PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY

SCHOOLS

MANUSCRIPT BY: MR. N. T. MABOPHIWA ©

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 INTRODUCTION

Preparing students for an examination is very important since answering examination

questions is a skill which needs to be developed, and it takes time to master. In this
introduction I try to give some tips on how students should answer questions in an
acceptable manner without wasting time. More often than not students fail
examinations not on the basis of lack of knowledge but on lack of understanding what
really the question requires of them. The words used in examination papers, in
connection with the learning outcomes, are very important and are fully explained for
the benefit of the student. These are meant to provide some useful guidance to the
student on how to answer questions with similar words in future. Learning objectives in
the syllabus are expressed in terms of what the student knows, understands and can do
– thus examination questions are derived from these.

The following are some of words that usually come up during examinations, and need
serious scrutiny for better understanding of questions:
 State and name – implies a short answer with little or no supporting argument.
 List and identify – requires a number of points generally each of one word, with
no explanation.
 Define/what is meant by …? – requires only a formal statement or equivalent
outlining the meaning of the term.
 What is meant by – normally implies that a definition should be given together
with some relevant comment on the significance or context of term(s) concerned.
 Explain – may imply reasoning and justifying by stating how, or making the
meaning of something plain and clear rather than a simple description.
 Suggest – is used in two main contexts; that is, either to imply that there is no
unique answer or to imply that students are expected to apply their general
knowledge to a novel/imaginary situation (one that may not formally be in the
syllabus).
 Discuss – requires the students to give a critical account of the points raised. The
student should present arguments outlining points for or against supported by
relevant knowledge with summarized justified conclusion.
 Describe – write what something is like, or depict something in words. Use
quantitative or qualitative information to demonstrate an understanding of the
topic and any relationships that may exist.
 Determine – Find out something that is not known. Often implies that the
quantity concerned cannot be measured directly but obtained by calculation,

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 substituting, measuring or known values of other quantities in a standard
formula.
 Give – implies writing something as an explanation.
 Calculate – used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working should
be shown when two or more steps are involved.
 Find – a general term that may be interpreted as calculate, measure, determine,
etc.
 Deduce – used in a similar way as predict except that some supporting statement
is required e.g., reference to a law or principle, or the necessary reasoning to be
included in the answer.
 Predict – implies that the student is not expected to produce the required
answer by recall but by making a logical connection between other pieces of
information. Such information may be wholly given in a question or may depend
on answers extracted in an earlier part of the question.
 Outline – this requires a brief summary of the major points.
 Identify and explain – you need to show that you can recognize an idea or
viewpoint and explain it, or apply your understanding to solve a problem. It
requires links to be made between causes and effects, problems and solutions.
 Draw – a fully labeled diagram is required.

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 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION

TOPIC: PHYSICAL EDUCATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module learners should be able to:

 Discuss the history of Physical Education in Botswana.
 Discuss benefits of studying Physical Education.
 Discuss components of Physical Education.
 Explain how Physical Education can be used for combating HIV/AIDS infection.
 Explain different careers related to the study of Physical Education.
 Differentiate between Physical Education, sport, games, play, leisure and
recreational activities.
 Explain the value of Physical Education to an individual and society.
 Discuss the role technology has in the relationship between physical activities
and overall wellbeing.
 Discuss the use of different ICT applications in Physical Education.

THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA

Physical Education has been in Botswana education system as early as 1972, with few
Batswana sent abroad to study Physical Education. It was offered as an informal
programme in the school curriculum. The subject was offered as part of extra curricular
activities hence it was neither timetabled nor examinable. In the early 1990s the Physical
Education programme was finally introduced at the University of Botswana to train
teachers, and as a pilot scheme in junior schools. The Physical Education syllabus for
junior secondary schools was proposed and developed by the Physical Education panel
as an integral part of the nine year basic education programme. In early 2000 Physical
Education was fully implemented in all the junior schools in Botswana, and in 2004 it
piloting of the subject was started in ten senior secondary schools in Botswana.

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THE DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What is meant by the term Physical Education?

 It is learning through movement.

 It is a curriculum subject aimed at developing the physical, mental and social
wellbeing of the students.
 It is the art and science of human movement.
 It is an integral part of the education system which contributes to the total
development of an individual through physical activity.
 It is an educational process which is concerned with the total development of the
body (i.e. physically, mentally, emotionally and socially) through a planned and
supervised programme of knowledge and attitude of the human body.
 It is an educational process that aims to improve human performance through
physical activities.
 It is an academic discipline that has, as its primary focus, the study of human
movement with the aims of enhancing total human development and
performance.

 The neuromuscular/motor/movement development

 The mental/cognitive development
 The social/emotional-affective development

The Physical Development- this objective deals with the programme of activities that
build physical power in an individual by developing the various organic systems of the
body. This will result in the ability to sustain effort, the ability to recover faster and the
ability to resist fatigue

The Neuromuscular Development: this objective is concerned with the developing

body awareness, making physical movement useful without waste of energy (efficiency)
and being proficient, graceful and aesthetic in movement. This will result in the ability to
perform skills far more effectively and with a high degree of proficiency and accuracy.

The Cognitive Development- This deals with acquisition of knowledge and the ability
to understand, interpret, analyze and synthesize knowledge and information. Physical
activities must be learnt, hence the individual must think when taking part in a physical
activity. Coordination involves different movement patterns and must be learnt and
mastered so that skills can be properly executed
The social-emotional-affective development: This objective is concerned with helping
individuals in making personal adjustment, group adjustments and adjusts as a member
of a team or society. Physical activities provide the best opportunities for individuals to
interact with others and adjust to the team or group. Physical activity has the potential

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to influence human behavior and build character on individual. P.E provide platform for
students to develop self-esteem and other qualities such as courtesy, honesty, fairness,
truthfulness, respect for the rule of law.

Physical Benefits
The ability of an individual to take care of the physical structure by engaging in positive
lifestyle habits and exercising thus improving one’s physical fitness
 Toning of muscles
 Burns fats and maintains proper body fat level
 It strengthens your bones
 It makes your heart and lungs work more efficiently so you don’t get tired easily
 It keeps joints flexible so you can move efficiently
 Widening of the coronary arteries so the heart functions efficiently
 Increased oxidation of fats (the increased muscle capacity to oxidize fats prevents
obesity
 Prevents blood clot (embolism) and decreases chances of coronary diseases
Mental benefits
This is the thinking or the rational part of an individual. It involves your ability to
perceive things around you in a realistic way to use reasoning when approaching
problems to solve them
 It improves the knowledge and understanding of the activity
 It enhances the cognitive understanding of the skills (psychomotor)
 Help cope with stress and control emotions
 Feeling of self confidence and esteem
 It relieves boredom and provides a challenge
 It gets rid of aggression, you can take out the angry on the ball instead of a
person
 Success at a sport or skill brings about joy and boost self esteem
Social (affective) benefits
Social benefits are referred to as interaction with others or as the ability to accept the
differences between people based race, ethnicity, disability, socio economic
background
 Self discipline(as people are always encouraged to follow the rules and
regulations, to attend training sessions on time and work well with others for a
common goal thus building self discipline
 Cooperation
 Sharing of ideas
 Respect
 Harmonious relationship
 Tolerance
 Team spirit

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  Sportsmanship
 Societal cohesion

VALUES OF STUDYING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 You learn about yourself and your abilities. It promotes physical development
and knowledge of the body in action. Students discover their aptitudes, abilities
and preferences, and make choices about how to get involved in lifelong physical
activity.
 Physical Education provides opportunities for character and personality
development. Students learn how to think in different ways to suit a wide variety
of creative, competitive and challenging situations. The daily adjustment to
teammates and opponents becomes a laboratory in personal-social adjustment
(Sportsmanship).
 Physical Education offers a wide range of activities for motor skill development. It
promotes physical skill. You learn and develop skills and knowledge. The skills
mastered vary with the student’s interest and amount of practice put into the
activity.
 Physical Education provides opportunities for development of health and safety
habits. It promotes positive attitudes towards active and healthy lifestyle. You
learn about the value of health and fitness. The teacher of Physical Education
instructs students in habits of health and safety – and the games and contests are
played under conditions conducive to learning safety practices.
 It develops students’ physical competence and confidence. Through physical
activity you develop self–confidence.
 Physical Education may help one to choose a career. It helps in the promotion of
young talents in different sport and game fields. These young talents when
properly nurtured grow up to be professional athletes and hence they find a way
of living through sports.
 Physical Education enables the student to understand certain scientific principles
concerned with movement. The individual develops an understanding of the
economic and safe movements in physical education, enabling him to avoid
energy expenditures through unwanted movements during physical activities and
in everyday living.
 It helps you appreciate the efforts or talents of others.
 It develops leadership skills in a person.
 It helps in social, physical and mental development.
 It helps to develop teamwork and a sense of fair play.
 It gives you the chance to enjoy yourself.
 It provides opportunities for students to be creative and competitive.

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  It provides opportunities for students to face up to different challenges as
individuals and in groups and teams.
 Students learn how to plan, perform and evaluate actions, ideas and
performances to improve their quality and effectiveness.

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Games are contests between two people or groups of people with strict
outcomes governed by rules. Games are categorised into (a) invasion / contact
games, e.g. hockey, netball, football, basketball, etc (b) fielding / striking /
innings games, e.g. softball, baseball, cricket, etc; (c) net / wall / racket games,
e.g. tennis, squash, table tennis, volleyball, badminton, etc; (d) fighting
games/combat, e.g. boxing, judo, fencing, wrestling, martial arts, etc and target
games, e.g. golf, darts, bowling, etc.
Board games: chess, scrabble, monopoly, bridge
Traditional games:
Mental games: mhele, morabaraba
Physical games: koi, dibeke
Social games: mmantwane
 Dance is a rhythmic sequence of body movement usually done to music.
 Athletics is a combination of track and field events. Track events are running
events whereas field events are jumps and throws. Examples of track events are
100m, 200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m, etc. field events are divided into 2 categories
being throws and jumps. Javelin, discus, shot put, hammer etc all fall under
 Aquatics is also referred to as water sports, e.g. water polo, swimming, diving,
angling, canoeing, surfing, water skiing, boat race, etc.
 Adventure activities are outdoor pursuits which take place in the natural
environment, and are usually dangerous, challenging and exciting, done for fun
or recreation. It may involve overcoming natural obstacles or terrain like rock
climbing, skiing, windsurfing and sky diving.
 Health and Physical fitness – Health is a state of complete physical, mental and
social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity whereas
physical fitness is the ability of the body to meet the demands of the
environment.
 Leisure and recreation – Leisure is the free time or spare time one has when not
working or sleeping whereas recreation is any activity done during leisure.
 Gymnastics is often a series of movements that develop and show the body’s
strength, posture, agility and ability to bend easily.

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HOW PHYSICAL EDUCATION CAN BE USED FOR COMBATING HIV INFECTION

 Physical Education teaches life skills. This promotes physical participation which
can be used to mobilize people, especially the youth, for education on health
issues.
 After acquiring skills during physical education one can choose to participate in a
physical activity of his choice. Participation in physical activities reduces boredom
and therefore one does not have to indulge in sex to reduce boredom.
 Students learn about wise use of leisure and recreation. Chances to engage in sex
are reduced because considerable time is spent on participating in physical
activities. Participating in physical activities is tiring physically, and therefore
afterwards one might feel tired to do anything else.
 Activities done during physical education lessons improve self-confidence/self-
esteem, thus making youth make informed decisions.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS DURING EXERCISE
The risk of HIV transmission during participation can be substantially reduced if
universal precautions are introduced and observed in sport and recreation. The
following guidelines can prove helpful.
 All blood and body fluids should be considered infected regardless of the
circumstances.
 All sportspersons be encouraged to view the prompt reporting of injuries,
particularly bleeding, as being in the best interest of all concerned.
 All injuries, especially bleeding wounds, receive proper and adequate first aid.
 Blood policy to be observed
 Remove all debris from the playing ground
 Observe safety measures when dealing with injuries(wear surgical gloves)

HEALTH BENEFITS OF EXERCISE IN RELATION TO HIV& AIDS INFECTED

INDIVIDUALS
People with HIV can slow down their HIV infections and improve their health by doing
some regular exercise. Regular; moderate exercise has many of the same advantages for
people with HIV disease as it does for most people. Exercise can:
- Improve muscle mass, strength and endurance
- Improve heart and lung endurance
- Improve your energy level so you feel less tired
- Reduce stress
- Enhance your sense of well-being.
- Help stabilize or prevent declines in CD4 cell counts.
- Increase bone strength
- Decrease fat in the abdomen
- Improve appetite

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- Improve sleep
- Improve the way the body uses and controls blood sugar (glucose)
- Boost the immune system

HOW TO ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL PARTICIPATION AMONG

AIDS PATIENTS

 By providing equipment and other necessities needed for participation.

 Reducing entry fees at sports venues for AIDS patients
 Educating patients about the importance of exercise to the immune system
 Educating the public about the disease so that patients are not discriminated
against in public recreational places
 Using role models who are involved in physical activities

CAREERS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Teaching deals with instruction or provision of knowledge through physical

activity as a curriculum.
 Coaching involves imparting skills of a particular activity to individuals or a group
of people.
 Sport nutrition deals with diet for athletes, the amount and time to be taken to
maximize performance.
 Sport medicine is a field concerned with prevention and treatment of sports
related injuries.
 Sport psychology deals with psychological aspects of sports. It handles issues
such as arousal, aggression, motivation, rewards, etc.
 Sport marketing deals with the advertising and selling of sports goods and
services.
 Sport journalism deals with dissemination of sports news through media such as
radio, television, newspapers, etc.
 Sport sociology is the study of the social structure, social patterns, and social
organization of groups engaged in sport.
 Exercise physiology is the study of bodily systems and their reactions to the
stress of exercise.
 Biomechanics is the study of the human body as a mechanical system, utilizing
principles and applications from physics.

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THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORT, GAMES, PLAY, LEISURE
AND RECREATION

 Physical Education
 It is a subject in the National Curriculum that prepares students for life physically,
mentally and socially. It is also an academic discipline which instills knowledge,
skills and values through the medium of physical activity in an educational
setting.
 Play
 It is a spontaneous, voluntary and enjoyable physical activity in which there are:
no formal rules, no pressure, no winner, no loser, no set time, no defined playing
area and involvement is just for the fun of it. Play is creative, uninhibitive, has
intrinsic value and brings satisfaction to the participant.

 Recreation
 It is a non competitive or voluntary physical activity done for pleasure and
enjoyment during one’s free time, but it is more planned than play, has a
winner and a loser and is not highly organized. Examples of recreational activities
are reading, gardening, listening to music, tourism and participating in sporting
activities.

 Games
 Games are contest between two people or between two groups of people with
rules, where one person or group is the winner and the result is determined by
skill, strength or chance. Attributes of games are that they are: more organized
than recreation and play, have an agreed area of play, a specified time of play,
have a higher level of skill than in play.

 Sport
 It is a vigorous physical activity which involves competition between individuals
or teams where winning is very important. Satisfaction does not only come from
enjoyment of involvement, but also from winning awards, prizes and even
applause from supporters. Other attributes of sports are that it is more organized
than play, recreation or games, has set rules, has area and time of play, has set
position for team player, has complex physical skills which are applied
throughout the set time and it has an element of serious training and
preparation.

 Leisure

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  It is the free time or spare time a person has, when not working or sleeping.
Factors which determine what people do during their leisure are their age,
interest, social circumstances, facilities available and where people live.

THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AN INDIVIDUAL, THE SOCIETY AND THE

ECONOMY

 An individual
 Presents career opportunities
 Boosts personal fitness through involvement in physical activity
 Reduces the chances of getting sedentary diseases
 Active and increased participation in sporting activity
 It builds self confidence, self control and self esteem.
 There will be less spending on health care by both individuals and the
government.
 It develops co-operative individuals.
 People will have greater discipline and respect for others’ abilities.
 There is greater utilization of sports and recreational facilities.

 The economy
 Job creation; generates job opportunities in sport related fields or creates
employment
 Less income is spent on health care. Since the government would spend less
on health care, there would be more funding available for other social services,
and this will lead to the growth of the economy.
 It creates a healthier workforce. Therefore, less hours would be lost at work due
to illness. This in turn leads to more productivity because a healthy population is
more productive. Healthy people do not take sick offs.

 The society
 Promotes social interaction/societal cohesion through participation in sports.
Team sport bring people together and supporters of sports team, country are
brought together by a common goal and therefore will be less issues concerning
race, ethnicity, superiority gender
 There is generation of job opportunities in areas related to sports with people
choosing sports related careers for example professional athletes
 People will have more knowledge or awareness about health and fitness.
 It leads to a healthy and productive society and thus people spend less on health.

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  It promotes a healthier population. This is so because physical activity makes
you fit, thus making you healthy.
 Reduction in medical bills: a society that actively participates in physical
activities enjoys reduction in hospitals and health facilities visits. People will be fit
and healthy and hence no need for them to seek any kind of medical attention
and thus money used on drugs could be channeled to other developments
 Productive society: studies have shown that people who participate in physical
activities do not fatigue or tire easily as their counterparts. There are less likely to
suffer from sedentary diseases therefore less likely to miss work leading to high
productive
 Life expectancy: due to physical exercise, unwanted body fats are burnt which
leads to less people suffering from obesity of other hypo-kinetic diseases thus
extending life expectancy
 Infrastructure development: Due to the physical activities and sports we see
stadia being built in towns and villages. Through sports competitions we witness
the building motels, hotels, lodges, and guest houses. And also refurbishing of
existing stadia and hotels for example with FIFA world cup in South Africa we saw
the construction of new stadia, hotels and roads. These developments
contributed to employments of citizens and boosted the economy
 Reduction in juvenile delinquency
 Reduction in alcohol, drug and substance abuse and teenage pregnancy

THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND OVERALL WELLBEING

What is technology?

Technology is new innovations that have been made to improve performance in sports.
Sporting technologies are also man-made means developed to reach human interests or
goals in or relating to a particular sport. Technology in sports is a technical means by
which athletes attempt to improve their training and competitive surroundings in order
to enhance their overall athletic performance. It is the knowledge and application of
using specialized equipment and the latest modern technologies to perform tasks more
efficiently. Examples of sporting technologies include golf cubs, tennis rackets, pole
vault poles, athletic sports gear (clothing and footwear), advanced computer
stimulations and motion capture.

How technology benefits or affects physical activity and wellbeing

There is improved performance and safety, e.g. spikes in athletics, swimsuits, etc
 Athletic health can be maintained and observed, and injuries treated, through the
use of modern sporting technologies such as heart rate monitors, pedometers
and body-fat monitors. Through this a greater deepened knowledge of the

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 human body and its potential has been recognized, allowing athletes to train and
compete in sports to a much older age.
 It has the ability to gather, analyze and integrate information and resources in
order to improve performance, e.g. digital or video camera
 It increases cost of access to physical activities; only those with money can afford
technological gadgets.
 Participant safety at all times has also been made possible through the
development of certain sporting equipment, such as helmets and body
protection which are used in boxing and ice hockey to help prevent injuries.
 Modern sporting technologies have also made competition judging easier and
more accurate, and spectator interest and excitement is enhanced by
broadcasting and in-stadium displays (scoreboards)
 Leads to reduced level of physical activity

How technology is used to enhance athletic performance

A digital or video camera helps in the analysis of performance. It allows the performance
to be accurately recorded. The performance may be reviewed and replayed as many
times as necessary. Enhancements such as freeze frame or frame advancement can be
used to look at specific aspects or phases of the performance. This analysis could then
be used to help improve a performance. This can be done in the following manner:
 Faults in performance can be identified and considered.
 Improvements or alternatives can be considered and tried.
 Future performance can also be filmed, recorded and analysed and compared to
the initial one.
 Actually seeing the performance gives much more accurate knowledge of results.

Sports gear such as clothing and footwear should be user-friendly and include valuable
properties such as strength, flexibility, density, thickness, durability, toughness,
resistance to moisture and more importantly cost. Footwear is generally considered
more for comfort and injury avoidance rather than performance enhancement, whereas
clothing such as the full body suits used in swimming are often claimed to rationalize
the competitor’s performance times where winning or losing the race is measured in
hundredths of a second.

Sporting equipment such as the composite tennis racket has been created in order to
provide enhanced ball speed, and reduce the potential vibration that can lead to a
condition known as tennis elbow (damage to the small blood capillaries in the muscles
and ligaments that surround elbow joint).

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In other sporting equipment such as the golf club, the overall mass of the club has
decreased which is believed to result in a greater achievable distance and possibly a
more precise shot. The bicycle has also undergone modern day advances with the
development of specialist wheels, pneumatic tyres, brake levers and pedals, which are all
aimed at increasing stability and rigidity of the bicycle.

Prosthetic devices have also been constructed for those athletes with a specific
disability. Examples include the spring-lite prosthesis device created for those athletes
deficient of a lower limb, which acts with a ‘springboard-like’ effect where with each
step as the runner strikes the track, the device returns energy and permits running gait.
The reduced mass of the of the spring-lite device compared to that of the earlier
wooden prosthesis is firm yet supple for sprinters, and provides some shock absorbing
properties for marathon runners.

Wheelchair devices used in sporting activities have also become more sophisticated, for
example, with sharply slanted back wheels in tennis to allow the player to move swiftly
across the court from side to side.

THE USE OF DIFFERENT ICT APPLICATIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What is meant by ICT?

ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. ICT is the study of
technology used to handle information and aid communication.

ICT devices or gadgets

 CD/DVD, flash memory, video tape, mp3 players, mobile phone, video camera,
microphone, radio, stopwatch, interactive whiteboard.

How ICT applications help improve performance

 Using a CD-ROM with examples of play or technical or theoretical information

can increase knowledge
 Watching a video tape or DVD which is instructional in nature can increase
knowledge.
 Accessing the internet to find out information about any aspects can improve
knowledge.
 Interactive whiteboards can be used for presentation, modeling and
demonstration and even to highlighting certain elements including positions in
the court.

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  Stopwatches can be used to record performance, and for training against time to
improve speed.
 Digital video camera to record performance and analyze it to find mistakes so as
to improve next time.

MODULE 2: HEALTH AND FITNESS

TOPIC 1: THE CARDIOVASCULAR, RESPIRATORY, SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR

SYSTEMS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module learners should be able to:

 Discuss functions of the cardiovascular system and skeletal muscle.
 Discuss the functions of the cardiovascular system including transportation of
blood, nutrients and water around the body.
 Discuss the types of muscles as smooth, skeletal and cardiac.
 Discuss types of muscle contractions as isometric, isotonic and isokinetic.
 Explain characteristics of a muscle that enable movement.
 Discuss types of muscle fibres as slow twitch and fast twitch.
 Describe the response of cardiovascular system to an increased level of physical
activity.
 Discuss the functions of the skeletal muscle.
 Discuss the anatomy of the synovial/freely movable joints.
 Identify different types of joints.
 Explain factors that can affect movement around a joint.
 Explain types of movements around a joint.
 Identify types of injuries to muscular – skeletal systems.
 Explain how muscular – skeletal injuries can be minimized during participation in
physical activities.
 Explain primary treatment of muscular – skeletal system injuries.
 Discuss the concept of oxygen debt.
 Explain the process of gaseous exchange.
 Define aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
 Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
 Explain hypokinetic diseases.

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THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

A system is a group of organs working together to perform similar functions. Each organ
has a specific function. For example the heart pumps blood around the body through a
network of arteries, capillaries and veins. Each of these organs makes up a part of a
system that is the cardiovascular system. However, all the systems of the body work
together to produce movement, whether it is movement of a body part or movement of
the whole body from one place to the other.

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system, sometimes referred to as the circulatory system, comprises of

the heart, blood and blood vessels. In this system blood carrying nutrients and oxygen is
pumped round the body by the heart, and it flows along blood vessels to the working
muscles.

The heart is divided into two parts, the left side and the right side. Each part acts as a
pump, so the heart is a double pump. There are two chambers in each side, so all in all
the heart consists of four chambers being two atria and two ventricles. The right part of
the heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen. The left pumps this oxygenated
blood around the rest of the body. The large tubes that carry blood away from the heart
are called arteries, and the large tubes that carry blood back into the heart are called
veins. Arteries transport blood away from the heart while veins transport blood into the
heart.

The tricuspid valve, mitral/bicuspid valve, pulmonary/semilunar valve and the

aortic/semilunar valve are the four valves that control the blood flow through the heart
or the back flow of blood.

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(STUDENTS SHOULD DRAW A SIMPLE PLAN OF THE CIRCULATORY /
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM)

FUNCTIONS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 Transport
 The blood carries hormones, glucose, water, oxygen or nutrients throughout the
body to the working muscles, or where they are needed most.
 Blood helps with the transport and removal of waste, carbon dioxide and lactic
acid away from the working muscles.

 Controls or regulates body temperature during exercise

 The blood absorbs body heat then carries it to the skin and lungs where it is
released. Veins dilate to cool you down.

 Helps wade off infections and fight diseases

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Diagram of the human heart and its function.

 Aorta: The aorta is the largest

artery. It carries oxygen-rich blood
from the heart to the rest of the
body.
 Vena Cava: It carries oxygen-poor
blood from the body to the heart.
Superior vena cava carries
oxygen-poor blood from the
upper parts of the body whilst
inferior vena cava carries oxygen-
poor blood from the lower parts
of the body.
 Pulmonary Artery: It carries blood from the heart to the lungs to pick up
oxygen.
 Pulmonary Vein: It carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart.
 Right Atrium: It collects oxygen-poor blood returning from the body and then
forces it through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
 Left Atrium: It collects oxygen-rich blood returning from the lungs and then
forces it through the mitral/bicuspid valve and into the left ventricle.
 Tricuspid Valve: It controls blood flow from the right atrium into the right
ventricle.
 Aortic Valve (also called semilunar valve): It controls blood flow from the left
ventricle into the aorta.
 Pulmonary Valve (also called semilunar valve): It controls blood flow from the
right ventricle into the pulmonary artery.
 Mitral/Bicuspid Valve: It controls blood flow from the left atrium into the left
ventricle.
 Right Ventricle: It collects oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and then
forces it through the pulmonary valve and into the lungs.
 Left Ventricle: The left ventricle is the largest and strongest chamber of the four
chambers of the heart. The left ventricle’s walls are only about half-inch thick,
but they have enough force to push blood through the aortic valve and into the
body.
 Septum: A wall of muscle called the septum separates the left and right atria and
the left and right ventricles.

