INTRODUCTION

The UOP/FWUSA Solvent Deasphalting (UOP/FWUSA SDA) process is a solvent extraction

process developed and jointly offered by UOP* and Foster Wheeler USA Corporation (FW) for
the processing of vacuum residues (VR) or atmosphere residues (AR) feedstock. The
UOP/FWUSA process contains process features from both UOP’s Demex* solvent extraction
process and FW’s LEDA solvent deasphalting process. This combination of features has
resulted in an advanced solvent deasphalting technology (UOP/FWUSA Solvent Deasphalting
process) that is capable of achieving the highest product qualities with the lowest operating
costs. The UOP/FWUSA SDA process employs a unique combination of features to separate VR
into components whose uses range from incremental feedstock for downstream conversion
units to the production of lube base stock and asphalts. Because the UOP/FWUSA process
provides the refiner with increased flexibility regarding future processing decisions, including
crude section, refinery debottlenecking, and the potential to reduce crude runs and fuel oil
yields, it represents an important element in the refiner’s overall bottom-of-the-barrel
processing strategy.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The UOP/FWUSA SDA process typically divides VR into two components: a relatively
contaminant-free nondistillable deasphalted oil (DAO) and a highly viscous pitch. Like propane
deasphalting, the UOP/FWUSA SDA process is based on the ability of light paraffin
hydrocarbons to separate the residue’s heavier asphaltenic components. Associated with
these heavier materials is the majority of the crude’s contaminants. Consequently, the lower
contaminant content of the recovered DAO allows this material to be used in many refining
applications, probably the most important of which is as increment feedstock to catalytic
processes such as fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) or hydrocracking for conversion into
transportation fuel products. Because the pitch recorded from the UOP/FWUSA SDA unit
contains most of the contaminants present in the crude, it typically has a high viscosity and a
relatively low penetration value. Commercially, UOP/FWUSA SDA pitch has been used in the
manufacturing of asphalts and cement and as a blending component in refinery fuel oil pools.
Other potential uses include the production of hydrogen, synthesis gas, or low-Btu fuel gas and
as a solid-fuel blending component. Unlike conventional propane deasphalting, the
UOP/FWUSA SDA process uses a unique combination of heavier solvents, supercritical solvent
techniques, and patented extractor internals to efficiently recover high-quality DAO at high
yield. A schematic flow scheme of a modern UOP/FWUSA SDA design is shown in Fig. 10.4.1.
This design, which has evolved from experience gained from both pilot-plant and commercial
operations as well as detailed engineering analyses of its various components, minimizes
operating and capital costs and efficiently recovers the desired product yields at the required
product qualities.

Incoming VR is mixed with solvent and fed to the vertical extractor vessel. At the appropriate
extractor conditions, the VR-solvent blend is separated into its DAO and pitch components.
The yield and quality of these components are dependent on the amount of contaminants in
the feedstock, the composition and quantity of solvent used, and the operating conditions of
the extractor. With the extractor, the downflowing asphaltene-rich pitch component and the
upflowing DAO solvent mixture are separated by patented extractor internals. The extractor
design also includes a unique liquid flow distribution system to minimize the possibility
of fouling the internals. Compared to previous designs, the increased separation efficiency
achieved by these two features significantly reduces the size of the extractor vessel and the
overall cost of the UOP/FWUSA SDA unit. The combination of heat exchange with recovered
solvent and a direct-fired heater or a hot oil heating fluid heats the DAO solvent mixture
leaving the top of the extractor to its critical temperature. The separation of the DAO and
solvent components of this mixture is accomplished at supercritical conditions within the DAO
separator. Recovered solvent is recycled back to the extractor. Because most of the solvent is
recovered supercritically, this material can be effectively used for process heat exchange.
Consequently, compared to earlier subcritical solvent-recovery designs, supercritical solvent
recovery can reduce utilities requirements by more than one-third. To minimize solvent loss,
any traces of solvent remaining in both the DAO exiting the DAO separator and the pitch from
the extractor are recovered in the DAO and pitch strippers, respectively. This recovered
solvent is also recycled to the extractor. If the recovery of an intermediate-quality resin stream
is desired—for instance, when specialty asphalts are produced or when independent control of
DAO and pitch quality is desired—a resin settler may be added between the unit’s extractor
and DAO separator.

