Business Research Methods

Chalimbana University
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE BUSINESS
BRM3101: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
FIRST EDITION 2020
Author: Sikalumbi A. Dewin School of Leadership and Business Management
Department of Business and Entrepreneurship
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Business Research Methods
Chalimbana University © 2020
Copyright
© 2020 Chalimbana University
First Edition
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievable system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or recording or otherwise
without prior written permission of the copyright owner, Chalimbana University.
School of Leadership and Business Management
Department of Business and Entrepreneurship
Private Bag E1
Chongwe
Zambia
Cell: 0963804004
Website: www.chau.ac.zm
Acknowledgements
Chalimbana University, wishes to thank Mr. Sikalumbi A. Dewin for producing this
module.
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BRM 3101: Business Research Methods
MODULE OVERVIEW
Introduction
The Business Research Methods module is designed to give you self-instruction on the
rudiments of business research practices and statistical methods. It teaches you how to
understand the research problem, how to select the research problem, literature review, the
investigations, data collection methods, analysis, interpretations and how to present the
report. It is comprehensive to help you carry out your project in research without any
encumbrances. The statistical tools which you will need to present and analyse your
research data have been presented in a very systematic manner so that you can use them
with less difficulties. The various data collection techniques have been explained. With this
you can carry out any research project with ease.
Aim
The aim of this course is to acquaint you with the basics of research methods and statistics
used in business research processes. It also aims at encouraging you to learn the nature,
concepts, steps and procedures for carrying out your research project or any other research
study.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concepts and processes of business research
2. Discuss the different types of research
3. Identify researchable problems in a business-related field
4. Demonstrate skills in literature review
5. Formulate research questions and hypotheses
6. Explain the different types of research designs
7. Differentiate between population and samples
8. Apply the different methods of data collection
9. Compare the different methods of data collection
10. Discuss the properties of a good instrument
11. Organize and present data using different methods
12. Demonstrate proficiency in the use of descriptive statistics
13. Use inferential statistics to test hypotheses
14. Write proposal/reports of research projects.
Rationale
The work environments are always surrounded by challenges that need researchers to
investigate and provide workable solutions so as to improve performance. Therefore,
there is need to equip students with knowledge and skills in business research. After
going through this course successfully, you would be in a good position to pass your
examination at the end of the year and apply the knowledge and skills gained in the
execution of your research project and at the work place.
Summary
This course is designed to give you knowledge and skills which would help you to
undertake your research project work as smoothly as possible. After going through this
course successfully, you would be in a good position to pass your examination at the end of
the year and apply the knowledge and skills gained in the execution of your research
project. Above all, you will be able to answer such questions as can be drawn from:
• The research process;

• The research problem;
• Literature review;
• Population and samples;
• Research designs;
• Data collection technique;
• Statistical methods; and
• Research reports.
We wish you success in this practically-oriented and interesting course. We hope you will
transfer what you have learnt in this course to some of your other courses that are related to
this, and you will bring the knowledge from these other courses to help you perform at the
optimum in understanding your research project.
We also hope you would appreciate the unique role and opportunity you have to be able to
make use of the knowledge derived from this course in solving business problems within
your area of specialization.
Prescribed Reading:
Ali, A. (1996). Fundamentals of Research in Business. Awka, Zambia: Meks Publishers.
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Anaekwe, M.C. (2002). Basic Research Methods and Statistics in Business and Social
Sciences. Enugu: Podiks Printing and Publishing Company.
Denga, I.D. & Ali, A. (1983). An Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in
Business and Social Sciences. Jos: Savannah Publishers Limited.
Ikekhua, T.I. &Yesufu, J.T. (1995). Exposing Research Methods in Business Study
andReporting aid for Students and Beginning Researchers. Warri: Ar B10 Publishing
Limited.
Recommended Reading:
Nkpa, N. (1997). Business Research for Modern Scholars. Enugu: Fourth Dimension
Publishers.
Ogomaka, P.M.C. (1998). Descriptive Statistics for Research Students. Owerri: Peacewise.
Olatian, S.O. &Nwoke, G.I. (1988). Practical Research Methods in Business. Onitsha:
Summer Business Publishers.
Study Skills
As an adult learner, your approach to learning will be different to that of your
organisation days: you will choose when you want to study, you will have professional
and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study
activities around other professional or domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence,
you will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting,
stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to acquaint yourself with areas such
as essay planning, searching for information, writing, coping with examinations and
using the internet as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate
to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
It is recommended that you take time now —before starting your self-study— to
familiarise yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the
internet. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The ―How to study‖ website is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to
study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes,
strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, and test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the website of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links
to time scheduling (including a ―where does time go?‖ link), a study skill checklist,
basic concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to
read essays for analysis, memory skills (―remembering‖).
Timeframe
You are expected to spend at least 36 hours of study time on this module. In addition,
there shall be arranged contact sessions with lecturers from the University during
residential possibly in April, August and December. You are requested to spend your
time judiciously so that you reap maximum benefit from the course.
Need Help?
In case you have difficulties during the duration of the course, please get in touch with
your lecturer for routine enquiries during working days (Monday-Friday) from 08:00
to 17:00 hours on Cell: +260963804004; E-mail: [email protected]; website:
www.chau.ac.zm.You can also see your lecturer at the office during working hours as
stated above.
You are free to utilise the services of the University Library which opens from 07:00
hours to 20:00 hours every working day.
It will be important for you to carry your student identity card for you to access the
library and let alone borrow books.
Assessment
In this course, you will be assessed on the basis of your performance as follows:
Continuous Assessment 50%
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Proposal 20%
1 Test 20%
Presentations 10%
Final Examination 50%
Total 100%
How to get the most out of this course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the
huge advantages of distance learning mode.You can read and work through specially
designed study materials at your own pace and at a time and place that is most
convenient. Think of it as reading from the teacher, the study guide indicates what you
ought to study, how to study it and the relevant texts to consult. You are provided with
exercises at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an exercise in class.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the
subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and
the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These learning
objectives are meant to guide your studies. The moment a unit is finished, you must go
back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then
you will increase your chances of passing the course. The main body of the units also
guides you through the required readings from other sources. This will usually be either
from a set book or from other sources. Self-assessment exercises are provided
throughout the unit, to aid personal studies, and answers are provided at the end of the
unit. Working through these self-tests will help you to achieve the objectives of the unit
and also prepare you for tutor marked assignments and examinations. You should
attempt each self-test as you encounter them in the units.
The following are practical strategies for working through this course
1. Read the course guide thoroughly
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more details. Note
the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignment relates
to the units. Important details, e.g. details of your tutorials and the date of the
first day of the semester are available. You need to gather together all
information in one place such as a diary, a wall chart calendar or an organizer.
Whatever method you choose, you should decide on and write in your own dates
for working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick
to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course
works. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know
before it is too late for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is
given in the table of content at the beginning of each unit. You will almost
always need both the study unit you are working on and one of the materials
recommended for further readings, on your desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit, the content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide
a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit, you will be
encouraged to read from your set books.
7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your assignments carefully.
They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and will
help you pass the examination.
8. Review the objectives of each study unit to confirm that you have achieved
them. If you are not certain about any of the objectives, review the study material
and consult your tutor.
9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit‘s objectives, you can start
on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your
study so that you can keep yourself on schedule.
10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait
for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the
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assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor‘s comments, both
on the tutor marked assignment form and also written on the assignment.
Consult you tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.
11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the
final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the
beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this course guide).
You should endeavour to attend the tutorials. This is the only opportunity to have face-
to-face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can
raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum
benefit from the course tutorials, have some questions handy before attending them.
You will learn a lot from participating actively in discussions.
GOODLUCK!
Table of Contents
Copyright ....................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 2
MODULE OVERVIEW ............................................................................................... 3
Introduction................................................................................................................... 3
Aim ................................................................................................................................. 3
Learning Outcomes ...................................................................................................... 3
Rationale ........................................................................................................................ 4
Summary........................................................................................................................ 4
Prescribed Reading: ..................................................................................................... 4
Recommended Reading: .............................................................................................. 5
Timeframe ..................................................................................................................... 6
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 6
How to get the most out of this course ........................................................................ 7
OVER VIEW OF RESEARCH ................................................................................. 16
1.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 16
1.2 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 16
1.3 Meaning of Research .......................................................................................... 16
1.4 Business Research .............................................................................................. 17
1.5 Characteristics of Business Research ................................................................. 18
1.6 Purposes of Business Research ........................................................................... 19
1.7 Revision questions .............................................................................................. 21
1.8 Summary ............................................................................................................. 21
1.9 Further Reading .................................................................................................. 21
THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND TYPES............................................................ 22
2.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 22
2.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Steps in the Research Process ............................................................................. 22
2.3 Types of Research............................................................................................... 25
2.5 Revision questions .............................................................................................. 31
2.6 Summary ............................................................................................................. 31
2.7 Further Reading .................................................................................................. 31
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................................................................. 32
3.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 32
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3.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 32
3.2 Identification of Research Problems ................................................................... 32
2.3 Sources of Research Problems ....................................................................... 33
3.4 Criteria for Problem Selection ............................................................................ 36
3.5 Background of the Study .................................................................................... 37
3.6 Statement of the Problem.................................................................................... 38
3.7 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................... 38
3.8 The Research Objectives .................................................................................... 38
3.9 The Research Questions ..................................................................................... 39
3.10 Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 40
3.11 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................ 40
3.12 The Research Hypothesis ................................................................................. 40
3.13 Activity ............................................................................................................. 41
3.14 Summary ........................................................................................................... 41
3.15 Revision questions ............................................................................................ 42
13.16 Further Reading .............................................................................................. 42
REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................................................................... 43
4.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 43
4.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 43
4.2 The Concept of Literature Review ..................................................................... 43
4.3 Purpose and Value of Literature Review ............................................................ 44
3.4 Steps in Reviewing Related Literature ............................................................... 45
4.5 Activity ........................................................................................................... 46
4.6 Citations .............................................................................................................. 46
4.7 Activity ........................................................................................................... 49
4.8 Activity ........................................................................................................... 49
4.9 Ethical Considerations in Research .................................................................... 49
4.10 Summary ........................................................................................................... 50
4.11 Revision Questions ........................................................................................... 51
4.12 Further Reading ................................................................................................ 51
POPULATION AND SAMPLES .............................................................................. 52
5.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 52
5.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 52
5.2 Population ........................................................................................................... 52
5.3 When to Study the entire Population .................................................................. 53
5.4 Activity ........................................................................................................... 53
5.5 Sample ................................................................................................................ 54
5.6 Sample Size ........................................................................................................ 54
5.7 Activity ........................................................................................................... 55
5.8 Sampling Techniques.......................................................................................... 55
5.9 Probability Sampling .......................................................................................... 55
5.10 Non-Probability Sampling ................................................................................ 55
Probability Sampling Techniques ......................................................................... 56
5.11 Activity ......................................................................................................... 58
5.12 Non-Probability Sampling ................................................................................ 58
5.13 Summary ........................................................................................................... 59
5.15 Further reading.................................................................................................. 60
RESEARCH DESIGNS.............................................................................................. 61
6.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 61
6.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 61
6.2 The Concept of Research Design ....................................................................... 62
6.3 The Components of a Research Design .............................................................. 62
6.5 Activity ........................................................................................................... 63
6.6 Research Conditions ....................................................................................... 64
6.7 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 65
6.8 Activity ........................................................................................................... 65
6.9 The Types of Research Designs ......................................................................... 65
6.9.1 Developmental Research Design ................................................................. 66
6.9.2 Longitudinal Research ................................................................................. 66
6.9.3 Cross-Sectional Research ............................................................................ 67
6.10 Survey and Case Study Researches .................................................................. 67
6.10.1 Meaning of Survey Research ..................................................................... 67
6.10.1 Classification of Survey Research ............................................................. 68
6.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surveys ............................................... 70
6.11 Case Study Research......................................................................................... 70
6.13 Summary ........................................................................................................... 71
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6.15 Further Reading ................................................................................................ 71
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: OBSERVATION ................................ 72
7.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 72
7.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 72
7.2 Observational Technique: An Introduction ........................................................ 72
7.3 Observational Variables...................................................................................... 73
7.4 Types of Observational Variables ...................................................................... 73
7.5 Phases of Observational Method ........................................................................ 74
7.6 Activity ........................................................................................................... 77
7.7 Recording Observations...................................................................................... 77
7.8 Techniques for Recording Observations ............................................................ 77
7.9 Validity and Reliability of Observation .............................................................. 78
7.9.1 Validity ........................................................................................................ 78
7.9.2 Reliability .................................................................................................... 79
7.10 Training Observers ........................................................................................... 79
7.11 Activity ......................................................................................................... 79
7.12 Problems of Observation .................................................................................. 79
7.13 Advantages and Disadvantages ........................................................................ 80
7.14 Guide to Good Observation .............................................................................. 81
7.15 Summary ........................................................................................................... 81
7.17 Further reading.................................................................................................. 82
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: QUESTIONNAIRES .......................... 83
8.0 The Concept of Questionnaire ............................................................................ 83
8.1 The Components of Questionnaire ..................................................................... 83
8.2 Types of Questionnaire ....................................................................................... 85
8.2.1 The Structure or Fixed Response Questionnaire ......................................... 85
8.2.2 Unstructured or Open-Ended Questionnaire ............................................... 86
8.3 Activity ........................................................................................................... 87
8.4 Construction of Questionnaire Items .................................................................. 87
8.5 Validation and Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire ............................................. 88
8.6 Administration of Questionnaire ........................................................................ 89
8.7 Activity ........................................................................................................... 90
8.8 Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire ............................................................ 90
8.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of questionnaires .............................................. 90
8.10 Summary ........................................................................................................... 91
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: INTERVIEWS .................................... 93
9.0 Interview as a Technique of Data Collection ..................................................... 93
9.1 Phases of Interview ............................................................................................. 93
9.1.1 Preparation Phase......................................................................................... 93
9.1.2 Rapport Phase .............................................................................................. 93
9.1.3 Question-Answer Phase ............................................................................... 94
9.1.4 Recording Phase .......................................................................................... 94
9.2 Types of Interview .............................................................................................. 95
9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of interviews .................................................... 96
9.4 Major Considerations in Interview Method........................................................ 96
9.5 Interviewer Characteristics ................................................................................. 97
9.7 Revision questions .......................................................................................... 97
OTHER METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA ................................................... 98
10.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 98
10.1 Rating Scales .................................................................................................... 98
PUBLIC ORGANISATIONS MATURITY INDEX ........................................... 99
10.2 Attitude Scales ................................................................................................ 100
10.3 The Likert-type Rating Scale or Summated Scale.......................................... 100
10.4 The Thurston Scale or Equal Appearing Interval Scale ................................. 101
10.5 The Guttmann Scale or Cumulative Scale ...................................................... 101
10.6 Activity ....................................................................................................... 102
10.7 Interest Inventories ......................................................................................... 102
10.8 Sociometric Technique ................................................................................... 103
10.9 Tests ................................................................................................................ 103
10.10 Revision Questions ....................................................................................... 104
10.11 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 104
10.12 Summary ....................................................................................................... 104
10.13 Revision Questions ....................................................................................... 105
10.14 Further reading.............................................................................................. 105
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT ................................. 106
11.1 Measurement Error ......................................................................................... 106
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11.2 Validity ........................................................................................................... 107
11.2.1 Content Validity....................................................................................... 107
11.2.2 Construct Validity.................................................................................... 107
11.2.3 Criterion Related Validity ....................................................................... 108
Activity ............................................................................................................... 108
11.3 Reliability ....................................................................................................... 109
11.3.1 Test-Retest Method .................................................................................. 109
11.3.2 Alternate-Form Method or Equivalent Form Method ............................. 109
11.3.3 Split-Halves Method ................................................................................ 109
11.3.4 Internal Consistency Method ................................................................... 110
11.4 Revision questions .......................................................................................... 111
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS ..................................................................... 112
12.0 Introduction..................................................................................................... 112
12.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................... 112
12.2 Meaning of Statistics ...................................................................................... 112
12.3 Types of Statistics ........................................................................................... 113
12.3.1 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................... 114
12.3.2 Inferential Statistics ................................................................................. 114
12.4 Benefits of the Study of Statistics ................................................................... 114
12.5 Organisation of Data ....................................................................................... 115
12.6 Revision questions ..................................................................................... 117
WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS AND REPORTS .................................... 118
13.0 Introduction..................................................................................................... 118
13.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................... 118
13.2 Sample Format of a Research Proposal .......................................................... 118
PROPOSAL GUIDELINES ................................................................................ 119
13.3 Sample Format of a Research Report ............................................................. 123
Steps in Research Report Format ....................................................................... 123
13.4 Revision Questions ......................................................................................... 126
13.5 Summary ......................................................................................................... 126
13.6 Revision Questions ......................................................................................... 127
13.7 Further reading................................................................................................ 127
14. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 127
UNIT 1
OVER VIEW OF RESEARCH
1.0 Introduction
Are you among the people who perceive research as an activity which is undertaken with
highly sophisticated equipment, and/or an activity exclusively preserved for the lecturers
and ‗Research Fellows‘ in the Universities or tertiary institutions?
In this unit, you will be presented with a de-mystifying view of research as an activity which
is not far from the routine ritual of all normal thinking human being. You will see research
generally as a process of finding out the answers to a problem. To this effect, you will
appreciate and find it an activity which is worth doing.
1.2 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• define research
• define business research
• discuss the characteristics of research
• explain the purpose of business research.
1.3 Meaning of Research
Many writers have described research in various ways, and according to the type and the
area. We can say that research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to
problems through a planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
You may have to note that the key words in this description are planned and systematic. It
means that research is considered as a logical scientific thinking. This implies that a study
or an activity cannot be regarded as research unless it is carried into the higher levels of
vigorous and scientific reasoning.
We can also look at research as a process of seeking answers to hypothetical questions using
scientific methods of inquiry to produce valid information. It means therefore, that when
you use research methods to solve problems, you are more efficient than either trial-
anderror attempts or ―short-run‖ approaches. This is because you will direct all efforts
towards a particular goal based on a sound hypothetical solution.
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According to Leedy (1997), research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we
are concerned or interested. He goes on to say that research is not:
• mere information gathering;