HEART AND EXERCISE

19
  HEART –A muscular organ which keep on pumping blood, it beats + 72 times at
rest. and during exercise 220 (age of a person) e.g Rachel is 13 years old Calculate
her maximum heart rate during sprinting. 220 -13 = 207bpm (beat per minute)
 PULSE: the expansion and relaxation of the elastic arteries after the systole of the
left ventricle (similar to heart rate)
 Heart rateHR)the number of heart contractions in a minute
 STOKE VOLUME(SV) – the amount of blood ejected from the ventricles of the heart with
each beat.
 Cardiac output (CO): is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle or the
right ventricle in a minute
 Cardiac output (CO)equals stroke volume(SV) multiplied by heart rate(HR). Therefore
 CO(mL/min) = SV(ml/beat) * HR (beats/min)
 In a typical rsting adult male, the stroke volume averages 70ml/beat, and heart is about
75beats/min. the cardiac output is calculated thus;
 CO = 70ml/beat * 75beats/min =5250ml/min or 5.25L/min

BLOOD
A liquid which contains plasma, white cells, red cells and platelets. Blood is
characterized by the following :
 Its heavier
 More viscous than water
 Its thicker
 Flows slowly
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
 Carries oxygen from the lungs to all body parts
 Carries carbon-dioxide from the body to the lungs to be exhaled
 Carries white cells to the infected areas
 Regulates body temperature
 Protection ; blood can clot, which protects against excess loss of blood

Components of blood
 Plasma (55%)
 White blood cells
 Red blood cells
 Platelets

Plasma

20
A yellowish liquid contains mainly water(90%) with different things such as dissolved
food/nutrients.eg proteins, glucose and other nutrients from digested food, hormones,
and carbon-dioxide.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
 They are extremely small but there are so many.
 They give the blood its red colour due to a substance called haemoglobin (iron
rich protein)
 They are produced in the bone marrow and contain haemoglobin.
 Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
 They do not have a nuclei

White blood cells (leucocytes)

-Defend the body against infection/diseases
-Make antibodies to destroy germs
 There are not so many and are larger
 They a larger and have a nucleus.
 They are also produced in the bone marrow.
 Their main function is to fight infection.
 There are two types of white cells, namely; phagocytes and lymphocytes.
- The phagocytes destroy germs by engulfing (eating) them
- The lymphocytes produce antibodies which destroy germs.

Platelets(thrombocytes)

 These help to stop your body losing blood. They do this by making the blood
clot.
 When you get a cut or bruise, your blood exposed to air will clot.

21
  They release a chemical that results in the production of a substance called
FIBRIN
 Fibrin form a network of long strands that trap blood cells and form a clot, and
this stops bleeding
 The clot seals the wound to prevent excessive blood loss while at the same time
preventing germs from entering the blood stream.
 A blood clot consists of a plug of platelets enmeshed in a network of insoluble
fibrin

BLOOD VESSELS
The three types of blood vessels are: arteries, veins and capillaries.
ARTERIES
 They carry blood from the heart to the limbs and organ of the body.
 The blood in the arteries, except the pulmonary artery is oxygenated.
 Their walls are strong, thick and have elastic walls.
 They have an elastic tissue which allows these vessels to stand up to the high
pressure.
 Arteries divide into smaller vessels called the arterioles
 The arterioles they divide into branches which are called capillaries.

CAPILLARIES
 These are smallest blood vessels through which exchange of materials takes
place.
 They are smallest blood vessels which connects veins and arteries.
 They travel deep inside muscles and organs to supply the nutrients and oxygen.
 The capillaries join up into a larger vessel called the venules, which then combine
to form veins

VEINS
 They return blood from the body back to the heart.
 Contain valves to prevent backward flow of blood
 It has thinner walls, less elastic and less muscular than the arteries.
 Carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein (which carries oxygenated
blood)
 Smaller veins are called venules.
 The blood in most veins is deoxygenated and contains less food but more carbon
dioxide.

22
Differences between arteries and veins
Arteries Veins
Do not have valves Have valves to prevent back flow
Carry blood away from the heart Carry blood towards the heart
Blood flows under high pressure Blood flow under low pressure
Pulsate Rarely pulsate
Mainly carry oxygenated blood except Mainly carry deoxygenated blood except
pulmonary artery pulmonary vein
Have thick fibre(tunica media & tunica Have thin fiber(tunica media & tunica
externa) and elastic tissue externa) and less elastic tissue

TYPES OF CIRCULATION
 There are two types of blood circulation.
 Pulmonary circulation
 Systemic circulation
PULMONARY CIRCULATION / LOW PRESSURE
 Conduction of blood between the heart and lungs.

23
  Involves the right side of the heart, pumps blood to the lungs and returns it to
the heart, the vessels involved are pulmonary vein and pulmonary artery. Aims in
getting oxygen from the lungs

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION / HIGH PRESSURE

 Conduction of blood between the body and heart
 Involves the left side of the heart, collect deoxygenated blood from the body to
the heart.
 Aorta and vena cava are involved in the transportation of blood

 NB-Blood travels through blood vessels in order to deliver oxygen to its

destination. Blood vessels work by opening and closing in order to allow
blood through it.
 When blood vessel opens its diameter increases. This is called vasodilation
 When blood vessel closes, its diameter decreases in size, this is called
vasoconstriction.

BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)

Blood pressure is the force that exerts on walls of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is
determined by two main factors i.e. Cardiac output and resistance of flow.
BP is affected by a lot of factors such as age, exercise, stress and tension, diet, smoking
and alcohol
Blood pressure varies between maximum pressure (systolic) and minimum pressure
(diastolic). Systolic pressure is the top number and is usually higher than the measured
numbers in the arteries when heart muscles contracts. Diastolic pressure is the bottom
number and is usually lower than the two measured numbers in the arteries when the
heart muscles rests between beats and refilling with blood.

 Normal BP ranges at 120/80mmHg

 Pre-hypertension ranges between stage120/80mmHg to 139/89mmHg
 HBP (hypertension) ranges between stage 1 at 140/90mmHg to 159/99mmHg
and stage 2 at 160+/100+mmHg
NB: BP is expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure and it is measured in
millimeters of mercury (mmHg). A Sphygmomanometer is used to used to measure
blood pressure.

24
25
THE RESPONSE OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM TO AN INCREASED LEVEL OF
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

 Blood flow increases

 This is due to increased capillarization of trained muscles (higher capillary to
fibre ratio), greater opening of existing capillaries in trained muscles, more
effective blood redistribution (blood goes where it is needed), and increased
blood volume.

 Decrease in resting heart rate

 Highly trained endurance athletes may have resting heart rates of 30-40 bpm
(beats per minute). Heart rate returns to resting level more quickly after exercise.

 The heart increases in size and strength (cardiac hypertrophy)

 The left ventricle changes the most in response to endurance training. The
internal dimensions of the left ventricle increase due to an increase in ventricular
filling.

 Myocardial oxygen consumption will increase as the heart rate increases due to
exercise.
The heart works hard to increase the blood flow during exercise (that’s greater
force of myocardial contraction that results from exercise causes more blood to be
forced into coronary circulation.

 Increase in stroke volume

 Endurance training increases stroke volume at rest and during sub maximal and
maximal exercise. (Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from the
left ventricle of the heart in one beat). The increased size of the heart allows
the left ventricle to stretch more and fill with blood; increase in heart wall
thickness enhances contractility.

 Increase in endurance
 The blood can transport oxygen more efficiently with adaptations that occur in
endurance training. This makes it possible for energy and oxygen to be delivered
to the working muscles to sustain prolonged work.

 Increase in cardiac output

 Cardiac output increases dramatically maximal exertion due to the increase in
maximal stroke volume. (Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped in
one minute from the heart). Cardiac output decreases slightly or does not
change at rest or during sub maximal exercise. Maximal cardiac output ranges

26
 from 14 – 20 litres in untrained, 25 – 35 litres in trained and 40+ litres in large
endurance athletes.

 Increase in blood volume

 Endurance training, especially intense training, increases blood volume. Blood
volume increases due to primarily an increase in plasma volume. Red blood cell
volume (hemoglobin) increases, but increase in plasma volume is higher; thus,
hematocrit (percentage by volume of red blood cells in a blood sample)
decreases. Blood viscosity decreases, thus improving circulation and enhancing
oxygen delivery.
 Increased capillarisation of the trained muscle as new capillaries may develop
 Improvements in the vessel in the efficiency of blood vessels ; arteries become
more elastic (vasodilation & vasoconstriction)

 Blood pressure decreases

 Endurance training results in reduced blood pressure at the same sub maximal
work rate, but at maximal work rates systolic pressure increases and diastolic
pressure decreases (systolic pressure is the contraction of the heart whereas
diastolic pressure is the relaxation of the heart. A typical normal blood pressure is
120/80 mm Hg or millimeters of mercury. 120 is systolic and 80 diastolic). Resting
blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic) is lowered with endurance training
individuals with borderline or moderate hypertension.

 Improved oxygen debt tolerance(lmproved lactic acid tolerance)

 Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen owed to the body in order to recover from
exercise, or it is where the demand for oxygen is more than the supply. Since
there is less oxygen supplied, during training, the body builds up lactic acid which
impairs performance. With proper training the body can put up with this or
tolerate it and keep on going thus the impact of lactic acid on the body is felt
less.

Why it is important to monitor and record the pulse rate when exercising or
training

A pulse is the arterial palpation of the heartbeat, or it is the contraction of the arteries. It
can be felt in any place that allows for an artery to be compressed against a bone. The
pulse rate and heart rate are identical; one pulse equals one heartbeat.
 The heart rate lets you know how quickly the blood is being pumped around the
body. This is effectively providing the energy to allow the body to exercise.
 There are certain zones or areas which the heart rate can be increased to or
worked in.

27
  The speed of your recovery rate is a general indication of your level of fitness. The
quicker you are able to return your pulse to its resting rate the fitter you are.
 Monitoring the pulse rate can be used as a training indicator to make sure you
are working at the correct levels.
 Varying the pulse rate can be used relative to the principle of overload.
 Safety aspects can be considered to ensure you are not working at too high a
level.


Pulse points in the body

 Radial pulse – at the base of the thumb on the inside of the wrist.
 Temporal pulse – just over the temple at the side of the forehead.
 Carotid pulse – on either side of the neck.
 Femoral pulse – in the groin.
 Popliteal pulse – behind knee.
 Brachial pulse – inside of the elbow.
 Posterior tibial pulse – near the ankle joint.

Why there is an increased blood flow to the skin during exercise

 For cooling the body.

 For sweating.
 To help in heat loss.
 For heat transfer.
 For heat dissipation.

28
  For thermal balance.

Why more blood flows to the skeletal muscles during exercise

 To transport more oxygen to the working muscles.

 To transport more nutrients to the working muscles.
 To remove carbon dioxide and other waste materials from the working muscles.
 Blood is moved to where it is needed most.
 The heart pumps more blood to the working muscles.

ENERGY SYSTEMS

Exercise is the key to increasing our capacity. At times of normal, non-strenuous activity,
the average adult heart beats is about 72 times a minute (72bpm), reaching around
5000ml of blood a minute, and approximately 25%of available oxygen is transferred
from the blood to the cells of the body
During a strenuous activity, things are different. Our breathing becomes heavier, our
heart rate increases. The blood pumped per minute also increases. In fact from 5000ml
of blood a minute during heavy exercise the output may reach25000ml, so there is more
oxygen for the respiring cells.
Just as the car relies on fuel to get moving, so our bodies rely on energy, but different
activities require different sorts of energy. Our body gets energy from carbohydrates,
proteins, fats in our food.
The body has three energy systems that are used as needed to continuously feed the
muscles during any physical activity. All three energy pathways or energy systems work
all of the time. One system is dominant at any one point. This is determined by
intensity and duration of exercise.

Movement is caused by muscles contracting which needs energy from food. Food is a
mixture of all nutritional elements like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals,
fibre and water. Muscles use both carbohydrates and fats for energy. Carbohydrates
are broken down into glucose. Some gets stored in the liver as glycogen. It will be
released again when the glucose level in the blood falls too low. Some gets stored in
the muscles as glycogen. This glycogen is changed back to glucose during exercise.
The rest get carried in the blood to all the other cells of the body. For muscles to work
they need glucose to supply energy.

The body’s main energy source on the cellular level is a chemical compound called
Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP). However, the body/muscle stores only a small quantity
of this 'energy currency' within the cells and it’s enough to power just a few seconds

29
of all-out exercise. So the body must replace or re-synthesize ATP on an ongoing basis.
Understanding how it does this is the key to understanding energy systems.

Glycogen can be used to form ATP and in the liver it can be converted into glucose
and transported to the muscles via the blood. A heavy training session can deplete
carbohydrate stores in the muscles and liver, as can a restriction in dietary intake.
Carbohydrate can release energy much more quickly than fat. There are three sources
of Adenosine tri-phosphate:

 ATP-PC System (Creatine phosphate or Phosphagen System or Alactic

system) – In this system energy is provided through the breakdown of ATP in
the absence of oxygen to produce energy. ATP (Adenosine tri-phosphate) is a
complex chemical compound formed with the energy released from food and
stored in all cells, particularly muscles. Only from the energy released by the
breakdown of this compound can the cells perform work. The breakdown of
ATP produces energy, a phosphate molecule and ADP, e.g. ATP = ADP + Pi +
Energy. Creatine Phosphate (CP) is another chemical compound made from
foods we eat and stored in the muscle cells, which when broken down aids in
the manufacture of ATP. The combination of ADP and CP produces ATP. This
system is used only for very intense & short duration activities of up to 10
seconds. The ATP-CP system neither uses oxygen nor produces lactic acid if
oxygen is unavailable and is thus said to be alactic anaerobic. This is the primary
system behind very short, powerful movements like a golf swing, 100 m sprint,
weight lifting or the start of a race when you need quick “explosive” burst of
energy. The creatine phosphate or ATP-PC system produces instant energy; it
works by reforming ATP by breaking down a chemical compound called
creatine phosphate which creates and provides for some ADP to reform into
ATP, e.g. CP + ADP = ATP = ADP + Energy. This is the first energy pathway
that is used by our bodies to resynthesize ATP.

 Lactic Acid System/Glycolysis – Here energy is provided through the

incomplete breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce energy.
This system is used when the ATP-PC system is depleted and is also called
anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic means “without oxygen”. And glycolysis is
the breaking down of glucose. So basically, this energy system produces ATP by
the process of breaking down glucose. The glucose is only partially broken down
and it leaves a by-product behind called lactic acid. Lactic acid is a fatiguing
metabolite of the lactic acid system resulting from the incomplete breakdown of
glucose, or breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen, e.g. GL + ADP =

30
 ATP + PYRUVIC ACID (Pyruvic acid = Lactic acid). Lactic acid forms in the
muscle and gives the feeling of discomfort and muscle fatigue, it also hinders the
production of ATP (ATP helps in muscle contraction). For a person new to
exercising, this brief period of sensation may discourage them to stop exercising.
This system predominantly supplies energy for exercises lasting less than 2
minutes. An example of an activity of the intensity and duration that this system
works under would be a 400 m sprint, wrestling and gymnastics.

 Aerobic System – This system provides energy through the breakdown of

glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce energy. The body uses oxygen in
combination with glucose, proteins, and fats stored within it to produce large quantities
of ATP. This produces high-energy ATP that lasts for hours during endurance activities
and doesn’t leave behind any fatiguing by-products such as lactic acid. This is the
long duration energy system. By 5 minutes of exercise the O2 system is clearly the
dominant system. In a 1 km run, this system is already providing approximately
half the energy; in a marathon run it provides 98% or more. Aerobic means in the
presence of, requiring, or utilizing oxygen, e.g. GL + ADP = ATP + PYRUVIC
ACID (Pyruvic acid + Oxygen = Water + Carbon dioxide + Heat). Aerobic
breakdown of pyruvic acid produce energy from ATP. This energy system is used
throughout the body, for producing energy for all metabolic processes, in
exercise it is used for sub-maximal exercise such as long distance running like
marathon, cycling and swimming. This energy system is where the cardiovascular
system is strengthened and stored fats are used up, making aerobic exercise
essential because it strengthens the heart, and lungs while also burning fat, which
makes it a total conditioning programme for anyone looking to get fit. And the
energy lasts for hours afterwards also, leaving you feeling great! This energy
system is otherwise known as 'aerobic respiration'.

THE ENERGY CONTINUUM

ATP-PC system, Aerobic,

e. g. weight lifting e. g. marathon

31
ATP Lactic acid
Splitting, pathway,
e. g. weight lifting 200m swim

The energy continuum shows that all three energy systems are interconnected and that
each takes over from the other, in terms of energy production and utilization.
The energy continuum is the interaction of the 3 energy systems to provide energy to
re-synthesize ATP. . It shows the predominant system or percentage of each system
dependant on the intensity and duration of the activity. The energy systems do not
simply turn themselves on and off when required. In fact all three systems are always in
operation during exercise and even at rest. What does differ is the relative importance
and contribution that each makes to the activity. In the example of a marathon run, in
the first few seconds of a race the athlete will gain energy from the ATP-PC system and
then lactic acid system, until the athlete reaches steady state and the aerobic system
can meet the demands of the exercise. The lactic acid system may also operate when
running up hills or increasing pace towards the end of the run. Each activity can be
plotted along an energy continuum to determine the relative contribution of each
energy pathway.

The Body’s Energy Sources

The following food fuels are used for ATP re- synthesis
Energy source Release of energy
ATP ATP in the muscle tissue is broken down by the enzyme ATPase
into adenosine diphosphate, an organic phosphate and energy
Creatine CP in the muscle is broken down by the enzyme creatine kinase

32
phosphate(CP) into creatine and free phosphate. The energy release from this
reaction is used to re-synthesize ATP
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates is converted into glycogen where it is stored in
(glycogen) muscle and liver. When required glycogen is converted to to
glucose and metabolized via the lactic acid pathway and aerobic
respiration to release & re-synthesize ATP
Fats (fatty acids & Fats consumed are stored as adipose tissue and triglycerides.
triglycerides) When needed triglycerides is broken down into glycerol and free
fatty acids molecules (FFA). FFA undergo beta oxidation and
enter the aerobic system which releases energy to re-synthesize
ATP
PROTEIN (AMINO Nitrogen is removed from the amino acids (de-amination) and
ACIDS) the remainder is converted into glucose and enters the Krebs
cycle
Factors which determine which energy system is used during a physical activity or
exercise

The energy systems switch between each other depending on the following factors:
 Intensity of activity
 Duration of activity
 Rate of energy utilization

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEMS

AEROBIC SYSTEM ANAEROBIC SYSTEM

Recovery from exercise is slow Recovery from exercise is fast
Removal of lactic acid exceeds the Accumulation of lactic acid exceeds the
accumulation removal
Provides energy in low intensity Provides energy in high intensity activities, i.e.
activities, i.e. long duration activities that short duration intense activities that use short
use more stored energy bursts of energy
It produces relatively large amounts of It produces relatively small amounts of
energy energy
Produces energy in the presence of Produces energy in the absence of oxygen
oxygen

THE RECOVERY PROCESS FOLLOWING EXERCISE

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OXYGEN DEBT, OXYGEN DEFICIT AND EXCESS POST-
EXERCISE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (EPOC)

33
Oxygen debt is a physiological phenomenon which occurs when someone has
consumed oxygen at a rate faster than it can be replaced leading to a deficit in oxygen
which causes increased respiration as the body attempts to replace the used oxygen OR
is the amount of oxygen consumed during recovery to restore phosphagens and
remove lactic acid.
A number of factors contribute to the development of oxygen debt. An oxygen debt
will accrue when the body has undertaken some form of anaerobic exercise. This will
occur at quite intense levels of exercise, lasting up to three minutes or when the
anaerobic threshold has been exceeded. When you have a short intense burst of
exercise, such as sprinting, you generate energy for this anaerobically or without oxygen
causing a buildup of lactic acid as a by-product. Lactic acid can lead to cramps and the
only way to break it down is to oxidize it. These factors combine to encourage the body
to supply more oxygen through the means of dilating the blood vessels, increasing the
heart rate, and increasing respiration. Deep breathing allows the body to re-oxygenate
the blood, to make more ATP and break down the lactic acid and allow the exercise to
continue. When you stop exercising you are still breathing heavily. This is your body
taking in extra oxygen to 'repay' the oxygen debt to compensate for the oxygen deficit.

Oxygen deficit is difference between the oxygen the body requires during exercise and
what it actually manages to take in during the exercise. When you stop sprinting and
start to recover you will actually need more oxygen to recover than your body would
have liked to use had enough been available. This is called Excess Post Exercise
Oxygen Consumption (Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption represents the total
volume of oxygen that is consumed following exercise which enables the body to fully
recover, and return it to its pre-exercise state).

It does not necessarily follow that oxygen debt always equals oxygen deficit because
during recovery the oxygen debt must also:
 Replenish the phosphagen system
 Restore the oxygen removed from myoglobin

Supply energy for the increased cardiac and respiratory rates that remain
elevated during the recovery phase.
 Replenish the ATP stores
 Convert/oxidize the lactic acid back into glycogen stores in the liver
Consequently the amount of oxygen consumed during oxygen debt is greater than that
which might have been consumed during the oxygen deficit.
EPOC is accompanied by an elevated consumption of fuel. In response to exercise, fat
stores are broken down and free fatty acids (FFA) are released into the blood stream. In
recovery, the direct oxidation of free fatty acids as fuel and the energy consuming re-
conversion of FFAs back into fat stores both take place. The EPOC effect is greatest soon
after exercise is completed and decays to a lower level over time

34
Oxygen debt tolerance (lactic acid tolerance) is the ability of the body to withstand
the effects of lactic acid during intense exercise. Since there is less oxygen supplied,
during training, the body builds up lactic acid which impairs performance. With proper
training the body can put up with this or tolerate it and keep on going thus the impact
of lactic acid on the body is felt less. It is possible to increase the body’s tolerance to
lactic acid build up and oxygen debt by improving fitness. Regular exercise that
gradually increases in duration and/or intensity will help to develop and affect the
efficiency of both the circulatory system and the respiratory system. If you can improve
the amount of oxygen that the lungs can deliver to the blood and make your heart
stronger then this will increase your tolerance to lactic acid build up in muscles.

For muscles to work well, they must be oxygenated. Oxygen is also used in the
production of ATP, a neurotransmitter which is critical to muscle function. When the
body's supply of oxygen begins to get depleted, it switches to anaerobic respiration to
power the muscles, causing a buildup of lactic acid as a by-product. Lactic acid can lead
to cramps, and the only way to break it down is to oxidize it. You can reduce the lactic
acid build up faster if you perform light exercise after an intense effort, also known as a
cool down.

LACTIC ACID AND HOW IT AFFECTS PERFORMANCE

O.B.L.A-Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation

 i.e. The point at which the concentration of lactic acid in the blood rapidly
increases. Only when lactate removal fails to match the production does blood
lactate accumulate. Aerobic activities produce cellular adaptations that increase
the rate of lactate removal so that exercises at high intensity produce lactate
accumulation
 Normal value for rest or aerobic exercise=
1-2 mmol lactic acid/litre blood
 Above 4mmol = O.B.L.A

 When this occurs depends on the aerobic fitness of the performer

Untrained = 50% VO2 Max

Highly Trained = 85% VO2 Max

EEFECTS ON PERFORMANCE
 It reduces the ability to perform at maximum potential.
 It inhibits skilful muscle contraction.
 Can create aches, cramps, pains and cause injury.

35
 Some examples of anaerobic activities and chances for Lactic acid build up are long
Jump, high jump, javelin, shot put and discus, explosive activity. Also it can be seen in
game situations, i.e. sprinting, jumping, and shooting a ball at goal.

HOW THE EFFECTS OF LACTIC ACID ON THE BODY CAN BE MINIMISED


Increase intensity and duration of exercise when training.

Work out at intervals, i.e. Monday, Wednesday, Friday, etc

Do more intense exercises so that your body can tolerate lactic acid in the blood,
this will increase the amount of oxygen that can get to the muscles.
Components of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

Elevated heart, metabolic and

respiratory rates following
exercise

Restoration of oxy- Excess post-exercise oxygen Increased body

myoglobin link consumption temperature

Oxygen debt

Alactacid debt Lactacid debt

Restoration of muscle phosphagens Removal of lactic acid

(ATP + PC)

THE ALACTACID DEBT (FAST REPLENISHMENT) AND THE LACTACID DEBT (SLOW
REPLENISHMENT

Typically the oxygen debt consists of two stages:

 the alactacid debt or (fast replenishment)

36
  the lactacid debt or (slow replenishment)

THE ALACTACID DEBT (FAST REPLENISHMENT)

The alactacid debt is the first component of the oxygen debt that is replenished. As the
name suggests, it is the volume of oxygen required to restore phosphagens used in the
alactic or ATP-PC energy system – namely phosphocreatine. It takes a fairly short
period of time to resynthesize phosphocreatine: approximately 2-3 minutes, in which
time 2-3 litres of oxygen can be consumed over and above that which is normally
consumed at rest and used to provide the energy for this resynthesis.
This assumes that following a bout of intense work, such as a maximum lift, where the
predominant energy system used is the alactic energy system, the body should be
recovered sufficiently after three minutes of rest to repeat the exercise.

THE LACTACID DEBT (SLOW REPLENISHMENT)

The lactacid debt is the volume of oxygen consumed during recovery used to remove
lactic acid from the muscles, which has accumulated during anaerobic work.
 Most of the lactic acid is removed into the blood or oxidized in the mitochondria
via the aerobic system with oxygen to give ATP, carbon dioxide and water.
 Lactic acid is also converted to glucose and stored into muscle and liver as
glycogen,
 Converted to glucose and protein and
 Some excreted from the body as sweat or urine.
 60% of lactic acid is converted to pyruvic and end up in the Krebs cycle

The process of lactic acid removal OR recovery takes approximately one hour, but this
can be accelerated by undertaking a cool down or some form of exercise recovery,
which ensures a rapid and continuous supply of oxygen to the muscles, which helps in
the dispersion of lactic acid.

The oxygen consumed during this phase may also be used to supply the respiratory
muscles and the heart with energy to remain slightly elevated during the recovery
period.

A GRAPH EXPRESSING OXYGEN DEBT AND DEFICIT DURING LOW INTENSITY

EXERCISE (LIGHT EXERCISE) AND HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE (HEAVY EXERCISE)

37
FUELS USED FOR ATP RESYNTHESIS OR MAIN ENERGY PROVIDING NUTRIENTS

 Carbohydrates – are stored in the body as glycogen.

 Fats – are stored as triglycerides and are broken down to free fatty acids and
provide energy.
 Proteins or amino acids – can be utilized for energy once converted to glucose.

38
THE KREBS CYCLE

The Krebs cycle also known as the tricarboxylic acid or citric acid is a series of chemical
reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy. The Krebs cycle is one stage
of the aerobic energy system. The initial stages of the aerobic process are similar to
those of the lactic acid system, except that the fate of pyruvic acid changes when
oxygen becomes available. Under anaerobic conditions pyruvic acid is converted to
lactic acid which has a fatiguing effect upon the muscles. In the presence of oxygen
during light or low intensity exercise, however, pyruvic acid is converted into a
compound called acetyl-coenzyme-A, which is combined with oxaloacetic acid to
form citric acid before it enters the Kreb’s cycle.

