθ2 + l4.cosθ4).cosθ1
Y = (l.cosθ2 + l4.cosθ4).sinθ1
Z = l1 +l.sinθ2 + l4.sinθ4
Reverse Transformation:
If the Pitch angle (θ4) and the world coordinates (x,y,z) of the point P are given,Coordinates of joint 4(x,y,z) are
X4 = X - cosθ1(l4.cosθ4).
Y4 = Y - sinθ1(l4.cosθ4).
Z4 = Z - l4.sinθ4
Now the values of θ1, θ2 and l can be found by ,
Cos θ1=y4/l ;sinθ2 = (z4 – l1)/l ; l = [x42 + y42 + (z4 – l1)2]0.5
4.5 Matrix transformation and problems
4.6 ROBOT PROGRAMMING
Because humans and robots don’t normally speak the same language, a special language must be used to translate the necessary instructions
from human to robot. These human-to-robot languages are called programming languages. Instructions written in them are called programs.
ROBOTC is just one of many such programming languages that humans use to talk to machines.

As the programmer becomes more experienced, the organization of the behaviors in English will start to
include important techniques from the programming language itself, like if-else statements and loops.
This hybrid language, halfway between English and the programming language, is called pseudocode.It is an important tool in helping to keep
larger programs understandable.

Commands to the robot are first written as text on the screen. They are then processed by the ROBOTC compiler into a machine language file
that the robot can understand. Finally, they are loaded onto the robot, where they can be run.
Text written as part of a program is called code. You type code just like you type normal text. Keep in mind that capitalization is important to the
computer. Replacing a lowercase letter with a capital letter (or a capital letter with a lowercase letter) will cause the robot to become confused
As you type, ROBOTC will try to help you out by coloring the words it recognizes. If a word appears in a different color, it means ROBOTC
recognizes it as an important word in the programming language.
Statements are instructions for the robot. The most basic kind of statement in ROBOTC simply gives a command to the robot. It
instructs the motor plugged into Motor Port 3 to turn on at full power.
Statements are run in order as quickly as the robot is able to reach them. Running this program on the robot turns the motor on, then waits for
3000 milliseconds (3 seconds) with the motor still running, and then ends.
 Typical Programming Modes
• Programming Methods
- On line) (Lead through)teach-by-showing the
desired motion ‘ Manual and Powered’
-Off line ( doesn’t interrupt production)
A typical industrial robot is mostly programmed in one of the following modes:
Physical Setup Mode is typical programming method for very simple pick-and-place manipulators, where
programmable logic controllers (PLC's), proximity and limit switches and timers are used to perform cyclic operation of
the manipulator for a desired task.
Lead Through or Teach Mode is typical programming mode of a manipulator with positional control capability.
Manipulator is moved to the desired positions by the aid of a teach pendant (a control keypad), and the desired positions
are stored into program memory in the desired sequence. After teaching is accomplished, controller is set to playback
mode, in which the controller moves the manipulator point to point to the desired positions .
Continuous Walk-Through Mode is an elaborated teach mode. The operator teaches the manipulator which way to
move by forcing the manipulator to move in the desired way. It is conveniently used for painting and assembly robots
Software Mode is off-line program writing mode using a text editor or graphical interface. Programming in software
mode requires knowledge on operating system and robot languages. Sensor information is easily included to the
programming, and computer-aided-design (CAD) database. It is the most sophisticated, and the most versatile way of
programming a robot .Most industrial robots have more than one programming modes, and, the most convenient
programming mode depends to the task to be programmed .