TYPICAL FEEDSTOCKS

The SDA process (normally using propane or a propane-butane mixture as the solvent) has
been in commercial use for the preparation of lubricant-bright-stock feeds from
asphaltbearing crude residue for many years.8,9 Many commercial SDA units have also been
used for preparing paving and specialty asphalts from suitable vacuum residues. The increasing
use of the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process together with the increasing price of crude oil
resulted in the need to maximize the quantity of FCC feedstock obtained from each barrel of
crude. These conditions led to the extension of the SDA process to the preparation of cracking
feedstocks from vacuum residues. The current trend for maximizing distillate oil production
has also prompted the increased use of the SDA process to prepare hydrocracking feedstocks
from vacuum residues. SDA supplements vacuum distillation by recovering additional high-
quality paraffinic oil from vacuum residues beyond the range of practical distillation. Although
atmospheric residues have been commercially solvent-deasphalted, typical SDA feedstocks are
570°C (1060°F) TBP cut-point vacuum residues. These vacuum residues often contain high
levels of metals (primarily nickel and vanadium), carbon residue, nitrogen, sulfur, and
asphaltenes. Table 10.4.1 gives three examples of vacuum residue feedstocks, covering a wide
range of properties, that can be processed in an SDA unit.

PRODUCT YIELDS AND QUALITY

The VR fraction of a crude is the usual feedstock for the UOP/FWUSA SDA process. Typical
properties of both the vacuum gas oil (VGO) and VR fractions of two common Middle Eastern
crudes are presented in Table 10.4.2. As this table illustrates, the VR fraction contains virtually
all the crude’s asphaltenic (C7 insolubles) and organometallic (V Ni) contaminants and most of
the crude’s Conradson carbon residue. Each of these contaminants can significantly influence
the choice of processing conditions and catalysts used in fixed-bed processing units. The
UOP/FWUSA SDA process can be used to selectively reject the majority of these contaminants.
Examples of DAO properties obtained at various extraction levels when processing the two
Arabian-based VRs described in Table 10.4.2 are summarized in Tables 10.4.3 and 10.4.4. The
selectivity of the process for contaminant rejection is illustrated by the absence of asphaltenes
and the significantly reduced amounts of organometallics and Conradson carbon in the
recovered DAO. These tables also illustrate that DAO quality decreases with increasing DAO
yield. For the Arabian Light case, this decrease results in a variation in demetallization ranging
from roughly 98 percent organometallic rejection at 40 percent DAO yield to approximately 80
percent rejection at 78 percent DAO yield. The same deterioration in DAO quality with
increasing DAO yield is observed for the Arabian Heavy feed case. Estimated properties of the
UOP/FWUSA SDA process pitches recovered from the two Arabian feedstock cases are
presented in Tables 10.4.5 and 10.4.6. At the higher DAO recovery rates, these materials have
zero penetration and can be blended with softer VRs to produce acceptable penetration-grade
asphalts.
Physical Properties DAO physical properties are affected as follows as the DAO yield increases:
1. Specific gravity. Specific gravity increases as DAO yield increases (DAO becomes heavier).
See Table 10.4.7.
2. Viscosity. Viscosity increases as DAO yield increases (which corresponds to a heavier DAO).
See Table 10.4.7.

3. Heptane insolubles. Content of heptane insolubles (asphaltenes) remains very low as DAO
yield increases. Nevertheless, the asphaltenes content of the DAO will increase, approaching
the feedstock asphaltene content as DAO yield approaches 100 percent. See Table 10.4.7.