Under these aerobic conditions, the glucose molecule is broken down further in special
powerhouses or factories existing in the muscle cell, known as mitochondria. These lie
adjacent to the myofibrils and exist throughout the sarcoplasm. Slow twitch fibres
possess a greater number of mitochondria than fast twitch fibres, which enables them to
provide a continuous supply of energy over a long period of time. The total
downgrading of one molecule of glycogen can provide enough energy to resynthesize
38ATP:
 2 during anaerobic glycolysis
 2 during the Kreb’s cycle
 34 during the electron transport system
Glycogen 2A
TP

Glucose-6-phosphate

no oxygen available
Pyruvic acid Lactic acid
with oxygen available

Acetyl CoA

Oxaloacetic acid

Citric acid
2
39
ATP
 Kreb’s
cycle
H+e-
CO2 H+e-

H+e-
H+e- 1O NADH each
giving 3ATP
gives = 30ATP
2 FADH each
giving 2ATP
gives = 4ATP
H2O 34A
TP

What is the Krebs cycle intended to achieve? It is intended to release stored energy
through oxidation of acetyl-coenzyme-A into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the
form of adenosine triphosphate.

40
PRODUCTS OF KREBS CYCLE

 Carbon dioxide
 ATP
 Reduced forms of NADH and FADH
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation)

Inhalation (inspiration) draws gases into the lungs.
Exhalation (expiration) forces gases out of the lungs.
Gas Conditioning
As gases pass through the nasal cavity and para-nasal sinuses, inhaled air becomes
turbulent. The gases in the air are
 warmed to body temperature
 humidified
 cleaned of particulate matter

Pathway of Air
nose ---> pharynx ---> larynx ---> trachea ---> primary bronchi ---> secondary bronchi
---> tertiary bronchi ---> bronchioles ---> terminal bronchioles ---> respiratory
bronchioles ---> alveolar duct ---> alveoli

41
Respiratory Divisions

 Conducting Zone
 Respiratory Zone

Conducting Zone

 Made up of rigid passageways that serve to warm, moisten, and filter the inhaled
air: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary bronchi, tertiary bronchi,
bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
 Air passages undergo 23 orders of branching in the lungs which
significantly increases cross sectional area for flow

Respiratory Zone

 Site of gas exchange

 Consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and about 300
million alveoli

 Accounts for most of the lungs’ volume

 Provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange

42
Respiration

Respiration consists of 4 distinct processes:

1. Pulmonary Ventilation
o moving air into and out of the lungs.

o diaphragm and intercostals muscles promote ventilation

2. External Respiration

o diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood of the pulmonary
capillaries.

3. Transport

o transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and tissues

4. Internal Respiration

o diffusion of gases between the blood of the systemic capillaries and cells.

43
1. Pulmonary Ventilation

 The physical movement of air into and out of the lungs

 A mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity

 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases in and
out of the thoracic cavity to equalize pressure

 Includes inspiration and expiration

 *Gases move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure

Boyle’s Law

Boyle's Law states that the relationship between the pressure and volume of gases is inversely
proportional for a gas held at a constant temperature

P1V1 = P2V2

P = pressure of a gas in mm Hg
V = volume of a gas in cubic millimeters

That is :as pressure decreases, volume increases ;

as volume decreases, pressure increases

44
Thoracic Volume Changes

 At rest the diaphragm is relaxed

 As the diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases

 As the diaphragm relaxes, thoracic volume decreases

Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity

 Respiratory pressure is always described relative to atmospheric pressure

 Atmospheric pressure (ATM) - pressure exerted by all of the gases in the air we breathe
(760 mm Hg at sea level)
Negative respiratory pressure is less than ATM
Positive respiratory pressure is greater than ATM

 Intrapulmonary pressure

o pressure within the alveoli ~760mmHg (when even with ATM )

o ntrapulmonary pressure always eventually equalizes itself with atmospheric pressure

 Intrapleural pressure

o pressure within the pleural cavity which adheres lungs to thoracic cavity ~ 756mmHg

o intrapleural pressure is always less than intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric

pressure

 Intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure fluctuate with the phases of breathing

2 forces hold the thoracic wall and lungs in close apposition – stretching the lungs to fill the large
thoracic cavity

 Intrapleural fluid cohesiveness – polarity of water attracts wet surfaces

 Transmural pressure gradient – pATM (760mmHg) is greater than intrapleural pressure
(756mmHg) so lungs expand

45
THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE OR PULMONARY DIFFUSION IN THE
LUNGS

Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the pulmonary
capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli. The gases
move across the membranes by the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of
gases from an area of high partial pressure to an area of low partial pressure in the
lungs.
Partial Pressure of a gas is the pressure of an individual gas in a mixture of gases.
When you breathe in air is taken in through the nose into the trachea up to the lungs
through the bronchus. In the lungs, the gases are exchanged between the lungs and the
blood capillaries and in the tissues the gases are exchanged between the cells and the
blood surrounding them. More air is inspired during exercise and so more oxygen can
be transferred to the working muscles through blood. The process of respiratory
gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs through membranes.

Diffusion depends on the pressure of the gas concerned, the moisture of gases, the
surface area of the lungs and the distance between two points where diffusion takes
place. The partial pressure of one gas is independent of the partial pressure of another
gas that is mixed with it. Thus the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide are
independent of each other.

Lung Capacities and Volumes

 Tidal volume (TV) – air that moves into and out of the lungs with each breath
(approximately 500 ml)
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) – air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal
volume (2100–3200 ml)

46
  Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – air that can be evacuated from the lungs after a
tidal expiration (1000–1200 ml)

 Residual volume (RV) – air left in the lungs after strenuous expiration (1200 ml)

 Inspiratory capacity (IC) – total amount of air that can be inspired after a tidal
expiration (IRV + TV)

 Functional residual capacity (FRC) – amount of air remaining in the lungs after a tidal
expiration
(RV + ERV)

 Vital capacity (VC) – the total amount of exchangeable air (TV + IRV + ERV)

 Total lung capacity (TLC) – sum of all lung volumes (approximately 6000 ml in males)

 The tidal volume is the amount of air you breathe in or out with each breath.
When you breathe deeply during exercise it increases. The main reason for this is
to get rid of carbon dioxide.
 Respiratory rate is how many breaths you take in a minute. Once again this rises
as a short-term effect of exercise.
 The vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you breathe out, after breathing
in as deeply as you can. It is usually around 4.5 or 5 litres. It is very important to
sports people as the more air you can get rid of in the first few seconds the less
carbon dioxide is left in you.
 Tidal volume x respiratory rate = minute volume i.e. the amount you breathe
per minute
 What is VO2 max: is the amount of O2 one can consume and use in a minute. It
is measured in ml/kg/min and it determines one’s aerobic fitness

Dead Space

 Anatomical dead space – volume of the conducting respiratory passages (150 ml)
 Alveolar dead space – alveoli that cease to act in gas exchange due to collapse or
obstruction

 Total dead space – sum of alveolar and anatomical dead spaces

47
Effects of training on breathing

Definition of terms

 External respiration or Respiration (PULMONARY GAS EXCHANGE)is breathing

in and out. Its purpose is to supply oxygen to the body cells and take away the
poisonous by-product – carbon dioxide. Cell respiration is the respiration which
takes place in the cells whereby food particles are broken down in the cell either
in the absence or presence of oxygen to give out energy.

48
Gas Properties

Dalton’s Law
Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted
independently by each gas in the mixture

 The partial pressure of each gas is directly proportional to its percentage

in the mixture
 The partial pressure of oxygen (PO2)
o Air is 20.93% oxygen

o Total pressure of air = 760 mmHg

 PO2 = 0.2093 x 760 = 159 mmHg

Composition of Alveolar Gas

 The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen ~79% & oxygen ~21%, only 0.03% is CO 2
 Alveoli contain more CO2 and water vapor

 These differences result from:

o Gas exchanges in the lungs – oxygen diffuses from the alveoli and carbon
dioxide diffuses into the alveoli

o Humidification of air by conducting passages

o The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath

 Based on Dalton’s law, partial pressure of alveolar oxygen is 100mmHG and partial
pressure of alveolar CO2 is 40mmHg

Partial Pressure Gradients

 The partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) of venous blood is 40 mm Hg

 The PO2 in the alveoli is ~100 mm Hg

 Steep gradient allows PO2 gradients to rapidly reach equilibrium (0.25sec)

 Blood can move quickly through the pulmonary capillary and still be adequately
oxygenated

49
THE PARTIAL PRESSURE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE DURING GASESOUS
EXCHANGE IN BOTH SYSTEMIC AND PULMONARY CIRCULATION

50
  Inspiration is breathing in
 Expiration is breathing out.
 Gaseous exchange is the process which allows oxygen to be taken in from the
air and for it to be ‘exchanged’ for carbon dioxide.
 Pulmonary diffusion is the movement of gases from areas of higher partial
pressure into areas of lower partial pressure.
 Partial pressure is the pressure of each gas in a mixture of gases

Parts of the Breathing System

 Trachea
 Alveoli
 Bronchioles
 Diaphragm
 Mouth
 Nasal cavity or nose
 Larynx
 Pharynx
 Intercostal muscles
 Bronchus, bronchi
 Lung
Breathing mechanics

a. When you breathe in the following

changes take place: (inspiration)
 The inter-costal muscles contract. This pulls the rib cage upwards, so the chest
expands.
 The diaphragm contracts. This pulls it down and flattens it, making the chest
even larger.
 When the chest expands, the lungs expand too, because their moist surface
clings to the chest lining.
 When the lungs expand the pressure inside them falls to below the
atmospheric pressure. So more air is sucked down the windpipe and into the
lungs.

b. When you breathe out the following opposite changes take

placeexpiration)

51
  The inter-costal muscles relax. This lowers the rib cage and makes the chest
smaller.
 The diaphragm relaxes so it bulges upwards again. This makes the chest even
smaller. Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure (+1 mm
Hg), gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure gradient until
intrapulmonary pressure is 0

 When the chest gets smaller the lungs are compressed, so air is pushed out of
the lungs and up the windpipe.

THE RESPONSE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TO AN INCREASED LEVEL OF

TRAINING

 Increased vital capacity - breathing muscles grow stronger which allows deeper
breaths
 Increased tidal volume
 Increased strength of the respiratory muscles
 Pulmonary diffusion will become more efficient
 Endurance increases – the effect is that aerobic/stamina work can continue longer
before one tires.
 Increased surface area of the alveoli
 Increased capillarisation - more alveoli become surrounded with capillaries so gas
exchange is more efficient.
 Increase in lung volume
 Reduction in both respiratory rate and the breathing rate.

Diseases of the Lungs

52
  Emphysema--destruction of alveoli reduces surface area for gas exchange
 Fibrotic lung disease--thickened alveolar membrane slows gas exchange, loss of
lung compliance

 Pulmonary edema--fluid in interstitial space increases diffusion distance

 Asthma--increased airway restriction decreases airway ventilation

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

All the muscles in the body form the muscular system. Muscles are found around the
bones and also form walls of internal organs.

53
FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Heat generation

 AS muscle contracts it produces heat, a process called thermogenesis . much of

the heat generated by muscle is used to maintain normal body temperature
They can be used as heaters when shivering. When it is cold the body
shivers( involuntary muscle contraction), and muscle activation causes ATP
(adenosine tri-phosphate) to provide energy for contraction. The muscle
contractions produce no physical work, so chemical energy released appears as
heat.

 Movement generation
 As skeletal muscles contract they pull on to bones to produce movement.
Skeletal muscle moves the skeleton and is responsible for all our voluntary
movements, as well as for the automatic movements required, for example, to
stand, to hold up our head, and to breathe. (Other involuntary functions involve
smooth muscle and cardiac muscle).

 Gives the body shape

 Skeletal muscles give the body its unique appearance and shape.

 Helps in breathing
 Some muscles contract and relax to make breathing possible, e.g. the diaphragm
and inter-costal muscles. When we inhale the diaphragm contracts and the dome
of the diaphragm flattens downward against the viscera, which allows the lungs

54
 to expand to receive fresh air. When we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes upward
against the lungs, helping to expel used air from them.

 Helps in digestion
 Muscles along the inner linings of the digestive tract help digest food when they
contract. Peristalsis, or the wave like contractions that move food along the
digestive tract, is one good example.

 The skeletal muscle functions as store of protein if we should face malnutrition.

 Gives the body support and posture.

TYPES OF MUSCLES IN THE BODY

 Skeletal Muscles

 It is a usually voluntary muscle made up of elongated, multinucleated,

transversely striated muscle fibres, having principally bony attachments. This
muscle can easily be seen as a shape under the skin, and there are about 600
examples of it in the body. It is called skeletal muscle because it is attached to
bones, and it is also called voluntary muscle because it can be controlled.
Because it appears to have stripes under a microscope it is sometimes known as
striated (striped) muscle.
Other characteristics
 Attached to the bones
 Works when you want them to work(voluntary) e.g. when you decide to jump or
run
 It is striped or striated
 There are cylindrical

 Consist of individual muscle fibre

 Multi nucleated

 Smooth /visceral

 This type of muscle is found in the bowel, the gut and walls of internal organs.
The reason why it is called involuntary muscle is because there is no direct
control of this muscle as it works automatically. When food is swallowed it travels
through the digestive system by muscular activity which cannot be consciously

55
 controlled. It is also called smooth muscle because it appears smooth under a
microscope.
 Found in the walls of organs such as arteries, stomach, bladder, gut and blood
vessels
 Involuntary controlled
 Also smooth muscle
 Single nucleated

 Cardiac muscle

 Cardiac muscle is also striated in appearance but it differs significantly from other
striated muscle in both its structure and its behaviour. The heart is made up of
the cardiac muscle, and it is a special type of involuntary muscle which contracts
regularly and automatically. Some factors can influence the speed of contraction
such as drugs and stress (exercise included), but the rate cannot be controlled
voluntarily. When the body is excited (or during exercise) adrenaline is produced
and this in turn increases the heart rate.
 Forms from the walls of the heart
 Works nonstop all through life
 It is involuntary and striped
 Has in own blood supply
 Single nucleated

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

A muscle contraction (also known as a muscle twitch or simply twitch) occurs when a
muscle cell (called a muscle fibre) lengthens or shortens or remains the same under
tension. Movement is possible only through repeated contraction of many muscles at
the correct time. Though the term ‘contraction’ implies shortening, when referring to
the muscular system, it means muscle fibres generating tension with the help of motor
neurons.

When the muscles are exercised they develop muscle tone; that is, continuous and
partial contraction of the muscle which keeps it primed up. Muscle toning occurs when
you exercise the muscles in your body in a way that makes you gain muscle mass. This
can happen from lifting weights, placing resistance on your muscles from various
objects or using your own body weight to make your muscles do extra work.

56
Isometric contraction

 It is one in which the muscle is activated, but instead of being allowed to

lengthen or shorten, it is held at a constant length or remains the same length.
An example of an isometric contraction would be carrying an object in front of
you. The weight of the object would be pulling downward, but your hands and
arms would be opposing the motion with equal force upwards. Since your arms
are neither raising nor lowering, your biceps will be isometrically contracting.
Other examples of isometric contraction are tug-of-war, wrestling, rugby scrum
or pushing against the wall.

Isokinetic contraction

 An isokinetic muscle contraction is one in which the muscle contracts and

shortens at constant rate of speed. This type of contraction usually requires
special, expensive training equipment that increases the load as it senses that the
muscle contraction is speeding up. The benefit of this type of contraction is that
the muscle gains strength evenly all through the entire range of movement and it
is one of the fastest ways to increase muscle strength. Isokinetic contraction
increases blood supply to the skeletal and cardiac muscle, and therefore it
improves muscle strength, endurance and cardiac fitness. In addition isokinetic
exercises (isokinetic exercises are resistance-based exercises designed to provide
a specific level of resistance while maintaining a consistent speed of limb
movement) can be designed to mimic the actual speeds of sports-specific
activities. The major disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are that they can only
be performed properly on machines which are usually expensive and the type of
movement that can be performed are rather limited.

Advantages of Isometric Training

 It is quick to do and does not hurt
 It does not need expensive equipment
 easy to do;
 little chance of injury;
 requires little time / quick to complete;
 minimal damage to muscle / pain / stiffness;
 no need for expensive equipment
 can be done anywhere;
 improves (static) strength;
 easy to overload / easy to monitor progress;

57
Disadvantages of isometric training
 A muscle gains only at the angle is use and this might not help much in sport of
your choice
 Blood flow to the muscle stops then blood pressure rises and less blood flow a
back to the heart. This is not good if you have heart problems

 the muscles only gain strength at the angle you use in the exercise;
 can be boring;
 during an exercise the blood flow to the muscle stops;
 blood pressure rises;
 less blood flows back to the heart;
 can be dangerous if the performer has a heart problem;

Isotonic contraction

It is the type of muscle contraction that involves the lengthening and shortening of
muscles during movement. Isotonic contraction falls into two parts, eccentric and
concentric contractions.
i. Concentric contraction: This cause the muscle to shorten as they pull on
the bone to cause movement and reduce the angle at a joint e.g. doing a
bicep curl involves contractions of the biceps brachii. as the muscle
contracts it develops tension to overcome resistance
ii. Eccentric contraction: this cause the muscles to lengthen or elongate in
response to greater opposing force e.g. downward movement of the
dumbbell. Repeated eccentric contraction produce more muscle damage
and delayed onset muscle soreness than concentric muscle contraction
Advantages of Isotonic training
 It strengthens the muscle through a full range of motion
 You can choose isotonic exercises that suit your sport
Disadvantages
 It can cause muscle soreness

PROPERTIES OF A MUSCLE THAT ENABLE MOVEMENT

A property is a characteristic trait or peculiarity, especially one serving to define or

describe a muscle. Muscle cells have unique characteristics that enable them to function

58
properly. Here we are dealing more with functional characteristics as opposed to
structural characteristics which are highlighted above.
These are:
Excitability the ability of a muscle to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical
signal
Contractility is the ability of the muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated
Extensibility is the ability of muscle to stretch without being damaged and
Elasticity is the ability of a muscle to return to its original length and shape after
contraction or relaxation

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBRES

How skeletal muscles adapt to a repeated stimulus depends, to a large extent, on the
inherent characteristics of the muscles themselves. Specifically, the types of fibres that
make up individual muscles greatly influence the way athletes will adapt to their training
programmes. There is a reason why some athletes can sprint faster and get bigger
muscles more easily than others, and why some athletes are able to run for much longer
periods of time without fatigue.

There are basically two types of muscle fibres, which are slow twitch muscle fibres and
fast twitch muscle fibres. Their characteristics are as follows:
Slow twitch fibres (Type 1)
 They contract slowly, and without much force.
 They have high resistance to fatigue; that is, they do not tire easily.
 They are suited to activities that need endurance. For example jogging, long-
distance running, and standing for long periods.
 They have high capillary density.
 Slow twitch fibres rely more on fat as fuel, as opposed to strictly using
carbohydrates or creatine phosphate.

Fast twitch fibres (Type 2)

 They contract much faster than slow twitch fibres, and with much more force.
 They tire quickly.
 They are suited to activities that need bursts of strength and power. For example
sprinting and weightlifting.
 They have low capillary density.
 The major type of fuel that fast twitch fibres rely on is creatine phosphate and
stored muscle glycogen (glucose). They will not utilize stored body fat at all due
to the fact that they are only able to continually contract for between one and
about 20 seconds.

59
Fast twitch muscle fibres are subdivided into type 2a and type 2b:

 Type 2a, also referred to as fast oxidative glycolytic fibres (F.O.G.) pick up
certain type one characteristics through endurance training.
 They therefore tend to have a greater resistance to fatigue.
 They are suited to activities which are fairly high in intensity and of relatively
short duration, such as 200 metres swim or an 800 metre run.
 They posses medium aerobic and anaerobic capacity.
 The force of contraction is high.
 Myoglobin content is lower.
 They are large in size.
 Their capillary density is high.
 Their speed of contraction is fast.

 Type 2b, pure fast twitch fibres called fast twitch glycolytic fibres (F.T.G.) :
 Are used for activities of very high intensity and have a much stronger force of
contraction. This is because the motor neuron that carries the impulse is much
larger.
 There are generally more fibres within a fast twitch motor unit, and the fibres
are themselves larger and thicker.
 A power lifter or a sprinter would possess a large proportion of fast twitch
fibres.
 Myoglobin content is low.
 Aerobic capacity is low, and anaerobic capacity is high.
 Capillary density is low.
 The speed of contraction is fast.

Every muscle contains a mixture of slow twitch fibres and fast twitch fibres. But the
mixture is different in different muscles (for example your gastrocnemius contains a lot
of fast twitch fibre) and the mixture is different for different people (some distance
runners have 80% slow twitch fibres while some weight lifters have 80% fast twitch). This
is all due to the genes we inherit from our parents.

Characteristics Slow twitch fibres Fast oxidative- Fast glycolytic

type 1 glycolytic fibres (type 2b)
fibres(type 2a)
Fibre diameter Smallest intermediate largest

Myoglobin content Large amount Large amounts Small amount

60
Color red Red-pink White

Fatigue resistant high intermediate low

Mitochondria many many Few

Capillaries many many few

Glycogen stores low intermediate high

Contraction velocity slow fast fast

Capacity of High capacity; by Intermediate Low capacity; by

generating ATP and aerobic cellular capacity; both anaerobic cellular
method used respiration aerobic cellular respiration
respiration and (glycolysis)
glycolysis

EXAMPLES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

 Deltoid – raises the arm sideways at the shoulder.

 Biceps – bend the arm at the elbow (elbow flexion).
 Abdominals – pull in the abdomen, and flex the trunk when bending forward.
 Quadriceps – straighten the leg at the knee and keep it straight when you stand
(knee extension).
 Pectorals – raises the arm at the shoulders, and draws it across the chest.
 Latissimus Dorsi – pulls the arm down at the shoulders, and draws it behind the
back.
 Trapezius – holds and rotates the shoulders, and moves the head back and
sideways.
 Gluteals (Gluteus maximus and Gluteus medius) – pull the leg back at the hip,
and raise it sideways at the hip (Gluteus maximus is the biggest of these muscles).
 Hamstrings – bend the leg at the knee (knee flexion).
 Triceps – straightens the arm at the elbow (elbow extension).
 Gastrocnemius – straightens the ankle joint.
 Adductors – adduction of hip flexion and lateral rotation of the femur.
 Wrist flexors/extensors – flex and extend the wrist.
 Tibialis anterior – dorsiflexes (lifts up) and inverts the foot towards the tibia.

61
Antagonistic Muscle Action

Muscles never work alone. In order for a coordinated movement to be produced, the
muscles must work as a group or in pairs, with several muscles working at the same
time. Taking the simple movement of flexion of the arm at the elbow, the muscle
responsible for flexion (bending of the arm) is the biceps, and the muscle which
produces the desired joint movement is called the agonist or prime mover. However,
in order for the bicep muscle to shorten when contracting, the tricep muscle must
lengthen. The tricep in this instance is known as the antagonist, since its action is
opposite to that of the agonist. The two muscles must work together to produce the
required movement.

Fixator muscles or stabilizers also work in this movement. Their role is to stabilize the
origin of the agonist so that it can pull against the bone to achieve maximum and
effective contraction. In this case, during the bicep curl, the trapezius acts as a fixator by
stabilizing the scapula to create a rigid platform for the bicep to pull against it to raise
the lower arm. Here the scapula is the origin of the bicep.

Neutralizer or synergist is a muscle which contracts to enhance the efficiency of the

prime mover by preventing any undesired movement. It helps the agonist to work
smoothly, and also stabilizes the joint. It can thus be seen that for this apparently simple
movement of elbow flexion, integrated and synergistic (harmonious) muscle actions are
required to enable the necessary smooth movement. For example, when performing a
bicep curl, the deltoids are synergists since they work to prevent any undesired
movement at the shoulder and in doing so enable the bicep to work as effectively as
possible.

Furthermore, the roles of each muscle are constantly changed for changing actions. For
example, in the action of elbow extension, the roles of the bicep and tricep are reversed
so that the tricep becomes the prime mover or agonist (since the tricep is an extensor

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and thus produces this movement pattern), while the bicep becomes the antagonist, to
enable the smooth and effective contraction of the tricep.

When the agonist contracts in order to perform the desired movement, it usually forces
the antagonist to relax. This phenomenon is known as reciprocal inhibition (sometimes
seen as reciprocal innervations) because the agonist inhibits the antagonist from
contracting. Such inhibition does not always occur, however. Below is a list of commonly
used antagonistic pairings:

 Pectorals/Latissimus dorsi
 Anterior deltoids/Posterior deltoids
 Trapezius/Deltoids
 Rectus abdominis/Erector spinalis
 Quadriceps group/Hamstring group
 Tibialis anterior/Gastrocnemius and soleus
 Biceps /Triceps
 Wrist flexors/Wrist extensors

Connective Tissues

Connective tissue is responsible for holding all the individual muscle fibres together. It
surrounds the individual muscle fibres and encases the whole muscle, forming tendons,
which attach the muscles to bones and transmit the “pull” of the muscle to the bones,
to cause movement and harness the power of muscle contractions. Tendons vary in
length and are composed of parallel fibres of collagen. They attach directly to the
periosteum of the bone via a tough tissue known as Sharpey’s fibres.
The point of attachment for each muscle is termed the origin and the insertion:

 The origin is the end of the muscle attached to a stable bone against which the
muscle can pull, or it is the end of the muscle attaching to the relatively fixed
bone of its joint. This is usually the nearest flat bone.

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  The insertion is the muscle attachment on the bone that the muscle puts into
action, or it is the end of the muscle attaching to the freely moving bone of its
joint.

To understand muscles and joint movements you should know four things:
 Movement happens at joints, with one bone of the joint moving freely while
the other remains relatively stationary.
 Muscles are power engines for movement; they attach to bone on either end,
crossing the joint as they do.
 The part of the muscle located between 2 ends is known as the belly of the
muscle.
 All of this is significant because the size, direction and shape of the muscle
and muscle attachments are part of what determines the range of motion of
the joint, and therefore flexibility .

For example, the bicep has its origin on the scapula. This gives a firm base against which
the bicep can pull in order to raise the lower arm. (The elbow is a flexor muscle, and its
job is to allow flexion at the elbow). Since the bicep raises the lower arm, it must be
attached to the body part via the insertion. In fact the bicep has its insertion on the
radius.

The muscle belly is the thick portion of muscle tissue sited between the origin and
insertion. It is not unusual for a muscle to have two or more origins, while
maintaining a common insertion: the term ‘bicep’ can be broken down to mean
two (‘bi’) heads (‘ceps’). The bicep has two origins or heads which pull upon
one insertion in the radius, and puts the lower arm into action.