a robot manipulator can make four types of motion in travelling from one point to another in the workplace:
 slew motion : simplest type of motion. robot is commanded to travel from one point to another at default
speed.
 joint-interpolated motion: requires the robot controller to calculate the time it will take each joint to reach
its destination at the commanded speed.
 straight-line interpolation motion: requires the end of the end effector to travel along a straight path
determine in rectangular coordinates.
 useful in applications such as arc welding, inserting pins into holes, or laying material along a
straight path.
 circular interpolation motion: requires the robot controller to define the points of a circle in the workplace
based on a minimum of three specified positions.
 circular interpolation produces a linear approximation of the circle and is more readily available
using a programming language rather than manual or teach pendant techniques.
PATH CONTROL
commercially available industrial robots can be classified into four categories according to the path control
system.
 limited-sequence: do not use servo-control to indicate relative positions of the joints.
 they are controlled by setting limit switches and/or mechanical stops together with a sequencer to
coordinate and time the actuation of the joints.
 with this method of control, the indivdual joints can only be moved to their extreme limits of
travel.
 point-to-point: these robots are most common and can move from one specified point to another but
cannot stop at arbitrary points not previously designated.
 controlled path: is a specialized control method that is a part of general category of a point-to-point robot
but with more precise control.
 the controlled path robot ensures that the robot will describe the right segment between two taught
points.
 controlled-path is a calculated method and is desired when the manipulator must move in the
perfect path motion.
 continuous path: is an extension of the point-to-point method. this involves the utilization of more points
and its path can be arc, a circle, or a straight line.
 because of the large number of points, the robot is capable of producing smooth movements that
give the appearance of continuous or contour movement.
 Programming methods:
1. Lead through methods
2. Textual Robot languages
4.6.1 Lead through Programming method:
- “teach by showing” method
- first real robot programming language method
- two ways of accomplishing the task
i) Powered lead through method
ii) Manual lead through method
- Control system for both lead through procedures operate in two modes
i) Teach mode is used to program the robot
ii) Run mode is used to execute the program

i) Powered Lead through method

- uses Teach pendent to control various joint motors drive for robot arm and wrist
- Teach Pendent is a small control box consists of toggle switches, dials and buttons
- Limited to point to point robot
- Applications in
i) transfer tasks
ii) machine loading and unloading
iii) spot welding
ii) Manual Lead through
- also called Walk through method
- suitable for continuous path programming
- Applications in
i) spray painting
ii) Arc welding

4.6.2. Teach pendent programming:

In this method the program for the robot is stored in the control panel as several subfunctions.Teach pendent is
like a keypad unit in celphones.The functions can be executed whenever needed. This unit is portable. Easy to operate
the robot.It is portable.
4.7 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:
1. First Generation languages:
- offline programming
- sensory data except ON/OFF binary signal
- VAL(Victor’s Assembly Language)
2. Second Generation languages:
- Structured programming
- Analog/digital signals
- AML, RAIL, MCL, VAL II
WAVE:
- developed by Standford AI Lab
Special Features:
- Robot hand eye coordination
- Trajectory calculations i.e. better coordination of joint movements
- End effector positions and touch sensing
Advantages:
- Trajectory calculations possible at compiled time and modified at run time
Disadvantages:
- Algorithm complex
- Not user friendly
- Couldn’t be run in real time and on-line

AL:
 - Translator to generate runnable code
- Run time systems for effecting various motions of robot
- Subroutines for activities between robot and surroundings
- Sensors incorporated and hence used for condition monitoring
VAL:
- developed by Victor Sheinman of Unimation Inc for PUMA series
- VAL II system has more interlocking facilities
Features:
- user friendly
- arm movement in joint for world and tool coordinates
- gripping and speed control
- commands, subroutines written in BASIC
AML:
- A manufacturing language developed by IBM
Features:
- useful as an assembly language
- different user robot programming interfaces possible
Advantages:
- integers, real numbers and strings can be specified in the same aggregate
MCL:
- MCL stands for Mc Donnel Douglas Language
- Developed for manufacturing control
Features:
- modification of the popular APT language
- Machine tools in CAM applications
RAIL:
- developed by Automatix for robotic assembly
- suitable for inspection and arc welding applications
HELP:
- developed by General electric company
- more or less like RAIL
- data types are defined as in PASCAL
- possesses good interpreter for vision system applications
WAVE:
- developed by Standford AI Lab
Special Features:
- Robot hand eye coordination
- Trajectory calculations i.e. better coordination of joint movements
- End effector positions and touch sensing
Advantages:
- Trajectory calculations possible at compiled time and modified at run time
Disadvantages:
- Algorithm complex
- Not user friendly
- Couldn’t be run in real time and on-line