• transformation of facts from one location to another;
• rummaging for information; and
• a catch-word used to get information.
In their own definition, Best & Kahn (1995) agree that research is the systematic and
objective analysis as well as recording of controlled observations that may lead to the
development of generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly,
ultimate control of events.
From these and other definitions, you have to note that one of the most reliable ways of
ascertaining that decisions are correctly made is to use a scientific approach to arrive at
those decisions. Therefore, research is needed in order to arrive at objective conclusions.
Thus, the use of data to quantify statements and assumptions with empirical evidence
becomes imperative.
1.4 Business Research
Business research is implied when research activities are geared towards unravelingbusiness
problems or bringing about improvement in teaching and learning. According to Ary et. al.
(1972:21). Business research is ―the way in which one acquires dependable and useful
information about the educative process‖. While Travers (1964:5), says that Business
research is ―an activity directed towards the development of an organised body of scientific
knowledge about the events with which educators are concerned‖. Do you notice that the
descriptions of Business research above highlight some important concepts? These
concepts include: dependability of the information and its scientific nature; and the fact that
the subject-matter of investigation should be of interest to educators and business
practitioners. This means that research in Business is a systematic attempt to define and
investigate pertinent problems involved in business. This can take place within or outside
the business setting or it can take place at various levels of Business in an organisation.
You will again note that, implicit in this definition, is that Business research employs
scientific methods to find out how business can be improved, conditions under which
knowledge can be tested and verified and the conditions under which they should occur.
In his own definition, Kerlinger (1964), says that Business research is a systematic,
controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomenon.
Business is mainly concerned with the processes which deal with deliberate change in the
behaviour of people/organisations through the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes,
interests and appreciation. Therefore, the goal of Business research is to discover general
principles on which interpretations, predictions, explanations and control of the findings can
be based. It means that any research in this area should contribute to some aspect related
directly or indirectly to business situation. Therefore, the topic selected for investigation
should be truly Business, preferably a problematic topic whose findings will add to the
knowledge-bank of Business and to lead to some solution of a
societal/business/organisational problem.
1.5 Characteristics of Business Research
Earlier in this unit, we have said that mere collection of facts, whether from reference books,
readings in the library, historical documents, and questionnaire distribution or even from the
internet, is not research, unless the information derived from the analysis of the data is used
to solve problems. Based on this, let us look at some characteristics of research.
According to Anaekwe (2002), some of the characteristics are:
(i) Research is Systematic: This means that the steps followed have to be sequential
and logical. The procedures used can be repeated by another research to verify the
findings.
(ii) Research is Objective: This means that the findings are reported as they are. The
biases, prejudices, beliefs or interests of the researcher and/or the society are not
allowed to interfere with the research procedure and/or results.
(iii) Research Report is Precise: This is pertinent as the use of vocabulary which is
capable of multiple interpretation is not encouraged.
(iv) Research is Testable/Measurable: Research is not speculative, but quantifiable. It

becomes imperative that data collected for research must be measurable and tested
against a specified hypothesis.
(v) Research is Replicable/Verifiable: Results or findings of a research can be verified

by the researcher or any other person interested in the findings. This can be done by
going through the data used in the study or the processes involved. The research can
be replicated by re-administering the same instrument or similar instrument of data
collection to the same subjects or similar group of subjects. This replication can
help one to justify the authenticity or otherwise of an earlier conclusion.
In summary of the characteristics, we can therefore, say Research:
(i) emphasises the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be

helpful in predicting future occurrences;
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(ii) is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence;
(iii) demands accurate observation and description;
(iv) involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand success or using existing
data for a new purpose;
(v) is often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis;
(vi) requires expertise;
(vii) strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached;
(viii) involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems;
(ix) is characterized by patient and unhurried activity;
(x) is carefully reported and recorded; and
(xi) requires courage.
1.6 Purposes of Business Research
Have you noted that in recent times many countries of the world have shown strong concern
for improving the quality and variety of Business as well as access to it? For instance, the
emphasis in some countries is the provision of aconducive Business. In some other
countries, considerable interest is on diversification of Business opportunities. This will
show you that most countries quite legitimately worry and show concern about their
Business processes and products. It shows the countries‘ desires to have a living, growing
and responsive Business. These concerns have led to upsurge in research efforts aimed at
identifying viable alternative action among many options. This leads to the introduction of
research-based recommendations designed to improve Business even with insufficient
resources.
You are aware that, as a result of strong concern to take Business to the doorsteps of the
numerous Zambians who are in remote areas, those who have been denied access to
Business as a result of one obstacle, rigid policy etc. or the other and to remove all
boundaries in Business. Researches in Business come with the picture because Business
process is a very complex and evolving those whose every facet must be carefully and
systematically investigated, understood and implemented towards achieving the objectives.
You have noted that one purpose of research is the development of theories by discovering
broad generalizations or principles. This is why Good et al. (1941). Described the chief
purposes of research as an achievement in Business to include:
(i) Determining the status of phenomenon, past and present;

(ii) Ascertaining the nature, composition and process that characterize
Business phenomena; and
(iii) Tracing growth, change and developmental history of persons and issues and
objects.
According to Best (1976), when a research becomes applied research, it can take on the
purpose of improving a product or a process of production. It means that it involves the
testing of theoretical concepts in actual problem-situations in industrial settings. In the field
of Business, it is interesting to recognise that most Business research is applied research
because it attempts to develop generalizations about the business processes. You have seen
that research, in general, is of immense importance in allhuman endeavours. This is why
Anaekwe (2002) believes that Business researches have the following purposes, which are
to:
(i) Provide training in problem-solving. This is because research involves problem-

solving, and life in itself is full of problems. Therefore, knowledge of research
provides training in problemsolving;
(ii) Provide valid and dependable information, which could be very useful in advancing
the course of Business theories and practices;
(iii) Evaluate Business programmes, activities, practices, resources and methods of

teaching; and
(iv) Provide training in understanding of the intricacies and technicalities requisite for
handling research problems in particular and problems in general.
According to Ikekhua&Yesufu (1995), the four-fold purposes of Business research are to:
(i) Provide objective evidence to improve business practices;
(ii) Controvert myths surrounding certain practices and principles in Business;
(iii) Change beliefs characterizing practitioners and products of Business and the
consumers of the products of Business, and
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(iv) Help place the work of the organisations and its agents on a firmer ground with
consumers of Business products and services.
1.7 Revision questions
1 Read through the definitions of Business research in this unit and from other
sources. Formulate your own definition in your own words.
2 What is the major difference between basic research and Business research?
3. What are the four-fold purposes of Business research?
3 Discuss the purposes of Business researches as presented
1.8 Summary
In this unit, you have read some of the definitions of research. Business research has also
been defined variously, but you have to remember that research in Business is one which
includes the fact that it is testable, verifiable, purposeful and activity-oriented. In other
words, Business research can involve those activities or processes which allow one to
systematically test and/or obtain a body of information, data as knowledge about business,
organisation, financial and human resource.
You also learnt the characteristics of research in which you noted that research is objective,
precise, testable/measurable, replicable or verifiable etc. You have also seen the various
purposes of Business research in this unit.
1.9 Further Reading
Best, J.W. & Kahn, J.V. (1995). Research in Business (7th Edition). New Delhi: Prentice
Hall of India, 20 – 23.
Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th Edition). New Jersey:
Morill, 103 – 110.
UNIT 2
THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND TYPES
2.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 2. In this unit, you will learn that that the research process provides a
description of the systematic procedure which is usually adopted during research studies.
As a scientific method of investigation, Business research uses investigative methods which
are consistent with the basic procedures and operating conceptions of science. Hope you
will enjoy the unit.
2.1 Objectives
• explain the steps in the research process

• discuss the types of Business research
• enumerate the limitations involved in the application of scientific method in
Business research.
2.2 Steps in the Research Process
Business research process is an adoption of the basic research process which utilizes the
methodology of scientific thinking and necessarily goes about its business of problem
analysis in a series of stages and steps of activities. The ultimate goal of these series of
activities is to search for dependable, valid and reliable answers as solutions to some defined
questions or problems in the field of Business.
You will note, therefore, that Business research also shares in the values of the culture of
science. These stages of steps are in logical sequence with one step leading to another and
are linked for a common goal.
Business research is described as applied scientific method or basic research. It implies

that a researcher in Business may take the underlisted steps of activities during research
studies on any Business problem. These steps should not be considered strictly as the only
satisfactory sequence. You, as a researcher or research worker or even your institution, may
adopt some modifications of the research process. This is acceptable. Let us now look at
the sequence recommended for any Business research:
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(i) Identification of a Problem
This is the most difficult step in the research process. It involves the discovery and
definition of Business research problem or problems within a topical area of interest in
Business. It has to be a problem or question which deals with issues of sufficient
consequence to warrant investigation. The problem must be such that can be solved through
scientific investigation. It must not be a solvableproblem; one whose solution is available.
It must not be a question requiring ‗Yes‘ and ‗No‘ answers. Examples of Business
problems are:
What are the causes of SME‘s failure to grow their businesses in Eastern province?Should
grants be given to local councils to enhance their performance? What are the patterns,
causes and solutions of business problems in Zambia/district etc? What are the factors
affecting students‘ academic achievements in business studies? What are the factors
affecting the performance of Zesco/Health/Chalimbana University employees?
(ii) Review of Related Literature
When a problem exists, review of related literature is step two. However, in some studies
this is step one as a source of the problem. You will need to review books, journals,
magazines, and other materials related to the problem of study, either directly or indirectly.
This will help you to identify some background information about the problem of study. It
will also help you to:
(a) eliminate duplication of what has been done already;
(b) guide your formulation of research hypotheses or questions;
(c) sharpen your focus of the study as well as give you insight as to whether the problem
is researchable or not; and
(d) the type of problems you may encounter in the process and how to take care of them.
(iii)Formulating Hypotheses and/or Research Questions
This calls for you to present clearly and concisely the logical aspects of the problem as this
sharpens your focus on the problem. It involves the conjecturing of the relationship
between the concepts and variables identified in the problem.
The hypothesis serves as a tentative answer to the problem. It can be from the result of
employing logical processes of deduction and induction to formulate an expectation of the
outcome of the study.
(iv)Selecting the Research Design
This implies the selection of the appropriate research approach for the investigation. A
research design can be a specification of the operations for the testing or verification of the
hypotheses under a given set of conditions and of procedures for measuring variables. It
involves the selection of persons or things to be studied. Examples can be descriptive
survey, experimental, quasi-experimental, factorial designs etc.
(v) Collection of Data
This stage aims at collecting relevant information for measuring the selected variables and
for building up a body of valid and reliable knowledge about the variables or the research
topic. It involves the construction and administration of the measuring instruments.
Prominent among the techniques are interviews, questionnaires, observations, tests, rating
scales, documentary sources and records. You will learn more of these as we go on in this
course.
(vi)Data Analysis and Interpretations
Data analysis implies extracting the required information which will serve to answer the
research questions or test the hypotheses from the data collected and presented earlier. The
data collected must be reduced, arranged and presented in an organized form for easy
analysis, using suitable statistical techniques. This will enable you to generate some
research findings from which conclusions and generalizations are drawn. You can employ
the help of computers and/or calculators for easy and accurate data analysis.
(vii)Discussion of Research Findings
Research findings from the analysis of data are discussed to justify, interpret, explain and
further the development of theories for knowledge. This discussion is done in the context
and direction of the information gathered in the process of literature review. You can see
that literature review is very important in this respect as it makes for very sound and
balanced discussion of findings.
(viii)Conclusions, Generalisation and Recommendations
At this stage, you are expected to draw conclusions from your research findings and to make
generalizations of your findings as generated from your samples to the larger population.
You will have to bear in mind that the generation of valid findings, making of correct
generalisation and useful recommendations for possible applications to the field of Business
help to bring about progress that may be registered in the development and practice of
Business.
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(ix)Writing the Research Report
This is the final stage of activities in the process of conducting research in Business. You
have the responsibility of making your procedures, findings, conclusions and
recommendations available to others in an intelligible form. This involves a clear, concise
presentation of the steps in the study through a research report.
2.3 Types of Research
Business research can be classified into different types. These classifications may depend
on the goals, methods of investigation, kind of evidence and analysis used. These
classifications are:
On the Basis of Goal Typology
If we classify Business researches based on the goals of the particular investigation and the
use to be made of it, then we will have basic research and applied research.
(a) Basic Research
This is a type of research, otherwise called pure research which is concerned with obtaining
empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. Its main aim is to
extend the frontiers of knowledge with no regards to the practical application.
It investigates relationships between methods, personal characteristics, environmental

variables and learning efficiency in order to develop, illustrate, test and expand theories of
learning. It is not oriented in design or purpose towards the solution of practical problems.
But the findings of such studies may be applied to practical problems that have social
values.
(b) Applied Research
This is the application of theories and principles from basic research to solve Business
problems. It is a research performed in relation to actual problems which occur in the field
and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. It is aimed at solving
immediate practical problems. The findings help educators to make rational practical
decisions about specific problems. Applied research can be divided into three sub-
categories:
(i) Action Research
This is undertaken by Business practitioners in order to solve their practical local problems.
It is aimed at developing new skills, finding new answers or approaches to solve problems
of current concern. It is practical and directly relevant to an actual life situation. It is
empirical and relies on actual observation and realistic information, or data rather than
subjective opinions or past experiences.
(ii) Evaluation Research
This is used to assess Businessactivities, organisational policies, employee performance,

marketing strategies, entrepreneurship levels etc, in order to improve their efficiency by
making necessary revisions or modifications. For instance, a systemic evaluation of the
practice of some programmes in the organisation system may necessitate modifications in
the requirements and policies of the Business. Again, the change over from one system of
Business to another may have been based on systemic evaluation. Example, the change from
6-5-4 to 6-3-3-4 and from 6-3-3-4 to 9-3-4 system may have been based on the evaluation
research by practitioners.
(iii) Research and Development
This is concerned with developing and testing curricula, methods and materials to ensure
maximum efficiency of Business products and practices.
On the Basis of Method of Investigation Typology
Classifying Business research based on the methods of investigation used, the following
types of Business research may be distinguished:
(a) Experimental Research
In this type of research, independent variables are manipulated to observe the effects on the
dependent variables. It serves to determine possible outcomes given certain conditions.
There are two groups – experimental or treatment group and the control group. The
experimental group receives the treatment while the control group may not receive any
treatment. The difference is noted and used.
(b) Ex Post Facto Research
Have you noticed a research study in which the researcher attempts to conduct experimental
study in which he is not able to directly manipulate the independent variables? In fact,
randomisation is not possible. The subjects may be grouped on the basis of some naturally
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occurring characteristics. Such variables like sex, race, intelligence, aptitude, creativity,
personality, socio-economic status, etc. cannot be directly manipulated. Sometimes, this
type of research is referred to as causal comparative studies.
(c) Descriptive Research
This is concerned with either description and interpretation of existing relationships,

attitudes, practices, processes, trends, etc. or the comparison of variables. It does not make
attempts to manipulate variables. It may be divided into many categories. Prominent
among them are:
(i) Surveys
In this type of research, a number of data-gathering psychometric tools and procedures are
used. These include questionnaires, tests, checklists, rating scales, score cards, inventories,
interviews, etc. The study can be used to ascertain the nature of a phenomenon from a
relatively large number of cases. When you study the entire target population, the survey is
called census. Most of the times, the entire population is too large to be handled. In this
case, you have to use appropriate sampling technique to obtain a truly representative sample.
You will learn about the sampling techniques later in this course. You have to note that
representativeness of sample is critical to survey research, in order to make reliable
inferences about the target population.
(ii) Documentary Analysis
In this type, documents and records are examined for relevant information. Official gazettes,
minutes of meetings, reports of panels and blueprints can be examined. Content analysis of
curriculum materials and classroom lessons can be included as documentary analysis.
(iii) Case Studies
You may decide to investigate a detailed account of individuals or aggregations of

individual cases may be treated as units under this type of study. In other words, you may
decide to study a phenomenon in one organisation, association, organisation, agency, one
student, teacher, administrator, etc. in order to solve specific problems through in-depth
study.
(d) Historical Research
This is a past oriented research; which involves the location, documentation, evaluation and
interpretation of available evidence in order to understand past events. Understanding past
events may lead you to greater understanding of present and future events. It may also
prevent future pitfalls, or even suggest hypotheses which should be used for the solution of
existing problems. Its focus may be on social concerns, Business practices, Business
institutions or the educators themselves. In historical research, evidence from relics,
artefacts, documents, records, oral accounts etc. are usually relied on. If you are undertaking
a historical research in Business, then your evidence may be sought from attendance
registers, certificates, report cards, inventories, manuscripts, equipment, records of news
talk, etc.
There are two main sources of research information in a historical study. These are primary
source and secondary source. When evidence comes from direct source such as original
documents, photographs, eye-witness accounts, it is called primary source. But when a non-
observer mediates between the original evidence and the investigator as in books, research
reviews, newspapers or stories by non-participants, it is called secondary source. As a
researcher, you should always determine the authenticity of the evidence you use.
On the Basis of the Kind of Evidence and Analysis used Typology
Using this typology, research can be classified as quantitative, qualitative or multiple

perspective.
(a) Quantitative Research
This type uses information or data expressed in numerical values. Most experimental
studies fall under this type or category.
Data collection methods include tests of various types, experiments, questionnaire, rating
scales etc. Quantitative data are analysed using either descriptive or inferential statistics.
(b) Qualitative Research
This type uses information which is verbal or non-numerical. It makes use of qualitative
data yielded through interviews, observations, artifacts, and documentary sources, audio and
visual materials among others.
Information could be analysed using transcription, coding, historical and philosophical

analysis. This can introduce elements of subjectivity in explaining, describing, collecting
and even analyzing information.
(c) Multiple Perspective Research
This type uses both quantitative and qualitative approach otherwise known as eclectic, is
usually more comprehensive, yielding more generalisable and holistic findings which are
more rigorous than any one approach.
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2.4 Scientific Methods in Business Research: Limitations
You are aware that the underlying goal of the scientific method of thinking is rooted in the
broad goal of science which is to understand natural phenomena through the following
steps:
(i) accurate description;

(ii) explaining the specified conditions necessary to obtain the phenomenon in order to
attain easy prediction of the phenomenon; and
(iii) organizing the available evidence supporting the phenomenon in order to attain an
overall picture of the relationships surrounding all the components or variables
relating to the phenomenon under consideration.
Research practices shape their values after scientific assumptions. The concern of research
is to attempt to provide acceptable and verifiable explanations to problems or questions
raised in order to explore the realities of the problems through the use of scientific method
of inquiry. Business researches employ the use of scientific method of research.
Vast quantities of empirical studies that are reliable have been accumulated in Business, yet
they have not attained the scientific status typical of the natural sciences. This is because
they have not been able to establish generalizations equivalent to the theories of the natural
sciences in scope of explanatory power or in the capacity to yield precise predictions. There
are several limitations to this.
The following are the limitations:
(i)Complexity of Business Phenomenon
Business phenomena, most of the times, are complex and unpredictable, unlike those of the
natural sciences. The natural scientist deals with physical laws like Charle‘s law, Boyle‘s
law etc. which have relatively uncomplicated variables. But in Business, you deal with
human behaviour and development, both as individuals and as members of a group. In this
case, numerous variables affect such phenomena independently and in interaction and make
them difficult to study with ease.
(ii) Measurement Problems
In the natural sciences, we use instruments like ruler, tape, thermometer, barometer, wind-
vane, weighing balance, ammeter, galvanometer and so on which gives perfect and precise
measurements. But in Business, you will not get any instrument which can yield as perfect
and precise measurement.
(iii) Difficulties in Observation
Observation is a very important aspect of science, whether social sciences or natural/

physical sciences. But, it is more difficult and risky to have perfect observation in Business,
because it is more subjective and frequently involves personal interpretations of such things
as: motive, values, attitudes and so on. Which are not open to inspection?
(iv) Difficulties of Control
Possibilities for effective control of experimental conditions are much more limited in
Business than in the natural sciences. This is because rigid control of the experimental
conditions is possible in the laboratories in natural sciences. But in Business many variables
including extraneous variables which are not known by the researcher, affect and influence
the results.
(v) Difficulties of Replication
When two or more chemicals are put together in a test tube, the result of the reaction can be
observed and reported objectively. This can be replicated or reproduced to get the same
result anywhere in the world.
But it is very difficult to replicate an experiment, for instance, banking practices at ZANCO,
in any other part of the world. In other words, replication is very difficult to arrange in
Business.
(vi) Experimental Contamination
The presence of the researcher or investigator can change the behaviour or affect the
responses of the human subjects in Business research. This can result in the faking of
behaviours which will influence the result. This can be referred to as Hawthorne effect. It
does not happen in the natural sciences. If an acid is mixed with an alkali, they will form a
salt, whether the experimenter is there or not does not affect the result.
(vii)Problem of Randomisation
It is easier to randomise non-human subjects in the laboratory than the human subjects.
Randomisation may not be perfect in Business due to administrative constraints and faking.
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1. What are the types of research based on methods of investigation?