HOW MUSCULAR-SKELETAL INJURIES CAN BE MINIMISED DURING

PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

 Warm up correctly
Many injuries such as sprints and pulled muscles can be avoided by warming up
correctly. Warm up prepares the body for the main activity and helps prevent
injuries.
 Cool down correctly
 The cool down helps you prevent stiffness and soreness. That means you are
better prepared for the next event.
 Make sure you are fit for the activity
 If you are feeling ill, weak or in pain, you should not take part in an event.
 Make sure you develop the right techniques

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  For example, a poor throwing technique in javelin or discuss will result in an arm
injury.
 Play at the right level and age
 Play with people who match your physique and level of skill. It would be
dangerous for a fifteen year old rugby player to play scrum half with a senior
team.
 Know the rules for your sport and obey them
 Rules were developed to protect players as well as test skills. In football for
example, you may not slide into tackles with studs up.
 Make sure you are wearing proper attire
 If the sport requires protective gear such as mouth guards or shin guards, make
sure you wear it. The correct foot-wear is especially important. Many injuries are
due to poor foot-wear. If you have long hair tie it back. Do not wear a watch or
jewellery that could catch in equipment or clothing. For sports such as wrestling
and netball you must keep your finger nails short.
 Lift and carry equipment with care.
 Watch out for hazards in the playing area
 For example, broken glass on pitches, wet patches on floors, or rakes left lying in
long jump pits.
 Make sure the equipment is in good repair
 For example, make sure that rugby boots have no loose studs, buoyancy aids
have all their ties in place, and that gymnastics mats are in good condition.

CONDITIONS AND INJURIES TO THE MUSCLES (MUSCULAR SYSTEM) AND THE

SKIN

Injuries to the muscular system and skin include strains and cuts. Most injuries to be
considered are concussions, cramps, contusions, cramps, shock and skin infections
(blisters and athletes foot). Primary treatment for most ligament and muscle injury is
what is known as the RICE method. RICE is an acronym which stands for Rest, Ice,
Compression and Elevation. These are the primary actions which should be done to
most muscle injuries to help treat them:

 Rest
 First the injured area should be rested, and movement and pressure should be
avoided until it recovers because continued use of the damaged muscle will
cause even more damage and make recovery time longer.

 Ice
 Placing an ice pack on the injury, particularly during the first 24 to 72 hours of the
injury will help reduce the swelling and may relieve the pain. Cold makes blood

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 vessels constrict and this reduces bleeding which leads to swelling. Do not use ice
cubes or blocks directly on the skin though as it will cause frostbite.

 Compression
 Bandage the injured part firmly but not tightly using a crepe bandage.
Compression should be done to prevent bleeding and additional damage due to
movement of the injured muscle.
 Elevation
 Lastly, the injured part should be elevated above the heart level when lying down
to ease pressure on the injury. Elevating the injured makes blood flow against
gravity and thus reduce bleeding which leads to swelling.

SIGNS, SYMPTOMS, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF INJURIES AND

CONDITIONS TO THE MUSCLES AND SKIN

1. STRAIN
 A strain is a tear to muscle or tendon tissue. Is a stretch or rip or tear in the muscle
or ligament or tendon. It is usually due to abnormal muscle contractions

 Cause
 A strain is injury caused by violent overstretching of muscle or tendon, due to
overuse, which weakens the muscle, causing their fibres to be pulled apart and
lose the ability to contract. The severity of injury depends upon the amount of
tissue that is damaged. It may be stretched or even torn.

 Signs and Symptoms

 A sudden sharp pain at the site of the injury.
 Swelling, inflammation, stiffness, and sometimes cramp.
 Difficulty in using the injured part.

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 Prevention
 Warm up before practice and competition, and that same philosophy of injury
prevention can be applied to regular daily activities.
 Stretching before work-out.
 Gradually increasing the amount of effort and exertion may help prevent muscle
and joint injury.
 Avoid overuse of the body.
 Make sure you develop the right techniques.
 Treatment
 Rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) are keys elements in the treatment of
both sprains and strains.
 Depending on the extent of the injury, strains usually take 7 to 14 days to heal by
themselves.
 Certain serious strains must be taken to hospital for surgery.

2. BLISTERS
 A blister is a sore bump on the skin that may be filled with fluid. It is the body’s
way of protecting the skin from further damage. Often these occur on the feet
with poor fitting shoes, but holding a tennis or badminton racket might cause
blisters on the hand.

 Cause
 Common causes of blisters include repeated action with friction and burns.
 Frost bite.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Swelling
 Pain and tenderness to touch
 Sore bump on the skin that may be filled with fluid.

 Prevention
 Wear shoes and socks that fit well.
 Wear gloves for activities, such as raking leaves, put a lot of friction on the hands.
 Handle equipment correctly.

 Treatment
Self-care treats most blisters. Medical care may really be needed for a blister when it
gets infected.
 Do not pop a small blister (less than 1 inch). Protect blister from friction. Cover
blister with a loose bandage or a moleskin pad.

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 Drain a large and painful blister. Clean around area with antiseptic. Use a sterilize
needle to gently pierce an edge of the blister. Let it drain, if there is no dirt or pus
under the skin flap, pat it down to protect the skin below that blister.

 Wash the area well with soap and water. Put an antibiotic ointment and cover it
with a bandage or gauze tape. Change this daily and keep it clean, if it gets dirty
or wet change more often.

3. MUSCLE STITCH
 This is a small sharp pain on the side, or upper abdomen. You get it during
vigorous exercise.

 Cause
 It may be caused by exercising too soon after eating. The blood supply to the
diaphragm is reduced causing a sharp pain in the abdomen.

 Signs and Symptoms

 A sharp pain in the abdomen.
 Cramps can occur in the diaphragm (the sheet of muscle below the chest).

 Prevention
 Increasing the strength of the abdomen through abdominal exercises.
 Delaying exercise by a few hours after a meal.

 Treatment
 Stop exercising for a short time and it will go away.
 Sitting and resting is an effective way of reducing the pain.
 If stitch is more severe, gentle stretching may help.

4. MUSCLE CRAMP
 A muscle cramp is an involuntarily and forcibly contracted muscle that does not
relax.
 Sudden, involuntary and painful contraction of a muscle or group of muscles. Occurs
when muscle have a less supply of blood. It can be caused by lack of calcium and
potassium, poor muscle coordination during exercises. It is very common among
swimmers. It can also be caused by excessive loss of salts and body fluids through
severe sweating and heat exhaustion or severe diarrhoea and persistent vomiting.
 Cause
 Lack of minerals and salts in the muscles due to dehydration.
 Another cause is when muscles work when chilled (cold).

 Signs and Symptoms

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 Soreness and swelling.
 Pain on the affected part.
 Inability to use the affected part.

 Prevention
 Stretch before and after exercise or sports, along with an adequate warm-up and
cool-down, to prevent cramps that are caused by vigorous physical activity.
 Good hydration before, during, and after the activity is important, especially if the
duration exceeds one hour, and replacement of lost electrolytes (especially
sodium and potassium, which are major components of perspiration) can also be
helpful.
 Excessive fatigue, especially in warm weather, should be avoided.

 Treatment
 Gently massaging the muscle will often help it to relax, as will applying warmth
from a heating pad or hot soak. If the cramp is associated with fluid loss, as is
often the case with vigorous physical activity, fluid and electrolyte (especially
sodium and potassium) replacement is essential.
 Most cramps can be stopped if the muscle can be stretched slowly and gently.
For many cramps of the feet and legs, this stretching can often be accomplished
by standing up and walking around.

5. ABRASSIONS / GRAZES
 This is the scraping off of skin from the body due to friction from rough surfaces.

 Cause
 A sliding fall on a rough surface or gavel.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain
 Bleeding
 Swelling
 Skin scraped off affected area.

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 Prevention
 Avoid playing on slippery surfaces.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 Be mentally and physically prepared for the activity.

 Treatment
 Clean the wound gently with tepid water.
 If the wound is bleeding a little, just let the blood clot.
 Allow the wound to dry naturally if possible. But if there is danger of infection
cover it with a plaster.

6. BRUISES/CONTUSION
 A bruise is a discoloration of the skin caused when enough pressure is placed on
the skin to break the blood vessels underneath.

 Cause
 Bruises are caused by blood leaking from damaged blood vessels under the skin
due to impact.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain and tenderness.
 Swelling.
 Skin discoloration.

 Prevention
 Play at the correct level and age.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 After using throwing implements do not throw them to others.

 Treatment-*
 The treatment is part of the RICE routine.
 Apply an icepack or cold compress the bruised area to reduce bleeding.
 For serious bruises, compression with crepe bandage will help.

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WOUNDS – it is a type of injury in which the skin is torn, cut or punctured (an open
wound) or where blunt force trauma causes a contusion (a closed wound).
Types of wounds
a. Cut – It is an open wound on skin or deep muscle or blood vessels.

INCISION
- It is caused by a clean, sharp edged object such as a knife, razor or a glass splinter.
- It is a smooth cut and usually bleeds heavily and quickly

7. Laceration / Cut
 A laceration (las-e-RAY-shun) is an injury to the skin and the soft tissue
underneath it. Lacerations may happen if you are cut or hit by something.
Lacerations can happen anywhere on the body. The healing time for a laceration
depends on where it is on your body. It may take a laceration longer to heal if it is
over a joint, such as your knee or elbow.

 Cause
 It caused by sharp objects or impact on the skin.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain.

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  Bleeding, bruising, or swelling.
 You may have numbness (loss of feeling) around the wound.

 Prevention
 Remove all sharp objects from the playing field.
 Avoid too much contact with opponents.

 Treatment
 First work to control the bleeding if your wound is bleeding a lot. You may need
your wound cleaned out with germ-free liquid. This helps to remove dirt and
other small objects, and decreases the chance of infection.
 Apply the RICE treatment.

PUNCTURE WOUND
 It is a narrow stab wound to the skin.
 It is caused by an object puncturing the skin such as nail or needle

TREATMENT FOR CUTS AND WOUNDS

- Clean the area with antiseptic soap.
- Cover the area with sterile gauze and apply pressure.
- After bleeding stops, cover with gauze

8. TENNIS AND GOLFER’S ELBOW

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  These are muscle injuries in the lower arm (around the outer bony bump or inner
bump on the elbow).

 Cause
 Overuse the muscles in the lower arm, especially in racket sport, golf or fishing.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Inflammation of the affected area.
 Tenderness.
 Pain.
 Prevention
 Avoid overuse of the body.
 Proper physical and mental preparation; that is, warm-up and stretch properly
before physical activity.

 Treatment
 Apply the RICE treatment. The elbow must be rested until it recovers, which could
take weeks.
 The usual treatment is physiotherapy and injection of a steroid into the muscle
(N.B. steroids help mend muscle tissues).

HEAT RELATED ILLNESSES AND CONDITIONS

1. HYPERTHERMIA (OVERHEATING)
 Hyperthermia means when the body temperature has risen above 39 degrees
celsius (or above normal). Hyperthermia can lead to several conditions as
discussed below.

(a) DEHYDRATION

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 Dehydration refers to an inadequate amount of fluid in the body. Among athletes
who participate in endurance sports or long workouts, dehydration can occur
quickly. In general, a person is considered dehydrated when they have lost more
than 2 percent of their body weight during exercise.

 Cause
 Dehydration occurs because there is too much water lost, not enough water
taken in, or most often a combination of the two. Water can be lost due to sweat,
vomiting, diarrhea, burns, diabetes, and inability to drink fluids.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Dry mouth,
 The eyes stop making tears,
 Sweating may stop,
 Muscle cramps,
 Nausea and vomiting,
 Heart palpitations, and
 Lightheadedness (especially when standing

 Prevention
 Don’t exercise or schedule activities in hot weather.
 Wear light clothing in hot weather.

 Treatment
 Adequate fluid intake is essential for athletes before, during, and after exercise.
Whether to use sports drinks or just water depends upon your duration and
intensity of exercise.

(b) HEAT EXHAUSTION

 Heat exhaustion is the body's response to dehydration and an excessive loss of
water and salt through sweat. Heat exhaustion typically occurs after long periods
of heat exposure. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body becomes overwhelmed
by heat and the sweat response stops working properly.

 Cause
 It is caused by several days of exposure to high temperatures and inadequate or
unbalanced replacement of fluids.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Heavy sweating
 Paleness
 Tiredness

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 Weakness
 Dizziness
 Headache
 Nausea or vomiting
 Fainting
 The skin may be cool and moist. The victim's pulse rate will be fast and weak, and
breathing will be fast and shallow.

 Prevention
 Don’t exercise or schedule activities in hot weather.
 Wear light clothing in hot weather.

 Treatment
 Lie the casualty down in a cool place, with legs raised.
 Give him/her frequent sips of weak solution of salt in water.
 Call a doctor for further advice.

(c) HEAT STROKE

 Heat stroke is a form of hyperthermia, an abnormally elevated body temperature
with accompanying physical and neurological symptoms. Unlike heat cramps and
heat exhaustion, two forms of hyperthermia that are less severe, heat stroke is a
true medical emergency that can be fatal if not properly and promptly treated.

 Cause
 It is caused by long, vigorous exercise on a hot and humid day. In extreme heat,
high humidity, or vigorous exertion under the sun, the body may not be able to
dissipate the heat and the body temperature rises, sometimes up to 106°F
(41.1°C) or higher.
 Another cause of heat stroke is dehydration. A dehydrated person may not be
able to sweat fast enough to dissipate heat, which causes the body temperature
to rise.

 Signs and Symptoms

 high body temperature
 the absence of sweating, with hot red or flushed dry skin
 rapid pulse
 difficulty breathing
 strange behavior
 hallucinations
 confusion
 agitation
 disorientation
 seizure

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 coma

 Prevention
 The most important measures to prevent heat strokes are to avoid becoming
dehydrated and to avoid vigorous physical activities in hot and humid weather.
 If you have to perform physical activities in hot weather, drink plenty of fluids
(such as water and sports drinks), but avoid alcohol, caffeine, and tea which may
lead to dehydration.
 Your body will need replenishment of electrolytes (such as sodium) as well as
fluids if you sweat excessively or perform vigorous activity in the sunlight for
prolonged periods.
 Take frequent breaks to hydrate yourself. Wear hats and light-colored,
lightweight, loose clothes.

 Treatment
 Lie the casualty down in a cool breezy place. Remove outer clothing and wrap the
casualty in a cold wet sheet. Keep the sheet saturated with cold water and fan it
as much as possible.
 Continue until the casualty has cooled down.
 Call a doctor for further advice.

2. HYPOTHERMIA
 Hypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below that required
for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as 35.0 °C (95.0 °F). If
exposed to cold and the internal mechanisms are unable to replenish the heat
that is being lost a drop in core temperature occurs. Hypothermia is the opposite
of hyperthermia which is present in heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
 Cause
 Hypothermia usually occurs from exposure to low temperatures and is frequently
complicated by alcohol. Any condition which decreases heat production,
increases heat loss, or impairs thermoregulation however may contribute.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Shivering and mental confusion.
 Movements are slow and labored, accompanied by a stumbling pace.
 Difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, and amnesia start to appear; inability to use
hands and stumbling is also usually present.

 Prevention

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 Appropriate clothing helps to prevent hypothermia. Synthetic and wool fabrics
are superior to cotton as they provide better insulation when wet and dry. Some
synthetic fabrics, such as polypropylene and polyester, are used in clothing
designed to wick perspiration away from the body, such as liner socks and
moisture-wicking undergarments.

 Treatment
 The first priority is to perform a careful check for breathing and a pulse and
initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) as necessary.
 If the person is unconscious, having severe breathing difficulty, or is pulse-less,
call an ambulance.
 The second priority is re-warming.
 Remove all wet clothes and move the person inside.
 The victim should be given warm fluids if he or she is able to drink, but do not
give the person caffeine or alcohol.
 Cover the person’s body with blankets and aluminum-coated foils, and place
the victim in a sleeping bag. Avoid actively heating the victim with outside
sources of heat such as radiators or hot water baths. This may only decrease the
amount of shivering and slow the rate of core temperature increase.

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THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is made up of all the bones,(206 bones)

ligaments and joints in the body.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

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The skeletal system consists of all the bones of the body, joints and ligaments, and its
functions are:
 It provides shape and support and/or a framework of the body. It is the
framework on which muscles and other organs of the body attach.
 Movement: most skeletal muscle attach to bones; when they contract they pull
on the bones to produce movement

 It provides protection for delicate organs of the body. For example, the skull
protects the brain and the ribs protect the lungs.
 It manufactures blood cells from bone marrow stored in the bones. Red bone
marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets through a
process called hemopoiesis
 It stores minerals especially calcium and phosphorous which contribute to the
strength of the bone. Bone tissue stores 99% of the body’s calcium
 Triglyceride storage. Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which
stores triglycerides and are a potential for chemical energy reserve
 It gives the body good posture. Examples of poor posture are bowed back
(lordosis), rounded shoulders (kyphosis), and sideways curvature (scoliosis).

TYPES OF BONES

LONG BONES SHORT BONES FLAT BONES IRREGULAR

BONES
Femur Phalanges Skull, Patella
Tibia Tarsals Clavicle Vertebrae
Humerus Carpals Sternum
Fibula Metatarsals Ribs
Radius Metacarpals Pelvis
Ulna Scapula

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Long bones
They have a diaphysis, epiphyses and hallow centre. They act as levers for a large range of
movement

SHORT BONES
There are very small and squat. They are spongy bones covered with a thin layer of
compact bone So they are light and very strong.
Function:They act as levers for a large range of movement
Short bones—they have cubed shape = carpals and tarsals

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FLAT BONES
These are spongy bones between two layers of compact bone. They have large surface.
Flat bones- they are flat in shape and a plate like surface.
Function
They protect delicate organs
They give a big surface area for muscle attachment

IRREGULAR BONES
These are spongy bones inside and outside compact bone. They are specially shaped to suit
the job they have to do.
Irregular bones—they have complex fixed shapes e.g. carpals and tarsals.

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TYPES OF JOINTS
Joints are the areas where two bones meet. Most joints are mobile, allowing the bones
to move. Joints are classified by the degree of movement they allow and the structure of
the joint. There are three types of joints in the body, which are as follows:

Classification of Joints

Joints are classified structurally, based on their anatomical characteristics, and

functionally, based on the movement they permit

Structural classification
The structural classification of joints is based on two criteria: 1) the presence or absence
of space between the articulating bones, called the synovial cavity, and 2) the type of
connective tissue binds the bones together
Functional classification
The functional classification of joints relates to the degree of movement they permit

 FIXED/IMMOVABLE JOINTS(synarthrosis) or Fibrous joints

 The bones at an immovable joint can’t move at all. The interlock is held close
together by tough fibre. There is no joint cavity in the joints, and since they are
held together by fibrous tissue they are also called fibrous joints. Examples are
joints between the plates in the cranium (skull) and at the pelvis (hip) or sacrum.

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  SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINT(amphiarthrosis) or Cartilaginous joints

 The bones at a slightly movable joint have a slight movement. The joints are held
together by strong cords or straps called ligaments and joined by cartilage.
Cartilage stops the bones from knocking together, and they act as shock
absorbers so the bones won’t jar when you run or jump. Examples are bones
between the vertebrae and also between the ribs and sternum (breast bone).
Because of the cartilage holding the joint together they are also called
cartilaginous joints.

 FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS(diarthrosis) or Synovial joints

 These joints can move quite freely, and can produce a wide range of movement.
The bones forming the joint have synovial cavity and are united by a dense
connective tissue of an articular capsule and often by accessory ligaments.
Examples are the hip, elbow and knee joints.

EXAMPLES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT

Although synovial joints differ in shape and movement range, they all have similar
characteristics.

 Ball and Socket joint

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 It is the most movable joint in the body which is designed to allow a wide range
of movement.
 It is found in joints such as in the shoulder and hip joints, and it allows backward,
forward, sideways, and rotating movements.

 Hinge joint
 The range of movement is limited to one plane such as a door hinge.
 It is found in joints such as in the fingers, knees, elbows, and toes and it allows
only bending and straightening movements.

 Pivot joint
 Part of the bone fits into another ring of bone, as in case of atlas and axis,
allowing rotation of the head.
 It is found in the joints such as the neck and between elbow and ulna, and it
allows limited rotating movements.

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 Saddle joint
 This joint allows the thumb to be moved in two directions.
 It is found at the base of the thumb between the metacarpal and carpal.

 Condyloid/Ellipsoidal joint
 The movement is in two planes but not such a full range as in the ball and socket
joint.
 It is found in the joints such as the wrist and ankle joints, and it allows all types of
movement except pivotal movements.

 Gliding joint/Inter-tarsal joint

 Flat bone surfaces allow side to side and backwards and forwards movements.
 It is found between carpals, tarsals, between the sternum and the clavicle (sterno-
clavicular) and the scapula and the clavicle.

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ANATOMY OF THE SYNOVIAL JOINT
Synovial joints have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other joints. The
unique characteristic of a synovial joint is the presence of a space called synovial (joint)
cavity between the articulating bones. Synovial cavity allows the joint to move quite
freely and it is therefore functionally classified as diarthrosis. The bones at the synovial
joint are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage

A typical synovial joint consist of the following:

 Joint capsule

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  An outer sleeve of the joint which holds bones together and protect the joint.

 Joint cavity
 A small gap between the bones which is filled with synovial fluid.

 Cartilage
 A type of tissue that covers the surface of a bone at a joint. Cartilage is smooth,
slippery and helps reduce the friction of movement within a joint, and stops
bones knocking together. Also helps to absorb shock

 Synovial membrane
 A tissue called the synovial membrane lines the joint and seals it into a joint
capsule. The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid (a clear, sticky fluid)
around the joint to lubricate it.

 Ligaments
 Tough, elastic bands of connective tissue that surround the joint to give support
and limit the joint's movement.

 Tendons
 Another type of tough connective tissue on each side of a joint which attach to
muscles that control movement of the joint.

 Synovial fluid
 A clear, viscous sticky fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. Its function
include reducing friction by lubricating the joint, absorbing shock.
 One of the benefits of warm is to stimulate the production and secretion synovial
fluid. More fluid means less stress on the joints during exercise
 Joint capsule
 A sleevelike joint capsule surrounds a synovial joint , encloses the synovial cavity
and unites the articulating bones

TYPES OF MOVEMENT AROUND THE JOINT

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For us to perform activities in sports our body needs movement. Movement mostly
takes place around the joint. Many movements around the joint occur in antagonistic
pairs (opposing pairs). The following are movements that take place around the joint:

 Flexion
 Decreasing the angle of the joint (bend elbow)
 Extension
 Increase the angle of a joint (straighten arm)
 Hyperextension
 Overextending the joint (pull hand back toward ceiling
 Plantar flexion
 Bending foot downward (tiptoe)
 It involves bending of the foot at the ankle joint in the direction off the plantar or
inferior surface
 Dorsiflexion
 Bending foot upward e.g. when you stand on your heels
 Abduction
 Moving body part away from midline the body
 Adduction
 Moving body part toward midline of the body
 Rotation
 Moving a part around an axis or swiveling of the joint (head turns)
 Circumduction
 Moving a part so that is follows a circular path (move your finger in a circle)
 Supination
 Turning the hand to the palm is up (hold soup)
 Pronation
 Turning the hand to the palm is down
 Eversion
 Turning the foot so the sole faces laterally
 Inversion
 Turning the foot so the sole faces medially
 Protraction
 Moving a part forward (stick out chin)
 Retraction
 Moving a part backward (pull in chin)
 Elevation
 Raising a part (shrug shoulders)
 Depression

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 Lower a part (droop shoulders)

FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT MOVEMENT AROUND A JOINT OR RANGE OF

MOTION AROUND A JOINT

A joint's range of motion is the angle through which a joint moves to the extreme limit
of the motion in a particular direction. Having an optimal range of motion allows you to
move freely without pain or stiffness and perform activities and work without injuries.

 Body type and Body mass

 Maintaining a healthy weight is very beneficial. Extra fat or muscle mass may
inhibit a joint's normal range of motion by physically blocking its path of

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 movement. Excess weight increases the amount of stress placed on the joints,
which can lead to impaired mobility and flexibility over time.
 For example, a protruding abdomen can limit how high you can flex your hip and
pull your knee to your ribs.

 Injury and Disease

 Pain from an injury or disease causes the muscles in the injured site to contract
reflexively to avoid further damage, thus limiting the joint's range of motion.
Such conditions include arthritis, bursitis, bruises, dislocation and sprains. Regular
range of motion can be achieved over time with proper rehabilitation and
treatments, such as corrective exercises, massage, heat therapy and acupuncture.

 Tissue Extensibility (elasticity and flexibility)

 Tissue extensibility refers to the elasticity and flexibility of the muscles and their
surrounding connective tissues. If they are not stretched or moved regularly, they
can become stiff and lack extensibility, which affects how much you can move. In
practical application, before exercise, you should perform warm-up exercises that
move your joints in its full range of motion. For example, before you run, you can
do hip swings front to back, side to side and rotation. This exercise not only
elevates your body temperature to improve tissue extensibility, but also moves
the hip joint in all planes to motion to minimize stiffness and increase neural
stimulation.

 Structure of the joint/Joint Articulation

 Joint articulation refers to how the bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles are
oriented in a joint to permit certain range of motions. Some articulations provide
only one range of motion, such as the elbow joint, where it allows only the arm to
flex or extend. Others allow a wide variety of movements, such as the ball-and-
socket joint of the shoulder, where it can flex, abduct, adduct and rotate.

 Age
 As we age, the body is less able to renew and maintain the supportive cartilage
structures surrounding joints and bones. Old people don’t exercise much
causing connective tissues at the joint to stiffen due to lack of movement.
Regular exercise and physical activity are important for healthy joints, but too
much exercise can result in occasional stiffness and soreness in muscles and
joints.

INJURIES TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

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There are different causes of injury to the skeleton some of which might be due to:
 Overuse of the affected part
 Torn ligaments and tendons
 Physical impact due to collision with another player or a fall.

1. FRACTURE
 A fracture is a break or crack in a bone. Since bones contain nerves and blood
vessels, a fracture brings pain and bleeding. There are many types of fractures,
but the main categories are displaced, non-displaced, open, and closed.
Displaced and non-displaced fracture refers to the way the bone breaks. In a
displaced fracture, the bone snaps into two or more parts; if the bone is in many
pieces, it is considered comminuted. In a non-displaced fracture, the bone cracks
either part or all of the way through, but does move and maintains its proper
alignment.

 A closed/simple fracture is when the bone breaks but there is no puncture or

open wound in the skin.

 An open/compound fracture is one in which the bone breaks through the skin;
it may then recede back into the wound and not be visible through the skin. This
is an important difference from a closed fracture because with an open
fracture there is a risk of a deep bone infection.

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Some fracture types are:
 Greenstick fracture: an incomplete fracture in which the bone is bent. This type
occurs most often in children.
 Transverse fracture: a fracture at a right angle to the bone's axis.
 Oblique fracture: a fracture in which the break has a curved or sloped pattern.
 Comminuted fracture: a fracture in which the bone fragments into several
pieces.
 An impacted fracture is one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into
the other. This is commonly seen in arm fractures in children and is sometimes
known as a buckle fracture. Other types of fracture are pathologic fracture,
caused by a disease that weakens the bones, and stress fracture, a hairline crack.
 Other types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that
weakens the bones, and stress fracture.
 Stress fracture: is a series of microscopic fissures(fine cracks) in bone that forms
without any evidence of injury to the tissue. Stress fracture result from repeated,
strenuous activities such as running, jumping, or aerobic dancing.