AL:
- Translator to generate runnable code
- Run time systems for effecting various motions of robot
- Subroutines for activities between robot and surroundings
- Sensors incorporated and hence used for condition monitoring and assembly
VAL:
- developed by Victor Sheinman of Unimation Inc for PUMA series
- VAL II system has more interlocking facilities
Features:
- user friendly
- arm movement in joint for world and tool coordinates
- gripping and speed control
- commands, subroutines written in BASIC
AML:
 - A manufacturing language developed by IBM
Features:
- useful as an assembly language
- different user robot programming interfaces possible
Advantages:
- integers, real numbers and strings can be specified in the same aggregate
- Have the capability of controlling multiple arms.

MCL:
- MCL stands for Mc Donnel Douglas Language
- Developed for manufacturing control
- Have the capability of controlling multiple arms.

Features:
- modification of the popular APT language
- Machine tools in CAM applications
RAIL:
- developed by Automatix for robotic assembly
- suitable for inspection and arc welding applications
HELP:
- developed by General electric company
- more or less like RAIL
- data types are defined as in PASCAL
- possesses good interpreter for vision system applications
- flexible to run various subroutines
JARS:
The base of the language is PASCAL.It was developed by NASA.It can be interfaced with PUMA series robot
for running programs.
PAL:
Written by Richard Paul by modifying WAVE and incorporating and incorporating features of PASCAL. But the
syntaxes are difficult to handle.
ADA:
It is developed by Department of Defence in USA in a real time system that can be run on several
microcomputers like Zilog,VAX, Motorola etc.ADA is convenient for controlling the robots used in a manufacturing
cell.Have the capability of controlling multiple arms.
VAL:
- developed by Victor Sheinman of Unimation Inc for PUMA series
- VAL II system has more interlocking facilities
Features:
- user friendly
- arm movement in joint for world and tool coordinates
- gripping and speed control
- commands, subroutines written in BASIC

4.8 VAL programming:

Robot program is executed in three modes.
1. Monitor mode
2. Run mode
3. Edit mode

4.8.1 Motion Commands:

MOVES A1 // moves the robot to the specified location;A1
DMOVE : increments
MOVE A1 VIA A2 // move to A2 through A1
 APPRO A1 , 50 // moves the robot to the location which is at an offset from the specified point
MOVES A1 // moves the robot in a straight line path.
SIGNAL // it is helpful to communicate with the peripheral equipment interfaced with robot in the workcell
DEPART // move the tool along the current z – axis
Definition of points in workspace:
HERE A1
DEFINE (x,y,z)
DEFINE A1=POINT
TEACH ://records series of locations
WHERE :// to display current locations
Paths and Frames:
DEFINE PATH 1 = PATH(A1,A2,A3)
MOVE PATH 1

4.8.2 Speed Control Commands:

SPEED 60 IPS // specifies the speed for all subsequent robot motions under program control
SPEED 75
4.8.3 End effector and sensor commands:
Hand control Commands:
OPEN // represents the opening of the gripper during next instruction.
CLOSE // represents the closing of the gripper during next instruction.
OPENI // represents the opening of the gripper immediately during next instruction.
CLOSEI // represents the closing of the gripper immediately during next instruction.
DEPART 150
Editing program:
EDIT SRD // permits to create or modify a user program.
E // exit of the editing mode and return to the monitor mode
Program Control:
SPEED 30 //
EXECUTE, 5 //command that executes the specified user program five times
EXECUTE,-1 // command that executes the specified user program infinitely