2. What are the types of research based on the types of evidence analysis used?
3. What are the steps in the research process?
4. What are the limitations involved in the application of scientific methods in Business
research?
2.6 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the steps in the Business research methods. These steps are:
(i) Identification of the problem;

(ii) Review of related literature;
(iii) Construction of hypotheses and/or questions;
(iv) Constructing the design;
(v) Data collection;
(vi) Data analysis and interpretation;
(vii) Discussion of research findings;
(viii) Conclusion and recommendations, and (ix)Writing the report.
You have also learnt that Business research can be classified in different types. These can be
on the basis of goals; in which we have basic research, applied research. On the basis of
method of investigation, we have: experimental, ex post facto, descriptive and historical. On
the basis of kind of evidence and analysis, we have qualitative and quantitative researches.
You have learnt the limitations in applying scientific methods in Business research. These
include:
(i) complexity of Business phenomenon;

(ii) problems of measurement;
(iii) difficulties in observation;
(iv) difficulties of control;
(v) difficulties of replication;
(vi) experimental contamination; and (vii)problem of randomisation.
2.7 Further Reading
UNIT 3
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
3.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 3. You will realise that the research problem is the focus to which all
research efforts are geared towards. At the root of every research, there is a problem which
must be established to justify the research. You will have to design investigations to find
solutions to the problem. This is the goal you have to accomplish because it is the problem
that requires attention. At this point, the question that should bother you should be hinged
on what constitutes a researchable problem.
3.1 Objectives
• select a research problem in your area of interest

• outline the various sources of research problems
• enumerate the criteria for selecting a problem for research
• explain the background of the study
• describe the statement of the problem
• explain the purpose of the study
• discuss the significance of the study
• describe the scope of the study
• formulate different types of research hypothesis
• differentiate between research question and hypothesis.
3.2 Identification of Research Problems
As a beginner researcher, you may find it difficult to decide on what is a suitable research
problem. You may spend considerable amount of time examining many research problems
without being able to make up your mind on which to select. Your indecision may be due to
a fear of selecting difficult problem which you cannot easily tackle. You have to note that
common errors in selecting problems arise when conditions, objectives, questions,
hypotheses, topics or uncomfortable feelings are mistaken for problems.
You have to distinguish between your problem area which is of interest to you and the
research problem itself. Let it be clear to you that a problem area of interest is the broad
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area or topic, events, phenomenon which you want to study, say in Business. This area of
interest may be hazy, nebulous, ethnical or inconsequential at the onset. It may remain so
long after you have given thoughtful and adequate consideration to it. In this case, you are
advised to steer clear of the topicor phenomenon.
A problem arises when the interplay of two or more factors result in one of three possible
problematic outcomes. These are a perplexing state, an undesirable consequence, or a
conflict for which the appropriate course of action is controversial. In order to find the
problem, solution, classification of the perplexing state, elimination or alleviation of the
undesirable consequence, or resolution of the conflicts can then be made.
Before you arrive at a researchable topic, there are three systematic stages of reductive
deductions which are very necessary for you to take from the general problem area. These
include:
(a) locating a general problem area in your particular field of

interest;
(b) pining this problem down to a manageable size, and
(c) state it concisely in a form that can be empirically investigated.
These steps are not as easy to take as they look. But you have to note that a good research
work is a difficult thing to undertake. No easy research topic which can be effectively
carried out without careful and logical planning. But if you allow your interest to be your
guide and you choose a topic that personally appeals to you as a result of your previous
activities and readings, you will be motivated to spend the long and difficult hours and the
painstaking efforts that are necessary for the effective execution of the study.
It may interest you to note that not every investigation or study qualifies to be called a
research study. You have read earlier, in this course, that Business research is aimed at
solving problems in Business or providing answers to questions. Therefore, if no problem
exists or cannot be identified then a study in that area should not be attempted. There must
be a pressing problem or a need which requires attention. If you have a strong feeling about
the need to solve this problem, it becomes easier for you to be successful in the study.
Note that a good research study should be able to make a definite contribution to
knowledge. You have to know also that merely gathering the opinion of people is not
necessarily research. Later in this unit, you will read about the criteria for selecting a
researchable problem. Meanwhile, let us look at sources of problems
2.3 Sources of Research Problems

If you are asked how research problems are identified or located, the question may be theory
for you. It becomes useful therefore, to suggest the various sources through which research
problems may be generated. These are:
(i) Personal Experience
If you are an experienced teacher or have had a long experience in Business practices or
observing existing practices in the Business system, you would have come across a number
of problems, imperfections, inconsistencies, puzzles or some gaps which need to be dealt
with. Through your interactions with people and facilities in your professional experience,
you may have discovered areas where knowledge is lacking while answers have to be found.
(ii)Literature
When you have an extensive review of literature, it provides you with some researchable
problems. Textbooks, theses and dissertations, research reports in journals and Business
periodicals, conference papers among others could provide some tit-bits on researchable
problems or topics.
Apart from suggestions for further research available in thesis and dissertations, you may
encounter contradictions, inconsistencies and unsatisfactory findings in some areas of
investigation. You can then carryout a study to fill in the gaps. In addition, your study
could contribute to knowledge through improved methodology or modifications to existing
theory.
(iii) Experts’ Opinion
Consultations with professionals in a particular field, Business practitioners, research

fellows, thesis advisers or supervisors, and so on could guide you in identifying your
problem area. They will help you to clarify your thinking to achieve a sense of focus and to
be articulate and concise in your research topic. This depends on your interest in having an
originally thought out problems. It is not good to just collect previous research topic or to
go and copy already written project reports from other institutions. Though this is what
undergraduates do these days, it hampers and/or obstructs academic growth and upliftment.
(iv) Government Publications
Most of the times, some government policies, intentions or views on Business can be
published through whitepapers, gazettes, newspapers, newsletters or through the radio and
television or even through circulars.
Research topics could emanate in response to a governmental identified problem. Such

studies may focus on evaluation of existing Business programmes like, the Universal Basic
Business, literacy education, impact of covid-19 on small businesses among others.
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(v) Internet Sources
These days, electronic learning is in vogue in which people study by entering into any
library in any part of the world to get current and updated information on any field including
Business.
Through the internet you can avail yourself the opportunity of getting current research
findings or write-ups on any area of interest. You can see different methods of solving the
same problem you have and you can apply such methods into your situation.
(vi)Innovative and Technological Changes
There are lots of innovations and changes especially in the use of information and
communication technologies (ICT) in Business. Such concepts as e-learning, m-learning, e-
business, e-government, ecommerce, computer-assisted instruction (CAI), computer-based
training (CBT), and conferencing among others can be investigated to determine their
effects, effectiveness, implementability in our situation.
An appraisal of such teaching strategies like group-self-evaluation, cooperative learning,

team teaching, mixed ability grouping, vertical and/or horizontal teaching etc. could yield
researchable topics to business trainee teachers.
(vii) General Business Problems
You have noticed that in Zambia and many other developing countries, there are so many
general problems facing Business. These Business problems can be narrowed down to
obtaining a specific Business problem which you can handle effectively.
(viii) Replication
Replication or repetition of an earlier study encountered in the literature review can help to
increase the generalisability and validity of the findings. The replication can be done using
different geographical contexts, different subjects, different levels, different time periods,
different methodology or different instruments.
(ix) Theory
Theories are statements put forward to explain phenomena, events or situations. They
propound general principles for which applicability or Business situations require research.
According to Nkpa, theories are fertile sources of research problem. This is because from
theories, relationships among variables can be predicted, tested and established.
3.4 Criteria for Problem Selection
Most of the times, several potentially researchable problems abound. Your problem
becomes how to select the most appropriate one for investigation at any given point in time.
Most beginner researchers have faced this difficult situation, such that some of the time;
they start with one problem and abandon it for another. They may attempt or make trials on
several other problems before choosing one. This results in unnecessary delays in
conducting the research. To avoid such pitfalls, you should be able to evaluate the research
problems in order to select the most expedient, using the following criteria;
(i) Significance
You have been told earlier in this course that the ultimate goal of research is to enrich
knowledge. In selecting your problem, therefore, it behooves on you to select one whose
solution would make the most valuable contribution to the body of organised knowledge.
This contribution could be in the area of methodology, theory, practice or replication of

existing findings to yield more reliable knowledge or to improve the generalisability of
earlier findings. The contribution can be used to modify, refine or replace existing theories
and relationships, in order to influence Business practice.
(ii) Researchability
For a problem to be researchable, it has to involve variables which can be defined and
measured. There are problems which cannot be subjected to systematized investigation.
Many philosophical and ethical problems cannot be studied empirically; otherwise the
findings can only yield useful information that can be used to find answers to those ethical
and philosophical questions.
For instance, how can you study the influence of spiritual powers on the academic
achievement of pastors? Note therefore that unresearchability is a result of unavailability of
the required measuring instruments and the inability of the researcher to construct and
validate novel instruments.
(iii) Suitability
The problem of investigation should be suitable to the peculiarities of the research. The
problem is suitable if:
(a) It is relevant to your professional goal. It should make you more knowledgeable and
more proficient in your career;
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(b) It is meaningful and interesting. In which case you have to be enthusiastic enough to
investigate the problem thoroughly and to persevere till the end of the research;
(c) The solution should be within your level of competence. You have to be
knowledgeable in the use of the relevant instruments; otherwise you have to acquire
the expertise within reasonable time.
In other words, you have to have the relevant skills, experience, expertise and competencies
and be well-acquainted with the existing theories and concepts in the area;
(d) You should consider the availability of the required manpower, equipment, finance
and other resources. Avoid problems with so many variables which only large scale
studies by a team of researchers having large amounts of funding can tackle;
(e) You should consider that the time required to get appropriate solution to the problem
is realistic for your programme. There is a time limit for research undertaken for
degree purposes. You have to consider this time limit in choosing the problem;
(f) You should consider the accessibility of the respondents or subjects and the data.
For instance, if you use governors, ministers or commissioners as your subjects, you
have to consider how to reach them with ease.
(iv)Viability
A research problem should be viable. In this case, it can be expanded or followed up in

further researches. It should not be a dead end. As you answer the research questions,
further questions which require investigations should be generated.
Tuckman (1972), summarised these criteria in four points:
1. What is/are the relationship(s) between the two or more variables?

2. State the problem clearly and unambiguously.
3. Ensure that it is possible to collect data to solve the problem.
4. Avoid dealing with moral and ethical issues.
3.5 Background of the Study
This is the introduction to the study which usually contains a brief explanation of the
concepts in the title as they relate to the study.
Concise information required to understand the problem is presented here. According to Ali
(1996), it provides at a glance, a concise information of the major theoretical, empirical and
experimental considerations or substance upon which the work is anchored.
The background information will put the research problem into perspective. It has to be
sharp and precise without an outburst of personal bias. At this stage, you have to highlight
all the variables of interest in the study as well as their interplay with the research problem.
You can even cite few works already done in the area which prompted your investigation in
that area.
3.6 Statement of the Problem
The statement of the problem is concise, clear and persuasive information on the subject
matter of investigation as well as the variables planned for investigation. It needs to be very
specific and direct.
It is presented in a logical sequence. It starts with such information required for the
understanding of the problem, some justifications including citations and a declarative
statement or an amplification in the form of question.
3.7 Purpose of the Study
In the last section, you were told that the statement of the problem is a statement which
pinpoints what is wrong with or about the subject matter of interest. But the purpose of the
study provides you with an overview of the intention of the study as contained in the
research title and its breakdown in specific terms. What do you intend to do?
This is presented in a clearly and unambiguous statement which must be expressed in a

language couched in proposed undertaken action that is tenable, sensible and practical.
3.8 The Research Objectives

These are targets you intend to achieve through the study. they show the picture after the
study has been conducted.
In constructing research objectives, you have to note that simplicity and clarity of language
are very important. Use short, crisp and precise statements that are measurable and
achievable. Each objective should have one thought or idea. The objectives must be
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time bound/frame). An objective
should start with an action verb.
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Example;
Topic:Effects of the Recruitment and Selection Practices on the Employee

Performance at ZESCO Company.
Objectives: the objectives are to;
1. Describe the recruitment and selection practices at ZESCO Company.
2. Establish the effects of the recruitment and selection practices on employee
performance at ZESCO Company.
3. Determine the possible measures to improve the recruitment and selection practices
at ZESCO Company so as to improve the employee performance.
Note: Do not overload yourself with work, so three objectives are enough workload for a
typical Business research at undergraduate, four or five at masters and at least five at PhD.
3.9 The Research Questions
These are major questions which you seek to answer through the study. They provide a
useful basis for providing descriptive data which may then be used to get richer picture of
the problem investigated.
In constructing research questions, you have to note that simplicity and clarity of language
are very important. Use short, crisp and precise questions. Again, the question should seek
answer to one thought or idea. It should not be double barreled. Probing questions are
generally preferred. The research question come from the research objectives. The
objectives are translated into questions
Example
Topic:Effects of the Recruitment and Selection Practices on the Employee

Performance at ZESCO Company.
Research questions: the research questions are to;

1. What are the recruitment and selection practices at ZESCO Company?
2. What are the effects of the recruitment and selection practices on the employee
performance at ZESCO Company?
3. How can the recruitment and selection practices at ZESCO Company be improved
so as to promote the employee performance?
Note: each question is coming (always) from the research objective and it is ending with a
question mark. Do not overload yourself with work, so three questions and one or two
hypotheses are enough workload for a typical Business research at undergraduate, four or
five at masters and at least five at PhD. Both research questions and hypotheses can be
included in one study to serve different but complementary purposes.
3.10 Significance of the Study
This is the rationale for the study. It explains the use or the importance of the findings as
well as who and how such information will be useful. It also explains how the findings
would contribute in terms of extending the frontiers of knowledge, raising new questions or
suggesting variations in the existing practice, or to reveal a gap which the study will close.
3.11 Scope of the Study
This gives you the extent of the content coverage which you could tackle with the available
resources. It involves the delimitation of the study which specifies the boundaries to be
covered in the study.
3.12 The Research Hypothesis
The word ‗hypothesis‘ is a combination of two words – hypo and thesis. Hypo means ―less
than‖. Hypothesis means therefore ―less than a thesis‖. While a thesis is a proposition to be
proved or defended, a hypothesis can be referred to as a reasonable guess or thesis which
although derived from some sort of evidence is yet to be tested or proved. It is a statement
which gives an insight of what you expect to be the outcome of your study regarding the
variables contained and investigated in the statement of the problem.
In other words, the hypothesis is in itself an explanation for certain observed or observable
events, behaviours, phenomena or predictions with regards to how they occur, why they
occur or when they occur. These expectations and explanations must be clear, succinct,
testable and verifiable. The aim of a hypothesis is not to prove anything, but to test whether
it should be accepted or rejected. This is done with data rigorously and painstakingly
collected through empirical research.
According to Tuckman (1972), there are three characteristics of a good hypothesis. These
are that it should:
(i) Conjecture upon a relationship between two or more variables

(ii) Be stated clearly and unambiguously in the form of a declarative sentence
(iii) Be testable.
Hypothesis can be classified as scientific or statistical. A scientific hypothesis is a

suggested solution to a problem. It is an intelligent, informed and educated guess while
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statistical hypothesis is a statement about an unknown parameter. For a hypothesis to be
useful, it must be both scientific and statistical.
Hypothesis can also be classified as either inductive or deductive. Any hypothesis statement
based on mere observation, and not based on any verifiable data or evidence, but used for
predictions is an inductive hypothesis. But any hypothesis that is testable and based on
collection and analysis of relevant data to support or reject, is deductive.
There are two types of deductive hypothesis used in empirical or scientific research. These
are the alternative hypothesis Ha or H1 and the null hypothesis H0. The alternative
hypothesis states that there is a statistically significant difference or relationship between
two variables, two individuals or two events, (x =/ y). This can be directional or onetailed
test, because it tells you the direction of the difference. For instance, x is better than y.
Students who learn by practical application do better than those who learn by theoretical
lessons. Trained teachers teach better than untrained ones. The alternative hypothesis can
also be non-directional or two-tailed test of significance. This indicates that there is a
statistically significant difference, but does not show the direction of the difference. For
instance, A and B are not equal; there is a statistically significant difference in the
performance of students in the science classes and those in the arts classes.
The null hypothesis, Ho is a no significant difference hypothesis. It states that there is no

statistically significance between the two groups or variables under study. Thus x = y. For
instance, there is no significant relationship between class size and students‘ performance in
mathematics.
3.13 Activity
Select a research title in any area of your choice in Business and construct three potential
research questions which could be used for the investigation.
3.14 Summary
In this unit, you have been presented with a practical approach towards discussing the issues
about the research problem. You have seen that though it is difficult to select and define a
research problem, yet if you locate a general problem area in your field of interest, you pin it
down to a manageable size and state it concisely in a form that can be empirically
investigated, you have solved a lot of the problems.
You have worked through the sources of research problems which include: personal
experience, literature, experts‘ opinion, government publications, internet sources,
innovative and technological changes, general Business problems, replications and theories.
The criteria for problem selection include: significance, researchability, suitability and
genesis of further research.
In this unit also, you learnt about the background of the study, statement of the problem,
purpose, significance, scope of problem, including research hypotheses and questions and
objectives. These form chapter one of the research proposal.
1. What are the various sources of research problems?