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The severity of a fracture depends upon its location and the damage done to the
bone and tissue near it. Serious fractures can have dangerous complications if not
treated promptly; possible complications include damage to blood vessels or nerves
and infection of the bone (osteomyelitis) or surrounding tissue. Recuperation time
varies depending on the age and health of the patient and the type of fracture. A
minor fracture in a child may heal within a few weeks; a serious fracture in an older
person may take months to heal.

 Cause of fractures
 Direct blows to the bones and awkward falls.

 Signs and symptoms

 Pain and tenderness
 Swelling and sometimes bleeding
 Bruising develop later
 Grating noise when parts of the cracked bone rub against each other.
 Inability to move the injured part.
 Protruding bone in case of an open fracture.

 Prevention
 Avoid too much contact or playing on slippery surfaces.
 Play at the right age and level.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 Use correct technique.
 Wear proper attire for the sport.

 Treatment
 Support the fractured limb above and below the fracture using towels, cushions
or folded clothing.
 If the fracture is an arm bone, a sling made of towel, bandage or T-shirt can be
used for support, but it should be done with care.
 The casualty should be kept warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

2. DISLOCATION
 This is where the bone is pulled out of its normal position at a joint.

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 Cause

 Violent twisting at the joint. It usually happens at the shoulder, elbow, finger,
thumb and ankle joints.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Severe pain at the joint.
 Joint appears deformed and there is difficulty in moving it.
 Swelling and bruising appear later.

 Prevention
 Know the rules of your sport and abide by them.
 When playing sports, it is important to use all equipment in the manner of which
it was intended.
 Avoid slippery and uneven surfaces.
 Do proper warm up and stretching before the activity.

 Treatment
 Treat as in a fracture.
 Keep the casualty warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

3. SPRAIN
 A sprain is a stretched or torn ligament. Damage or tear in ligament; a painful
stretching of ligaments, caused by lifting, sudden stops or turns and falls. They are
caused by violent contact with the ground (due to falling or landing awkwardly),
object or another person.
 Cause

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 This injury is usually caused by a sudden overstretching where your ligaments are
generally only stretched out.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain and tenderness around the joint.
 Swelling around the joint.
 Bruising follows the swelling.
 Difficulty in moving the affected limb.

 Prevention
 You can prevent a sprain injury by using proper safety equipment for your wrist,
ankle and knee.
 Other prevention methods are warming up properly and perform regular
stretching before and after your soccer games.
 Avoid overuse of the joints.
 Treatment
 Apply the RICE treatment.
 If in doubt follow treatment for fracture.

4. TORN KNEE CARTILAGE

 This is a tear of the cartilage.

 Cause
 Violent twist of the knee, a fall or overuse of the knee.

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  Signs and Symptoms
 Pain on the side of the knee joint.
 The joint may ‘lock’ and not straighten fully for a time.
 Swelling.

 Prevention
 Warm up and stretch properly before physical activities.
 Avoid overuse of the joint.
 Don’t play on slippery surfaces.

 Treatment
 Immobilize the injured part and apply the RICE treatment.
 Get medical attention.

OTHER CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT THE BODY DURING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY,

AND SKIN INFECTIONS

In sports, certain conditions can occur, which are not classified as injuries but still need
to be attended to:
1. SHOCK
 Shock is a state in which a suddenly weakened heart isn't able to pump enough
blood to meet the body's needs. The condition is a medical emergency and is
fatal if not treated right away.

 Cause
 A lack of oxygen-rich blood reaching the brain, kidneys, skin, and other parts of
the body causes shock.

 Signs and Symptoms

Some of the typical signs and symptoms of shock usually include at least two or
more of the following:
 Confusion or lack of alertness
 Loss of consciousness
 A sudden and sustained rapid heartbeat
 Sweating
 Pale skin
 A weak pulse
 Rapid breathing
 Decreased or no urine output
 Cool hands and feet
Any of these alone is unlikely to be a sign or symptom of shock.

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 Prevention and Treatment
 Since shock occurs after injury when blood is diverted to the injured part, the
most helpful thing you can do for an injured person is to begin treatment for
shock. When shock has not yet developed, the treatment may actually prevent its
occurrence; if it has developed, you may be able to keep it from reaching a
critical point. As we have seen, shock creates a vicious cycle; that is, the worse it
is, the worse it becomes. It is extremely important that you begin treatment at the
earliest opportunity.
 It is important to keep the victim as calm as possible because excitement and
fright affects his condition and may even bring on shock.
 Try to prevent the victim from seeing his injuries, and reassure him that he will
receive proper care. Keep unnecessary persons away, as their conversation
regarding the victim's injuries may increase his agitation.
 The best position to use for the prevention or treatment of shock is one that
encourages the flow of blood to the brain. When it is possible to place the
injured person on his back on a bed, cot, or stretcher, you should raise the lower
end of the support about 12 inches so his feet are higher than his head.
 Heat is important in the treatment of shock to the extent that the injured
person's body heat must be conserved. Exposure to cold, with resulting loss of
body heat, can cause shock to develop or to become worse.
 A person in shock is often thirsty. No particular harm will be done if you allow the
victim to moisten his mouth and lips with cool water. But, in general, there is no
need to give him anything to drink unless you are in a position whereby medical
assistance will not be available for along period of time.

2. CONCUSSION
 A concussion is a brain injury that is caused by a sudden blow OR fall to the head
or to the body. The blow shakes the brain inside the skull, which temporarily
prevents the brain from working normally. With concussion, function may be
interrupted but there is no structural damage to the brain. Concussion can
happen in football when players collide trying to head the ball, or due to impact
when hit by a ball in softball.

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 Cause
 It is caused by direct blow to the head that causes the head to shake. There are
many ways to get a concussion. Some common ways include fights, falls,
playground injuries, car crashes, and bike accidents. Concussions can also happen
while participating in rough or high-speed sports such as football, boxing,
hockey, soccer, skiing, or snowboarding.

 Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms tend not to be objective and may be hard to describe. As well, they
may be delayed for many hours after injury, and sometimes the initial injury may
have been forgotten or discounted. More common are mild confusion and
disorientation. Typical symptoms of concussion include:
 Headache
 Dizziness
 Nausea
 Dazed feeling
 Visual symptoms
 Irritability
 Passing out.
 Not being able to stand or walk; or having coordination and balance problems.
 Not being able to remember what happened after the injury.
 Feeling lightheaded, seeing "stars," having blurry vision, or experiencing ringing
in the ears.

Physical Signs
Since, by definition, concussion does not damage the structure of the brain, the
physical examination should be normal. More subtle findings may include:
 Slow to answer questions or follow directions
 Poor concentration
 Emotional liability (emotional changes or instability)
 Slurred speech
 Personality changes

 Prevention
As with most accidents, injury prevention is the first consideration. The following are
all important steps to prevent concussion and severe head injuries:
 Wear protective clothing where necessary. For example wearing helmets while
bicycling and motorcycle riding, or in softball.
 Recreational athletes should use head protection appropriate for their sport.

 Treatment

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 Rest and continued observation alone.
 Discontinue sports activity for the day. Time is the ally in concussion treatment
since most symptoms resolve within a week to 10 days.
 Treatment is directed at symptom control for headaches, nausea, dizziness, and
insomnia. Discussion with employers may be needed to alert them to issues of
poor work performance due to difficulty with concentration and comprehension.

3. ATHLETE’S FOOT
 Athlete's foot (also known as ringworm of the foot) is a fungal infection of the
skin that causes scaling, flaking, and itch of affected areas.

 Cause
 It is caused by fungi and is typically transmitted in moist areas where people walk
barefoot, such as showers or bathhouses. Although the condition typically affects
the feet, it can spread to other areas of the body, including the groin.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Athlete's foot causes scaling, flaking, and itching of the affected skin.
 Blisters and cracked skin may also occur, leading to exposed raw tissue, pain,
swelling, and inflammation.
 Secondary bacterial infection can accompany the fungal infection, sometimes
requiring a course of oral antibiotics.

 Prevention
 Good hygiene, therefore, plays an important role in managing an athlete's foot
infection.
 Since fungi thrive in moist environments, keeping feet and footwear as dry as
possible, and avoiding sharing towels, etc., aids prevention of primary infection.

 Treatment
 There are many conventional medications (over-the-counter and prescription) as
well as alternative treatments for fungal skin infections, including athlete's foot.
Important with any treatment plan is the practice of good hygiene.

TOPIC 2: DIET AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter learners should be able to:

 Differentiate between health and fitness.
 Describe components of health related fitness.
 Describe components of skill related fitness.
 Explain the importance of maintenance of good health.
 Describe conditions and diseases associated with poor nutrition, alcohol, drug
abuse (substance abuse) and sedentary living.
 Explain the effects of nutrition, alcohol, drugs (including tobacco), HIV/AIDS and
the level of physical activity on long term good health.
 Discuss factors affecting fitness.
 Discuss the long term effects of a physically active lifestyle on the body systems
and therefore on good general health.
 Define physical exercise.
 Discuss principles of training.
 Demonstrate safety precautions in any physical activity.
 Design a health related fitness programme.
 Explain physical fitness components relevant to performance.
 Describe components of training for specific games, track and field events.
 Plan programmes that could be utilized for fitness training in a specific sport or
track and field event.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEALTH AND FITNESS

Health is a complete state of physical, mental and social wellbeing.

Fitness is the ability of an individual to cope with the demands of everyday life. It is also
deals with the body’s ability to complete activities necessary for everyday life
effectively and efficiently. Fitness for sport, however, is often more specific and at a
higher level. You can be healthy without being fit but it is not possible to be fit
without being healthy. Fitness has two main components; that is health related fitness
and skill related fitness.

HEALTH RELATED FITNESS COMPONENTS

Health related fitness or General fitness concerns day to day working of the body.
Health related fitness deals with those components of fitness that are directed

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towards prevention of diseases, as well as the development of functional capacity.
It has several components:
 Cardiovascular endurance – is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels
to sustain prolonged activities such as running, swimming or rowing. It can also
be referred to as the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels to deliver
oxygen to working muscles and tissues, as well as the ability of those muscles
and tissues to utilize that oxygen.

Cardiovascular endurance is also frequently called cardio-respiratory endurance,

cardiovascular fitness, aerobic capacity, aerobic fitness, or is sometimes more
broadly termed “endurance” — although endurance may also refer to the
ability of the muscle to do repeated work without fatigue.

 Muscular endurance – is the ability of the muscles to contract over relatively

long periods of time, or it is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain
repeated contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time.
Muscular endurance and cardiovascular endurance are inter-related as the
muscles need oxygen to do work, which is supplied by the cardiovascular system.
Muscular endurance is important for ordinary activities such as walking to work,
repetitive manual tasks in industry, etc.

 Flexibility – is the range of movement at the joint. It is also called mobility or

suppleness of a person. Flexibility is an important part of fitness as it reduces the
chances of muscle pull and allows a full range of movement. Most sport requires
a high degree of flexibility. To perform in gymnastics, flexibility at most joints is
essential, but there are other sports where flexibility is very important. For
example at the hips in hurdling, at the shoulder joint in javelin, swimming
butterfly stroke and in throwing events.

 Muscular strength – is the ability of the muscles to exert force as they contract.
Strength is needed in everyday life in many ways. Without good strength, sports
such as weight lifting will be impossible. There are three different types of
strength; that is dynamic strength, explosive strength and static strength.

Dynamic strength is the type of strength required to start and maintain the
movement of the body. It is related to muscular endurance but effort is required
in earlier parts of the activity, e. g. starting in a cycle or rowing race where
considerable effort is required initially and needs to be maintained when full
speed is reached. In rowing, this effort must be continued because the boat will
slow down quickly force being applied.

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 Explosive strength is necessary in many sports. To move the body quickly with
explosive force in gymnastics, or to apply force to an object such as javelin,
requires a special kind of strength. It is sometimes called power, and it is a
combination of speed and muscular strength.

Static strength is a force applied by muscles to a fixed object. Muscle size is

important – the larger the size the more static strength. Activities such as tug-of-
war or pushing in a rugby scrum require high static strength. There is very little
movement of the limbs but considerable internal forces are being applied against
relatively immobile objects.

 Body composition – is the amount of fat mass compared to lean muscle mass,
bone and other body organs. It can also be termed as the component parts of
the body in terms of the relative amounts of body fat compared to lean body
mass. This can be measured using underwater weighing, Skin-fold readings, and
bioelectrical impedance. Underwater weighing is considered the “gold
standard” for body fat measurement, however because of the size and expense
of the equipment needed very few places are set up to do this kind of
measurement. Body composition is very important in most sports for optimum
performance.

SKILL RELATED FITNESS COMPONETS (ALSO REFERRED TO AS SPORT RELATED

FITNESS COMPONENTS OR SPECIFIC FITNESS COMPONENTS)

Since health related fitness will help you play sport better you also need specific fitness
to be really good at it. Skill related fitness has a more narrow focus as compared to
health related fitness. It is that portion of physical fitness directed towards
optimizing athletic performance; or can be said to be specific for sport
performance.

 Speed – is the ability to move the body or parts of the body quickly. For example,
sprinting in a 100 metre run. It is an important part in most sports.

 Agility – is the ability to change the position and direction of the entire body in
space quickly and accurately. For example, to dodge a tackle in rugby, or to
change direction to reach a ball in tennis. Agility is dependent on strength, speed
and balance. In most sports it is an advantage to be agile.

 Balance – is the ability to hold posture without wobbling or falling over when
moving or stationary. For example, standing on one leg, hand stand in
gymnastics, or skating in ice skating.

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  Coordination – is the ability to move body parts smoothly and accurately in
response to what your senses tell you. For example, returning a serve in tennis, or
juggling a ball in football.

 Reaction time/Speed of reaction – is the amount of time that one takes to

respond to a stimulus; or how fast one reacts to a stimulus. For example; how
long it takes to start running in response to the starting pistol in sprints. Fast
reactions are a big advantage in most sports.

 Power – is the ability of the body to exert more force within the shortest possible
time; or it is the ability to do work per unit time. Power is mostly needed in
activities that require bursts of energy or explosive strength like sprinting, boxing,
rugby, jumps and throws in athletics, etc.

 Timing – is the ability act at the right moment. For example, you need to judge
the best time to tackle your opponent on the football field or return a hard shot
in tennis.

TESTS USED TO MEASURE DIFFERENT FITNESS COMPONENTS

(i) Speed; is the ability to move the body and limbs quickly.

 The 30-50 metre dash run

Equipment
 A 30-50 metre distance marked out on a level non-slippery surface
 A stop watch

Procedure
 Stand, using a standing start, behind the line.
 At ‘Go’, sprint as fast as you can from there to the finish line.
 Your partner will record your speed in seconds, from the moment you cross
the line.
 The time taken to do this short sprint determines your speed.

(ii) Cardiovascular endurance; is the ability of the heart to supply oxygen to

the muscles for the body to work for long periods without getting tired.
Cardiovascular endurance can be measured using a variety of tests.

 The Cooper 12-minute run test

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 Equipment
 A measured running track, in the gym or outside
 A stop-watch and whistle

Procedure
 Jog on the spot to warm up.
 When the whistle goes, start running round the track as fast as you can. Your
laps will be counted.
 The whistle will go again when 12 minutes are up. Stop running. The further
you ran in the time, the fitter you are.
 The table below illustrates ratings for Cooper 12-minute run test

Age Sex Excellent Good Fair Poor

13-14 yrs Male 2,700 2,400 2,200 2,100
female 2,000 1,900 1,600 1,500
15-16 yrs Male 2,800 2,500 2,300 2,200
Female 2,100 1,900 1,700 1,500
17-18 yrs Male 3,000 2,700 2,500 2,300
female 2,300 2,100 1,800 1,500

 Harvard step test

Equipment
 A stepping bench or box (around 50 cm high)
 A stop watch

Procedure
 Take resting pulse rate twice and record the lowest.
 Step up and down on the bench/box for 5 minutes at a rate of 30 steps per
minute.

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 After 5 minutes, the person sits down and the pulse is taken at six, seven and
eight minutes. Write down the pulse rate at each interval.
 Calculations are then made using the following formula to determine your level
of cardiovascular fitness.

Time of exercise = 5 minutes = 300 seconds

Total number of pulse counts = (P1 + P2 + P3) X 2

Time of exercise in seconds x 100

Score = Total pulse counts x 2

The table below illustrates ratings for Harvard step test

High Above Average Below Low

average average
male 15/16 yrs above 90 90-80 79-65 64-55 below 55
female 15/16 above 86 86-76 75-61 60-50 below 50
yrs

(iii) Strength – This is the force muscles exert when they contract

 The grip strength test – this tests strength in the hand muscles.

Equipment
 A hand-grip dynamometer

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Procedure
 Squeeze on the dynamometer as hard as you can with your preferred hand, for at
least two seconds.
 Do three times and record the highest reading of the three.

 The sit-up test – this tests the strength and endurance of the abdominal
muscles.
 Lie on the floor with your hands touching your head above the ears, knees bent
at 90 degrees, and feet flat on the floor.
 Get your partner to hold your feet down.

 Raise your trunk until your elbows are past your knees. Then lower yourself to the
floor again. This is one sit-up.
 Do as many as you can in 30 seconds. Your partner keeps check of time. Record
your result.

(iv) Flexibility – This is the range of movement at a joint.

 The sit-and-reach test – tests

flexibility at the hip joints.

Equipment
 A gymnastics bench
 A metre ruler
 Sellotape

Procedure
 Warm up first with stretching exercises
 Turn a bench on its side. Sellotape the ruler on top so that it extends 15 cm over
the edge, with the zero nearest you.

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  Get a partner to hold the bench steady
 Sit with your feet flat against the bench, legs straight
 Slowly reach forward as far as you can and hold
 Your partner notes where your fingertips reach on the ruler
 Subtract 15 to find how far the fingertips stretched beyond your heels. The best
of three scores is taken.
 The table below illustrates ratings for sit-and-reach test

Age 15/16 High score Above Average Below Low score

yrs average average
Male above 28 28-24 cm 23-20 cm 19-17 cm less than 17 cm
cm
female above 35 35-32 cm 31-30 cm 29-25 cm less than 25 cm
cm

(v) Agility – This is the ability to change the body’s position and direction
quickly.

 The Illinois Agility Run

Equipment
 A firm, non-slippery surface, six cones.
 A stop watch

Procedure
 After a suitable warm-up, using the course for familiarity, the subject lies face
down in the direction of travel.

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  After the starting signal, the subject then runs the exact route as fast as possible.
 Subjects should have at least two runs, and the best time is recorded.
 The table below illustrates ratings for Illinois agility run test.

Age 15/16 High score Above Average Below Low score

yrs average average
male Faster 15.9 15.9-16.7 16.8-18.6 18.7-18.8 Slower
secs secs secs secs 18.8 secs
female Faster 17.5 17.5-18.6 18.7-22.4 22.3-23.4 Slower
secs secs secs secs 23.4 secs

(vi) Balance – This is the ability to hold a posture without wobbling or falling
over.

 Balance test – this is a test of your balance when standing on one leg.

Equipment
 A gymnastics bench
 A stop watch

Procedure
 Stand on one foot on the bar – whichever foot you prefer.
 Hold the other foot high behind your back, using the nearest hand.
 Stand for as long as you can. The attempt ends when you touch floor or let go
the foot you are holding.
 Keep trying until one minute is up. Record how many attempts you made.

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(vii) Coordination – This is the ability to move your body parts smoothly and
accurately in response to what your senses tell you.

 Alternate hand-wall-throw – this tests your hand-eye coordination.

Equipment
 A tennis ball

Procedure
 The subject stands two metres away from the wall.
 The ball is thrown with one hand and caught with the other
 The test lasts 30 seconds and the number of successful catches is
recorded.

(viii) Reaction time – This is the time it takes to respond to the stimulus.

 Ruler-drop test – simple reactions can be tested with this.

Equipment
 A metre ruler

Procedure
 The subject rests a hand on a table with finger and thumb extended over the
edge.

 A metre ruler is placed between the thumb and forefinger at a marked height.
 Without warning the partner drops the ruler, which must be grasped between
the thumb and finger.
 The height dropped is recorded; the greater the distance, the slower the
reaction.

(ix) Body Composition – This is the component parts of the body in terms of
the relative amounts of body fat compared to lean body mass.

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 Skin Fold Measures using calipers: by far the simplest measure. On the
left side
of the body, take measures at the following sites:
 biceps
 triceps
 subscapullar
 supra iliac

Equipment
 Skin Fold Callipers

Procedure
 Add the totals of the measured sites together in millimeters
and record your
results.

Advantages
 a simple test that is widely used
 scores can be used to identify changes in body fat over time.

Disadvantages
 the testing procedure can vary between tester. For example was the
measurement taken in exactly the correct place.

Skin Fold Test Sites

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 Body Mass Index (BMI) – The most common and simplest measure of body fat
is made through the Body Mass Index. Through calculation of an individual’s BMI,
body fat can be predicted. The body mass index is calculated by measuring the body
mass of the subject (weight in kg) divided by the height (in metres) of the individual
squared. That is:

weight in kg___________
BMI = height in metres squared

The higher the score, the greater the levels of body fat:\

Less than 15; very severely under weight

Severely underweight 15-16
Under weight 16-18.5
Healthy weight 18.5-25
Overweight 25-30
Moderately obese 30-35
Severely obese 35-40
very severely Obese >40

Although this test is very quick and a prediction can be made instantaneously, it can
obviously be inaccurate since it does not make a difference between fat mass and
muscle mass. In this case large, lean and muscular athletes may fall into the wrong
category.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE OF GOOD HEALTH

Probably the most important thing in life is good health. Without good health we may
experience debilitating diseases and an unnecessarily short life span. It's fairly easy to
achieve good health, but it involves certain changes in your life style that are sometimes
difficult to do at first. The most important to remember is to begin slowly and try to
make small changes at first. So maintaining good health:
 Reduces the chances of getting sick
 Increases one’s lifespan

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  Helps one cope with the demands of everyday life
 To feel good and look good

In order to keep healthy we have to look after our bodies and minds. Feeling good and
looking good will make our lives more enjoyable. There are four main factors that make
up a healthy lifestyle; which are exercise, diet, hygiene and rest.

(a) Exercise
Exercise keeps our body in good physical and mental condition. The heart
actually works better if the body is exercised regularly. The minimum amount of
exercise recommended is three times a week for approximately 20 minutes. The
intensity of the exercise needs to be enough to make you breathless.

(b) Diet
The key is maintaining a balance or having a balanced diet. A balanced diet is a
meal containing all the nutritional or dietary elements in their right proportion.
There are seven nutritional elements that make up a balanced diet; which are
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre. And in
order to stay healthy our bodies need these nutritional elements:

(c) Hygiene
Hygiene involves keeping yourself clean. Personal hygiene has an important
effect on how your body functions and how you perform in sporting activities.

When we exercise or exert ourselves, our bodies sweat. After playing sport it is
important to wash away this sweat, and also the grime and dirt we pick up when
we fall. Sweat can create body odour, which can be unpleasant for our friends
and family. A dirty body or clothes, or an unhygienic environment in general can
cause diseases.

(d) Rest
Lack of sleep or feeling tired is another factor that can affect our health, and
performance. On average most people require at least eight hours sleep to
function properly. Sports performers may need more than this. Insufficient sleep
can reduce
sports performance.

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HYPOKINETIC DISEASES

Today the leading causes of death are HYPOKINETIC diseases (HYPO meaning low and
KINETIC meaning movement). Hypokinetic diseases are conditions that occur from a
sedentary lifestyle. Examples could include obesity, high blood pressure, heart disease,
strokes, diabetes, osteoporosis, cancer, anxiety, depression, arthritis, and low back pain
and complications arising from sedentary behaviour.

Sedentary lifestyle is a medical term used to denote a type of lifestyle with no or

irregular physical activity. A person who lives a sedentary lifestyle is known as a couch
potato in pop culture. It is commonly found in both the developed and developing
world and characterized by sitting, reading, watching television and computer use for
much of the day with little or no vigorous physical exercise. A sedentary lifestyle can
contribute to many preventable causes of death. Hypokinetic diseases spread when we
believe myths like “old people can not exercise,” “exercising is dangerous,” or “I
don’t have time to exercise.”

CONDITIONS AND DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH POOR NUTRITION, ALCOHOL,

DRUG ABUSE (SUBSTANCE ABUSE) AND SEDENTARY LIVING

(a) Obesity and Overweight

Overweight is when you have extra body weight that may come from muscle,
bone, fat and/or body water. Obesity is when you have a high amount of extra
body fat. You can be overweight without being obese. For example, a body
builder or other athlete who has a lot of muscle. Being overweight or obese puts
you at risk for many diseases and conditions. The more body fat that you carry
around and the more you weigh, the more likely you will develop heart disease,
high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing problems, and certain
cancers.

Causes of overweight and obesity

 Eating too much food, which contain more calories than one uses, and lack of
exercise.
 Oversized food portions.
 Lack of access to healthy foods

Signs and Symptoms of Overweight and Obesity

Most people know when they’ve gained weight. Signs and symptoms of obesity
may include:
 Clothes feeling tighter and need for a larger size

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 The scale showing you have gained weight
 Have extra fat around the waist, or high fat ratio.
 A higher than normal body mass index and waist circumference. Body mass
index is a measure of an adult’s weight in relation to his or her height.
 Thickness around the midsection
 Obvious areas of fat deposits
 Large body frame or excessively huge bodies.
 Difficulty in doing daily activities.
 Lethargy.
 Breathlessness.

(b) Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which
certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or in the wrong
proportions. A number of different nutrition disorders may arise, depending on
which nutrients are under or overabundant in the diet.

Causes of Malnutrition
 inadequate diet
 unbalanced diet
 weight loss diets
 anorexia/bulimia
 lactose intolerance

Signs and Symptoms of Malnutrition

 Irritability
Bad moods can happen to everyone, but if you are in a bad mood constantly, this
may be a sign you are not getting enough nutrients to keep your energy
sustained and your spirits high.

 Exhaustion
Eating regularly helps keep your metabolism active by burning the energy
provided by nutrients in the food you eat to keep you moving along throughout
the day. Denying yourself certain nutrients or any nutrients will cause you to feel
tired and worn out before the day has even started.

 Weight Loss
Losing weight is likely the goal of your diet, but excessive weight loss and loss of
appetite are major signs that you are malnourished. Consulting with a nutritionist,

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 and following a set diet plan, will help you lose weight the right way while
maintaining your appetite.

 Weak Muscles
Your body requires enough protein to repair wounds and grow muscle. Protein
nutrients are essential to keeping you healthy and preventing you from feeling
weak.