4. Pour point. At low DAO yields the pour point is high, consistent with the paraffinic character
of the DAO. As DAO yield increases, less paraffinic material is dissolved, which in many cases is
reflected in a decreasing pour point. As DAO yield continues to increase, the pour point will
ultimately near the feed pour point for DAO yields, approaching 100 percent. See Table 10.4.7.

Sulfur

The sulfur distribution between the DAO and the pitch is a function of DAO yield. Figure 10.4.2
shows a typical relationship between the ratio of sulfur concentration in the DAO to sulfur
concentration in the feed as a function of DAO yield. This figure shows an average sulfur
distribution trend and also maximum and minimum ranges expected for a wide number of
vacuum residue feedstocks. For a specific feedstock, the sulfur distribution relationship is close
to linear, especially as DAO yield increases above 50 vol %.18,19 The ability of a solvent to
reject the feedstock sulfur into the asphalt selectively is not as pronounced as its ability to
reject metal contaminants such as nickel and vanadium selectively.16 This is illustrated in Fig.
10.4.6. The sulfur atoms are more evenly distributed between the paraffinic and aromatic
molecules than the metal contaminants, which are heavily concentrated in the aromatic
molecules. In many cases, the fact that the metal content in the DAO is low makes
hydrodesulfurization of high-yield DAO technically feasible and economically attractive.
FIGURE 10.4.2 Ratio of sulfur concentration in DAO to sulfur concentration in the feedstock
versus DAO yield.

Nitrogen

Figure 10.4.3 shows the ratio of the nitrogen in the DAO to the nitrogen in the feed as a
function of DAO yield. It shows the average nitrogen distribution trend and the maximum and
minimum expected for a wide variety of vacuum residue feedstocks. As shown by a straight
line on a semilog plot, this relationship is exponential. Figure 10.4.3 shows that there is little
difference among various vacuum residues in the solvent’s ability to reject nitrogen into the
asphalt selectively. The difference between the maximum and minimum expected values is
significantly lower than in the sulfur distribution plot (Fig. 10.4.2). SDA exhibits a better ability
to reject selectively nitrogen-containing compounds than sulfur-containing compounds.

Metals The ratio of DAO metal content (Ni V) to feedstock metal content as a function of DAO
yield is shown in Fig. 10.4.4. The straight lines in the figure show that DAO metals content is an
exponential function of DAO yield.

This trend has been previously reported.1,16 Figure 10.4.4 also shows that metal distribution is
a strong function of the feedstock API gravity. The data in the figure illustrate an average
relationship; however, some feedstocks such as Canadian sour and Tia Juana vacuum residues
deviate substantially from the average trend. Pilot-plant data are normally required to
determine the exact DAO yield-quality relationship for a previously untested feedstock.

The nickel and vanadium distributions between the DAO and asphalt are similar but not
equal.16 (See Fig. 10.4.6.) Figure 10.4.4 shows that metals are rejected from DAO to a
much greater extent than sulfur and nitrogen. For example, in deasphalting heavy Arabian
vacuum residue at a 65 vol % DAO yield, the following are the ratios of the contaminant level
in the DAO to the contaminant level in the feedstock:

Sulfur 72.7%

Nitrogen 50.0%

Nickel 13.8%

Vanadium 16.3% CCR 49.0%

The high rejection of metals from DAO is of extreme importance in the catalytic processing of
DAO. It is possible catalytically to hydroprocess DAO economically owing to the low metals
content of DAO obtained even from a high-metal-content vacuum residue.
Conradson Carbon Residue The deasphalting solvent exhibits a moderate selectivity for carbon
rejection from DAO; the selectivity is similar to that of nitrogen rejection but significantly
higher than that of sulfur rejection. Conradson carbon residue* (CCR) in DAO has a less
detrimental effect on the cracking characteristics of DAO than it has in the case of distillate
stocks.4 DAO with 2 wt % CCR is an excellent FCC feedstock; it actually produces less coke and
more gasoline than coker distillates. Figure 10.4.5 shows that the ratio of CCR in DAO to CCR in
the feed is an exponential function of DAO yield. As in the case of metals concentrations, the
relationship is also a strong function of feedstock API gravity. The data in Fig. 10.4.5 illustrate
an average relationship for a number of feedstocks and should not be considered a design
correlation. As in the case of metals, some feedstocks, such as Canadian sour and Tia Juana,
deviate substantially from the average trend. See also Fig. 10.4.6.