2. Explain the criteria for selecting a research problem.
3. Use two examples each to explain alternative hypothesis and null hypothesis.
4. Discuss the elements of the research proposal for chapter one.
13.16 Further Reading
Limited.
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UNIT 4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
4.0 Introduction
In the last unit, you worked through identification of problem in Business research. You
learnt that a researcher is interested in seeking for the relationships between two or more
variables.
These selected relevant variables are fully examined through a thorough review of related
literature. This forms the basis for the investigative process. This is because it provides you
with the opportunity to look into the pool of knowledge available to you.It provides much of
the theoretical reference point or basis for undertaking a proposed study.
In this unit, you will be looking at the concept of literature review, the purpose and value,
sources, steps, skills, citations and ethical considerations in the review of literature.
4.1 Objectives
• explain the meaning of literature review

• outline and discuss the purposes of literature review
• enumerate the steps in reviewing related literature
• demonstrate some skills in citations and referencing
• list the ethical considerations in reviewing the literature.
4.2 The Concept of Literature Review
From the introduction, you have noted that no meaningful research can be conducted
without a thorough literature review. It is very important therefore for you to understand
what is meant by the review of literature. Literature review is the systematic study of all
existing work that are relevant to the research work. It is concerned with locating, reading,
evaluating and citing reports of related research.
It is a careful and systematic identification and or location, documentation, analysis and

reporting of information which are relevant, related and useful to the present study. In other
words, it means making an extensive searching, reading and assessment of all available
materials written and related to the problem of investigation. It could also involve some
consultations with colleagues, lecturers, supervisors, known experts in the area of study as
well as the library and internet sources so as to identify sources from which review
information can be obtained.
Though this exercise can be tedious with some students, yet if you do it carefully and
systematically, it can in fact be one of the most challenging and interesting aspects of any
investigation.
4.3 Purpose and Value of Literature Review
You have already noticed that the review of related literature is very important. This is
because so much has been discovered by scholars all over the world that almost every
answer is available already in the literature. Therefore, all you need to do is to patiently
consult the literature of past works which are related to your work in order to gain
knowledge of how someone or some people had solved such type of problem you are
saddled to study at the moment. Literature review serves the following purposes in
research:
1. It can reveal to you sources of data that you may not have known about their
existence;
2. It can describe methods of dealing with problem situations that may be similar to
your own;
3. It can reveal to you how other researchers have handled
methodological and design issues similar to yours;
4. It can introduce you to important research personalities whose works and findings
you may not have come across;
5. It can help you to evaluate your own research efforts comparing your work with
similar efforts of others;
6. It can provide you with new ideas and approaches that may not have occurred to
you;
7. It can increase your confidence in selected topic if you find that others have interest
in the topic or have found value in investing time, effort and resources into its study;
and
8. It can help you determine the sampling strategies that should be used in order to
avoid sampling problems encountered by other researchers.
Olaitan &Nwoke (1988) summarised these purposes as:
(i) uncover, discover and evaluate information;

(ii) establish new relationships by analyzing and synthesizing established evidence or
discovering new ones;
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(iii) replace an existing concept or completely create a new concept in an attempt to
translate them into practical use; and
(iv) verify existing concepts by re-examining the premises on which the concepts were
created.
Tuckman (1978) also summarised the purposes saying that Literature review uncovers:-
1. ideas about variables that have been proven important and

unimportant in a given field of study;
2. information about work that had already been done and which can be meaningfully
extended or applied;
3. the status of work in a field in terms of conclusion and
application; and
4. meanings and relationships between variables that a researcher has chosen to study
and wish to hypothesise about.
3.4 Steps in Reviewing Related Literature
Over the years, the library has been the stock house for encyclopaedia, dictionaries,
textbooks, journals and periodicals, magazines and newspapers, projects, theses or
dissertations. It has been a repository of writings, books and manuscripts. It has also been a
kind of literary museum for books and manuscripts. If you have been to a big library like
the National or State Libraries or even University Libraries and Company Libraries, the
British Council Libraries, you would see that the ability to use the library is an
indispensable asset to effective review of literature.
However, with the explosion of information and/or of knowledge, ideas in every human
interest have been altered as a result of research findings and applications of information
and communication technology (ICT).
Since libraries can no longer hold all the required information and again since the users of
libraries have become more sophisticated in their wants and desires for knowledge and since
ease and speed of access to information are very important priorities in library search, two
types of libraries have evolved. These are the physical libraries and the e-libraries.
The e-libraries or virtual libraries provide new ways of storing and accessing vast amount of
information from any part of the world. The use of computer, CD-ROMs, floppy disc, flash
drive, etc. are fast replacing and supplementing the shelves of texts and periodicals.
In other words, with the computer, you can access any type of vast amounts of information,
countless online data bases and manipulated factual information with increased accuracy,
efficiency and little or no time.
A summary of the steps you can use in conducting your literature review are as follows:
(i) Identify, select and list the key words or concepts which are associated with the
topic of investigation.
(ii) Use the selected key words or concepts to access relevant references from such
preliminary sources of information as the catalogue, the index and dissertation
abstracts or computerized referencing services.
(iii) When you have obtained the list of useful references you can now consult libraries
and other information depositories in order to access references materials. You can
also make use of the internet to access the materials.
(iv) Before you start reading, you should be able to get index cards on which to record
the information, prepare a note card or index card for each reference material
consulted, such that at the end you arrange them sequentially according to
subheadings in the literature review.
(v) Read the reference materials and as you read make brief notes and pay attention to
the problem, procedure, design, result or just the summary for theoretical opinions.
(vi) For quick identification, each entry on an index card should be clearly coded at the
top using the key words for the broad topic. After this, the author‘s names and date
of publication come next, followed by the title of the work and the full citation of the
work and the ideas which you find useful.
(vii) In writing out the references in the index cards, you have to choose a referencing
style and be consistent with it. You will learn more on this in the section on citation.
(viii) Ensure that you review or dwell more on the primary sources of information than the
secondary sources. This will enhance the authenticity of your work, and provide
you with comprehensive, unadulterated and un-mutilated first hand information.
(ix) Consult the most recent references first. This will help you to save time, get the
most recent materials and avoid redundant and unnecessary materials.
(x) You will save a lot of time by first reading through the abstract and/or summary of
any referenced material. This will enable you to quickly ascertain the relevance of
the materials.
(xi) Lastly, organise and write-up all the insights you received while reading. This
should be a critical appraisal of the state of the art in the area of investigation. You
have to ensure that you understand all the related issues. The ideas must flow in
accordance with the trend of thought.
4.5 Activity
Identify any topic of your choice in any area of your choice in Business. Do a literature
review on the topic following the steps above.
4.6 Citations
Whenever you lift any idea or ideas from any referenced materials, you must duly
acknowledge the source. This includes verbatim quotations, paraphrased statements,
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diagrams, tables etc. You have to note that careless statements from newspapers and
magazines are not appropriate in research. Sources can be cited in the text in various ways,
while full bibliographical details of the reference materials are listed at the end of the write-
up. You will see some examples later. Different formats for preparing references are
available.
In Business research reports, the style used is in line with most psychological journals such
as the journal of Business psychology, the journal of the APA – American Psychological
Association, the British or Turabean style etc. But most universities in Zambia prefer and
use the APA style.
Examples
Some of the examples are as follows:
1. For a paraphrase; the source can be cited in either of three ways. These are:
(a) in the middle of the sentence e.g. the Chalimbana University (CHAU), like most
tertiary institutions in Zambia, according to Okonkwo and Osuji (2003), makes use
of the two
modes of assessment for her students;
(b) at the end of the sentence e.g. our Business system needs a radical departure from
the conventional face-to-face system to the unorthodox open and distance learning
system (Osuji and Salawu, 2006); and
(c) at the beginning of the sentence e.g. Sikalumbi (2020). Confirms that derived scores
have been shown to be more useful than raw scores in the identification of students‘
potentials.
2. For Quotations; if the quotation is verbatim, it is enclosed in a double inverted commas

or quotation marks. You have to insert the source with the page number from where the
statement is lifted e.g.
According to Osuji (2006:71), ―The simplest but crude and unreliable method of estimating
variability which is usually affected by the presence of two extreme scores is the range‖
or
―Derived scores are more useful than raw scores for identifying the potentials of students‖
(Nkpa, 1992:54). or
Nwana (1979:23), said that ―Measurement were not absolutely dependable, however,
otherwise all ten results would have been exactly the same‖.
You have to bear in mind that quotations longer than three typewritten lines or more than
40 words should be indented. There will be no quotation marks, but the page is indicated
after the year of publication.
You will have to note that verbatim quotations must contain the exact words, spellings,
capitalization and interior punctuations of the original source. If you have to effect any
change like underlining or italicizing of words for emphasis, you have to enclose the words
―italics added‖ in brackets immediately after the underlined or italicized words.
Similarly, if you insert any remarks into quoted material, you should enclose it in square
brackets. Again, if you have to omit any word or words from a quotation, you have to
indicate the omission by using three dots (…). This can even be used more than once in a
quoted material to indicate all missing parts.
If you want to make reference to more than one publication of an author for the same year,
you have to use the letters (a, b, c, d etc) to distinguish between the different works e.g.
Osuji, 2006a; Osuji, 2006b; Osuji, 2006c. If you are going to cite two or more publications
in the same parenthesis, they should be arranged chronologically e.g. Jegede (2001, 2003,
2005, 2006) or Otto-Peters, 1980; Okeke, 1984, Jegede, 2001, Alaezi, 2005 and Koul, 2006.
When you want to cite joint authors, both names should be cited each time the publication is
cited in the text, where you have only two authors e.g. Okonkwo and Osuji (2003). But
where you have more than two, but less than six authors, all the authors are cited in the first
time the publication appears in the text, subsequently, you can cite only the first author
followed by ―et. al‖ e.g. Osuji, Salawu, &Aiyedun (2006:15) … subsequently, it becomes
Osuji et. al. (2006:15).
Where the authors are a corporate body, you have to give the name of the body in full in the
first instance. Subsequently, citations of the publication will bear the abbreviated name e.g.
National Open University of Zambia (2003), can be abbreviated to NOUN (2003).
National Business Research and Development Council (1989) can be
NERDC (1989). Abia State University (2000) can be ABSU (2000). Indira Gandhi National
Open University (2005), can be IGNOU (2005).
On the reference page, all works cited in the texts or consulted should be shown arranged in
alphabetical order. For unpublished theses/dissertations, e.g. Osuji, U.S.A. (2002). The
Effect of Group-SelfEvaluation on Learning Outcomes. Unpublished Masters Dissertation.
Uturu: Abia State University Library. You will have to read some research textbooks to get
more examples.
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4.7 Activity
Get some research or academic journals. Check the citations critically. List ten (10)
different citations and examine their conformity to the A.P.A. model.
Some of the times, you have to use the internet to source for your materials. These days,
every research problem or topic or words or variables can be located with ease and showing
different types of findings and write ups on them. When you use any of such materials, you
have to cite them.
4.8 Activity
Use your internet facilities and locate five articles in Business evaluation. Write down the
URL address.
4.9 Ethical Considerations in Research
You are aware that Business research is a systematic study which makes use of scientific
approaches and methods in problem solving situations. It implies that scientific attitudes
should be brought to bear in carrying out such activities like the research process. Can you
recollect some of the scientific attitudes you have learnt during your primary science. These
attitudes which should be applied in the research process include:
• Openness:- especially in the areas of data collection, treatment of findings and

literature review.
• Honesty:- especially in the areas of data collection, treatment and interpretation.
• Humility:- especially in the areas of validation of instrument.
• Objectivity:- especially in drawing conclusions from the research findings.
You are cautioned, at this moment, that you have to adhere strictly to the rules of the game
in order to minimize ethical issues which are often encountered in the conduct of the
research studies. According to Anaekwe (2002), such ethical issues include:
1. Plagiarism
This refers to copying someone‘s work without acknowledging him as the source of such
information. In the academic circle, it is a very serious offence which can lead to litigation,
denial of the award of degree or certificate, termination of appointment among others.
Therefore, in order to apply your attitude of openness and scientific honesty, you must
acknowledge all authors consulted.
2. Arm-chair Researching
This refers to people staying on their tables and manipulating figures and building up a
theoretical framework, and later publishing the concoction as an empirical study. These
days, students are used to coping or photocopying previous research works from other
institutions and submit same in their own name, in their own institution. This is against the
ethics of the research enterprise.
According to Anaekwe (2002), it negates the purpose of research and kills initiatives and
intellectual growth in research business. DO NOTINDULGE IN SUCH MAL-
PRACTICES.
2. Faking
The ability to Fake things involves the documentation of false information or sources of
information. As a researcher, you should endeavour to present authentic sources of
information used in the study.
This will enhance the content validity of your work as well as the replication of the work
and the retrieval of such source materials by subsequent researchers.
3. Over-citation of a particular Author
Some students often over-cite the works of their supervisors and/or lecturers. This is not
very good as it limits the research to a microcosm of available information. Avoid it.
4.10 Summary
In this unit, you have worked through the concept of literature in which you learnt that
literature review is the careful systematic identification and/or location, documentation,
analysis and reporting of information, which are relevant, related and useful to the present
study.
You have seen the purposes of literature review as summarised by different authors. The
steps in reviewing literature have also been presented in the unit. Different ways of citations
have been also been presented. Again, some ethical considerations have been discussed.
Read more from your reference materials.
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4.11 Revision Questions
1(a) What is literature review?

(b) List the purposes of literature review.
(c) Outline the scientific attitudes applicable to research and the ethical issues in
research.
2. Take any textbook or journal of your choice and list ten (10) references cited.
Publishers.
http://www.nounonline.com/noumgt
UNIT 5
POPULATION AND SAMPLES
5.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 5. You have been told that one purpose of research is to discover new
knowledge that can be generalised to a defined group.Acentral and sustainable premise upon
which scientific research is based is the investigation of a problem using a small
representational and proportionate group that is observed and from whom findings made are
generalised to all others who were not investigated.
Generalisability of research findings is dependent, as much as possible, on the extent to

which the population of the study is defined and on the adequacy of the sampling procedure
used in the in the study. Since these concepts – population and sample are of fundamental
importance to research, we shall discuss them in this unit in relation to Business so that you
will understand what they mean and also appreciate their importance.
5.1 Objectives
• define population and sample

• explain the sample size
• differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling techniques
• discuss the sampling techniques.
5.2 Population
This concept population, most of the times, is used to describe the total number of people
living in a defined geographical entity or area. This is as it relates to the common usage of
the term population. But in research, population is not limited to human beings alone, it
includes objects, events, people that have at least a common characteristic which is common
to all of them.
Apopulation refers to all the elements in a well-defined collection or set of values.