 Skin Changes
A good sign of malnutrition is how your skin changes. Skin is a vital, and
sometimes forgotten, organ of your body and requires water and nutrients from
the food you eat to keep you safe from viruses and bacterial infestations.

 Hair Changes or Loss

Putting your body in a state of malnutrition will cause your hair to fall out or
become dry, brittle and dull.

(c) Anorexia Nervosa

A psycho-physiological disorder usually occurring in young single women,
characterized by an abnormal fear of becoming obese, a distorted self-image, a
persistent unwillingness to eat, and severe weight loss. It is often accompanied by
self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, malnutrition, amenorrhea, and other
physiological changes. Anorexia is a kind of self-imposed starvation, and it may
also be inherited.

Causes of Anorexia
 Eating insufficient amounts of food.

Signs and Symptoms of Anorexia

There are many symptoms for anorexia, but some individuals may not experience
all of the symptoms. The symptoms include:
 Excessive weight loss – body weight that is inconsistent with age, build and
height (usually 15% below normal weight). Victims may become emaciated, and
may ultimately die of starvation or one of its complications.
 Osteoporosis.
 Abnormal patterns of menstruation.
 Amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
 Not wanting or refusing to eat in public.
 Anxiety.
 Weakness.
 Brittle skin.

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 Shortness of breath.
 Obsession about calorie intake.
 Brain abnormalities.
 Depression.

(d) Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia Nervosa is an eating disorder marked by out of control eating followed
by some form of purging. This disorder typically affects single, middle-class,
young, white females and is also known as binge-purge syndrome. It is
characterized by overeating at least twice a week followed by purging by self-
induced vomiting, strict dieting and fasting, vigorous exercise or use of laxatives
or diuretics.

Causes of Bulimia
 Abnormal eating habits followed by binge-purge episodes.

Signs and Symptoms of Bulimia

 Compulsive and excessive exercising
 Flu
 Dry skin
 Acne
 Loss of hair

(e) Stroke/Cerebro-vascular Accident

The most common brain disorder is Cerebro-vascular Accident (C. V. A.) also
called stroke. CVAs are classified into two principal types; that is ischemic stroke
(the most common type, which is due to decreased blood flow in the artery), and
hemorrhagic stroke (due to a rupture of a blood vessel in the brain).

Causes of Stroke
Common causes of CVAs are:
 Intra-cerebral hemorrhage – from the blood vessel in the pia mater or brain.
 Emboli – blood clots in the blood vessel.
 Atherosclerosis (formation of cholesterol combining plagues that block blood
flow) of the arteries.
 A CVA is characterized by abrupt onset of persisting neurological deficits. Stroke
can also be caused by high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, heart disease,
narrowed carotid arteries, transient ischemic attacks, diabetes, smoking, obesity,
and excessive alcohol.

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Signs and Symptoms of Stroke
 Trouble with walking. You may stumble or experience sudden dizziness, loss of
balance or loss of coordination.

 Trouble with speaking and understanding. You may experience confusion. You
may slur your words or be unable to find the right words to explain what is
happening to you (aphasia). Try to repeat a simple sentence. If you can't, you may
be having a stroke.

 Paralysis or numbness on one side of your body or face. You may develop
sudden numbness, weakness or paralysis on one side of your body. Try to raise
both your arms over your head at the same time. If one arm begins to fall, you
may be having a stroke. Similarly, one side of your mouth may droop when you
try to smile.

 Trouble with seeing in one or both eyes. You may suddenly have blurred or
blackened vision, or you may see double.

 Headache. A sudden, severe "bolt out of the blue" headache, which may be
accompanied by vomiting, dizziness or altered consciousness, may indicate
you're having a stroke.

(f) High blood pressure/Hypertension

Hypertension is a medical condition in which one's blood pressure is abnormally
high; or systolic blood pressure is 140 mmHg or greater and diastolic blood
pressure is 90 mmHg or greater. Blood pressure of 120/80 mmHg is normal and
desirable in a healthy adult. Diastolic is relaxation of the heart muscle whereas
systolic is contraction of the heart muscle.

Hypertension is the most common disorder affecting the heart and blood vessels;
it is major cause of heart failure, kidney disease and stroke.

Causes of Hypertension
 Hypertension can be caused by many factors, but the most common known
causes include genetic pre-disposition, metabolic defects, stress, heredity, diet
(especially high sodium diet) and lack of exercise.

Signs and Symptoms of Hypertension

 Hypertension is often referred to as "the silent killer" because a person may not
experience any discernible symptoms. In many cases, the person experiences
these symptoms, but attributes them to other causes. These are some of the most

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 common symptoms of high blood pressure: A headache here and there is no
cause for alarm, but if it persists or occurs frequently, you may want to consider
seeing a doctor. Frequent nosebleeds for no apparent reason may be indicative
of elevated blood pressure. Seeing double or having blurred vision may be
signs of hypertension. Dizziness is often experienced by people with
hypertension. Dizziness can also be an indication of low blood pressure. Either
way, persistent dizziness should be reported to your physician.
(g) Other conditions and diseases associated with poor nutrition, alcohol, drug
abuse (substance abuse) and sedentary living are:
 Diabetes mellitus
 General weakness
 Brain damage
 Dehydration
 Addiction
 Low back pain
 Colon cancer

THE EFFECTS OF NUTRITION, ALCOHOL, DRUGS (INCLUDING TOBACCO), HIV AND

AIDS AND THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON LONG TERM GOOD HEALTH

NUTRITION
Some foods are good for us whist others are not. A balanced, healthy diet is one that
provides us with the nutrients we need, in correct proportion, and does not lead to ill
health – often simply because we eat too much of a particular food group, such as
sugars or fats. A balanced diet has seven essential components: carbohydrates, fats,
protein, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre.

 Carbohydrate – is vital to the athlete since it is the primary energy fuel

(particularly during high intensity exercise), it is essential for the nervous system
to function properly and also determines fat metabolism in the body. Intake of
carbohydrate should comprise approximately 65% of the athlete’s diet.
Carbohydrate comes in various forms, including: simple sugars (glucose, fructose)
and complex starches (rice, pasta, potatoes).

Carbohydrate is stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen, but the amount
that can be stored here is limited and therefore regular re-fuelling is needed.
Even though carbohydrate is also available in the blood as glucose, it is rarely
used for muscle contraction. It is more widely used to supply the brain and
energy requirements of the nervous system. Excellent sources of carbohydrate
include cereals, fruit and vegetables and confectionery.

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 Fat – is also a major source of energy in the body, particularly during low
intensity exercise such as endurance activities. Up to 70% of our energy is derived
from fat during our resting state. Fat exists in the body as: triglycerides (the
stored form of fat), or fatty acids (the usable form of fat for energy production).

Muscles use a mixture of fat and glycogen. The mixture depends on how intense
the exercise is, how long it lasts and how fit you are. When oxygen is available to
the muscle cell, fatty acids constitute the favoured fuel for energy production, as
the body tries to spare the limited stores of glycogen for higher intensity bouts of
exercise and this can delay the effects of fatigue. This is known as glycogen
sparing. Through training, the body adapts by increasing its ability to use fat as a
fuel. The body, however, cannot use fat as its sole fuel source, due to its low
solubility in the blood. This means that transportation of fat to the muscle cell is
slow and so energy production in the muscle is usually fuelled by a combination
of glycogen and fat. Eating fat alone does not improve the muscle’s ability to
use it as a fuel source. The problems associated with excessive fat consumption
are well documented. Fat is found in butter, margarine, sunflower oil and
cooking oils.

It is recommended therefore that the athlete should keep the consumption of

fatty foods low (at a maximum of 30% of total calories consumed) which will
ensure adequate energy stores, good health and a greater proportion of calorie
intake to be supplied by carbohydrate.

 Proteins – are chemical compounds composed of chains of amino acids. Their

functions are to: help in tissue growth and repair (including muscle tissue);
provide enzymes, hormones and haemoglobin; build cells (including blood cells),
and can provide energy when glycogen and fat stores are low. Proteins are found
in meat, liver, chicken, eggs, fish, beans, lentils and nuts.

 Vitamins – are chemical compounds required only in small amounts by the body.
Vitamins occur in two main groups; which are fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D,
E and K) and water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C). Vitamins perform the
following functions. They: help aid growth, increase resistance to infection,
regulate some body functions, and help energy production and the
metabolism of certain foods. Generally the body can gain the required amounts
of vitamins through a well-balanced diet. Vitamins are largely found in fresh fruit
and vegetables and wholegrain cereals. Even though some vitamins, like vitamin
A and D, can be stored in the liver others like vitamin C cannot be stored. If you
eat more of it than you need, the extra is excreted. That means you must eat it
regularly.

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 Vitamin A is needed to see in dim light and for healthy skin. It is found in liver,
fish, vegetables, eggs, milk. It deficiency leads to night blindness and flaking skin.

Vitamin C is needed for healthy skin and gums and to help wounds heal. It is
found in oranges and other citrus fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium for strong bones and teeth. It is made by
skin in sunshine. Its deficiency leads to rickets.

 Minerals – are nutrients that are also required in relatively small amounts by the
body,
but are vital for tissue functioning. Minerals are just as important as vitamins.
Many of the minerals are dissolved by the body as ions and are called
electrolytes. These have the important function of maintaining the permeability
of the cell, and also aid the transmission of nerve impulses and enable effective
muscle contraction. Many minerals may be lost through sweating during exercise.
These must be replaced quickly and there is now a vast array of fluid replacement
products on the market designed for just that purpose.

Calcium is needed for strong bones and teeth and for muscle contractions.
Without calcium, you would have no bones, teeth or muscle contractions.
Calcium is found in cheese, dried fish, sardine, green vegetables. Deficiency leads
to fragile bones.

Iron is needed for haemoglobin, which helps transport oxygen, in red blood cells.
It is found in liver, beans, lentils, green vegetables; and it is also added to bread.
Iron deficiency leads to anaemia.

Iodine is used in hormone formation. Iodine deficiency leads to a swollen thyroid

gland (goitre).

Sodium regulates body fluids. Sodium deficiency can lead to condition known as
hyponatremia.

 Water – is a nutrient whose importance is sometimes neglected. Water does not

give energy, but around half the body weight is water. Up to a third of water in
the body is contained in the blood plasma. (Plasma carries oxygen via the red
blood cells to the working muscles, transports nutrients such as glucose and fatty
acids, transports hormones vital to metabolism and removes waste products such
as carbon dioxide and lactic acid). Water has many functions, some of which are
to: provide a catalyst for chemical reactions in the body, carry nutrients to and
removes waste products from the body cells, and help control body temperature.

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 Water loss through sweating is accelerated during prolonged exercise and in hot
conditions, and it is essential that this fluid is replaced in order to maintain a
good state of hydration. Dehydration of as little as 2% of body weight will have a
detrimental effect on performance. Even small losses of water can impair
performance and adversely affect work capacity in a number of ways. These
include: reducing the efficiency of the circulatory functioning largely by a drop in
blood pressure, which reduces blood flow to the active muscles; inhibiting the
thermoregulatory centre which can lead to problems such as heat stroke; and the
loss of electrolytes such as sodium, chloride and calcium.

 Dietary fibre or fibre – should be an essential part of every athlete’s diet. Fibre
is found (as cellulose) in all plant cells and is part of a plant that cannot be
entirely digested. Functions of fibre are that it: absorbs poisonous waste from
digested food; causes a bulk in the intestine, absorbing many times its weight in
water and helping the whole digestion and excretion process (this prevents
constipation and bowel cancer); and makes you feel full so you eat less. It is
found in fruit and vegetables, cereals, wheat, whole meal bread, whole meal
pasta, brown rice, beans, seeds, nuts

If the balance of nutrients is not right, there may be serious consequences for health.
Serious under-eating may lead to a condition known as anorexia, causing a severe loss
of weight and ill health. Alternatively, eating too much of all or some of the dietary
elements, and lack of exercise, may cause people to be overweight for their height and
weight. The extreme form of this condition is obesity.

What you eat before, during and after exercise will have a direct effect on how you
perform, either in training or in competition. Some athletes seek to manipulate dietary
intake before competition in order to optimise performance. One method of doing this
is by carbohydrate loading or super-compensation, also known as glycogen loading
or carbo-loading. This process involves depleting the glycogen levels seven days prior to
the event by doing endurance-based training, and then starving the body of
carbohydrate over the following three days by omitting such foods from the diet. For
the remaining days leading up to competition the athlete will consume high
carbohydrate meals to boost muscle glycogen stores up to twice that normally stored.
This method of manipulation is widely practised in endurance events and maximises
energy production via the aerobic pathway.

ALCOHOL
All alcoholic drinks contain a chemical called ethanol. It is what makes people drunk.
Alcohol does not do much harm in small quantities but larger quantities are dangerous.

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Drinking alcohol is a socially accepted activity. Alcohol is associated with the relaxing
social side of sport and in moderation it’s an enjoyable aspect of most people’s lives.

Dangers or effects
 Alcohol affects coordination, judgment, balance, speech and hearing.
 It can make people aggressive.
 It causes the blood vessels of the skin to dilate, so body heat is rapidly lost. This
can be fatal in cold weather.
 It lowers the level of glycogen in the muscles. This means they can’t work so
long or so hard.
 Athletes who drink too much lose their drive to train and compete.
 Long term alcohol abuse leads to kidney and liver damage.
 Alcohol is a diuretic drug, which means that it increases the loss of fluid through
urination. Since water is so essential in performance, this is obviously something
performers wish to avoid.
 Alcohol also slows down reaction time and may lead to unjustified confidence in
ability or a misguided assessment of a situation – these are the reasons why it is
illegal to drink and drive.

DRUGS

Types of drugs used Reasons for use Side effects Which sports
Anabolic steroids – Promote muscle Liver damage Power and
‘artificially produced growth. Heart disease explosive events
male Increase lean body Acne e.g. weight
hormones’ e.g. weight. Excessive lifting
nandrolone Ability to train harder aggression athletics
with Females: swimming
testosterone less fatigue. Male features
Repair body after stress. Irregular periods
Increase aggression.
Narcotic analgesics – Reduce amount of pain. Highly addictive All sports
‘pain Mask injury. Increase initial
killers’ e.g. morphine Increase pain limit. injury
methadone Breathing
problems
Nausea and
vomiting
Stimulants – Reduce tiredness Rise in blood Cycling
‘stimulate Increase alertness pressure Boxing
body mentally and Increase Rise in body

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physically’ competitiveness temperature.
e.g. amphetamine Increase aggression Increased heart
ephedrine beat
Loss of appetite
Addiction
Death

Beta blockers – can Steady nerves Low blood Shooting

be Stop trembling pressure Archery
used medically Slow heart rate Snooker
e.g. antenolol Tiredness Diving
propranolol
Diuretics – ‘remove Lose weight quickly Dehydration Jockeys
fluid Increase rate of passing Faintness Boxers
from body’ urine Dizziness
e.g. triameterine Muscle cramps
bendrofluazide
Peptide hormones – Stimulate growth of Muscle wasting Similar to
‘naturally Naturally occurring Abnormal growth steroids
occurring’ steroids of hands and feet
e.g. Build muscle EPO – increases
erythropoietin/HCG Mend tissue cells
analogues Increase oxygen in blood
‘synthetic’ transport Clotting
e.g. EPO Stroke
Blood doping – Body gets more energy Allergic reactions Running
injection to Hepatitis or AIDS Cycling
of blood to increase Work i.e. more oxygen Overload Marathons
number for aerobic exercise circulatory Skiing
of red blood cells system
Blood clots
Tobacco – social drug Used just for fun Addictive None
used Increase heart rate
for fun and blood
pressure.
Reduce fitness
levels
Loss of smell, taste
and appetite.
Less resistance to
illness e.g.
bronchitis

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 Increase risk of
heart
disease.

TOBACCO
Smoking is harmful to your health, and has serious consequences for the components of
fitness.

Dangers or effects
 Smoking makes heart rate and blood pressure rise, so it increases the likelihood
of heart malfunction or heart disease.
 Nicotine, which is a poison in tobacco, is addictive.
 It negatively affects the process of gaseous exchange.
 Smoke contains poisonous carbon monoxide which is picked by the red blood
cells in the lungs. This reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
 Smoking causes damage to and reduces the capacity and efficiency of the lungs.
 It increases the likelihood of blockages in the veins and arteries.
 It induces loss of smell, taste and appetite.
 There is less resistance to illnesses such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and throat
cancer.
 It reduces levels of fitness.
 Tar collects in the lungs and respiratory system, and clogs the lungs, and stops
your breathing properly.

THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF A PHYSICALY ACTIVE LIFESTYLE ON THE BODY

SYSTEMS AND ON GOOD GENERAL HEALTH

Recommendations from experts agree that for better health, physical activity should be
performed regularly. The most recent recommendations advise people of all ages to
include a minimum of 30 minutes of physical activity of moderate intensity (such as brisk
walking) on most, if not all, days of the week. It is also acknowledged that for most
people, greater health benefits can be obtained by engaging in physical activity of more
vigorous intensity or of longer duration. The following are long term effects of a
physically active lifestyle on the body systems and on good general health:

 A high level of physical activity helps one get fit, and therefore one will look good
and feel good.
 It helps improve mental wellbeing.

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  It relieves tension and stress which can cause high blood pressure and heart
disease. A good work-out helps get rid of the tension from a difficult day.
 It helps get rid of aggression.
 It strengthens the bones.
 It helps prevent diseases such as high blood pressure, back pain, heart disease
and cancer. Swimming and walking help people with asthma.
 It helps tone up the muscles of the back and abdomen so as to improve posture.
 It helps reduce body weight.

DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Exercise is defined as physical activity that is well planned, structured and repetitive. Its
aim is the improvement of health and physical fitness.
It is a form of physical activity done primarily to improve one’s physical fitness or
health.
It is an activity which requires energy above the resting level.

 A structured and planned physical activity.

 A single acute bout of bodily exertion.
 A healthy physical exertion.
 A muscular activity which require an expenditure of energy above resting level
and which generally results in voluntary movement.

Reasons why people exercise

 For health reasons. Exercise reduces chances of illness and increases life
expectancy.
 To gain and maintain fitness. It increases strength and fitness and general fitness.
 To deal with stress and anxiety.
 To help improve body shape, posture and muscle tone.
 For fun or as a recreational activity.

FACTORS AFFECTING FITNESS

AGE
People are usually at their fittest in their twenties. From their thirties onwards fitness
fails because:
 Muscles get weaker.
 Bones get lighter, brittle and weak.

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  Heart rate decreases.
 Joints get stiffer so one becomes less flexible.
 Body movement gets slow; that is, both reaction speed and limb speed decrease.
 Body fat increases.

SEX/GENDER
Up to about age of 11, males and females are equal in terms of general fitness. But
things change from then on because of the following factors:
 Strength – Males grow 50% stronger because they have more muscle mass. The
male muscle testosterone promotes the growth of muscle and bone. It is released
at puberty.
 Cardiovascular Endurance – Males are better at transporting oxygen as they have
larger hearts and lungs, and more blood. Their red blood cells contain more
haemoglobin which is the oxygen carrier.
 Bone Structure – Males are usually larger and heavier than females. They also
have a narrower pelvis. This makes it easier to transmit power between the legs
and trunk, which is an advantage in most sports.
 Speed – Because they have longer bones and bigger muscles, males can move
faster. This means they can generate more power.
 Flexibility – Females score higher for flexibility. Females of all ages tend to be
more flexible.
 Body Composition- Females usually have more body fat than males. Fat acts as
padding and keeps the body warm, but it is a disadvantage in women since it is
extra weight to carry and it puts extra strain on the heart, joints and muscles.

PHYSIQUE
 Your build and shape makes you fitter for some sports than others.
 A tall thin person is probably more suited to basketball than boxing.

DIET
 Your body needs nutrients for energy, growth and repair.
 You get them from food.
 If you don’t eat healthy then your body will not function properly. You have to
eat for health and fitness.

EXERCISE
 No matter how unfit you are, regular exercise will make you fitter.
 Running and doing weights is not the only way.
 Walking the dog, cycling, gardening, etc, are some.

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PHYSICAL DISABILITY
 A disability means part of your body does not function properly.
 Exercise can keep the rest of the body very fit.
 Many disabled people are first class athletes.

ILLNESS AND FATIGUE

 When you are tired or ill you are less fit for activity.
 If you work too hard and do not have enough rest you can become ill.

DRUG TAKING
 Alcohol, cigarettes and many other substances lower your fitness.
 If you get caught for taking drugs in competition you get a large fine and a ban
from your sport.

STRESS
 Stress (or anxiety) and arousal can act as both motivators and depressors of
performance levels. Either, or both, in moderate amounts can act as a spur to
better performance.
 Exams, arguments, overwork, money problems – all these lead to stress.
 Continual stress can lead to illness, causing high blood pressure and heart
disease. It is also linked to cancer.
 Short term stress can affect your performance in sports events. Your muscles
become tense, you can’t concentrate, and you make mistakes.
 One good way to deal with stress is to practice relaxation.

ENVIRONMENT
 Fumes from traffic and factories over long periods of time will change your lungs
and make breathing difficult. This means your fitness suffers.
 The weather – hot, cold, humidity. Your performance in sport events is affected
by hot, humid environment since you can overheat, which makes you weak and
dizzy.
 At high altitude the air is thinner and you need to breathe harder to get enough
oxygen.
 For all, you need time to adapt.
EDUCATION
 Educated people will have an advantage over uneducated people when it comes
to interpreting a training programme. They also know the importance of getting
fit hence they will take part in physical activities that enhance fitness.

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SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS
 People of lower social and economic status are less involved in physical activities
that make them fit because they can’t afford to buy training gear with the little
they have. Most times you find that they are less informed on issues of health
and fitness.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
Training to improve an athlete's performance obeys the principles of training. Principles
of training are guidelines to training. Training is a programme of exercise to help you
reach your fitness goals.

Principles of Warm-up and Cool down

Adequate warm-up should pre-cede every training session. This helps to raise body
temperature, increase blood flow, and make soft tissue such as muscles and tendons
more supple and prepare the body for the demands of the training or performance
ahead. Warm-up helps the boy prepare for the activity ahead and prevents injury. The
body needs to be well prepared for physical exercise. It is not such a good idea to
suddenly begin strenuous activity and expect the body’s systems to adapt instantly
and without injury. Cool down is just as important as warm-up.

Cool-down is where you help your body to recover after vigorous exercise by doing
gentle exercise such as jogging. This helps to keep your circulation going, so more
oxygen reaches the muscles and lactic acid is cleared away faster. Cool-down helps a
player perform better next time, and speeds the recovery process. It also slows the heart
rate down gradually to stop the feeling of being lightheaded. Stretching follows so as to
help loosen up the muscles and prevent stiffness. After heavy exercise muscles often get
very tight. Cool-down reduces the phenomenon of venous pooling of blood and the
possibility of sore or tight muscles.
Principle of individualization
This principle assumes that everyone is different, and your training should be structured
to fit your own individuality. Your fitness routine should be adapted to your needs and
goals, and your physical body. Scientific principles provide excellent tools, and there are
lots of very well-planned programs available, but your program must be effective for
you and your unique needs!

Principle of Specificity
This principle implies that for training to be most effective it must be specific to the
activity or aspect of fitness for which it is intended. This means you must first decide
what you want to improve and then choose the right exercises. To improve in a sport,
you must exercise the muscles and joints you use in the sport and at the speed you use

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them. For example, to improve the range of movement for a particular joint action, you
have to perform exercises that involve that joint action. It is quite possible for an athlete
to have good flexibility in the shoulder joint but to have poor hip flexibility. Conducting
shoulder flexibility exercises may further improve the shoulder flexibility but it will not
affect hip flexibility.

In addition to developing general levels of all round flexibility in an athlete, coaches

need to consider the specific flexibility requirements of a given event. The coach can
analyze the technique of his/her event, identify which joint actions are involved and
determine which need to be improved in terms of the range of movement. A thrower,
for example, might require improvements in his/her shoulder and spine flexibility. A
hurdler might need to develop his/her hip flexibility.

The amount and nature of the flexibility training required by each athlete will vary
according to the individual athlete's event requirements and his/her individual range of
movement for each joint action. It may be necessary to measure the range of movement
for particular joint actions to determine the present range and future improvement.

Specificity is an important principle in strength training, where the exercise must be

specific to the type of strength required, and is therefore related to the particular
demands of the event. The coach should have knowledge of the predominant types of
muscular activity associated with his/her particular event, the movement pattern
involved and the type of strength required. Although specificity is important, it is
necessary in every schedule to include exercises of a general nature (e.g. power clean,
squat). These exercises may not relate too closely to the movement of any athletic event
but they do give a balanced development and provide a strong base upon which highly
specific exercise can be built.

Principle of Periodization
Periodization is the process by which a season or year is broken down into a number of
phases that address specific training needs or goals. One of the most important aspects
of training is the systematic assembly of training into a cohesive unit.

Principle of Overload
This is forcing the body to work harder than usual or beyond its current known limits.
When an athlete performs a flexibility exercise, he/she should stretch to the end of
his/her range of movement. In active flexibility, the end of the range of movement is
known as the active end position. Improvements in flexibility can only be achieved by
working at or beyond the active end position.

A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity.
The load must be progressively increased in order to further adaptive responses as

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training develops, and the training stimulus is gradually raised. Overload can be
progressed by:
 increasing the resistance e.g. adding 5kg to the barbell
 increasing the number of repetitions with a particular weight
 increasing the number of sets of the exercise (work)
 increasing the intensity- more work in the same time, i.e. reducing the recovery
periods

The FITT principle

The FITT Principle describes how to safely apply the principles of overload and
progression:
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type of exercise

Frequency
Frequency is how often a person performs the targeted health-related physical activity.
For each component of health-related fitness, a safe frequency is three to five times a
week.

Intensity
Intensity is how hard a person exercises during a physical activity period. Intensity can
be measured in different ways, depending on the health-related component. For
example, monitoring heart rate is one way to gauge intensity during aerobic endurance
activities, but gives no indication of intensity during flexibility activities.

Time
Time is the length of the physical activity or how long the activity lasts. As with the other
aspects of the FITT principle, time varies depending on the health-related fitness
component targeted. For example, flexibility or stretching may take 10-30 seconds for
each stretch, while the minimum time for performing aerobic activity is 20 minutes of
continuous activity.

Type of exercise
Type of exercise, refers to the specific physical activity chosen to improve a component
of health-related fitness. For example, an individual wishing to increase arm strength
must exercise the triceps and biceps, while an individual wishing to increase aerobic
endurance needs to jog, run, swim or perform some other aerobically challenging
activity.
Principle of Progression

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This means that to continue to develop, increase, grow and improve the systems being
trained the body must be subjected to overload progressively. Exercise levels should be
built up gradually or progressively. Moving too quickly from basic level of training to the
advanced level of training does not enable smooth progression but you risk torn
muscles and other injuries, and improvement in fitness would be harder to gain. This
overload does not necessarily occur on a daily basis, but should span successive days,
months and years. Progression can be achieved by ensuring that three specific pathways
are followed; that is from easy to difficult, general to specific and quality to quantity.
Greatest gains are found at the start of a programme and subsequently slow down.