PROCESS VARIABLES

Several process variables affect the yield and quality of the various products. These variables
include extraction pressure and temperature, solvent composition, and extraction efficiency.

Extraction Pressure and Temperature Extraction pressure, which is chosen to ensure that the
SDA extractor’s solvent-residue mixture is maintained in a liquid state, is related to the critical
pressure of the solvent used.
*Conradson carbon residue is a standard test (ASTM D 189) used to determine the amount of residue left after
evaporation and pyrolysis of an oil sample under specified conditions. The CCR is reported as a weight percent. It
provides an indication of the relative coke-forming propensities of an oil sample.

During normal operation, when both the extraction pressure and solvent composition are
fixed, SDA product yields and qualities are controlled by adjusting the extractor temperature.
This adjustment is achieved by varying the temperature of the recycled solvent stream.
Increasing the temperature of this stream reduces the solubility of the residue’s heavier
components and improves DAO quality at the expense of reduced DAO yield. Extraction
temperature must be maintained below the critical temperature of the solvent, however,
because at higher temperatures no portion of the residue is soluble in the solvent and no
separation occurs.
Solvent Composition Solvents typically used in the UOP/FWUSA SDA process include
components such as propane, butanes and pentanes, and various mixtures of these
components. Because these materials are generally readily available within a refinery, their
use is relatively inexpensive. In addition, because the majority of the solvent is recirculated
within the unit, solvent makeup rates are relatively small. Increasing the solvent’s molecular
weight increases the yield of recovered DAO by allowing more of the heavier, more-resinous
components of the feedstock to remain in the DAO. At the same time, however, the quality of
the DAO decreases because these heavier materials have higher contaminant levels.
Consequently, proper solvent selection involves balancing increased product yield and
decreased product quality. Generally, light solvents, such as propane, are specified when the
highest DAO quality is desired. However, light solvents typically produce low DAO yields.
Intermediate solvents, such as butanes, are used when a reasonably high yield of high-quality
DAO is desired. Finally, heavier solvents, such as pentanes, are used when the maximum yield
of DAO is desired, for instance, when the DAO is to be hydrotreated before further processing.

Extraction Efficiency

The separation efficiency of the DAO and pitch products is significantly influenced by the
amount of solvent that is mixed with the incoming feed to the SDA extractor. Increasing the
amount of solvent improves the separation and produces a higher-quality DAO. Figure 10.4.7
illustrates the impact of solvent rate on DAO quality. In this example, a DAO containing 40 wt
ppm organometallics is recovered at a 3:1 solvent/oil (S:O) ratio for 50 vol % DAO yield. When
the same feedstock is processed at a higher 5:1 S:O, the organometallic content of the DAO
recovered at the same 50 vol % DAO yield is reduced to 30 wt ppm. Unfortunately, because
the quantity of solvent recirculated within the unit is significantly greater than the amount of
feedstock being processed, the improved DAO quality achievable at higher solvent rates must
be balanced against the additional operating costs associated with the higher solvent
recirculation and solvent recovery requirements and the increased capital costs associated
with the larger equipment sizes. In Fig. 10.4.7, the improvement in DAO quality must be
balanced against the roughly 50 percent higher operating and capital costs associated with the
higher solvent recirculation rate. The addition of patented UOP/FWUSA SDA extractor
internals, however, modifies the relationship between DAO yield and DAO quality by
improving the extractor’s separation efficiency. As shown in Fig. 10.4.7, the internals may be
used to offset higher solvent recirculation rates by allowing either higher-quality DAO to be
recovered at the same DAO yield or, conversely, more DAO to be recovered at the same DAO
quality. Also, the additional operating and capital costs associated with higher solvent
recirculation rates are eliminated when the intervals are employed.
EXTRACTION SYSTEMS

The efficiency of the SDA process is highly dependent on the performance of the liquidliquid
extraction device. Proper design of the extraction device is necessary to overcome the mass-
transfer limitations inherent in processing heavy, viscous oils to ensure that the maximum
yield of a specified quality of DAO is obtained. There are two major categories of extraction
devices used for solvent deasphalting: mixer-settlers (a single stage or several stages in series)
and countercurrent (multistage) vertical towers.