Kerlinger (1981) defined population as all members of any well-defined class of people,
events or objects. It means therefore that any entity, group or set which constitutes a
population must have at least one attribute or characteristic which is common to all of them.
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The population of a study therefore represents the target of the study as defined by the aims
and objectives of the study. When you conduct a research study, you have a particular
population in mind. For instance, accountants/HR in the unity organisation, general workers
in an organisation, marketing officers at Zambeef or Trade Kings, women farmers in
Mkushi agricultural zone, Professors in Zambian Universities etc.
A research is expected to yield findings which can be applicable to the entire universe, a
section of the universe, or certain elements in the universe.It means therefore that the
population to which a researcher intends to generalise his or her findings is known as the
target population.
5.3 When to Study the entire Population
You would have noticed that whenever the term population is mentioned in common usage,
it often implies a huge number of people. But in research, the term represents numbers
which may range from very few to very many people, things, objects, events etc. depending
on the nature of investigation to be carried out. You have also noticed that in most studies,
samples are drawn and studied with a view to generalizing the findings to the entire
population. However, some of the times, it is necessary to study the entire population. This
is possible under the following conditions:
(i) When the research involves a population of very few subjects. If the study involves
a population of relatively few people, institutions, objects, events or things. It is
better to study the entire population. Again, if members of the population are few
and hold views or characteristics that should not be neglected, or when sampling
cannot be representative of the population, then the entire population is studied.
(ii) When enough time and resources are available the entire population can be studied.
When there is enough time and fund the entire population can be studied.
(iii) When the research specifically seeks to determine the population, in some situations
there is a need to determine the precise number of subjects belonging to categorized
set of characteristics.
(iv) When the topic demands the study of a specific group,- sometimes such group can
be distinguished from any other group or persons e.g. the classification of prisoners
at the Kamwala Prisons by gender and geopolitical zones.
5.4 Activity
1. Give ten examples of a target population that can be used for research purposes in
Business.
2. Give five examples of situations where the entire population can be studied.
5.5 Sample
From the previous unit, you learnt that certain kinds of research can be carried out using the
entire population. When you study an entire population, you are more able to generalise
your findings to that population. Most of the times, the target population is too large for a
researcher to study. The number of subjects may be too many for the researcher to handle
with limited resources available. The geographical spread or area may be two wide to cover
with the limited time for the research. As a result of cost, time and other constraints, it may
be very difficult to study the entire population.
It becomes necessary, reasonable and only feasible to study a portion of the population
which is described as sample. It means therefore that the portions of populations that are
studied on the bases of which conclusions are made on the entire populations are called
samples. These samples represent populations, so we can have samples of people, objects,
institutions and things. For instance, a researcher who wants to study local government
administration of primary Business in Zambia may decide to take 20 out of 118 local
government areas in Zambia for the study. If your study is on banks, you can only sample a
number of them. It is not possible for you to study all in Zambia. You can only take
samples.
If the sample does not truly represent the population, inferences drawn or decisions taken
about the population characteristics from such sample cannot be valid, no matter how
powerful the statistical techniques used. Therefore, no new knowledge would be generated
and efforts and resources would have been wasted.
5.6 Sample Size
Once you have identified your target population and its characteristics, two major issues
may be required to be taken care of. These are how to compose the samples and the sample
size. The composition of the samples will be treated in the next section.
On the issue of determining a sample size, which would adequately and appropriately
represent the population it would be drawn from, you will note that a large sample size
increases the likelihood of accurately estimating the population characteristics from the
sample. You should, therefore, select a sample which is large enough to improve the
possibility of getting results which may be similar to what you would have obtained if you
had used the entire population. There is no single number which has been fixed as an ideal
sample size.
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The sample size is dependent on a number of factors. These factors include:
• expense in terms of time and money;

• subjects availability to participate in the study;
• size of the population of the study;
• management and control abilities of the researcher;
• complexity of the research conditions and that of the data to be collected and
analysed;
• efficiency in drawing the sample itself;
• level of cooperation expected of and available from the proposed sample/
However, a large sample is much more likely to be representative of the population.
5.7 Activity
1. Differentiate between population and sample.
2. What are the factors which affect sample sizes?
5.8 Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques are simply defined as methods of drawing samples from total
populations. These methods are classified into probability sampling and non-probability
sampling;
5.9 Probability Sampling
A probability sampling is one in which chance factors determine which elements from the
population will be included in the sample. It is therefore theoretically possible to calculate
the probability that any specific element in the population would be included in the sample.
In practice, probability sampling techniques are known to generate valid samples that are
truly representative of their large populations. This is because of the principle that gives all
the individual subjects of the larger population equal opportunities of being selected and
included as members of the drawn samples. The probability sampling techniques include:
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, etc.
5.10 Non-Probability Sampling
These are samples for which the probability of a member of the population being selected
cannot be calculated. Statistical inferences cannot be used to legitimately to generalise
statistically from a non-probability sample to the target population. Generalisation from
non-probability sample can only be made by satisfactorily replicating the investigation in
several contents. The nonprobability sampling techniques are known to generate biased
samples which are not truly representative of the total population. The techniques include:
purposive sampling, volunteer sampling, quota sampling, captive sampling, accidental
sampling, availability sampling etc.
Probability Sampling Techniques
This section will describe the different types of probability sampling techniques.
Simple Random Sampling
A critical feature of this sampling technique is that each member or element of the defined
or target population has an equal probability or chance or opportunity of being selected, and
that the selection of each case, member or element from the population is independent of the
selection of another. By independence, in this case, we mean that the selection of one
member or element or case does not in any way affect the selection of any other member of
the population.
The main purpose of using random sampling techniques is to select a sample which is
representative of the population and which can yield data that can be used for generalisation
to a larger population.
The simple random sampling requirements of independence and equal probability are met
by the use of a variety of methods. These are;
(a) Balloting or Hat and Draw method
This is otherwise called the lottery method in which all the subjects in the population are
listed or numbered in cards or papers. These papers are shuffled and re-shuffled. These
cards are then drawn from the container one by one, with or without replacement. Any
number picked up forms part of the sample.
(b) Table of Random Numbers
This is a more systematic, refined and scientifically generated random numbers. It is a

continuous sequence of numbers which do not appear in any particular order and which is
generated by computers.
To use the table of random numbers, you have to number the population serially from one to
the last person, event, object, case of element. You can then, at random, select a number
from any page or point, row or column and draw your sample using the first two, three or
four digits or you can use the last two, three or four digits. During the process of drawing
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your samples, if a number appears twice, or a number is larger than the population size, you
have to ignore such numbers and continue until your sample size is composed.
The limitation in the use of simple random sampling is that, it can only be used with small
population, since you have to enumerate or number all the subjects in the population.
Systematic Sampling
This involves, first listing in a serial order, all the events, persons, objects or things in the
whole population. After this, the population (N) is divided by the sample size (n) to get the
Kth interval. Once the Kth case is decided, all others are automatically selected. For
instance, assuming you have a population of 1,000 people and your sample size is 100.
Then Kth position will be given by N/n = 1000/100 = 10. It means that every 10 th position
or interval is automatically selected as part of the sample.
Thus, numbers 10, 20, 30, 40, etc. are already selected. You can even select any number: 1,
2, 3, …. 10 as the Kth number. For example, if the Kth case is 5, then 5, 15, 25, 35, 35 etc.
become members of the sample.
You would have noticed that independence is not ensured in systematic sampling. This is
because, once the first member – Kth is selected, every other member of the sample is
automatically determined. This is a limitation in the use of this method.
Cluster Sampling
When the population of the study is very large and widely dispersed or spreads out, it poses
administrative problems to use simple random sampling. For instance, in a population
comprising of all the students in the School of Leadership and Business Management, at
CHAU you will note that it will not be easy to enumerate all the members of the population.
Again, it will be impractical to sample from every cohort. You have noted that a researcher
is always interested in composing a sample which must represent the characteristics of the
target population. But the characteristics of any given population can be quite enormous.
Therefore, in cluster sampling, the researcher identifies his research interest characteristics
and where or in what areas these characteristics exist. If the population is large or the area
is widespread, he may decide to zone the area reflecting these characteristics and then
random samples from each of the identified zones.
The emphasis here is on the characteristics of the sub-group and not on individual. For
example, in using the population of all the business students, one may decide to sample per
programme. It means therefore that any programme selected forms a unit of the study. All
the students in that programme will be used. Another example is that of a researcher who
wants to use three Zambian languages – Bemba, Nyanja and Lozi for his research study.
This is because, if he wants to get his sample from Zambians, he may end up getting
respondents who are not Bemba, Nyanja and Lozi.
Cluster sampling saves time and resources. It is mostly used in research where there is an
urge or desire to study the characteristics of respondents in their natural settings or to ensure
geographic representation of noted groups whose special characteristics are of interest to the
researcher.
Stratified Sampling
In a given population, there exists abundance of population characteristics. A whole range

of differences can exist even within a particular characteristic. For instance, in using weight
of individuals, you have heavyweights, lighter weights, cruiser weights, feather weights etc.
In many Business studies, you will notice that the population is by nature stratified. You
have differences in gender, occupation, income, socio-economic status, geographical
location, qualifications, age, height, colour, dialects,business type etc.
Stratified sampling is appropriate when the population consists of a number of sub-groups

which are homogeneous or contain members that share common characteristics, which need
to be represented in the sample. Randomisation is then used to select members from the
subgroups in such a way that the proportion of each sub-group in the population is reflected
in the sample.
Stratified sampling is appropriate when the study is required to compare sub-groups or when
the sub-groups are likely to influence the level of the dependent variable.
5.11 Activity
1. What are the major features of probability sampling?

2. What are the probability sampling techniques?
5.12 Non-Probability Sampling
This can be called biased sampling or non-random sampling technique. This is because the
chances of an element, person, object, event, thing etc. being included in the sample are not
the same. Some may have more advantages than the others. It does not involve
randomisation and therefore may have high sampling error and generalisation is limited.
The non-probability sampling techniques are further subdivided into:
Purposive Sampling
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This is necessitated when the researcher is interested in certain specified characteristics. It
ensures that only those that meet such required purpose, attributes or characteristics are
selected. For instance, a study of the Vice Chancellors of public Universities in Zambia, or
a study comprising Local Government Chairmen/mayors in urban provinces of Zambia.
In these cases, you will notice that you can only use those who are Vice Chancellors in
public Universities or the Local Government Chairmen/mayors in urban provinces of
Zambia. They are few and are known.
Volunteer Sampling
This is used when every member of the population cannot comply with the demands of the
investigation. Therefore, these individuals who are willing to comply with the demands of
the investigations are used. These are the volunteers who are willing and ready to cooperate
with the researcher.
But this is a biased sample because those volunteers differ from the entire population and
from the non-volunteers in many of the characteristics.
Captive Audience
This is just like an intact class used by the teacher for a research purpose. The
generalisation should not go beyond the class.
Quota Sampling
In this method, the researcher selects a certain number of respondents in proportion to their
number in the population, but without randomisation. A good example is where all the
provinces in Zambia are given quota admissions in public universities or unity
organisations.
Accidental Sampling
This can be called availability sampling. This is because it makes use of the respondents
available at the time. Participation is based on availability. This is very common with
pressmen or journalists. They interview or use anybody available at the time.
5.13 Summary
In this unit, you learnt that total population is the universe of individuals, things, objects,
events, units, elements etc. possessing the same stated characteristics. Sampling means
drawing of samples from a population or populations in research.
A sample is a part of the population. It must be the true representative of the target
population in all its parameters or characteristics. Findings made from the samples are
generalisable or truly ascribable to the population, if the samples are randomly composed
and are representative of the population.
You learnt that there are two major types of sampling techniques. These are:
(1) Probability sampling, which ensures that the sample selected is validly representative
of the target population. This is done by employing the mathematical or statistical
theory of probability or chance and randomisation in composing the samples. The
methods of sampling here include: simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
cluster sampling and stratified sampling.
(2) Non-probability sampling, which generate biased samples that are not truly
representative of the target population from which they are drawn. The sampling
error is large and findings cannot be used for generalisation beyond the samples.
Under this, we have purposive sampling, volunteer sampling, captive audience,
accidental sampling etc.
1. Differentiate between population and sample with examples.

2. Differentiate between probability sampling and non-probability sampling with
relevant examples.
3. List and discuss the probability sampling methods.
4. Enumerate the non-probability sampling methods.
5.15 Further reading
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UNIT 6
RESEARCH DESIGNS
6.0 Introduction
Most of the times, certain natural events occur. These events may occur in the air, land, sea,
inside our brains or inside the body, in our organisations and organisation systems,
anywhere and everywhere. These events can become of considerable interest to people who
study the various entities and attributes.
Among these people are Business researchers, scientists and researchers from many other
fields. You can see that most of the things we use today for our comfort and productivity
are the products of one research or the other. We can then say that the products of research
are invaluable in all spheres of our human developments.
Therefore, the framework of how we carry out these researches must be clearly defined and
universally accepted. It means also that in every field or discipline, the development of the
structure of that particular field or discipline and its function to the society, through
research, must follow a clearly defined and acceptable framework. It is this framework that
provides the modus operandi for research in that particular field or discipline.
In Business, this framework which is followed in conducting research is called research

design, while the activities carried out within the design specifications constitute the
research methodology. In other words, the research methodology is the knitty-gritty work
aspect of the research.
In this unit, you will learn more about the research design and in subsequent units, you
would learn the types of research designs.
6.1 Objectives
• explain the concept of research design

• discuss the components of a research design
• list the types of research designs.
6.2 The Concept of Research Design
In the introduction above, you read that the research design is regarded as a framework, a
structure to be followed in conducting the research. You will also note that a research
design is seen as a master-plan or a blueprint for the research activities which the researcher
intends to use in order to carry out a full investigation of the problem of his interest. The
research design tells you what to do and how to do it. According to Kerlinger (1973:300), it
is ―the plan, structure and strategy for investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to
research questions and to control variable‖.
You can see from this description that the design is aimed at providing answers to research
questions and the control of variable. These are the two basic purposes of a research design
which you should take cognizance of right from the time you formulate your research
hypotheses, assumption, questions, etc. to the final analysis of data.
The research design determines the nature and scope of the study which you propose to
carry out. Take for instance that you plan to build a house. What are the necessary things
you do? You will notice that you design the plan of the proposed house based on the size of
your land and based on the funds available, you start to make available the materials to be
used etc. The design of the building gives you ideas of the type of materials, the labour and
the type of house you are building. In Business, a research design is very important because
it provides you with the information leading to your knowledge of what kind of method you
will use or plan to use.
When you are writing your research project report, your framework or structure should
include a section on what type of design as well as why that particular design is used. A
very important feature or attribute of a research design is that it must be adequate and
appropriate for use in the investigation of the problem of the study. If this does not happen,
you will run the risk of being stuck with a dead end or misleading procedures, data and
conclusions. You see, this will be detrimental to your study. It means that different research
designs are appropriate for particular types of studies and not for every type of study.
Consequently, it is necessary for you to select and equally important, to comply with the
best design suitable for your study. You are warned to avoid short-gun approach to
research. Let us go to the next section which talks about the components of a design.
6.3 The Components of a Research Design
A typical design in Business research is made up of five major components. These include:
sampling, grouping, research conditions, data analysis and conclusion based on the testing
hypotheses or answering research questions.
Before we continue, you have to note that it is possible for the type of study you plan to
undertake not to include one or more of such components in the design of your study. For
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instance, some survey researches would not require any research conditions other than
administering questionnaires to the samples.
6.4 Sampling and Grouping
Research is carried out for the sole purpose of discovering or rediscovering phenomenon in
the form of events, laws, principles, occurrences, etc. which have applications that are
beneficial to mankind.
Majority of the research studies are not carried out on a whole population. This is because it
would be too expensive, unwieldy, timeconsuming and perhaps impossible and undesirable.
Due to the fact that attributes of any large population are quite numerous and liable to
change continuously, it may be impractical and limiting to study them at one and the same
time, if at all. The cost and other involvements arising from this would be unimaginably
enormous.
Now, imagine you want to conduct a study on CHAU Students numbering about 7,000,
throughout the Zambia. You will need a very bulky research documents, hundreds or
thousands of research assistants, thousands of hours of computer and pre-computer analysis
work, and so many sleepless nights. If this is so, think of what it will be like when you have
populations running into millions.
You will recall that we have defined population as any groups or objects which a researcher
wishes to study and which, of a necessity, have one or more common characteristics that are
of interest to him/her.
Now that you have seen that it is not possible, practicable or even desirable to study all the
attributes of a population, what do you do? You are advised to restrict your investigation to
a small fraction of the population or universe of interest to you for your study. This small
fraction or subset of the population selected for investigation in the place of the population
is called sample. Every participant in a research study constitutes the sample or subjects.
You have already noted that the method of composing the sample is called sampling.
You will notice that for research purposes, it is necessary to have two or more groups of
subjects. In this case, grouping of the samples becomes necessary. But if only one group is
needed, then no grouping is required.
6.5 Activity
Is it advisable to study all the attributes of a population? Give reasons to support your
answer.
6.6 Research Conditions
When you conduct a research study, there are some activities or events which constitute the
conditions under which your research is expected to proceed, be observed and to yield
required data. These are regarded as the research conditions. They relate to answering of
such questions about the research with regards to: who will do what, when will it be done,
with what will it be done and how will it be done? Research conditions vary from one type
of planned study to another.
In Business researches, some research conditions may involve the administration of

questionnaires or the interviewing of the subjects. In some others, the research conditions
may simply involve observing and recording certain behaviours exhibited by the subjects.
In yet another research condition, it may involve examining, recording and analyzing
historical or case study records or classifying events in different categories.
Research conditions may also involve carrying out experiment. In this case, the research
conditions are more detailed and demanding. An experiment imposes rigorous research
conditions to enable the researcher establish the presence or absence of a cause-effect
relationship in the phenomenon studied.
There are two forms of research conditions in an experimental study. These are the
treatment conditions and the control conditions. You will study them in details later in this
module.
There are some important considerations which you need to take for your effective and
efficient handling of the research conditions of your study; regardless of whether it is an
experiment or not. You are required to carefully and methodically comply with the clearly
pre-determined nature and scope of events which constitute the research conditions. For
instance, if you have two or more groups of students and you want one group (A) to use a
method of solving Mathematics problem and the rest (B or C) to use another method, you
will make sure that no one from group B or C etc. contaminates group A by seeing or using
their own method. So you have to make sure that events which constitute the treatment
conditions are unique and different from the events that constitute the control conditions.
The next consideration is time. For how long would the events constituting the treatment
and control last? How would each be phased, tested, data recorded etc? Who would be
involved in doing the different aspects of the research conditions as far as the groups,
researcher and the research assistants are involved?
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6.7 Data Analysis
This means the treatment of data so that they become summarised or reduced to a point they
can be meaningfully interpreted. Research data convey little or no meaning unless they are
analysed and described. But before you analyse data, you have to know first the scale or the
kind of data.
You will recall that data can be nominal i.e. descriptive classification; ordinal i.e. ordered
arrangement; interval i.e. relatively constructs distance between judgments; and ratio which
has absolute zero. Again, you have to note that the type of data for analysis would
determine the type of statistics to be used for such analysis. If you use statistics which are
not appropriate for your data analysis, you derive little or no accurate and verifiable
meaning from such analysis. Therefore, you should know what kind of data you are
collecting in your study and then the appropriate statistical test to be used for analyzing the
particular data.
There are two main types of statistics used in data analysis in research. These are the
descriptive statistics which are used for describing the data and for answering research
questions. The other is the inferential or parametric statistics which are used to make
inferences, judgment and/or decisions about a population parameters based on data obtained
from the study of the research sample. You will learn more about statistics in Module 4.
6.8 Activity
1. What is data analysis?