Principle of variation
This means you should vary your routine to work all your muscle groups. The body is an
efficient machine, and can get adjusted to the same routine. So to prevent boredom,
staleness and injury through training it is necessary to ensure that the training
programme employs a range of training methods and loads so as not to impose too
much psychological or physiological stress on the performer.

Principle of Recovery
The Principle of Recovery dictates that your body must build back up after you break it
down during workouts. Your body rebuilds when you rest. This is when your muscles
make specific changes you are targeting according to the type of workouts you do. This
principle is also known as the Principle of Recuperation or Rest Principle.

Rest is required in order for the body to recover from the training and to allow
adaptation to take place. You must give your body’s systems adequate time to recover
following a training session or you run the risk of overtraining. There is no simply way of
determining how much recovery you need it’s simply a judgment call on how you feel.
If you feel stronger and able to work hard during a session it is a good sign that you
have recovered. If however you feel tired, sluggish and unable to meet aims of the
session it is a good indicator of not being fully recovered. The amount of time needed
for recovery after a session will be based on:
The intensity of the session
The duration of the session
Current fitness level
Diet

Principle of Adaptation
The body will react to the training loads imposed by increasing its ability to cope with
those loads. Adaptation occurs during the recovery period after the training session is
completed.

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If exercises lasting less than 10 seconds (ATP-CP energy system) are repeated with a full
recovery (approximately 3 to 5 minutes) then an adaptation in which stores of ATP and
CP in the muscles are increased.
This means more energy is available more rapidly and increases the maximum peak
power output. If overloads are experienced for periods of up to 60 seconds, with a full
recovery, it is found that glycogen stores are enhanced.
The most noticeable effect of weight training with heavy loads on fast twitch muscle
fibres is larger and stronger muscles (hypertrophy).

Principle of Reversibility or Detraining

This means improvements in fitness are reversible, or when training ceases the training
effect will also stop. It gradually reduces at approximately one third of the rate of
acquisition. Exercise harder and your body gets fitter, stop exercising and it loses its
fitness again. It takes only three or four weeks to get out of condition. Athletes must
ensure that they continue strength training throughout the competitive period,
although at a much reduced volume, or newly acquired strength will be lost. This means
that if you stop doing an activity, perhaps due to injury, then fitness is lost at the rate of
one-third of the time it took to gain.

Principle of Maintenance
This principle implies effectively sustaining achieved training gains or fitness level. For
example, if one wants to gain a certain level of fitness he/she must train at the same
level that made him/her reach that level of fitness in order to maintain or sustain it.
Training at a lower level would make him/her lose that fitness, and training at a higher
level would cause over-training. The ability to maintain fitness and performance
between training bouts is essential for top athletic performance. Modified and reduced
workouts administered at the appropriate time will allow an athlete to maintain
performance levels with minimal training.

TRAINING METHODS

(i) Interval training

 This is intermittent training with periods of high-intensity work
interspersed with rest or very low-activity periods. Distances above
30 metres or times of thirty seconds - 5 minutes are used to decide
the work rate. After each activity a set time or distance is allotted
for the rest or very light-activity period. During this rest period, the
oxygen debt which will have occurred during the work phase can be
repaid. The activity is restarted and the process continues for a
number of repetitions and sets. Interval training needs careful
planning, as the duration, intensity of work and rest phases need to
be carefully matched to the level of fitness of the athlete. Interval

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 training can be used for most team games and is an effective and
accurate method for training athletes in athletics and swimming.

(ii) Continuous training/Long slow-distance

 This involves working without rest for long periods at a moderate
intensity, about 75 per cent of maximum. Fitter sports people can
work at a higher rate than this. Continuous activity such as running,
swimming and aerobics classes mean that the heart rate and
breathing are maintained at a high level over a sustained period of
time. In fitness gyms, the same effect can be achieved by skipping,
running on a treadmill, or using rowing machines and exercise
cycles.

Activity needs to be maintained at the correct level for at least 15

minutes. Long slow-distance running is another way of continuous
training.

(iii) Aerobic circuit

 This is continuous training usually done to music, and involves the
use of legs, arms and whole-body movements. Variations of this
include:
→ step classes: similar routines are carried out, but a step is used to
maximize body effort. Steps can be varied in height for different
fitness levels.
→ aquaerobics: is performed in water. The resistance of the water to
movement is a useful way of increasing the work rate, while the
buoyancy of the water relieves stress on the joints.
→ chair aerobics: this is an effective way of maintaining fitness for
older people and wheelchair users.

(iv) Fartlek, or speed-play

 Based on Swedish training methods, the word means ‘speed
play’. Athletes can vary their pace and style of running and
walking as they wish. There are no fixed amounts of each activity,
and much depends on how the athlete feels during training, which
could take place on a track, or cross country. Because of its
flexibility, both aerobic and anaerobic systems can be improved. It
is both enjoyable and a valuable method of training, giving variety
and maintaining motivation. Athletes need to have a planned
session however, to make the best use of this training. A typical
session might be:
→ 5-minute slow jog

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 → 3-minute normal jog
→ 3-minute fast walk
→ 5-minute fast jog
→ 2-minute hopping alternate legs
→ 5-minute 30-metres sprint / 30 metre walk
→ 3-minute fast jog
→ 2-minute fast walk
→ 2-minute cool down

(v) Circuit training

 Circuit training was originally devised to improve fitness levels with
large numbers of people in a small space during a relatively short
session. A minimum amount of equipment is needed, as the
performer’s body provides the ‘weight’. It is a highly adaptable
form of training suitable for different aspects of fitness and skills or
both at the same time.

 Areas or equipment in the gym or hall (or outside) have specified

activities. These locations are known as stations. After completing
the activities at one station, the subject then moves to the next
station in the correct order. Activities at each station differ, so that
different muscle groups can recover while other muscle groups are
working. There may be five to fifteen stations, and the activities will
be determined by the type of circuit planned. Activities at each
station will be repeated a specified number of times or for a fixed
period of time. There may be rest intervals between activities, or
better still a range of low-intensity activities interspersed, allowing
oxygen debt to be repaid. An example of circuit training could be a
nine-station circuit to improve cardiovascular and strength fitness:
→ sit ups – abdominals
→ bench dips – arms
→ step-ups – legs
→ squat thrusts – abdominals and legs
→ press ups – arms
→ shuttle runs – legs
→ burpees – abdominals
→ pull-ups – arms
→ star jumps – legs

(vi) Weight training

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  This is training which involves the use of weights. Dynamic,
explosive and static strength are all dependent on the force exerted
by the muscles. Weight training is an effective way to improve
muscle strength, but the type of strength which will be developed
determines how this is applied. The general principles of developing
strength are as follows:
→ a light weight moved many times increases muscular endurance
→ a medium weight moved very fast will increase explosive strength
→ a heavy weight moved a few times will increase static strength.

Weight training can be done with barbells (a bar with weights at

each end) and dumbbells (similar to barbells but with a very short
bar). These are often referred to as free weights. Weight-training
machines have now replaced barbells and dumbbells in schools,
colleges, fitness gyms and sports centres. Although there are many
ways of using loose weights, some machines are able to exercise
muscle groups which could not be achieved previously with loose
weights.

(vii) Altitude training

 This is training at high altitude above sea level. Training at altitude
is particularly important for distance runners, as at a high altitude
there is less oxygen available, and the body increases the mass of
red blood cells as well as levels of haemoglobin to cope with this.
When the athlete returns to sea level there are normal amounts of
oxygen and the athlete is able to make better use of this and so
increase his or her performance in endurance events. Athletes who
live at high altitude and train at sea level are able to increase the
oxygen –carrying capacity of the blood.

(viii) Plyometrics
 This is an effective way of improving explosive strength. It involves
rapidly stretching a muscle, and using the energy generated in the
elastic part of the muscle. The muscle then contracts using the
stored energy.
An example of this type of training is a simple jumping exercise. On
landing there is little flexion at the knee and ankle joints. As soon as
the feet touch the ground, the next jump should be made,
minimizing the time in contact with the ground.

(ix) Anaerobic training

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  This involves training at high intensity for a short period of time. In
many sports short bursts of activity are needed: in netball a fast
movement at the centre pass to receive the ball, in athletics the run
up phase in the long jump and in cricket running to field the ball on
the boundary. Training is done by repetitions of sprints over short
distances of between 10-20 metres, or up to ten seconds sprinting
with appropriate rest periods (the work/rest ratio should be around
1:5). The work rate can be increased by sprinting up an incline. If
distances are increased then it is important to run at maximum
speed.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRAINING METHODS

METHOD OF ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

TRAINING
Interval - You can mix aerobic and - Needs careful and
anaerobic work. accurate planning.
- Less chance of boredom. - Increases risk of injury due
- Easy to see when an athlete to higher intensity.
gives up. - More time is needed.
- Easy to monitor progress.
- Can be very sports-specific, e.g. sprints.

Continuous - May not require much equipment. - Does not develop anaerobic
- Easy to organize. fitness and change of pace is
- Time efficient. required for many sporting
- Training levels easily controlled by the activities.
sportsman or woman. - Can be monotonous.
- Trains cardiovascular and muscular - May not be specific to some
endurance. activities, e.g. team sports.
- Less chance of injury because of - Difficult to measure training
lower intensity. amounts.
- Can be sports-specific, e.g. distance
running.
Aerobic circuit - Time efficient. - Needs access to equipment.
- Can train at high intensity. - Higher risk of injury to joints.
- Can be very sports-specific.
Fartlek - Trains at a higher intensity than in - May not be sports-specific.
continuous training. - Higher intensity may increase
- Adds variety of pace. risk of injury.
- Range of both aerobic and anaerobic - Difficult to measure training
training. amounts.
- Can be adapted for different sports. - Needs self-discipline to

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 maintain work rates.
Circuit - Can be very sports-specific. - Need access to equipment.
- Time efficient. - Needs considerable
- Trains cardiovascular and muscular organization and planning.
endurance as well as strength. - May need specialist
- Variety of activities keep motivation equipment.
levels high. - No maximal improvements in
- Adaptable for fitness and skills for endurance and strength.
a variety of sports.
- Can be done with little specialist
equipment.
- Can incorporate aerobic, anaerobic
and weight-training exercises.
- Can accommodate large numbers of
people in a small area.
Weight training - Specific muscle groups can be - Special equipment needed,
targeted. which can be expensive, as well
- Can be adapted for most sports. as needing a suitable location.
- Muscles’ strength and endurance - Needs to be well planned, so
can be quickly increased. that the correct training of
isometric, isotonic and
isokinetic exercises are used.
Altitude training - Very effective for training for events - Expensive, particularly for
which require good aerobic levels. countries which do not have
- Good preparation for events to be high mountains, such as UK
held at both high altitude and at lower and the Netherlands.
levels.

Plyometrics - Little specialist equipment required. - Not suitable for

- Can be used for sports. inexperienced sports-
- Develops muscle. men and women.
- Training levels not easily
measured.
Anaerobic - Very specific. - Little variety possible in this
Muscle tolerate lactic acid better (OBLA) type of training.
Effective for activities requiring explosive
strength

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 MODULE 5: ADVENTURE EDUCATION

TOPIC: LEISURE AND RECREATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module learners should be able to:

 Differentiate between leisure and recreation.
 Participate in leisure and recreational activities.
 Explain the benefits of positive use of leisure time.
 Analyse data relating to leisure and recreational activities in a given area.
 Share skills of leisure and recreational activities with others.
 Explain how individuals and communities utilize physical recreational facilities in a
given environment.
 Discuss factors that exclude different groups of people from participating in
physical recreational activities.
 Discuss ways of promoting physical recreation in a selected area.
 Discuss ways of bringing the communities to leisure and recreational centres.
 Discuss ways of protecting the environment and self.
 Maintain an orderly and safe environment when engaged in a variety of activities.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEISURE AND RECREATION

Leisure means free time or spare time one has when not working or sleeping. It can also
be termed as freedom from occupation, employment or engagement. This is the time in

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which one may make voluntary choices. Leisure is the means by which recreation takes
place, or it is the opportunity for recreation to occur. There are two types of leisure; that
is active leisure and passive leisure.
 Active leisure activities involve the exertion of physical or mental energy. This
include low-impact physical activities that include walking and yoga, which
expend little energy and have little contact or competition and high-impact
activities such as kick-boxing and football that consume much energy and are
competitive. Some active leisure activities involve almost no physical activity, but
do require a substantial mental effort, such as playing chess or painting a picture.
Active leisure and recreation overlap significantly.
 Passive leisure activities are those in which a person does not exert any
significant physical or mental energy, such as going to the cinema, watching
television, or gambling on slot machines. Some leisure experts discourage these
types of leisure activity, on the grounds that they do not provide the benefits
offered by active leisure activities. For example, acting in a community drama (an
active leisure activity) could build a person's skills or self-confidence.
Nevertheless, passive leisure activities are a good way of relaxing for many
people.
Recreation is what you do during free time, and play is one form of recreation.
 Recreation involves activity of some kind. It may be vigorous activity like playing
tennis or climbing a mountain, or the lesser effort of reading a book or listening
to music. It is action rather than rest.....physical, mental, or emotional action.
 Primary motivation for participating in the recreation activity is for personal
enjoyment and satisfaction.
 Recreation takes place during leisure.....free from obligations.
 Recreation is voluntary....freedom of choice by the participant.
 Recreation has no single form, pattern or setting. It can be planned or
spontaneous, organized or unorganized, involve many or just one, cost millions
of dollars or not a dime, and sponsored or unsponsored.
 Recreation is ALWAYS positive.

THE BENEFITS OF POSITIVE USE OF LEISURE TIME

 Improvements in health
 This improves the physical and mental health. You might take up jogging or
swimming for health reasons. Exercise helps to prevent illness and relieve stress.
It helps to improve shape. You will look and feel better and will probably live
longer.
 It helps people live longer
 It helps one to have a balanced and healthy lifestyle.
 Social benefits

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  It creates an opportunity for socialization (social wellbeing). This gives you the
chance to meet new people and make new friends. Activities such as skiing and
sailing can be very sociable. Some business people use golf as a good way to
entertain their contacts.
 Mental benefits
 It helps relieve stress and boredom, and improves on the individual’s wellness.
 Enjoyment
 You might go sailing or scuba diving or jazz dancing just because you love it, and
enjoy it.
 Helps individuals discover their talents.

Examples of recreational facilities

 Parks
 Game reserves
 Community halls
 Stadium
 Museums
 Cinemas

FACTORS THAT EXCLUDE DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PEOPLE FROM PARTICIPATING

IN PHYSICAL RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

 Time
 Due to the hectic lifestyles of people nowadays it becomes very difficult for
people to find time for recreational activities. They use the time they have trying
to meet their daily needs. This can also be compounded by long working hours
which leave little time for recreation.

 Education
 The level of education of individuals is important in some recreational activities
where instructions are given in written form, which would be difficult to
comprehend for uneducated individuals.

 Tradition and culture

 Some traditions and culture do not encourage participation in recreational
activities by females. Recreational activities were thought of being for men since
they involve aggression and violence which are characteristics of masculinity.

 Age

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 As people grow old they feel shy and embarrassed by their age. They associate
recreational activities with young people who are still active.

 Social and Economic status

 Most recreational activities require money to buy equipment and for entry fees.
This then means those who are not well to do financially are left out of
recreational activities.

 Locality/Environment
 If one lives in a locality where recreation takes place or where there are
recreational activities he/she would develop interest in recreational activities
unlike someone who lives where there is nothing at all. People in towns are
involved more in recreational activities than those who are in rural areas due to
availability of facilities, interest and exposure from media.

 Climate
 If climatic conditions are the right ones people will take part in recreational
activities. One might have a passion for skiing but if the climatic conditions are
not snowy that would be impossible.

 Peer group
 One’s friends might determine what they do during leisure time. If your friends
are not interested in recreational activities this might also influence you as well.

 Gender
 Females don’t take part in recreational activities in large numbers due to
circumstances surrounding feminity and stereotype.

 Facilities and equipment

 In some places facilities do not exist or distance to facilities is long, and this has
lead people to have nothing to use for them to participate.

 Skill level
 Some recreational activities require a certain level of skill to perform which might
exclude those without skill.

 Religion
 Some religions view sport and recreational activities as encouraging nudity. By so
doing they discourage their members from taking part.

 Disability

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  Many recreational facilities are not favourable to disabled people, and this
exclude disabled people who need modified facilities that suit their needs.

WAYS OF BRINGING THE COMMUNITIES TO LEISURE/RECREATIONAL CENTRES

 Giving information about the about availability of recreational centres.

 Information can be given through the word of mouth or any media about
availability of facilities. This would encourage those with interest to take part.
 Advertising the programmes they have.
 This can be done by billboards or I newspapers.
 Promote competition in communities.
 Reducing entry fees to recreational facilities.

WAYS OF PROMOTING PHYSICAL RECREATION IN THE COMMUNITY

 Involving prominent sports personalities

 Giving incentives
 Improving facilities
 Promoting formation of clubs

HOW INDIVIDUALS AND COMMUNITIES UTILISE PHYSICAL RECREATIONAL

FACILITIES IN THEIR COMMUNITIES

 Recreational parks
 People visit them to relax and for picnics, and this helps relieve stress and
boredom.

 Game Reserves
 People visit them to view different animal species and vegetation.

 Community halls
 They serve as recreational centres in their towns. This is where young people
meet and exchange talents in different areas.

 Stadium
 Stadia are used for sports competitions, talent identification and development.

WAYS OF PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SELF

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  Do not pollute the environment. This can be through littering, loud noise, and
spilling of waste into water sources like rivers. Pollution has adverse effects on
plant and animal life.
 Avoid cutting down trees. Trees are very important as they act as wind breakers,
and also are a source of oxygen which is needed by people and animals.
 Recycle all recyclable waste where necessary.
 When camping try to dispose off all waste by burying it or burning it to protect
animals that might eat it. Extinguish all camp fires to avoid bush fires.

MODULE 7: SPORT AND SOCIETY

TOPIC: SPORT PARTICIPATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter learners should be able to:

 Define sport in the context of society.
 Discuss sporting activities in society.
 Describe organizational structure of sporting activities in society.
 Recognize various levels of participation in sport.
 Voluntarily organize and run sports activities at local level.
 Discuss the role of the National Sports Organising bodies.
 Discuss the functions of a sports club.
 Explain the role of the local authority in sport such as the chief, regional sports
officers, BISA, coaches, department of sports and recreation and youth and
culture.
 Explain factors which affect participation in sport such as motivation, level of skill,
gender, age, physique, stress, facilities, etc.
 Explain societal perceptions and attitudes towards participation in sport.
 Discuss the importance of sport and its place in society.
 Explain the role of sport in society.
 Differentiate between positive and negative aspects of sport through issues such

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 as doping, substance abuse, good/bad sponsorship, tolerance, racism, gender,
media influence, hooliganism and religion.
 Discuss the risks associated with doping and substance abuse.

WHAT IS SPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIETY?

 An activity involving physical exertion and skill that is governed by a set of rules
or customs and often undertaken competitively. It can also be done for exercise
or pleasure, usually in a special area and according to fixed rules. And society is a
community of people living in a particular region with shared organisations,
customs, laws, etc.

SPORTING ACTIVITIES IN SOCIETY

 Softball
 Basketball
 Judo
 Rugby
 Wrestling
 Netball
 Swimming
 Cricket
 Tennis
 Athletics
 Hockey
 Football
 Archery
 Badminton
 Boxing
 Table tennis
 Karate

LEVELS OF PARTICIPATION IN SPORT

 School level
 Club level
 District/Regional level
 National level
 International level

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PROVIDERS OF RECREATIONAL FACILITIES IN THE COMMUNITY

 Public sector/Local authority

 Private sector
 Voluntary sector

THE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF SPORT

1. The Organisational Structure of a sports club

The organizational structure of any sport club is very similar. Clubs are made up of
members, who elect a committee which help run the affairs of the club on behalf of
the members since all the members cannot run the club.

(a) Members
 People who belong to a club are its members. In most clubs members take part
in club activity, although may not always be active. Club members are the life-
hood of the club: they pay subscription fees that finance the club, they take part
in activities of the club, and they participate in fundraising events for the club.

(b) Committee
 Even in the smallest clubs, it would be difficult for every member to be involved
in making decisions about the club. Therefore members usually elect a smaller
number of people to look after the club’s affairs. This is usually known as a
committee and these are the officials of the club (not to be confused with match
officials who control the games). Members of the committee tend to have skills in
running the club. The committee comprises of the following:
 Chairperson: This is usually the most important official in the club, and is the
person in overall charge of a club with major responsibilities. They will chair
meetings and make decisions regarding the club on their own, and with the help
of other committee members. They represent the club at special events.
 Treasurer: This is the person in charge of the finances of the club. They may have
to collect money such as match fees and make sure that accounts are produced
for all sales and purchases. They also pay the club’s bills. Each year the treasurer
will have to produce a set of accounts showing how the money was raised and
spent throughout the year.
 Secretary: He / She arrange committee meetings, and carry out club
correspondence. During a meeting they will take notes, which are known as
minutes. After meetings, the secretary will let the rest of the members know what
the committee has decided.

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 Vice – Chairperson: If the Chairperson is ill or unable to attend a meeting, then
the Vice – Chair will stand in.
 Club Captain: This is the person who might be in charge of one or other of the
playing teams. They have to pick or select teams and probably be in charge of
them in a competitive situation.
 President/Vice-President/Patron: The President or his vice are not usually
involved with the running of the club. They are often appointed to this special
position because they are well known people in the community who might raise
the profile and improve the image of the club. They may or may not have been
club members; in some cases they may not have even played the sport.

In larger clubs there may be more officials such as fixtures secretary, a coach, a
physical trainer, a physiotherapist, a team doctor, etc. In most clubs the officials are
voluntary they do not get paid for the work they do for the club). They are usually
club players or former players and have a commitment to their sport or club. Quite
often they have specialist skills which are useful in running the club. The treasurer
may be an accountant, or the coach might be a P. E. teacher with special skills in a
particular sport. As clubs get larger, officials might get paid for work they do. They
then become officers rather than officials although they still work for the club
members.

2. The Organisational Structure of Botswana National Sports Commission (B.

N. S. C)

The Botswana National Sports Commission is the umbrella body that controls sport
in Botswana. All the governing bodies fall under it hence they are called affiliates of
B. N. S. C. The B. N. S. C. executive committee is made up of affiliates of B. N. S. C.
which are governing bodies of each sports code in the country. The B. N. S. C.
executive committee is the one which takes decisions, which are implemented by the
administrative staff of the B. N. S. C. The administrative staff is employed to perform
the day to day duties of the council on daily basis, and is headed by the Chief
Executive Officer who also sits in the executive committee. Members of the executive
committee are not employees of B. N. S. C. they only hold elective office. The
executive committee is made up of the following members:
 Chairperson: The chairperson of the Botswana National Sports Commission is
appointed by the minister responsible for sport.
 Executive Secretary: The executive secretary is the Chief Executive Officer and he
heads the administrative staff of B. N. S. C. He is the only one in the committee
who is a full-time employee of the council.
 Vice-Chairperson
 Treasurer

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  Three Additional members

The Vice-Chairperson, Treasurer and three Additional members are elected by the
affiliates of the sports council at the general meeting where all sports codes are
represented.

THE FUNCTIONS OF SPORTS CLUBS

The role of any local club in any sport is:

 To provide facilities for members.
 To organize competitions for members.
 To promote the sport and encourage new members. One good way to encourage
new members is to make links with local schools, this also benefits schools.
 To bring people together.
 To provide opportunities for members to participate at high levels of
competition.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPORTS CLUB

 Membership is voluntary; that is, you join because you want to do it, not because
you are told to do so.
 Members pay a subscription fee.
 Clubs have to affiliate to sport associations.
 A club participates in different competitions.
 A club is made up of members.

THE ROLE OF THE LOCAL AUTHORITY IN SPORT

The local authority include such people or institutions as the chief, regional sports
officers, BISA, coaches, the town council, the department of sports and recreation or the
department of youth and culture.
 They provide facilities and equipment for schools and communities for recreation,
e.g. recreational parks, swimming pools, golf courses, playgrounds and
community halls.
 They encourage as many people as possible to play sport.

Responsibilities of sports governing bodies

A governing body is a body that runs a particular sporting code.

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  Organising local and national competitions. This can range from local leagues
and teams right through to international competitions.
 Team selection; they choose and select regional and international teams and
players.
 To keep players and participants informed; ranging from coaching
information, rule changes, equipment provision, etc.
 Maintaining relationships with the media; including negotiating television
rights and advertising, etc.
 Drafting the rules and laws of the game or activity; this includes upholding
them and considering any changes.

THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL SPORTS ORGANISING BODIES

National sports organising bodies are such bodies as BISA and BNSC. They help
organize sports at a national level.
 Advice government on sport matters.
 Provide a channel for participation at national and international level.
 To develop sports facilities for the community.
 To coordinate sport.
 To develop sports opportunities for women and people with disabilities.
 To work with the governing bodies to develop sport at “grass roots” level,
especially among young people.
 To bring people together through sport.
 Arrange fixtures for games.
 Publicity: helps publicize sport.
 Finance sport.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PARTICIPATION IN SPORT

(a) PHYSIQUE
 Physique refers to the physical make up, or the body type, or body build, or body
structure, or body composition of a person. Physique can greatly influence
participation and performance in sports. Being tall is important for basketball and
volleyball. Being tall and heavy is ideal for many positions in rugby particularly in
scrimmaging and line-outs. Many leading backs in rugby are big and when
moving fast, they are difficult o stop. So people’s size, weight and shape may
help them to participate in some sports but not in others. Success in sports
depends to a large extent on your body build. SOMATOTYPING is a way to
describe body build. It looks at how fat, how muscular, and how linear you are, in
that order. The three body types are as follows:

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  Endomorph
 Wide hips and narrow shoulders (pear shaped).
 A lot of fat in the body.
 A lot of fat on the upper arms and thighs.
 Quite slim wrists and ankles.
 Suitable for weightlifting

 Mesomorph
 Broad shoulders and narrow hips (wedge-shaped).
 A large head.
 A muscular body.
 Strong forearms and thighs.
 Very little body fat.
 Suitable for activities which require strength and power.

 Ectomorph
 Narrow shoulders and hips.
 Narrow shoulders and hips.
 Thin face and high forehead.
 Thin narrow chest and abdomen.
 Thin legs and arms.
 Very little muscle or body fat.
 Suitable for activities which require endurance.