Mixer-Settler Extraction Mixer-settlers were the first SDA devices used commercially, and this
is the simplest continuous-extraction system.10 It consists of a mixing device (usually an in-line
static mixer or a valve) for intimately mixing the feedstock and the solvent before this mixture
flows to a settling vessel. The settling vessel has sufficient residence time to allow the heavy
pitch (raffinate) phase to settle by gravity from the lighter solvent-oil phase (extract). A single-
stage mixer-settler results in, at best, one equilibrium extraction stage, and therefore the
separation between the DAO and pitch is poorer than that obtainable with a countercurrent
multistage extraction tower. This poorer separation is evidenced by the higher nickel and
vanadium content of the DAO produced by the single-stage system compared to the
multistage system. Table 10.4.8 gives data comparing the DAO obtained from Kuwait vacuum
residue by using one equilibrium extraction stage versus that obtained from a countercurrent
multistage extraction.11 These data were obtained at a solvent/feed ratio of 6:1. Single-stage
mixer-settler extraction devices were gradually replaced by vertical countercurrent towers as
the advantage of multistage countercurrent extraction became evident. The economic
incentive for obtaining the maximum yield of high-quality DAO for lubricant production has
resulted in the use of multistage countercurrent extraction towers in virtually all lubricating oil
refineries. Recently, some SDA designers have advocated a return to the mixer-settler
extraction system for processing vacuum residues to obtain cracking feedstock, a considerably
lower-value product than lubricating oil bright stock. This position is based on the theory that

the lower installed cost of the mixer-settler system offsets the product value loss due to the
lower DAO yield. This is true only for low marginal values of the DAO cracking stock over the
vacuum residue feedstock and for small yield losses. The latter assumption is true at very high
(in general, greater than 90 vol %) DAO yields. With the heavier crudes being processed today,
this is not always a realistic assumption

Countercurrent Extraction
As shown in Table 10.4.8, countercurrent extraction provides a much more effective means of
separation between the DAO and the asphalt than does single-stage mixer-settler extraction.
This subsection will discuss the major factors affecting the design of a commercial
countercurrent SDA extraction tower. Countercurrent contact of feedstock and extraction
solvent is provided in an extraction vessel called a contactor or extractor tower. Liquid solvent
(light phase) enters the bottom of the extraction tower and flows upward as the continuous
phase. The vacuum residue feedstock enters the upper section of the extraction tower and is
dispersed by a series of fixed or rotating baffles into droplets which flow downward by gravity
through the rising continuous solvent phase. As the droplets descend, oil from the droplets
dissolves into the solvent, leaving insoluble asphalt or resin, saturated with solvent, in the
droplets. These droplets collect and coalesce in the bottom of the tower and are continuously
withdrawn as the asphalt phase (heavy phase, or raffinate). As the continuous solvent phase,
containing the dissolved DAO, reaches the top of the tower, it is heated, causing some of the
heavier, more aromatic dissolved oil to separate from the solution. These heavier liquid
droplets flow downward through the ascending continuous solvent-DAO solution and act as a
reflux to improve the sharpness of the separation between the DAO and the asphalt. This type
of extraction system is analogous to the conventional distillation process. The most common
extractor towers used commercially are the rotating-disk contractor (RDC) and the fixed-
element, or slat, towers. RDCs have proved to be superior to slat towers because of the
increased flexibility inherent in their operation as well as the improved DAO quality obtained
by using the RDC.12 A 3 to 5 percent DAO-yield advantage has been found for the RDC at
constant DAO quality.10,12 More recently, structured packing has been used in place of slats
or RDCs for extractor internals. Due to the high efficiency of structured packing, the extractor
sizes have been reduced for the same feed rates. Figure 10.4.8 shows a schematic of a
rotating-disk contactor. The RDC consists of a vertical vessel divided into a series of
compartments by annular baffles (stator rings) fixed
to the vessel shell. A rotating disk, supported by a rotating shaft, is centered in each
compartment. The rotating shaft is driven by a variable-speed drive mechanism through either
the top or the bottom head of the tower. Steam coils are provided in the upper section of the
tower to generate an internal reflux. Calming grids are provided at the top and bottom
sections of the tower. The number of compartments, compartment dimensions, location of