2. What are the two types of statistics?
6.9 The Types of Research Designs
There are basically two types of research designs. All studies in Business are either
descriptive research design or experimental design. Some of the times, we have a
combination of both. Included in these two types of designs are historical research,
developmental research, case study research, correlational research, survey research,
experimental research, designs etc. You will learn more about these designs in subsequent
units.
You need to note that in general, the type of design for a particular study could be correctly
inferred or derived from the title or topic of study. It means that right from the time you
choose your research topic, you are already battling with the choice of the design of the
work. If you take a close look at the table below, you will notice that some operational
words in your topic direct you to the design for that particular topic.
Table 6.1: Research Designs and the Nature of Topics
S/N NATURE OF RESEARCH TOPIC TYPE OF DESIGN
1. (a) Relationship between …………

(b) A correlational study of………. Correlational Research
(c) X and Y as a covariant of…..…. Design
(d) A comparative study of……….
2. (a) Influence of ……………

(b) Incidence of ……………
(c) Perception of ………….. Survey Research Design
(d) Impact of ……………….
(e) Evaluation of …………..
(f) Attitude of ……………..
3. Effect of …………. Experimental Research Design
6.9.1 Developmental Research Design
This is a type of descriptive study which involves an investigation of patterns and sequences
of growth or changes that take place with time. You can study the development of Business
in a particular district, or the development of interest patterns in children. Developmental
research seeks to ascertain how some dimensions, variables or characteristics of given
population change with time. Its thrust generally lies in finding out how these
characteristics of the target population change over time, at what rate, in which direction
and the factors which possibly contribute to these changes. Developmental research can be
longitudinal or cross-sectional.
6.9.2 Longitudinal Research
In this type, the same groups of subjects are studied for a period of time. Observations are
carried out on these subjects from time to time within the period of research to note any
changes in the particular characteristics under study. The data are collected and analysed to
see if there are patterns and sequences which underlie the development or unfolding of these
characteristics. It provides a more valid approach for studying developmental trends.
But it has its own limitations. You will recall that it involves observing the subjects over a
period of time. Don‘t you think that some may drop out on account of transfer, ill-health, or
death? What if something happens to the researcher to prevent him from continuing the
study? It takes a long time to complete. That means that there must be enough funds to
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sustain the study. If this is not the case, what happens? Again, by the very nature of
longitudinal research, modifications are not possible once the study has started.
6.9.3 Cross-Sectional Research
This involves sampling a cross-section of the subjects of varying ages for the study. It
means that instead of following the same group of subjects for a very long time, a cross-
section is sampled to be observed at the same time. The characteristics of the subjects at
different age levels are examined and analysed to reveal possible trends in development.
This approach makes it possible for many subjects to be studied at the same time. It is
cheaper and quicker.
But it is less accurate than longitudinal research. Because the subjects differ in other
relevant respects apart from age, the differences in the developmental patterns and sequences
observed at different age levels may not solely be attributable to age alone.
6.10 Survey and Case Study Researches
6.10.1 Meaning of Survey Research
Let us start this section by saying that a survey is ―a descriptive study which seeks to
document and describe what exists or the present status of existence or absence of what is
being investigated‖.
A survey develops a profile on what is and not why it is so. Surveys do not relate one
variable to another. Instead, information is sought and collected on the subject of
investigation and described. They are used to ascertain the nature of a phenomenon from a
relatively large number of cases. If the entire target population is studied, the survey is
called census.
As generally conceived, a survey research deals with the study of a group of people or items
by the collection of and analyzing of data from only a few people or items used as samples
of the entire group. You have learnt about research designs in some details. A survey
research makes use of research design like every other type of research. This design
specifies how data will be collected and analysed.These include the relevance, reliability
and validity of the information collected, accurate enumeration, appropriate and accurate
measuring instruments for constructs or variables of interest and accurate data collection
procedure.
6.10.1 Classification of Survey Research
Classification of survey research can be done on two schemes. The first classification
scheme is on the basis of the procedure, technique or instrument for data collection (see
Borg & Gall, 1979. & Kerlinger, 1979).
Using this scheme, we have:
(a) Questionnaire
(b) Interview (c)Observational, and (d)Panel surveys.
Questionnaire Survey
Every survey studies which employ the use of questionnaires as the major data collection
technique or instrument are called questionnaire survey.
Interview Survey
Here interview constitutes the major technique for gathering relevant information.
Interview involves getting out information through verbal interaction between the
respondents and the researcher.
Observational Survey
This is the type of survey involving the use of observation to collect data. It involves
gathering information through observation for the purpose of measuring variables.
Panel Survey
This employs a definite procedure or technique of data collection. Here, data are collected
from a given sample at two or more different time periods. The data are then analysed to
discover trends or changes in the opinions of the subjects over the period of time under
study. It is suitable for studying trends or fluctuations or changes in the subjects, opinions,
attitudes or behaviours. It can be useful in studying how stable a group of people‘s attitude
towards an issue or object is over time or how an identifiable intervening variable can
influence such attitudes.
Another way of classifying surveys is by the purpose to which the particular survey intends
accomplishing. Here, we have: developmental, descriptive, correlational and public opinion
surveys.
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We are going to touch briefly on these types too. This is because they have found expression
somewhere in this course. So you either have come across them or will come across them
subsequently.
Developmental Survey
You have learnt that it seeks to ascertain how some variables or characteristics of a given
population can change with time. It can be longitudinal or cross-sectional studies.
Descriptive Survey
All those studies which aim at collecting data, analyzing them and describing in a
systematic manner the characteristics, features or facts about a given population is called
descriptive survey. The studies are only interested in describing certain variables in relation
to the target population. They are concerned with a description of events as they are. Look
at this topic: ―The performance of students in accounts/economics at CHAU.
You will notice that this study is only interested in describing the performance of the
students in accounts/economics at CHAU only. It may not be interested in going into
details about the causes of the performances. Can you think of any other topic like this?
Now take a look at this: ―A survey of the in-service training needs of HR in the Ministry of
Education‖.
Correlational Survey
In this type of study, you will need to establish whether or not the type of relationship which
exists between two or more variables.
Public Opinion Survey
This is usually designed to find out the opinion of people in a given area toward an issue or
event that is of interest to the general public in the area. This area can be a large one such as
a country like Zambia, a small town like Chongwe, a university campus or even your study
centre. Usually, cross-section of the population is sampled and interviewed or given
questionnaires to fill. Any results obtained from the sample may be generalized to the entire
population. Most of the time, randomization is not used in the sampling method. This
makes the generalization invalid. Non-probability sampling is used most of the time. Public
opinion surveys are used for prediction of election results and what the people feel about
any government programme.
6.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surveys
• Surveys are relatively cheap and easy means of collecting large amount of data
concerning a given problem. It can be costlier than experimental studies, but if you
consider the quantum of data collected, you will see that it is no doubt cheaper.
• Surveys permit the use of a great variety of procedures and instruments in data
collection. It is possible to use questionnaire, interview, observation, test or a
combination of these.
Under the limitations, we can say that surveys do not give in-depth data about the
characteristics of the population under study. You see that most questions used in survey
researchers make the respondents tend to be superficial and do not contain as much detailed
information as possible. It limits the generalisability of the responses obtained.
Some responses are faked, but you have no means of detecting which responses are faked,
you are compelled to believe in what has been given to you.
6.11 Case Study Research
This is an in-depth intensive study or investigation of one individual, a small unit or a

phenomenon. When we say a small unit here, we are referring to a family, a organisation, a
church, a classroom, an association, a teacher, an administrator or a group of these.
A phenomenon can be taken as a case or an issue. For instance, the impact of

unemployment among university graduates in a local government area, the influence of
examination malpractices on the standard of Business in Kitwe, the impact of cultism on
the peaceful coexistence of students in the University, and the influence of religious
intolerance on the life styles of the Tongas/Luvale. Case studies are used for solving
specific problems through in-depth study for documenting social realities, life cycle, change
or growth.
If you study the works of Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget etc. you will notice they were case
studies. The studies on human growth and development were all case studies. The
underlying basis for the use of case study is the belief that probing and studying intensely
one typical case can lead to insights into our understanding of individuals, events, social
units etc. typical to the particular case study. For instance, if you study one case of a
cigarette smoker, you have by implication studied other cases involving smokers. This poses
a problem of other cases not studied. The implication is that it is risky to draw a general
conclusion to other cases based on only one case studied. You have seen that case studies
samples are not representative, so their findings are not generalized. But in-depth studies
may reveal certain relationships that may merit investigation on a wider scale. It means that
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when you want to use this type of study, you have to exercise extra care and thoughtfulness
in selecting a case for investigation that would be fair and adequate representation of a whole
range of similar cases.
Case study research may appear simple, but in reality, it is difficult and time-consuming.
This is because of the volume of data collected through painstakingly methodical, skill-
demanding counselling sessions, interview sessions, data sifting sessions, travels, etc.
involved. All these require efforts, skills and patience. But the major limitation is the non-
representativeness of the samples and subjectivity.
6.13 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt that a research design is a blueprint or plan of action as regards
events which upon implementation would enable you to investigate the problem of your
study. You have also learnt that there are five components of a typical research design.
These are sampling, grouping, research conditions, data analysis and condition. You also
looked at some of the major research designs in Business research and survey types. We
shall look at these designs in details in the next units.
1. What is a research design?

2. List the five components of a research design.
3. List three major types of research design.
4. Discuss the types of research surveys.
5. Differentiate longitudinal research from cross-sectional research design.
6. Explain the case study research design.
Publishers.
UNIT 7
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: OBSERVATION
7.0 Introduction
In the last module, you worked through the various designs that you can use in your
Business research. In this module, we are going to look at the major ways of collecting data
for your research. The first among these methods is observational technique.
Observation, as a method of data collection or obtaining information in research, involves

measuring variables or gathering the data necessary for measuring the variables. A variable
is measured so that it can be related to other variables. Before we continue, let us look at the
objectives of this unit.
7.1 Objectives
• explain the observational technique of data collection

• describe observational variables
• explain the phases of observational method
• discuss the recording of observations
• describe the validity and reliability of observations
• highlight the problems of observation
• list the advantages and disadvantages of observation.
7.2 Observational Technique: An Introduction
Observation can be regarded as a process of looking out and recording the presence or
absence of a particular trait or behaviour of a person or group of persons. According to
Nworgu (1991), observation, as a method of data collection, involves watching people,
events, situations or phenomena in order to obtain first-hand information about a particular
aspect of such person, event, situation or a phenomenon. Some of the times, you may have
certain information relating to some aspects of human behaviours which may not be easy to
obtain except you are in that particular setting where such behaviours are exhibited. It may
not surprise you that most of the times information provided by respondents in
questionnaires and interviews can be inaccurate, prestigebased or faked. But observational
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techniques make it possible for you to obtain first-hand information about the person,
object, event, situation, and phenomenon or object-event interaction of interest.
In other words, instead of using the other methods which can easily accommodate response
faking and personal bias, you can decide to obtain your information directly by means of
naturalistic observations. For instance, if you are a technical instructor and you are required
to fill in a questionnaire and list the methods you use for teaching prevention of accidents in
the organisation workshop, what will you do? You will go and list the best and current
methods available, whether you use them or not is another thing. But if you are watched at
random while teaching your class, we may be able to obtain the actual methods used.
Observation characterizes or is used in all types of research, be it experimental or non-
experimental. Observation techniques are challenging. They need to be planned and carried
out in a systematic way.
7.3 Observational Variables
Anytime you have decided to conduct a research that requires the use of observation, it is
necessary that you identify and define the observational variables. You know that human
behaviour is complex and as such important characteristics and/or traits are very difficult to
observe directly. You must therefore, try to define them precisely in operational terms. For
instance, if you have a problem about teachers‘ attitude to work, you will first understand
that the problem is broad, can suggest the use of observations, but it requires the
determination of the specific observations that should be made. You have to develop such
expectations that you think signify attitudes to work. After this, you have to limit the focus
of your observation considerably by defining the important variables to be observed and
recorded based on your expectations.
For example, a typical expectation will be that teachers who have positive attitude to work
are always punctual to their classes. At this juncture, you should define the behaviour units
and time units by determining what constitutes positive attitudes of teachers to work. These
may include prompt reaction to students‘ problems and queries, prompt marking of tests and
assignments, marking of registers and attendance records, up-to-date lesson plans/notes, up-
to-date in the knowledge of the subject matter, classroom management etc. You should
avoid vague definition of behaviours because they could lead to guesswork.
7.4 Types of Observational Variables
There are three types of observational variables. These are:
(a) Descriptive or Low Inference Variables

These variables need little or no inference on the part of the observer. They generally yield
reliable data. This is because if there are more than one observers, the level of their
agreement in recording the same kind of behaviour is expected to be high e.g. the number of
times a teacher comes late to class, the number of questions asked by the teacher in a lesson,
the number of assignments given to the class in a week, etc.
(b) High Inference Variables
In this case, an observer needs to give an inference before scoring the variable. It is not easy
to collect reliable data on such variables. The level of agreement between two observers
recording the same behaviour will be low. For instance, if there is an oral interview for the
employment of ZICA accountants/teachers, you will notice the type of self-confidence
exhibited by the interviewees in answering questions from the interviewers. You will see
some answering with a great deal of confidence, some may appear un-sure of themselves;
some may appear confused, while others may be nervous. You will note that these are not
behaviours, but variables that reflect the different levels of competence of these teachers in
the areas of questioning. To this effect, inferences can be made from these behaviours.
(c) Evaluative Variables
Here, more than inference is required on the side of the observer. You need to make an
evaluative judgment. For instance, if a teacher is making an explanation or description
about a statistical concept, while you as an observer, need to rate or score the quality of that
explanation. You will notice that quality ratings are not behaviours, but inferences made
from behaviours. You will find it difficult to make reliable observations of evaluative
variables. What you should do in this case is to collect examples of such behaviours and
define points along a continuum from excellent-to-poor explanations and use it for such
ratings.
7.5 Phases of Observational Method
The six phases of systematic observation are given below:
(a) Definition of Aims and Objectives
If you want to conduct a systematic observation, you should start by defining the focus of
your observation. You cannot observe everything in every situation. You have to decide
what to observe by defining the aims and objectives of the observation as derived from your
hypotheses and/or research questions. For instance, if the research question is ―What
instructional aides are used in the introductory technology lesson?‖ Then you must ignore
other aspects of the lesson and focus on the instructional materials. Here, your objective
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may be to identify the different types used, to count the number of each type used, to record
the number of times each type is used, etc. In this case, you will be collecting relevant data
for the solution of research problem.
(b)Selection and Definition of Attributes
At this point, you will need to select and define the target objects and events. For instance,
if your focus is on the instructional aides, you have to identify items which would be
classified and accepted as instructional aides. Models, drawings, specimens, charts,
projectors, machine tools, hand tools, pictures etc. You will also need to define the
characteristics of each item to differentiate it from others. For example, what differentiates
a machine tool from a hand tool? On the term ―used‖, for instance, if a machine tool is
mounted on the floor of the workshop when it is used, if it is referred to, if it is used to
explain something? Or if it is manipulate?
It is necessary that these things are clarified to prevent confusion in categorization among
different observers or by the same observer at different times, different places or different
encounters; it improves the reliability of counting and recording procedure. Abstract
qualities such as inquiry, honesty, stress etc. should be well-defined by their denotable
characteristics.
(c)Selection of Observation Modes and Training of Observers
At this stage, you have to take a decision on the type or mode of observation to adopt. You
can decide to use the natural senses or technological gadgets. You can decide to be a
participant in the target situation or a non-participant. You have to know which mode is
more appropriate for the particular situation before the actual observation.
Your choice of observation mode should be guided by the consideration of having minimum
interference can be achieved by the use of one-way screens, remote sensors, light
differential and elevated corridors. These will keep you out of the views of the subjects.
You can use micro-recorders to make the subjects less conscious of being observed. If you
choose to be a participant observer, do not play a leadership role.
(d)Administrative Arrangements
For you to carry out a systematic observation, you have to make adequate arrangements and
proper planning. These will enable you obtain valid data. If it is in anorganisation situation,
you have to seek for the cooperation of the organisation heads, the teachers, look for and
mount appropriate technological gadgets and plan and adopt such strategies that will ensure
minimum dislocation of the phenomena under observation.
(e) Observation
As much as possible, let your observation focuses on the low-inference and not denotable
characteristics or high inference abstract qualities. For instance, if again you want to
observe teachers‘ attitude to work, denotable indicators can be punctuality, regularity, extra
hours of work, etc. Attitude is then inferred rather than observed. But there must be an
integrated theoretical or empirical basis for the inference.
Consideration should be given to the number of visits or observations needed for reliable
observations. You can use as many as thirty visits, though most studies cannot afford more
than a dozen observations on a single teacher. In order to obtain a trustworthy mean score
for one teacher, particularly for cognitive variables, you need as many observations as
possible. You have to gird against observer effects. You have to provide a situation where
you can observe without introducing some distortion to the events that would have occurred
if observations were not taking place. To minimize distortion effects in observation,
possible techniques are: habituation-staging with the participants long before the
observations start. This will make the participants not to attach any importance to your
presence. Others are assessment of effects and remote presence. You should also guard
against halo-effects and interpretation bias during observation.
(f) Quantification of Observation
Observations are quantified by coding. There are multiple coding systems in use today.
The three major types are the sign system, the category system and the rating system.
(i) The Sign System otherwise called interval recording, records the event once within
a specified time period. It does not matter how many times the event occurs during
that period. A typical example is the Science Teaching Observation Schedule,
STOS (Eggleston, et. al., 1975).
(ii) The Category Systemwhich records an event each time it occurs. A typical
example is the Biology Teacher Behaviour Inventory, BTBI (Evans, 1869; Balzer,
1969).
(iii) The Rating System which estimates the frequency of events only once, usually at
the end of the observation session. A typical example is the teaching practice rating.
Other methods like the use of anecdotal records do not usually require quantification. In
some arithmetic processes are applied directly to quantitative counts obtained from sign and
category system data to yield relevant interpretations. In the rating system, frequency
estimate of the events is scaled ordinally. The ordinal scores of all events are totalled. The
total scores indicate the level of excellence or otherwise of performance.
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7.6 Activity
1. What are the three types of observational variables?