The following are some activities in which the body type can be an advantage:
 Gymnastics: Extreme mesomorphs are relatively short and small. This gives them
a low centre of gravity with a low body weight therefore allowing them to
perform rotation activities much more easily.
 Weightlifting: Extreme endomorphs are generally large with short legs in
relation to their trunks. This gives them a low centre of gravity with body bulk,
which greatly assists in lifting heavy weights.
 Basketball: Extreme ectomorphs are generally tall and thin. Their long legs and
long arms enable them to receive higher passes and shoot at the basket more
easily.
 Marathon: Ecto-mesomorphs have features of an ectomorph and a mesomorph,
the dominant feature being the ectomorph. They can be able to carry their
bodies over long distances since they are light with some bit of muscle strength
and endurance.

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N.B. THERE ARE FEW INSTANCES WHERE YOU FIND EXTREME BODY TYPES. MOST
TIMES BODY TYPES ARE A COMBINATION OF TWO BODY TYPES; E.G. ENDO-
MESOMORPH, MESO-ECTOMORPH, ECTO-MESOMORPH, ETC.

(b) MOTIVATION
 Motivation is the desire, or enthusiasm, or driving force to succeed that makes
you perform at your best. It is also the drive to participate in a goal-orientated
activity (sport), which is usually associated with the expectation that there will be
beneficial experiences gained from that participation. Motivation can influence
how well or badly an individual will perform. The more motivated you are about
something the more likely you are to succeed. Motivation may be intrinsic or
extrinsic or a mixture of the two.

Types of motivation

 Intrinsic motivation
 This is the desire or drive to succeed that comes from within you or from the
activity itself. (Intrinsic means built in). In intrinsic motivation you enjoy the
activity and you want to experience the satisfaction and pride of winning or just
taking part. If you play a sport because you enjoy it and feel proud of your skill at
it, you are intrinsically motivated.

 Extrinsic motivation
 This is the desire or drive to succeed which comes from, external rewards, or is
stimulated by external factors. These may be winning a trophy, a prize, money,
medals or to please another person such as a coach. Extrinsic motivators such as
trophies and medals are used a great deal to encourage players. The Ryder Cup
for golf and FA Cup for football are examples. Money is an important motivator
for some sports.

Arousal and how it affects performance

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 Arousal is a state of excitement and alertness. Arousal helps improve
performance. At low arousal, people are lethargic and perform badly. Increased
arousal improves performance – but only to a point, after which increasing
arousal actually decreases performance. Before a competition you may reach a
high level of arousal. Increase in arousal beyond optimum level (over arousal) has
a detrimental effect on performance. Too little arousal causes the level of
performance to be low, but too much arousal causes control of behaviour to be
lost hence poor performance because of panicking. Arousal will be different
according to the complexity, nature of the task, and to specific situations. People
tend to perform best at medium level of arousal. Research has found that
different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal performance. For
example, difficult or intellectually demanding tasks may require a lower level of
arousal (to facilitate concentration), whereas tasks demanding stamina or
persistence may be performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase
motivation).

THE U-INVERTED THEORY

The physiological response of the body to arousal

 Production of adrenalin.
 Increased heart rate.

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 Increased breathing.
 Muscles tense in readiness for action.
 Sweaty palms.
 Dry mouth.

Causes of arousal

 The level of arousal for a sports event will affect performance. Things that can
cause, or increase, arousal are:
 A pep talk from the coach before an event.
 The warm up before the event.
 Having a definite goal you want to achieve in the event.
 Bright lights and lots of noise around you.
 Friendly or hostile sports fans looking on.

Techniques used to control anxiety as a result of over arousal

 Relaxation: Use techniques such as slow deep breathing and relaxing different
muscle groups in turn.
 Visualisation: This is where you go through the event in your mind in advance, in
detail. You “see” yourself performing well and staying calm and confident. It is
also called mental rehearsal.
 Focusing: You can concentrate completely on the activity you are about to
perform. You don’t allow any distractions to affect your concentration.
 Psyche-up the athletes before competition starts
 Adequate and proper training

(c) GENDER
 This is whether you are male or female

Reasons for low participation by women in physical and recreational activities

 Past attitudes to women: A hundred years ago women were regarded as fragile
creatures. It was thought that vigorous physical activity would harm their internal
organs and affect their ability to have children. It was also un-lady like to look
glowing, tousled and sweaty. A woman should look delicate. These attitudes
persisted for decades among both women and men.
 Lack of time and energy: The traditional role of a woman has been wife, mother
and homemaker. This leaves little time or energy for physical recreation. Now
many women work outside the home and bring up a family. That means even less
free time.

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 Lack of money: Women who don’t have a job outside the home often don’t
have the money to spend on physical recreation.
 Lack of access to facilities: The number of facilities is increasing but if a woman
at home does not have the use of a car, getting to a facility (especially with small
children in tow) can take enormous effort.

Reasons why more women take part in sport than in the past

 The sports council’s effort to promote sport for everyone. Nowadays women
are encouraged to take part in sport.
 Funds for facilities for women sports are available.
 Growth in popularity of certain activities that are targeted at women, and they
appeal to them e.g. step aerobics.
 Emergence of women role models in sport.
 Recognition that women can compete in events which in the past were
considered too strenuous for women have opened the door for women
participants, e.g. marathon, triple jump, pole vault, etc.
 Men and women are now competing on equal terms, e.g. equestrian sport.
 Recognition that exercise is good for health.
 There is greater economic freedom for women. Nowadays, more women earn
more and do not have to depend on men for money.

Reasons why less women took part in sport in the past

 Traditionally, women did not have equal opportunities to participate in sporting

activities due to:
 Clothing: The type of clothing they wore hampered performance.
 Motherhood: Women were expected to be homemakers and carers of the family.
 Social attitudes: Men always thought that they knew better and most events
were thought to be strenuous for women. Women were considered the weaker
sex.
 Lack of women role models in sport.
 Lack of money.
 Low or little media coverage
 Lack of coaches trained to handle women.
 Physique.
 Lack of sponsorship for women sports.
 Mistaken beliefs that sport is a men’s world.

(d) MEDIA

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 Media are all the means by which information is delivered to you or it is various
means of communication.

Types of media
 Magazine
 Television
 Newspaper
 Internet
 Mobile Phone
 Radio

Functions of media in sport

Media has several key functions within the world of sport which are as follows:

 Informing – e. g. news programmes. This type of programme tells people about

upcoming activities, and those that have already taken place.
 Educating – e. g. documentary programmes or student revision programmes.
This type of programme develops knowledge in the audience.
 Entertaining – e. g. programmes to allow people to enjoy their leisure time. This
type of programme provides excitement for an audience without actually having
to participate.
 Advertising – e. g. adverts between programmes or events. This is a key aspect
of modern sport as commercial sponsorship provides the money for sport to
develop and evolve, and the securing of this sponsorship relies upon media
coverage.

Positive influence of media coverage on sport

 The media helps to promote sport. More people can see, hear and read about
sport in the media.
 They create sports “stars” that may inspire young athletes. David Beckham and
Cristiano Ronaldo are examples.
 Sports that get a lot of media coverage, especially on TV, find it easier to attract
sponsorship. With sponsorship a sport can improve its facilities, equipment and
training.
 The media can educate and inform people about sport. For example, through
documentaries, coaching programmes and discussions on current issues.
 TV companies pay large sums of money to the governing bodies of sport for the
right to broadcast events. This is used to develop the sport.

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 The media can give a better understanding of performance which enables people
to either enjoy watching the activity more or even to improve their actual
performance. This can be achieved by slow motion replays of an activity (such as
gymnastics) which allows all of the movement to be shown in detail and
appreciated fully.
 The media will apportion a large amount of coverage to certain events. This will
raise their profile and make people more aware of them. An example of this is the
coverage of gymnastics within the Olympic Games, which triggers off an increase
in participation and membership in gymnastics clubs throughout the world.
When a sport gets a lot of media attention it becomes popular, and more people
get interested in playing it.
 Media has brought about changes in the rules and organization of cricket.
Television replays help with umpiring, i.e. third umpire. Miniature cameras giving
good action shots are always placed in cricket stumps.

Drawbacks of media coverage on sport

 This can also be termed as negative influence of media coverage on sport.

 The media may have excess coverage of certain activities. This can discourage
people from going along to see the event. As there is much coverage of
Premiership soccer on television viewers will watch these matches instead of
watching lower level games and the revenue these lesser clubs receive is
therefore reduced significantly.
 The media can interfere with the timings of events. This is done to cater for the
largest viewing audiences they can have. An example is cricket where there are
not only day/night matches but also games arranged out of normal playing
seasons to make sure there are sufficient matches.
 Media exposure may foster the desire to win at all cost rather than play for
enjoyment. An example is where athletes fail the drug test because of the desire
to win.
 Sports stars lose privacy. Their private lives get reported on. David Beckham was
once victim to this.
 The media may over - sensationalise events.
 There is pressure on managers and team captains to get results. The media may
hound them out of their jobs if they fail.
 The media may become very critical of referees/officials’ decisions hence
chasing potential referees from the sport.

The impact of television on sport

 Of all the media, TV has the biggest impact on sport and vice versa.

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  Sport occupies a large percentage of the viewing time; television allows viewers
to see the biggest competitions in the world.
 Event/Match analysis allows the viewer to see the events in great detail, e.g. slow
motion replays.
 Television companies decide, due to their financial support, which sport will be
shown. They contribute a lot of money in the form of Television Rights which go
towards events prize money.
 Colour TV allows some sports to be clearly seen which were not possible with
black and white TV, e.g. snooker, bowls, etc.

Sponsorship
What is sponsorship?
What is sponsored?
 Individuals i.e. basketball balls
 Local sports teams i.e. football, netball
 Clubs
 Sports association e.g. BFA all members benefit including clubs, players
 Events local gymnastics such as Olympics Games

Types of sponsorship
 Equipment
 Clothing e.g. basketball caps, soccer boots
 Accessories e.g. provide products to be worn e.g watches
 Transport and travel e.g. provide car firms, free flights
 Money
 Training
 Entry fees and expenses
 Food e.g. some butchers since athletes need a large protein

Benefits for sponsors

 Advertising event or performer is shown on television they get this as a bonus
 Tax relief can claim for any of their sponsoring against the taxes which they have
to pay
 Image can generate a good image as it can show a healthy successful lifestyle
 Research and development to try out new development in materials and
equipment to see how well they work
 Goodwill
Advantages

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  Young and promising sports people are able to concentrate on their sport
without financial worries
 Sports can be provided and encouraged so that participation levels increase
 The image of the sport can be improved with a good link up to a company which
has a good image
 More money is provided for the sport to pay for an administration, facilities,
coaching, training and improving standards
 Bigger and better events can be organized
 Award schemes can be paid for and advertised
 New and minority sports can be encouraged and financed
 Competitions and leagues can be run and prizes and money provided

Disadvantages
 A performer may have to wear or use certain kit or equipment
 Be restricted to perform in certain events
 Have training interrupted by demands of a sponsor
 A sponsor may interfere in training
 A performer will be under pressure to perform to keep his or her sponsorship
because less successful sports and performance do not receive sponsorship
 A bad product image can damage a sport
 The sport may become over commercial reducing the fun aspect of taking part
 If the sponsor has to withdraw the sport or performer may not be able to carry
on
 The timing of events is often dictated by the sponsors particularly when the sport
is being advertised. Times are chosen to suit international audience and this
might not be in the best interest of the performer or the sport

(e) FACILITIES

 Facilities for physical activities vary depending on where people live, and might
influence people’s participation in sport. Urban centres may have leisure
centres, sports stadia, and specialist sports clubs. Rural areas and remote areas
are unlikely to have purpose built sports facilities but may have natural facilities
for such activities as sailing, hill walking, rock climbing, etc. Therefore access to
facilities may determine your participation in sport.

Sport and recreation facilities may be controlled and run by local authorities like
the city council, private companies or voluntary organizations. Local authorities
normally own sports facilities but do not always run them. Companies compete

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 for chances to use or run the facilities. Dual use facilities are often school facilities
which are also used by the local community.

(f) SKILL

 Skill is the learned ability to bring about a pre-determined result with maximum
certainty and efficiency. In other words, it means you can perform an activity or
movement to get exactly the result you intended without wasting time or energy,
or both. Most often people do not participate in sport because they do not have
the requisite skill hence they fear embarrassment from their peers. Others
however do participate because they have skill.

Types of skill

 All skills in sport are motor skills; that is, they involve movement and they form
the basis of all sports. There are a number of ways of classifying skill. These could
be according to the:

i. Complexity of the skill

 Basic or simple skill: These skills do not require intricate body movements and
are learnt at an early age, and are easily transferable to a number of situations
e.g. jumping, throwing, catching and hitting.
 Complex skill: These skills involve more movements and finer control of many
parts of the body. They are specific to a given sport and need much more
practice to learn correctly e.g. a serve in tennis, high jump using fosbury flop and
the backstroke in swimming.

ii. Stability of the environment or the situation in which the skill is

performed
 Open skill: These skills are mostly influenced by the environment or external
factors. For example, they depend on where your opponent is in netball or
football, deciding when to tackle in a football game, the direction of the wind in
sailing.
 Closed skill: A closed skill is one where the movements are always exactly the
same. The skill follows a set, predetermined pattern of movement regardless of
external factors or environment e.g. throwing a dart, a cartwheel in gymnastics,
etc.

iii. Degree of bodily involvement or precision of movement

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  Fine motor skill: They require small muscle movements, and usually involve
manipulation of tools or objects. They are associated with speed, accuracy and
efficiency e.g. dart throwing, fencing, archery, playing golf, etc.
 Gross motor skill: They require large muscle movements, and usually involve
total body or multi-limb movements. They are associated with strength,
endurance and power e.g. kicking a ball, running, jumping, etc.

iv. How clearly defined the beginning and end of the skill is
 Continuous skill: The skill has no distinct beginning or end. It requires repetition
of movement pattern, and the activity goes on for unspecified time e.g. cycling,
running on the track, rowing, etc.
 Discrete skill: The skill has a well defined beginning and end. It is usually brief in
nature e.g. kicking a ball, throwing an object, etc.

Factors affecting variations in skill level

 Age and maturity

 It is easier to learn a skill at a young age than when somebody is old. As the
person matures there is a high degree of skill retention.

 Motivation
 Whether intrinsic or extrinsic.

 Personality
 Personality traits determine behaviour in normal life and in sporting situations.
People who are quiet, shy, calm and retiring, can be described as introverts,
whereas extroverts are the direct opposite, being outgoing, loud, lively and
sociable.

It is true that introverts prefer:

 Individual sports
 Sports with intricate skills
 Sports with restricted movements
 Routine and repetitive sports.

Extroverts may prefer:

 Team sports
 Whole body activities
 Sports with a lot of movement
 Sports with high levels of excitement.

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 Feedback
 This is the response you get to your performance. For example scoring goals,
being praised for good performance by the coach and your opponent missing a
shot. There are two types of feedback in sport, which are: knowledge of
performance and knowledge of results. Knowledge of performance lets you
know how well or badly you have performed. Examples of knowledge of
performance are how smooth you executed a skill like a serve or somersault,
recording own performance and watching it later with your coach and also
feeling how hard you hit a ball (proprioception; that is, own body awareness).
On the other hand knowledge of results tells you the outcome of your actions.
Examples of knowledge of results are watching the football go into the net, or
seeing how far you have thrown the discus, the announcement of the score or a
cheer from supporters and by feeling from own body awareness if you have
executed a skill properly.

The importance of feedback in sport

 Feedback motivates you to try harder
 It helps you reinforce the skill in your mind more especially if you are praised on
good performance
 Correction of errors; to improve your performance and helps you become more
and more skillful.

The principles of feedback

 Feedback should be given immediately after the attempt for it to be useful in
correcting errors.
 Learning cannot take place without feedback; that is both KP and KR
 Feedback should be clear correct and to the point. It should be understandable
so that you know what to change at the next attempt.
 You should have enough time to process the feedback before the next attempt. If
you get too much feedback too quickly, without time to process it, you will just
get confused.

 Facilities
 Environment
 Teaching/Coaching
 Arousal conditions

(g) The following are some more factors that might affect participation in sport:
 Age
 Level of education
 Tradition and culture
 Religion

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  Peer group pressure
 Family
 Money
 Disability
 Politics
 Environment and climate.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SPORT AND ITS PLACE IN SOCIETY

 Cultural exchange
 During tournaments such as the World Cup supporters of the travelling teams
meet others from different cultures thus copying positive traits from each
other’s cultures.

 Brings about unity

 It brings people of all races together, regardless of their differences. It also gives
players and supporters from different countries the chance to meet and develop
friendship. It unites people from different races, religions, cultures and classes in
a shared interest.

 It is a form of recreation
 Sport encourages and spreads people’s interest in recreation. This discourages
delinquency as more people will have something to do during leisure.

 Creation of jobs
 More people take up sport as a form of employment. Nowadays sport is one of
the biggest employers in the world.

 Helps improve fitness

 Sport helps enhance fitness. A fit person is less likely to fall sick, and this in turn
reduces the cost of health care for the individual and the government.

 Economical boost
 As more people get employed in sport they pay tax. Also revenue accrues to the
country as it hosts major sporting events.

 Political boost
 Countries that excel in sport have an improved image and reputation. It gets
more recognition internationally.

 Sport attracts sponsorship

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  Sponsorship brings money into sport. Even at local level, small businesses often
sponsor teams and help them financially, allowing more people to take part.
Sponsoring sport helps businesses because sponsorship is always tax deductible;
that is, businesses do not have to pay tax on the amount it spends on
sponsorship.

 Provides scholarship to excelling athletes

 Sport gives the world’s top athletes the chance to compete against each other.
This encourages excellence. Athletes given scholarship through sport
programmes train with top coaches in top facilities; they don’t have to worry
about money.

SOCIETAL ISSUES IN SPORT

 DOPING/SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Doping is the use of drugs or chemical substances to enhance performance.
According to the International Amateur Athletic Federation doping is the use by or
distribution to an athlete of certain substances which could have the effect of
improving artificially the athlete’s physical and/or mental condition and so
augmenting his athletic performance. There are two types of doping, which are drug
doping and blood doping. Blood doping is the practice of taking blood from an
individual and transfuse it at a later stage before competitions to increase red blood
cells in the body hence more oxygen carrying capacity of the athlete’s blood.
‘Ergogenic aids’ is a general phrase which refers to any substance that improves
performance.

Drugs are any chemical substance introduced to the body which affects how the
body works. Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a
substance (drug) in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods
which are harmful to themselves or others for mood-altering purposes.

Types of drugs identified as performance enhancing and banned by the

International Olympic Committee

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  Stimulants alcohol
 Narcotic analgesics marijuana
 Anabolic agents local anesthetics
 Diuretics cortices steroids
 Anxiety reducing drugs beta blockers
 Peptides hormones analogues glycogen hormones

Reasons why sports persons take drugs

 To kill pain.
 To prolong activities or to perform for a long time without getting tired.
 To improve performance.
 To reduce weight, or for weight control.
 To build muscles for explosive events.
 To train harder.
 To increase aggression.
 Because of high expectations from peers, coaches and media.
 To steady nerves.
 Rewards are worth the risk.
 Drugs are easily accessible.
 Fear of ‘not making it’.

Types of drugs identified as performance enhancing and banned by the

International Olympic Committee

Substance Negative effect

Stimulants  pain and fatigue can be masked and the athlete can continue to
perform causing further injury
 the athlete can feel really low afterwards
 can cause aggressive behaviour
 can lead to high blood pressure, and high body temperature
 Loss of appetite
 Addition
 can cause liver damage
 can cause brain damage
Narcotic  can cause low blood pressure
analgesics  result in constipation
 they are addictive
 if a performer becomes addicted they will suffer withdrawal

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 symptoms
 masking of pain which can cause further injury
 morphine and heroin are illegal in many countries so use can
result
in legal action
Diuretics  sodium and potassium salts are excreted causing an imbalance in
the body of minerals
 low levels of potassium lead to muscle weakness
 low levels of potassium can lead to heart damage
Beta-  lowers performance during lengthy events
blockers  can cause sleep problems
 can cause depression
 can cause blood pressure to drop
Anabolic  heart disease
steroids  high blood pressure
 weakened ligaments and tendons
 infertility
 cancer
 aggressive behaviour/depression
 changes in sexual characteristics
 deepening of the voice

Drugs subject to certain restrictions

 Alcohol – even though alcohol is a legal drug it is not for sale to minors, and
people a restricted from performing certain duties under the influence of alcohol
– a case in point being driving a motor vehicle.
 Marijuana – this drug is illegal in most countries but in countries where it is legal
people have to use it under certain strict conditions.
 Beta blockers

 HOOLIGANISM
Sports hooliganism is a specific form of deviant behaviour. It is disorderly,
destructive, violent behaviour displayed by spectators. It is also aggressive and
violent behaviour before, during and after games by spectators, or simply spectator
violence. Hooligans go to matches to engage in aggressive and violent behaviour
before, during and after games.

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 Causes of aggressive behavior
 High environmental temperatures
 Home or away fixtures
 Embarrassment , Losing & pain
 Unfair officiating
 Playing below capability
 Large score difference
 Low league standing
 Later stage of play
 Reputation of opposition (get your retaliation in first)
 Alcohol is available prior to and during the game
 There is opportunity for racial or national abuse
 The crowd is composed largely of adult males

Effects of spectator violence/hooliganism on sport

 It causes damage to property and facilities.

 It causes injury to spectators/athletes/officials, and also traumatizes them.
 It dents the image of the sport.
 It scares away potential sponsors and sponsors.
 It causes death.
 It scares away potential athletes and spectators

Different ways of combating hooliganism at sporting events

The following are some of the steps taken to fight hooliganism:

 Qualified stewards at events: To watch the crowd and help seat them, or help
with emergency situations such as evacuation.
 Increased police presence: To ensure correct behaviour to and from games or
events.
 Use of video surveillance: to identify trouble makers.
 All-seater stadia: To ensure no overcrowding.
 Upgrading facilities: To make sure that they are safer.
 Fencing removed from perimeter of pitches: To allow crowds to get out in an
emergency.
 All ticket matches or membership schemes: To prevent known trouble makers
from attending, and make it easier to ban them.
 More severe penalties for trouble makers: To discourage hooliganism.
 Crowd segregation at venues: To keep fans apart.

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 Police in different countries sharing information about known hooligans and
passing on warnings about them.

 RACISM

Racism is a set of beliefs or ideas based on the assumption that races have
distinctive cultural, and to some extent, intellectual characteristics determined by
hereditary factors, and that this endows some races with an intrinsic superiority.
These ideas might lead to lack of equal opportunities in sport. For example, in the
former South Africa blacks were not allowed to take part in cricket and rugby, the
evidence of which is still visible.
 Historically, the sports associated with black people during the slavery era were
boxing and horse racing. In boxing, the white owners would train up a black
boxer, and use the fight as a way of entertainment and opportunity for wagering.
The boxer would have gained considerably less from the situation, and parallels
can be drawn to the gladiatorial concept.
 In horse racing, white owners were involved in training and planning but the
jockeys were usually black, fulfilling a role which required a more mechanical and
physical input.
 Racial stacking in sports teams is a well reported issue, where players from a
certain racial group are either over – or under-represented in certain positions in
a sports team. Black players traditionally have not occupied which require
decision making but have been placed in positions which rely on the physical
attributes of speed, reflexes and strength e.g. quarterback.
 During the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games Jesse Owens, who was a black American
athlete, won 4 gold medals. The games were hosted by Adolf Hitler’s Germany
– they hoped for Aryan winners (blond hair, blue eyes). Adolf Hitler refused to
acknowledge Owens because of his race.

 GOOD OR BAD SPORTSMANSHIP

In sport there are many performers who are regarded as great sportspersons but not
all of them show the necessary qualities or attitudes.

Examples of good sporting attitudes in sport

 Congratulating opponents on good play

 Welcoming opponents
 Shaking hands after a game, especially with officials and accepting the officials’
decisions without arguing
 In cricket a player walks away from the crease when he knows he’s out. He
doesn’t wait for the umpire to tell him

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  When a football player is injured the ball may be kicked out of play on purpose
so that the casualty can get treatment. When play resumes, it is usually given
back to the team that kicked it out
 Not remonstrating with the referee even if the referee has made a wrong call or
decision.

These are not rules they are to do with a sporting attitude and a sense of fair-play.
The opposite of all these are a sign of bad sportsmanship.

 RELIGION

Some religions perpetuate certain restrictions. For example:

 They do not allow females to participate or take a leading role in sports
 They do not allow them to wear clothes that are user friendly
 Certain groupings do not allow their members to take part in sporting activities
on particular days.

Societal perceptions and attitudes towards participation in sport

People with positive attitudes towards sport and physical activity
 Has had some success in or satisfaction from participating
 Believe in the value of of the society in promoting health and well being
 Have been encouraged by significant others
 Are likely to participate in physical in physical activity regularly
 have a positive physical self-concept

People with negative attitudes to sport and physical activity
 may have had negative experiences in sport or physical education
 find sport frustrating or boring
 do not believe in its value for health and well-being
 lack encouragement or have been discouraged
 are unlikely to participate regularly if at all
 have lifestyle which makes physical activity difficult
 may have a negative physical concept

 HOSTING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

Hosting is securing the right to stage an event in your country. Countries work very
hard to secure the right to host sporting events such as the World Cup, the
Commonwealth Games, the Olympic Games and Africa Cup of Nations. Hosting an
event can have its advantages and disadvantages:

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Advantages

 Better sporting facilities that can be used after the event has passed.
 More jobs for the people in the host country; that is, job creation.
 More wealth for businesses in the host country.
 Improved transport system.
 Good publicity for the host country.
 The athletes act as role models and encourage or inspire people in the host
country to participate in more physical activity.

Disadvantages

 It requires a large amount of money to build facilities and countries may not get
the return on investment if the event is not a success.
 Political groups can use the event to draw attention to a particular issue,
sometimes with violent results.
 Once the event is over some jobs will be lost.
 Some sporting facilities may become white elephants (not used) after the event.

 POLITICS

Over the years sport has been used by some people or countries to express political
opinions and view points.

 In 1968, Mexico Olympic Games – American athletes, Tommie Smith and John
Carlos chose the winners’ podium to bring awareness to the civil rights struggle
in the USA. They wanted racial equality at a time when black people were
considered second rate citizens. Their message of defiance was broadcast on live
TV across the world.
 During the 1972 Munich Olympic Games terrorists from the black September
terrorist group took hostage members of the Israeli Olympic team in the
athlete’s village. Their aim was to publicise the struggle for power by
Palestinians on West Bank. In the attempt to rescue the athletes 11 of the
athletes lost their lives.
 At the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games, the USA refused to send their team to
Moscow in protest against the communist political system that governed the
Soviet Union at the time and also because the Soviet Union had just invaded
Afghanistan.
 It was during the 1996 Africa Cup of Nations Games held in South Africa that
Nigeria boycotted the games, which were finally won by the host nation. This was
after president Nelson Mandela had critisized the then military regime of Sani

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Abacha for killing Ogoni rights activist Sam Sarowiwa who was campaigning
against oil spills in the Niger Delta.

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