ABORT // command that terminates program execution after completion of the current step.
DRIVE 2,60,30 // In VAL II , a single joint (say joint number 2) may be changed by driving it,say 60 0 at a // speed of 30 %
of the monitor speed.
Configuration Control:
RIGHTY
LEFTY

4.8.4 sample programs

1. Example: Depalletizing
In a pallet objects protruding 40 mm from the face of the pallet are located in a number of rows and columns. The pallet has 3 rows
that are 30 mm apart and 4 columns that are 50 mm apart. The plane of the pallet is assumed to be parallel to the X-Y plane. The
rows are parallel to X-axis and the columns are parallel to Y-axis. The objects are to be picked up one after another from the pallet
and placed in a location chute. Figure 6.2 indicates the pallet.
. PROGRAM DEPALLET 1
REMARK PROGRAM TO PICK OBJECTS FROM A PALLET REMARK CORNER AND CHUTE LOCATIONS ARE
TAUGHT
SETI MAXCOL = 4
SETI MAXROW = 3
SETI ROW = 1
SETI COLUMN = 1
SET PICK = CORNER
SHIFT PICK BY 20.00, - 20.00, 60.00
OPENI 10 MOVE PICK
DRAW 0, 0, - 25.00
 CLOSEI
DRAW 0, 0, 25.00
MOVE CHUTE
OPENI
GOSUB PALLET
IF ROW LE MAXROW THEN 10 .END
. PROGRAM PALLET
REMARK SUBROUTINE FOR LOCATIONS SETI COLUMN = COLUMN + 1 IF COLUMN GT
MAXCOL THEN 20 SHIFT PICK BY 50.00,0.00, 0.00 GO TO 10 20 SETI ROW = ROW + 1
IF ROW GT MAXROW THEN 30 SHIFT PICK BY - 150.00, - 30.00, 0.00
SETI COLUMN=1
30 RETURN
END

2. Example: Spot welding:

A weldment is to be made. The weld trajectory is a continuous path arc welding along the paths X2-X3 with triangular
weaving,X3 –X4 with straight weld,X4 – X5 – X6 with circular interpolation,X6 – X7 with straight weld,X7-X8-X9 with a
circular arc,X9-X10 with a straight weld and X10-X11 with five point weaving. The weld torch begins its movement from
home position X1 and departs to location X12.Craterfilling is done at the end of trapezoidal weaving. Write a VAL
program for suitable arc welding.
PROGRAM WELD CURVE
WSET 1=10, 40, 50
WSET 2=8, 35, 60
WSET 3=12, 40, 55
WVSET 1=5,5
WVSET 2=10, 7, 2, 0,1,2,0
MOVE X1
MOVE X2
WSTART 1, 1
MOVES X3
WEND 0.5
WSTART 2
MOVES X4
CIRCLE X4, X5, X6
MOVES X7
CIRCLE X7, X8, X9
MOVES X10
WEND 0.5
WSTART 3, 2
MOVES X11
CRATERFILL 0.8,3
WEND 0.5
MOVE X12
END

The programming languages must be capable of expressing various geometric features like joint angles, coordinate
transformations such as rotation, translation and vector quantities. Homogeneous matrices are used to specify the
rotation.

PROGRAM WELD CURVE (Fig )

1 WSET 1 = 10, 40, 50
2 WSET 2 = 8, 35, 50
3 WSET 3 = 12, 40, 55
4 WVSET 1 = 5, 5
5 WVSET 2 = 10, 7 2,0,
6 MOVE XI
 7 MOVEX2 13
8 WSTART 1J
9 MOVES X3
10 WEND 0.5
11 WSTART 2
12 MOVES X4
CIRCLE X4, X5,X6
14 MOVES X7
15 CIRCLEX7,X8, 9
16 MOVES X10
17 WEND 0.5
18 WSTART 3, 2
19 MOVES XI1
20 CRATERHLL 0.8, 3
21 WEND 0.5
22 MOVEX12 . END