2. Explain the phases of observation method.
7.7 Recording Observations
You have gone through the variables and the phases of observation. Before we go on to the
recording techniques, let us briefly touch on the types of observations.
Types of Observation
In general, there are two types of observation. These are: participant and non-participant
observation.
(i) Participant Observation in which the observer is either a member of the setting or
group being observed or has joined the setting or group just for the purpose of
carrying out the observation. In this case, the observer is always with the observed
e.g. your head of department, the principal and the teachers, the instructor and the
apprentice etc.
(ii) Non-Participant Observation in which the observer is not a member of the setting or
the group being observed. The observer visits the observed at different intervals e.g.
Supervisors from the Ministry of Business to the organisations, or Inspectors from
the Inspectorate, Teaching Practice etc.
7.8 Techniques for Recording Observations
The techniques as classified by Borg and Gall (1983) are:
(i)Duration Recording: This involves measuring the length of time in which target
behaviour occurs. You may use some form of timing device like the stopwatch.
You may record the time for a single behaviour. For example, the length of time a
student stays without making noise, the length of time the teacher talks before
moving around etc.
(ii)Frequency Count Recording: This involves recording the

number of times the target behaviour is exhibited by the subject. You may use a
tally sheet or a counting device to record each time the behaviour occurs. It is most
useful in recording behaviours of short duration, e.g., how many times a student
raises his hands to answer a question, how many times a teacher use praise to
reinforce a good behaviour etc.
(iii) Interval Recording: In this case, the target behaviour is observed at intervals of say
30 seconds or one minute. The length of time varies with the nature of behaviours
being observed. For instance, which of the listed mannerisms does a teacher exhibit
within the time interval.
(iv) Continuous Observation: In this case, all the behaviour of the target subject are
recorded in a chronological order during the observation session. For example,
recording everything which the subject does in a given setting – playground,
classroom, in a meeting etc.
(v) Time Sampling: In this case, you will select time intervals out of the total time
available for observation. You can only observe during the selected periods. The
periods can be selected at random and can be used in conjunction with the other
methods. For instance, you can select organisation days at random in order to
observe a given teacher or teachers.
7.9 Validity and Reliability of Observation
This will be discussed under the following sub-topics.
7.9.1 Validity
In order to have a higher degree of validity in your observation, you will need to:
(i) Identify those critical incidents of behaviour which are truly significant. In this case,
you may wish to supplement your knowledge and skills with the judgement of
experts in the field under study. This will help you to select a limited number of
observable incidents which are actually related to the behaviours under study.
(ii) Conceal the observer and his intensions. This is because if the observed are aware
of the presence of the observer, their behaviour may be influenced. This is a threat
to the validity.
While some scholars believe that if an observer stays for a long period of time, his
presence will be taken for granted and seen as part of the setting with little effect on
the behaviours observed. But others feel that if the observer is introduced as active
participant in the activities of the group being observed, it will minimize the effects
of intrusion.
(iii) Prevent observation bias. This becomes a threat to validity when you are the sole
observer and unconsciously see only what you expect to see and to overlook those
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incidents which do not fit your theory. Your own feelings, values, attitudes and past
experiences may distort your observation. You can use trained observers and restrict
your role to the interpretation.
(iv) Randomly select time sample for observing frequently occurring incidents. This may
help to yield more representative samples of behaviour and improve the validity of
observation.
7.9.2 Reliability
To determine the reliability of observation, you have to compute the correlation coefficient
for the sets of scores from two different observers for a given target groups or subjects at the
same time. The reliability of the observation should be determined during the try out or
pilot phase of the observation.
7.10 Training Observers
According to Nwana (1981), observational studies are time consuming and require long
periods of patiently watching events. Of course, you know that the pace of observational
settings is never controlled by the observer. Therefore, you need to employ the services of
assistant observers to carry out the observation. But you have to note the advice of Mouly
(1978), that observation is not better than the people doing it. Again, the fact that human
behaviours are complex, the observer is always faced with determining which factors are
significant from a multiplicity of events occurring simultaneously. It becomes particularly
important to train the observers.
7.11 Activity
1. What are the two types of observation?

2. Explain the observation recording techniques.
3. What are the things you should do to have higher degrees of validity in your
observation?
7.12 Problems of Observation
Observation, as a method of data collection, has some problems. These are:
(i) Observer Effects: These are virtually inevitable, but can be minimized by
unobtrusive methods as have been listed under section 3.3 (phases of observation in
the unit). Read it again.
(ii) Observation Requires Enterprise: In order to have proper observation, you need to
be trained if you are not an expert. Assistant observers also need to be trained. This
will help to save time or maintain objectivity.
(iii) The Number of Observations: The number of observations needed to obtain a

representative sample of events is most of the times prohibitive. This is why many
researchers resort to studying the target phenomena shoddily.
(iv) Interpretation Bias: If a researcher decides to report a coloured version rather than
the objective findings, it can distort the observed event. This can be minimized by
the use of blind observation whereby trained observers are used without them
knowing the objectives of the observation; the use of trained recorders for objective
recording of events; the use of multiple independent observers or the use of taped
recorders which can allow analysis and re-analysis.
(v) Halo-Effects: You have read about this in the last unit. In this case, it means later
records of observations being affected by
earlier impressions. This can reduce the reliability of information collected through
observation.
(vi) Rating Errors: This can occur when the rating system is used. It can be as a result
of ambiguities in the meaning of the scale points. Again, rating systems such as the
tendency to rate subjects towards the middle, rather than at either of the two
extremes.
7.13 Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages and disadvantages are listed separately below.
Advantages
(i) It provides unique insights not attained by other methods.
(ii) It yields direct first-hand information which is more valid than reported information.
(iii) It is peculiarly suitable for the study of young children, handicapped persons and
illiterates.
Disadvantages
(i) It requires enormous amounts of time, energy and resources to be properly executed.
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(ii) Samples are usually small and this tends to reduce the internal validity as well as the
external validity or generalisability of the findings. This is due to lack of
representation of the samples.
(iii) Some behaviour is not explicit and observation may not apply in such situations.
(iv) The faking of some participants when they know that they are being observed.
7.14 Guide to Good Observation
The guide to good observation is listed below:
(i) Obtain prior knowledge of the conditions or background of what to observe;
(ii) Examine the general and specific objectives of the observation; (iii)Determine the
method of observation – direct, using assistants, participants or non-participant;
(iv) Define and establish the variables of observation;
(v) Device an appropriate method of recording results;
(vi) Observe carefully, critically and objectively;
(vii) Rate specific phenomena independently, in the case of rating;
(viii) Do not interfere with the setting in which the observation is taking place.
7.15 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt observation is a process of looking out for and recording the
presence or absence of a particular trait or behaviour of a person or group of persons. You
also looked at the observational variables where you learnt that the three of them are
descriptive or low inference variables, high inference variables and evaluative variables. In
the phases of observation method, you learnt that they are:
(i) Definition of aims and objectives;

(ii) Selection and definition of attributes;
(iii) Selection of observational modes and training observers;
(iv) Administrative arrangements;
(v) Observation, and
(vi) Quantification of observation.
You also learnt that the two types of observations are participant and non-participant
observation. The techniques for recording are:
(i) Duration recording;

(ii) Frequency count recording;
(iii) Interval recording, and
(iv) (iv) Time sampling.
You read about the validity and reliability of observation and how to train observers. The
problems of observation are:
(i) Observers effects;

(ii) Expertise in observation;
(iii) Number of observations required;
(iv) Interpretation bias; (v)Halo-effects, and (vi)Rating errors.
You also saw the advantages and disadvantages.
1. What is observation?
2. What are the phases of observation?
3. Explain the two types of observation.
4. What are the techniques for recording observation?
5. What problems do you have in using observation?
Olatian, S.O. &Nwoke, G.I. (1988). Practical Research Methods in Business. Onitsha:
Summer Business Publishers.
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UNIT 8
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: QUESTIONNAIRES
8.0 The Concept of Questionnaire
In a research situation, a questionnaire can be said to be a carefully designed instrument for

collecting information or data in relation to the specifications of the research questions and
hypotheses. This instrument is used to elicit written responses from the subjects of the
research through a series of questions or statements put together with some specific
objectives in mind. It can be used to ascertain facts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes, practices,
etc.
Obodo (1997) defines it as a series of questions or statements presented in a written form to a

subject or group of subjects and to which they are expected to answer in writing. You can
see that it is the most common, used like a test and constructed for specific purposes. It is
also used for the assessment of students‘ personal-social adjustment and interest with regards
to different issues. You need to think of a specific study and design before you determine
whether it will be appropriate for you to use a questionnaire. For instance, when you require
to obtain data on the distribution of a group of subjects in relation to such factors as gender,
state of origin, state of residence, qualification, experience on a job, age, socio-economic
status or to provide information for assessing certain situations such as the availability of
workshop equipment, laboratory facilities, facilities in a state, organisation, or the extent of
implementation of a certain organisation programme etc. It can be used to obtain
information on the feelings and perceptions of a group of people towards certain issues such
as the ODL system of Business, or the perception of the problems or their attitude towards
the problems associated with the use of information and communication technologies in our
Business system.
8.1 The Components of Questionnaire
A questionnaire is made up of such components as the title, the introduction, the response
instructions, biographical information, the questions/statements, return instructions and
gratitude. For you, as a student/learner, a letter of reference from an appropriate authority
may accompany your questionnaire to elicit the cooperation of your respondents. Now, let
us briefly touch on these components.
1. The Title
This gives an appropriate caption for the substantive content of the questionnaire. It is not
the topic of the research project, e.g. Public perception of On Line learning, Questionnaire,
Students‘ attitude to economics/accounts/Business Mathematics Questionnaire etc.
2. The Introduction
This gives the main objectives of the research and/or the questionnaire. It also gives a
guarantee of anonymity of the respondents and confidential treatment of the information
supplied. It establishes a rapport with the respondents by assuring that no information in the
research report can be traced to particular individuals. This will likely bring out accurate,
frank, objective and comprehensive information from the respondents.
3. The Response Instruction
This specifies the mode or modes of completing the questionnaire. You have to instruct the
respondents to fill in the blanks, underline, put a cross, circle or tick the appropriate place.
It is a good practice to use one or two questions and answers to illustrate what they should
do.
4. Biographical Information
This gives the personal data of the respondents. It is required for analysis and interpretation
of the data. It includes such things as type of organisation, class, occupation, sex, income,
age, qualification, experience, social class, marital status, etc. You should include only the
variables that are needed for analysis and interpretations. Again, you have to be cautious on
the type of information being elicited or required. For instance, divorced, separated, or
widowed, instead of asking for exact age, give age range, when information is sought what
social class, income occupation, qualification, etc. respondents may be prestigebiased and
therefore predisposed to over claim, thus introducing response error.
5. The Questions/Statements
This gives the actual substantive content of the research. They can require factual answers,
opinions or evaluations. Every question/statement has to address a specific issue in the
research. Therefore, the questions/statements must not be written aimlessly, haphazardly or
shoddily.
All the statements or questions must be relevant to the hypotheses and/or research questions.
Do not add unnecessary questions to make the questionnaire lengthy. Select words which
will give you the required information with a minimum of distortions. The language should
be simple, clear and precise. You must try to avoid ambiguous, suggestive, leading,
antagonistic and embarrassing questions that invade privacy. Do not use double-barreled
questions.
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6. Return Instructions
These direct the respondents on what to do with the completed instrument. Specify the
collection point, a mailing address or to hand them back to you or your assistants.
7. The Gratitude
This is the end of the instrument. You should recognize that the respondents are under no
obligation to complete the instrument. In fact, they are doing you a favour. Therefore, you
need to appreciate the respondents by thanking them.
8.2 Types of Questionnaire
Based on the format for the statements/questions and the responses, questionnaires can be
classified into two major types. These are structured/closed or fixed response type and the
unstructured/open end type. Let us look at them.
8.2.1 The Structure or Fixed Response Questionnaire
Here, the respondents are restricted to some response options. A question is asked or a
statement is made and a respondent has to choose from the available alternatives. You can
see that the respondents do not have the freedom and opportunity to express their views.
Look at some sample items of the fixed response type below:
(a) How old are you?
20 – 30 years ( )
31 – 40 years ( )
41 – 50 years ( )
51 – 60 years ( )
61 and above ( )
(b) For how long have you been teaching?
Below 5 years ( )
6 – 10 years ( )
11 – 15 years ( )
16 – 20 years ( )
21 and above ( )
(c) What is your highest qualification?
G12 ( )
Certifcate ( )
Diploma. ( )
Bachelor ( )
Master etc ( )
This type of questionnaire is usually preferred because it facilitates data analysis and the
estimation of validity and reliability indices for the instrument. Again, it is easier and
demands less time to complete. But on the other hand, a respondent may have different
suggestions for your imagination. He may not have the opportunity to give those
suggestions.
8.2.2 Unstructured or Open-Ended Questionnaire
Here, response options are not provided for the respondents. All you need do is to provide
questions pertinent to the problem and the respondents are free to supply their responses in
their own words and in any manner they deem fit. When you are not sure or cannot predict
what the subjects‘ responses are likely to be, this type of questionnaire is the most
appropriate. See sample items below:
(a)Do you have open and distance Business in your state or country?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..……………………………………….………………….
(b)How is it operated?……………………………………...……………………..…………...
(c) Would you say it has advantages over the conventional system of Business?
………………………………………….………………………………………….…..
(d) Why do you say so? ………………………………….………….. ………………….
The open-end questionnaire can provide unanticipated and insightful information that could
lead to a better understanding of the problem. But they are difficult to complete and time-
consuming. There may be misinterpretation arising from the fact that some people may not
be able to express themselves very well; while others may use styles which are at variance
with that of the researcher. These may bring about communication problems. Again,
classification and quantification of the responses are very difficult leading to serious
difficulties in the data analysis.
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8.3 Activity
1. What is a questionnaire?
2. Explain the components of a questionnaire.
3. Discuss the two types of questionnaire.
8.4 Construction of Questionnaire Items
For you to construct a questionnaire, you need to clearly identify the objectives for which
the questionnaire is expected to accomplish. This will make the questionnaire to yield
information pertinent to the problem of study. After identifying the objectives, you then start
to construct the items. To be able to write good questionnaire items, you have to consider
such factors like: the sample characteristics, type of questionnaire format to adopt and the
length of the questionnaire.
(a) The Sample Characteristics: Here, you may need to know the Business level, their
socio-economic class, age etc. Why do you have to know this information about
your samples? This will enable you keep the language and illustrations at such a
level that will be appropriate to the samples.
(b) Type of Questionnaire Format to Adopt: You have to decide whether to use the
restricted response format or the open-end format. This will depend on the type of
data you need to generate and the type of analysis you require to do.
(c) The Length of the Questionnaire: You have to put into consideration that the
longer the instrument, the higher the reliability. But it can be boring to complete a
lengthy instrument. Therefore, you will have to construct an instrument which is
neither too short nor too long.
When you are constructing a questionnaire, you have to note:
(i) It is not good to include items which have no relationship with the research
objectives. This is time and effort wasting and tends to unduly increase the length of
the instrument without any added advantages.
(ii) Avoid unnecessary presumptions. Take for instance, a study on parents‘ supervision
of their children‘s home-study, a question was asked thus: ―How often do you
supervise your child‘s homestudy?‖ You can see that this question is presumptuous,
in that it presumes that the respondent has a child and again that he supervises his
child‘s home-study.
Instead, you can start by asking:
(1) Do you have a child?

(2) If your answer is yes, do you supervise his home studies?
(3) If so, how often do you do this? etc.
(iii) Avoid leading questions. For instance, look at this item. For the fact that open and
distance learning is flexible and affordable, don‘t you think it can be encouraged in
this country? Instead say: What do you think about open and distance learning?
(iv) Always note the distinction between ―what ought to be‖ and ―what is‖. For instance,
if you ask a teacher – ―Do you supervise your students when doing practical work in
the workshop?‖ This question relates to what is, because it is your duty to supervise
and that‘s exactly what you do. But if the question is ―Should you supervise your
students during their practical work in the workshop?‖ This is what ought to be.
8.5 Validation and Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire
Validation of an instrument is done in order to ensure that the instrument has validity. It is a
serious limitation which is inexcusable in scientific research if a questionnaire is used
without proper validation exercises. The simplest method of validating an instrument is to
subject it to expert validation.
In this method, you will make copies of the instrument and give them to a panel of experts
in the area. You will also write a covering letter to these experts stating what you need them
to do. This letter should contain a clear, guideline of what they are expected to do, the
purpose of ht research, the research questions and/or hypotheses. You should also instruct
the experts to review the items in terms of their clarity, appropriateness of the language and
expressions to the respondents and the instructions too. You will also provide space for the
experts to make any other comments regarding the overall adequacy of the instrument.
When the instrument is returned, you will carry out the modifications along the lines
suggested by the comments of these experts. This validation exercise will ensure both the
face and content validity of the instrument.
The next stage is to subject the instrument to trial or pilot testing. This involves
administering the instrument on a very small sample of those whom it would be used in the
final study, under similar conditions. This will enable you to see how the subjects will react
to the instrument, whether the questions are clear and easy to understand, whether more
items are needed in certain areas and whether there are items which the respondents cannot
react to. It will also help you to determine whether the methods of data analysis proposed
for the final study are appropriate.
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8.6 Administration of Questionnaire
Administration of the questionnaire to the respondents can be done in any of these three
ways:
(1) By Mail: It can also increase the chances of obtaining valid but socially unacceptable
responses. Again time and travelling expenses are conserved. The advantages are:
(i) Very poor response or low percentage returns which tend to reduce the sample size
and leads to sampling bias;
(ii) Not suitable for persons of low intelligence or low Business background, since
you are not there to explain any misinterpretation;
(iii) The instrument may be given to a more competent person to fill i.
this may result in the distortion of the sample and results;
(iv) You cannot follow any chronogram, since you do not have control of the time to
receive the responses and therefore plan to start the analysis;
(v) You cannot guarantee the return of the instrument by post, especially in Zambia
where the postal services are very poor.
(2) Personal Administration with on-the-spot collection: In this case, you and your
research assistants can deliver the questionnaires to the respondents in person, wait
for them to complete and collect them back. This method can give you a 100%
delivery and return. It will also provide the opportunity to clarify misinterpretations,
while ambiguities are kept to a minimum. You are also in control of the time for
completing the project. But if the respondents do have the answers on-the-spot, he
may need to access the information before completing the questionnaire.
Again, your presence may influence the respondents to fake responses or put them under
psychological tension. The personality of the researcher may positively or negatively affect
the diligent completion of the instrument.
(3) Personal delivery with collection after a time interval: In this case, you need to
deliver the questionnaires in person, but return after some time to collect them. This
mode affords the respondents time to look up information. They are more relaxed
while completing the instrument. Therefore, it is preferred when documents and
other sources need to be consulted. But you may not be sure of 100% return. Again,
time and money may be wasted in repeated trips to check on the respondents. There
may be mass consultation of respondents in close proximity in your absence. This
may give rise to uniform responses which will reduce the validity of the data. Note
that these modes may be used in combinations. It depends on your choice.
8.7 Activity
1. What are the three things you must bear in mind when constructing a questionnaire?
2. Explain the three types of questionnaire administration.
8.8 Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
You have seen that the questionnaire is a very popular method of data collection in Business
and behavioural sciences. The reason can be attributed to the relative ease and cost-
effectiveness with which it is constructed and administered to large samples when compared
to other methods. To serve its purposes very effectively, the questionnaire you construct
must be characterized by the following features:
(i) Relevance: The instrument should be relevant to the purpose of the research. It
should elicit all the information necessary for answering the research questions and
testing the hypotheses. It should also consider the background and experience of the
respondents.
(ii) Consistency: The instrument should be able to yield responses that are consistent.
The responses of a group of people to the instrument on two different occasions
should be as close as possible on these occasions.
(iii) Usability: The instrument should as much as possible be usable. It should not be too
long or so bulky. The conditions for the administration and the method for
interpreting the data elicited should be fairly simple and easy.
(iv) Clarity: Both the instructions and the items should be clear enough to avoid possible
misinterpretations. You should note once again that a good questionnaire should not
contain ambiguous items or instructions.
(v) Quantifiability: The responses from a good questionnaire must be easily