the feed nozzle, and rotor speed range are all selected to provide optimal performance for a
given set of operations. RDC Capacity The conditions under which flooding occurs in an RDC or
slat tower represent the capacity limit at which the contactor can be operated. Flooding is
evidenced by a loss of the interface level between the solvent and the pitch phases in the
bottom of the tower as well as by a deterioration in DAO quality. Usually this condition will
appear quite suddenly, and if it is not properly corrected, pitch may be entrained into the DAO
recovery system. The maximum capacity of an RDC tower is a function of the energy input of
the rotating disk. This energy input is given by the following equation.12,13

where

D tower diameter, ft

E energy input factor, ft2 /s3

H compartment height, ft

N rotor speed, r/s

R rotor-disk diameter, ft

The tower capacity is given by the quantity

where VC superficial velocity of solvent (continuous phase), ft/h

VD superficial velocity of residue (dispersed phase), ft/h

CR factor, defined by RDC internal geometry14; it can be taken as the smaller value of O2 /D2
or (D2 R2 ) /D2

O diameter of opening in stator, ft

T tower capacity, ft/h

For a fixed RDC internal geometry and for a given system (at constant solvent/feed ratio) the
quantity VD VC at flooding (maximum tower capacity) is a smooth function of energy input
quantity E. This function is illustrated by Fig. 10.4.9 for propane deasphalting in lubricating oil
manufacture. This type of correlation permits the scaling up of pilotplant data to a
commercial-size unit or recalculation of the capacity of an existing tower for the same system
at different conditions.

RDC Temperature Gradient

It is possible to improve the quality of the DAO product at a constant DAO yield by maintaining
a temperature gradient across the extraction tower. A higher temperature at the top of the
RDC as compared with the bottom generates an internal reflux because of the lower solubility
of oil in the solvent at the top compared with the bottom. This internal reflux supplies part of
the energy for mixing and increases the selectivity of the extraction process in a manner
analogous to reflux in a distillation tower.

Table 10.4.9 illustrates the effect of the RDC temperature gradient on the extraction process.
Note that the RDC top temperature has been held constant and that the DAO yield is
essentially unchanged.

RDC Rotor Speed

The RDC rotor speed has a significant effect on the yield and properties of the DAO and asphalt
products. With all other variables held constant, an increase in rotor revolutions per minute
within a certain speed range can result in an increased DAO yield. This yield increase is the
direct result of higher mass-transfer rates when rotor speed is increased. The effect of rotor
speed on product yields and product properties is more evident at low throughputs and low
rotor rates. At high throughputs much of the energy of mixing is obtained from the
counterflowing phases themselves; in this case low rotor rates are sufficient to bring the
extraction system up to optimal efficiency. Table 10.4.10 illustrates the effect of rotor speed on
a low-throughput operation. Note that the DAO yield is increased with little deterioration of
DAO quality.