FIG.The weld trajectory

 PART-A
1. Define Robotics.
Robotics is the science of designing and building robots suitable for real life applications in automated
manufacturing and other non manufacturing environments.
2. Define a robot.
An industrial robot has been defined as a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material,
parts, tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks
3. What are the components of a robotic system?
Base, manipulator arm, An end-effector or gripper, Drives or actuators, controller with hardware and software,
support, sensors, interfaces connecting robotic world to the external world.
4. What is the function of Manipulator?
Manipulator consists of Body, Arm and wrist. The function of the manipulator is to position and orient the
robotic arm and wrist.
5. What are the six Degrees of freedom for a robot arm?
Arm sweep, shoulder swivel, elbow extension, wrist pitch, wrist yaw and wrist roll.
6. What is the function of Gripper?
Grippers are used to hold or grip the work pieces or jobs, to position the tools or to define the manipulator end points.
7. What are the different types of lower pair connectors?
Revolute pair(l DOF),prismatic pair(lDOF),cylindrical pair(2DOF),spherical pair(3 DOF),Hook joint(2 DOF).
8. What are the different types of coordinate system?
Cartesian coordinate system, cylindrical coordinate system, Polar or Spherical coordinate system, revolute coordinate
system.
9. What do you mean by work envelope?
The volume of the space surrounding the robot manipulator is called the work envelope. It depends on type of
coordinate system.
10. Define pitch of a robot.
A pitch is defined as the rotation about a horizontal axis and it is with this pitch motion, an aircraft is able to move its
nose up or down.
11. Define a) Yaw b) Roll
Yaw: is a rotational movement about the vertical axis and this motion moves the nose of the aircraft to the left or
right.
A Roll is a rotational freedom about the aircraft's own axis. With the roll motion aircraft can turn about its own axis.
12. What are end effectors?
Robot end-effector is the gripper or end of arm tooling mounted on the wrist of the robot manipulator arm. A robot
manipulator is flexible and adaptable, but its end effector is task specific.
13. What are the different types of gripping methods?
Mechanical clamping, magnetic gripping, vacuum (suction) gripping

14. What are the different methods of specifying robot movement?

Fixed sequence robot, variable sequence robot, Playback robot, Numerically Controlled (NC) robot, intelligent robot
15. What are the applications of robots?
Material handling, Machine loading/unloading components, spray painting,
welding ,machining,assembly,Inspection ,Heat treatment, Mining ,Municipal services, Nuclear ,Space, under seas
etc.
16. What are Tactile sensors?. Give examples.
Tactile sensors are contact sensors that must be brought in contact with the object to obtain signals to measure the
necessary quantities.e.g. Force sensors, Torque sensors, Touch sensors and position sensors.
17. What are the different types of work envelope?
Work envelope for Cartesian coordinate robot, Work envelope for Spherical coordinate robot, Work envelope for
jointed arm(revolute) coordinate robot, Work envelope for cylindrical coordinate robot.
18. How will you classify robot according to sensory system?
i) Simple and blind robot (with internal sensors)
ii)Vision robot
iii) Moderately intelligent robot (with external tactile and non tactile sensors)
19. Define payload for a robot.
The load carrying capacity or lifting capacity of a robot is called Pay load(W),expressed in Kg or N.
20. Classify robot based on type of control.
Drum controller, Air logic controller, Programmable controller, Microprocessor based controller, Mini-computer
based controller
21. Define robot arm kinematics.
Robot arm kinematics deals with the analytic study of the motion of a robot arm with respect to a fixed reference
coordinate system as a function of time.
22.Distinguish between forward and reverse kinematics.
For a manipulator, if the position and orientation of the end effector are derived from the given joint angles and link
parameters; the scheme is called forward kinematics problem.
If on the other hand, the joint angles and the different configurations of the manipulator are derived from
the position and orientation of the end-effector; the scheme is called reverse kinematics problem.
23.Define a) link offset b) joint angle
Link offset: Perpendicular distance between the pivot and end of another link measured
perpendicular to the link.
Joint angle: Angle of rotation between the base line and the axis of the link.