DAO PROCESSING

Because the most common application of the UOP/FWUSA SDA process involves recovering
additional feedstock for catalytic processes such as FCC or hydrocracking, the amount of DAO
recovered in the SDA unit can have a significant impact on the quantity and quality of the
feedstock used in the conversion unit. Figures 10.4.10 and 10.4.11 summarize the Conradson
carbon and organometallic contents of the VGO-DAO blends produced at various DAO
recovery rates when processing the Arabian Light and Arabian Heavy feedstocks, respectively.
Figure 10.4.10 indicates that processing the Arabian Light feedstock at DAO recovery rates as
high as 78 percent produces VGO-DAO blends with contaminant levels within typical FCC and
hydrocracking feedstock specifications. Consequently, the inclusion of the
UOP/FWUSA SDA unit increased the amount of feedstock used by the conversion unit by
approximately 35 percent. Figure 10.4.11 indicates that a similar percentage increase in
conversion unit feedstock is obtained from the Arabian Heavy feedstock when producing a
comparable VGO-DAO quality. Because of the higher contaminant content of the Arabian
Heavy crude, however, this VGO-DAO quality limit is reached at a lower DAO recovery rate.
Thus, hydrotreating DAO recovered from highly contaminated crudes may be an economically
feasible bottom-of-the-barrel processing strategy.

PITCH PROPERTIES AND USES The pitch yield decreases with increasing DAO yield, and the
properties of the pitch are affected as follows:22

● Specific gravity increases, corresponding to a heavier material.

● Softening point increases, and penetration decreases.

● Sulfur content increases.

● Nitrogen content increases.

Table 10.4.11 gives pilot-plant data which illustrate the trend of pitch properties with
decreasing pitch yield. Since SDA preferentially extracts light and paraffinic hydrocarbons,3,23
the resulting asphalt is more aromatic than the original feed. Further, note that high-softening-
point

(greater than 105 to 120°C) asphaltenes are free of wax even when precipitated from very
waxy residues.24 Except for SDA units specifically designed to produce roofing or paving
asphalt, the asphalt product is normally considered a low-value by-product. Since there is a
very limited commercial market for these by-product asphalts, the refiner must usually find
some method of disposing of the asphalt by-product other than by direct sale. The following
are the main uses of the asphalt fraction.

Fuel

In some cases, pitch can be cut back with distillate materials to make No. 6 fuel oil. Catalytic
cycle oils and clarified oils are excellent cutter stocks. When low-sulfur-content fuels are
required and when the original deasphalter feedstock is higher in sulfur, direct blending of the
asphalt to make No. 6 fuel oil generally is not possible. Relatively low-softening-point pitch can
be burned directly as refinery fuel, thereby avoiding the need to blend the pitch with higher-
value cutter stocks. Direct pitch burning has been practiced in a number of refineries.
However, the highsulfur-content crudes currently being processed by many refineries result in
a high-sulfurcontent pitch which cannot be burned directly as refinery fuel unless a stack-gas
sulfur oxide removal process is used to meet U.S. environmental regulations. It is possible to
use solid (flaked or extruded) pitch as fuel for public utility power plants in conventional
boilers with stack-gas cleanup or in modern fluidized-bed boilers.25 These boilers use fluidized
limestone beds directly to capture metals and sulfur oxides from the combustion gases.

Commercial Asphalts

Commercial penetration-grade asphalts can be produced by simply blending SDA pitch with
suitable aromatic flux oils. In many cases, this can eliminate the need for air-oxidizing asphalts
and thus present obvious economic and environmental advantages. When SDA pitch (which
are wax-free) are blended with a nonparaffinic flux oil, asphalts having satisfactory ductility can
be made even from waxy crudes.3 This eliminates the need to buy special crudes for asphalt
manufacture.

Partial Oxidation

Pitch can be used as a feedstock for synthesis-gas manufacture in partial-oxidation units. This
synthesis gas can be used to produce hydrogen for the refinery hydroprocessing units, thereby
eliminating the need to steam–reform more valuable distillate oils or natural gas to produce
hydrogen

INTEGRATION OF SDA IN MODERN REFINERIES

Selection of the optimum residue-upgrading route depends on many factors, such as

● Available feedstock characteristics

● Required flexibility for processing different feedstock

● Feedstock cost

● Product markets

● Product values

● Existing refinery configuration and possibility for process-unit integrations

● Operating costs

● Unit capital investment costs

● Unit stream factors

Typically, optimization studies use linear programming techniques. This optimization is

performed during the initial refinery-expansion study phase to determine the most economical
conversion route. For the purpose of illustrating the integration of SDA units in bottom-of-the-
barrel upgrading, a refinery processing 50,000 BPSD of Kuwait atmospheric residue was
selected. The following processing routes are considered:

Base Refinery. (See Fig. 10.4.12.) The basic processing route uses a conventional vacuum-
flasher scheme together with vacuum gas oil (VGO) hydrotreating (hydrodesulfurization, or
HDS) followed by fluid catalytic cracking. This basic refinery scheme does not provide any
vacuum residue upgrading. The block flow diagram given in Fig. 10.4.12 summarizes the
expected product yields when processing 50,000 BPSD of Kuwait atmospheric residue. The
products include 20,000 BPSD of heavy, high-sulfur vacuum residue. The main products are
summarized in Table 10.4.12.

Maximum-Naphtha Case. (See Fig. 10.4.13.) This processing route is similar to the base
refinery, but an SDA unit, which produces additional FCC unit feedstock from the vacuum
residue, has been included. The major change is that instead of the basecase 20,000-BPSD
vacuum residue production, 5400 BPSD of asphalt is produced. Table 10.4.12 summarizes the
main products and shows that naphtha production has been increased by 49 percent with
respect to the base case. For this illustration FCC was used for the VGO-DAO conversion,
although hydrocracking also can be an economically viable route.

Maximum-Distillate Case. In this processing scheme the DAO together with the VGO is cracked
in a hydrocracking unit. Figure 10.4.14 shows the flow scheme for this processing route, and
Table 10.4.12 summarizes the main products. This table

shows that the naphtha yield was reduced by 50 percent and the distillate yields (jet fuel plus
diesel) increased by 400 percent relative to the base case.

Maximum Low-Sulfur Fuel Oil.

Maximum fuel oil production is not the general trend in the refinery industry but could be
economically attractive under certain market conditions. This processing route is shown in Fig.
10.4.15. In this case the DAO together with the VGO is hydrotreated (HDS) and blended with
the asphalt to produce a 1.55 percent sulfur fuel oil. This product corresponds to a 60 percent
desulfurization of the atmospheric residue. Compared with direct desulfurization of the
atmospheric residue, this route can be economically attractive in many cases.

Desulfurization of the DAO plus the VGO blend is a simpler, less expensive process than direct
atmospheric-residue hydrotreating.

Lubricating Oil Production. For many years SDA has been used in the manufacture of
lubricating oils. In this case SDA produces a short DAO cut, which is further treated (typically by
furfural and then dewaxed) to produce high-quality lubricating oil
base stocks. Older processing schemes would typically include solvent (Furfural or NMP)
extraction followed by solvent dewaxing. More recent schemes would typically include
hydrotreating followed by either solvent dewaxing or catalytic dewaxing, if a wax product is
not required. (Fig. 10.4.16).

PROCESS ECONOMICS The estimated battery-limits cost for a nominal 20,000 BPSD two-
product UOP/FWUSA SDA unit constructed to UOP/FWUSA standards, second quarter of 2002,
at a U.S. Gulf Coast location is approximately $24 million. The UOP/FWUSA SDA process can
have a wide range of utility consumptions depending on

● Solvent/oil ratio

● Solvent type

● Feed and product temperatures

● DAO yield

● Degree of heat recovery with the supercritical heat exchangers

However, for a typical application, based on supercritical solvent recovery and a 5:1 solvent/oil
ratio, the utilities per barrel of feed are

Fuel, 56 MBtu

Power, 1.8 kWh

Medium-pressure steam, 11 lb

Collectively UOP and FWUSA have licensed and designed over 50 SDA units and have
experience in every application of solvent deasphalting. Symbols and abbreviations used in the
chapter are listed in Table 10.4.13.