quantifiable. It should be easy to assign numerical values or figures to such
responses in a manner that is systematic.
(vi) Legibility: All the items should be legible without tiny characters. The words
should be properly spaced with appropriate side margins. Always use the computer
to type your questionnaire so as to produce very neat and legible instrument.
8.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of questionnaires
You have noticed that in every section of this unit, one or more advantages or disadvantages
may have been mentioned. Let us now summarise them briefly.
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Advantages
i. It is economical in terms of time and cost;
ii. It can be administered to variety of people;
iii. It is easy to administer and even to distant respondents;
iv. It can be used to get information on non-cognitive constructs such as kindness,

stress, anxiety etc;
v. Great percentage of students or respondents can be reached at a time.
Disadvantages
i. There may be low percentage return which may lead to the

distortion of the findings;
ii. There may be misunderstanding or wrong responses if the item s are not clear or the
instructions are misleading;
iii. Wrong or negative or faked answers may be given if the instrument is too lengthy or
if it is intruding o the respondents‘ private life;
iv. It is not suitable for the illiterates, semi-illiterates, and children.
8.10 Summary
In this unit, you learnt that a questionnaire is a series of questions/statements presented in a

written form to a subject or group of subjects and to which they are expected to answer in
writing. You studied the components which include: title, introduction, instructions,
biographical information, the items, return instructions and the gratitude. There are two
main types of questionnaire. These are the structured or fixed response and the
unstructured or open-end questionnaire. You have worked through construction of
questionnaires and the consideration to be made in order to construct the questionnaire.
Validation of an instrument is done to ensure the validity of the instrument. The simplest
method is the expert validity, consistency, usability, clarity, quantifiability and legibility.
Questionnaires can be administered by mail, personal administration with on-the-spot
collection and personal delivery with collection after a time interval.
1. What are the components you will have in a questionnaire?

2. With examples, explain the two types of questionnaire.
3. What are the characteristics of a good questionnaire?
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UNIT 9
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS: INTERVIEWS
9.0 Interview as a Technique of Data Collection
The interview as a method for data collection involves eliciting information through some
verbal interaction between the respondents and the researcher. In other words, an interview
can be regarded as a face-to-face interaction in which oral questions are posed by an
interviewer to draw out responses from the interviewee. When we talk about the
interaction, we mean that the interviewer, the interviewee and the interview situation or
schedule have roles to play. Sometimes interviews can be through telephones.
So if you want to achieve maximum success in your use of interview, the interview situation
should be kept as comfortable and permissive as possible. A lot of communication skill is
needed in order to frame the questions in such a way that the respondents can understand
what information they are required to give. Therefore, you must ask questions which are
relevant and related to the type of information you desire to obtain.
9.1 Phases of Interview
There are four major phases of interview. These phases overlap and interact. They are
preparation, establishment of rapport, the questionanswer and the recording phases.
9.1.1 Preparation Phase
The degree of success in an interview is dependent on how well you have prepared for it.
The preparation stage is when you take decisions on the mode of recording the responses.
You need to check the recording instruments for validity and reliability. You need to trial-
test the instruments to ensure that they are in good working conditions.
For instance, if you are going to use a tape recorder, you have to see that the batteries are
good and tested. If you need to use gifts to express gratitude or to establish rapport, you
need to make the correct selection.
9.1.2 Rapport Phase
For you to collect valid data, you need to establish a cordial atmosphere for the interview.
There is no rule for doing this, but as a mature investigator, you have to survey the situation
and evolve appropriate strategies. You may follow any of these suggestions:
(i) Courteously seek permission from the appropriate authority. In doing this, you
should provide information about the objectives of the study and the nature of the
interview.
(ii) Give notice to the interviewee and book appointment for date, time and venue. The
venue should be comfortable in terms of sitting, ventilation, lighting and decoration.
The venue should be noise-proof.
(iii) Take note of your appearance. It should be appropriate, neat, and inoffensive.
Consider your dental and body deodorization and any other aspect likely to irritate
your subject.
(iv) Your first contact with the interviewee must be friendly, pleasant and courteous. Use
appropriate salutation and address him with the correct title. Pay some compliments,
but not flatter. This will make him more relaxed.
(v) You need to be relaxed too. Introduce yourself briefly and modestly and also
introduce the problems which are the focus of the interview. You may need to start
by asking the first few minutes for a short conversation to enable you and your
subject to relax. You also need to assure him that his responses will be treated
confidentially and only for the research purposes.
Otherwise, he might be suspicious and unwilling to respond to the questions freely.
9.1.3 Question-Answer Phase
This is where you have to make use of your skills and expertise to make the session more
permissive, flexible and interactive. You have to keep the interviewee, interested and
responsive till the end of the interview.
In doing this, you have to devise appropriate strategies, but you have to be pointed and
business-like and not to wonder aimlessly. When you ask a starter question, follow it up
with prodding and probing questions to get comprehensive information. Where you need to
use pictures or related objects, drafts, drawings etc. use them for probing to elicit further
explanations and reasons for earlier statements. But you should try to avoid interviewer bias
by being as non-directive as possible. In all, you have to be relaxed, not tensed up or
nervous throughout the duration of the interview.
9.1.4 Recording Phase
Recording is a very important aspect of interview. You must try to comprehensively record
information from an interview as unobtrusively as possible. Recording may be done in any
of the three methods.
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(a) Mental Note
If you want to commit the responses into memory, you can be sure; it removes apprehension
on the part of the respondent and therefore increases the rapport. But you have to
appropriately assess yourself in terms of memory retention before using mental notes. This
is because any information forgotten is as good as missing and may not be easily
reconstructed.
(b) Written Note
It is advisable to use written records when there are too many questions and responses. But
extensive writing is likely to excite or offend respondents. If this happens the rapport and
validity of the responses will be reduced. If you are versed in shorthand, it can be an
advantage in written notes. You can also use structure interview schedule where alternative
responses are provided. Here, there is minimum writing, but you have to make allowance
for unanticipated responses.
(c) Taped Records
In order to solve all the problems of memory loss and that of extensive writing, tape
recording of interview is the answer. It removes strain from the interviewer. It can be
replayed and transcribed at leisure. But you have to bear at the back of your mind that audio
and video recording instruments can go faulty in the process. You must take care of this at
the planning stage. Other problems like instrument reactivity should also be taken care of.
Recording can also frighten or excite the subject. This may channel away his attention and
bring about distortion in his behaviour. As far as possible, conceal your recorders. You can
use micro recorders, remote censors or pick up buttons when available.
9.2 Types of Interview
There are basically two types of interview. These are the face-to-face interview and the
telephone interview. You have to note that whether it is face-to-face of telephone interview
you are using, they have the same characteristics. Interaction between the interviewer and
the interviewee is purely verbal. The responses are recorded by the researcher himself. In
this case, you can be sure of the accuracy of the information recorded and the difficulty of
decoding some recorded information is removed. Again, there is a great deal of flexibility
in the interview technique. The only difference between face-to-face and telephone
interview is that in telephone interview no one sees the other. The advantages of the
telephone interview are that it is cheaper, especially if the respondents are very far away,
and the interviewee is shielded from the influence of the interviewer. Interviews can also be
structured or unstructured.
9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of interviews
From the foregoing discussions, you can see that the interview provides a very useful and
powerful means of collecting data on significant Business problems. Of course, you know
that there are instances where only the interview can be used in data collection. Let us
summarise the advantages and disadvantages below.
Advantages
(i) It provides opportunity for face-to-face interaction.

(ii) The subjects can respond to questions the way they like.
(iii) Indepth information which the respondents may not wish to write down can be
obtained.
(iv) Information recorded is reliable because it is recorded by the researcher himself.
(v) It is very useful for collecting data from children and illiterates or those who cannot
fill the questionnaire.
Disadvantages
(i) It can be very expensive to conduct.
(ii) It consumes a lot of time.
(iii) Subjective information derived from unstructured interview may prove difficult to
analyse.
(iv) The validity of verbal responses collected may be questionable.
(v) Conducting interviews demands a lot of skills.
(vi) Intra and inter-interviewer variabilities can affect the results. For instance, the mood
of the interviewer-fatigue, hunger or other types of pressure on the interviewer
(intra-interviewer) or two different interviewers getting different results in a single
study (inter-interviewer).
9.4 Major Considerations in Interview Method
There are three main factors, according to Black and Champion (1976), which must be put
into consideration in the execution of interviews. Although, we have touched on them while
progressing in this unit, we want to emphasise on them in this section. These three factors
are interviewer characteristics, Interviewee characteristics and the nature of the problem
under investigation.
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9.5 Interviewer Characteristics
As an interviewer, your characteristics can have profound influence on the success of the
interview. For instance, if you are inquisitive, articulate or you have the ability to identify
new areas worthy of exploration, these are very important for a successful interview. Also
important are the age, gender, and cultural affiliation, mode of dressing, status and manner
of speech.
These factors, including the interviewers‘ willingness to be interviewed may help to

determine what roles you can play during the interview.
You can therefore see that consideration has to be given to the interviewer characteristics
and their possible effects on the quality and quantity of information to be obtained.
9.6 Summary
In this unit, we have discussed phases of interviews, advantages and

disadvantages of interviews and the characteristics of an interviewer. Hope you
have enjoyed the unit and you will now be able to conduct interviews with fewer
difficulties. In the next unit, we will discuss other types of data collection
techniques.
1. Explain the phases of research interview.

2. What are the three main types of recording interview?
UNIT 10
OTHER METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
10.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 10. In this unit, we will discuss other methods of collecting data. These
include; the rating scale, attitude scale, likert scale among others.
10.1 Rating Scales
You have learnt about measuring what students/learners know, how they perform, their
achievement, how they think, feel etc. in the various courses you are doing. You can see that
all of these and more are important goals of Business. But now, we are talking about the
students‘/ learners‘ class behaviour. Look at these questions. Do you think that classroom
behaviours and personal attributes are relevant and important Business goals? Should you, as
teachers, be concerned about them? You answers must surely be yes.
A part of Business is developing the kind of personal attributes that enable an individual to
behave in a constructive manner, not in an automatic robot-like way, but in a way that
reflects concern and consideration for others, self-discipline, morality, drive, and other
qualities generally considered desirable.
Now, based on your experience, do you think teachers evaluate students/learners behaviours
and personal attributes? Well if we are interested in developing the desired behaviours in
our students/learners, it makes sense to determine whether and to what extent these
behaviours are being formed. Human behaviour cannot be observed precisely. This is why
researchers develop rating scales for use in discriminating human behaviour into categories
or levels to give an appropriate indication of where the observed behaviour falls. For
instance, a researcher may develop a scale of 3-points, 4-points, 5-points etc.
Example 1:
Academic ability (high average low). It can be any number of points depending on what you
are looking for. E.g. honesty, very honest 1……………. 2…………...... 3……………..
4………………..
5………………very dishonest.
Now look at these examples from Tuckman (1975).
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PUBLIC ORGANISATIONS MATURITY INDEX
NAME ………………………………………………………………….
ADDRESS ……………………………………………………………..
DATE OF BIRTH ……………………. DATE ……………………….
Teacher‘s Reliability Work Self-

Signature Habit Control Initiative Sensitivity Punctuality
Pupils‘
Estimate
Score: 4 = Exceptional 3 = Above average 2 = Average 1 =
Below average
Example 2: Classroom Behaviour Rating Scale:
Name of Child ………………………………………………..

Name of Teacher ……………………………………………...
1. To what extent can be the child‘s behaviour is described as curious?
Note at all Curious 1 2 3456789 Extremely Curious
2. To what extent can the child‘s behaviour be described as interesting?
Note at all Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Extremely Interesting
3. To what extent can the child‘s behaviour be described as Hostile?
Note at all Hostile 1 234 5 6 7 8 9 Extremely Hostile
4. To what extent can the child‘s behaviour be described as Happy?
Note at all Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Extremely Happy
Example 3: Students Self-Discipline Scale

Degree of Occurrence
Behaviour Students absent present
Worked on a task without the teachers presence 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Moved to new task without the teachers intervention 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Made adequate evaluation of the quality of work 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Made adequate evaluation of the completeness of work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Organized his work schedule as required 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Did not treat others violently 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Did not attempt to interfere with others work 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Maintained work areas 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.2 Attitude Scales
Let us start this section by saying that attitude is a response pattern or a tendency to think or
act in a particular way under a given set of circumstances. It is closely related to feelings
and emotions which constitute an important aspect of an individual‘s personality. We can
use an attitude scale to measure attitudes towards the introduction of new changes in
organisation, society, system etc. For instance, we can construct attitude scales to measure
the attitude of teachers or students/learners towards new Business programme, new
punishment mode, new organisation uniforms etc.
Before we go to some examples of the scale, let us define scale as ―a continuum marked off
into numerical units that can be applied to some objects or state in order to measure a
particular properly of it. Attitudes and beliefs are typically measured by the use of scales.
You see, these are intangible things, unlike weight, height, length etc. where you can
objectively use the spring balance, the scale rule etc. The scale used in measuring values,
attitudes etc. are subjective and lack precision. The results cannot be exact. They are used
extensively in Business and social sciences. The three major types are the Likert-type, the
Thurnstone scale and the Guttmann scale. Let us look at them.
10.3 The Likert-type Rating Scale or Summated Scale
This scale was named after the person who devised it – Rensis Likert. It involves a list of
questions or statements about the phenomenon to be measured, with a set of graduated
response options. An individual is expected to indicate his degree of agreement or
disagreement with the statements or questions. Likert scale is a five point scale. But today
there are scales that have less than five points. These are Likert-like scales
The responses to the statements are then summed up and a total score or the average score is
obtained. This will help to determine the people‘s position on the phenomenon which is
measured. For example, ―I like Geography‖.
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strong Disagree
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4 3 2 1
A positive statement attracts higher value while negative statement attracts lower value, e.g.
―I do not like Geography‖.
Strongly Agree Disagree Agree Strong Disagree

1 2 3 4
Sometimes, other terms may be used in the place of agree and disagree, as the case
demands. Such examples can be:
Very satisfied, Satisfied, Moderately Satisfied, Dissatisfied Very important,

Important, Somehow important, Not important Outstanding, Very good, Good,
Satisfactory, Poor.
10.4 The Thurston Scale or Equal Appearing Interval Scale
This differs from the Likert scale because it has a laid down principle. To use the scale, you
will first of all construct a set of more than 100 items which will measure the attribute you
want. These items will then be presented to a panel of about 25 judges. These judges will
be required to rate each item on the set, according to the degree of intensity, on a seven-
point scale or more.
Using the averages of the ratings given to the items by the judges, a numerical value is
computed for each item. The items are selected in such a way that they cover the entire
scale with equal intervals between any two consecutive items. You see why it is not very
popular in Business researches.
10.5 The Guttmann Scale or Cumulative Scale
Unlike the Likert and Thurnstone scales, the Guttmann scale determines the
undimensionality of the items making up a given scale. You may be wondering what
undimensionality means here. For the purpose of this discourse, it refers to whether all the
items measure all aspect of the particular variable in question; or just one aspect of it. Let us
use computer literacy for example. If you are conducting a study on the attitude towards
computer literacy, you will note that there are different dimensions of computer literacy.
These may include attitude towards excel, words, PowerPoint, internet, search engines,
computer science, software etc. A subject may have positive attitude towards internet
browsing but not MS words. Another may like PowerPoint but not excel. Therefore, any
two individuals that have the same score using this scale must have expressed similar
pattern of interest towards the items in question. In other words, they may have had interest
in the same dimension of the variable. When the items on a scale are onedimensional, we
say they form a perfect scale. When the items of a perfect scale vary in intensity, the scale is
said to be perfectly reproducible. But, when there are errors or inconsistencies in the
responses or when we have errors in the scale, the scale is said not to be reproducible. You
must have to note that it is difficult to come across a perfect reproducible scale. Guttmann
produced a formula which can be used to estimate the extent of reproducibility of a scale. It
is called coefficient of reproducibility and it is given by the equation:
Coefficient of reproducibility = 1 – Number of errors

Number of responses
If the coefficient of reproducibility resulting from the use of this formula is 0.90 and above,
we say the scale is reproducible. If otherwise, the scale is not reproducible.
10.6 Activity
Identify a research problem where an attitude scale or a rating scale could be used for data
collection. Construct a 5-item instrument for the purpose of data collection.
10.7 Interest Inventories
Interests are the likes and dislikes of a person. Then, an interest inventory is an instrument
used for measuring the person‘s likes and dislikes and aversions. A person‘s interest in an
activity, event, object, programme, course etc. is measured with an interest inventory. This
consists of series of questions relating to an area of interest. These questions are designed in
such a way as to bring out the individual‘s interest area. The responses to the questions are
scored to determine whether or not the individual is interested in the area. A high score
shows interest while a low score indicates lack of interest in that particular area.
Let us take for instance that you want to know the occupational interests or aspirations of
your students. You may design an interest inventory such as this:
(i) Teaching People ………………… L I D L = Like
(ii) Defending people in the court …..L I D I = Indifferent
(iii) Treating sick people ……………..L I D D = Dislike
(iv) Defending the country …………..L I D
(v) Repairing automobiles …………..L I D
(vi) Maintaining law and order ……… L I D
(vii) Drawing houses …………………..L I D
The individual circles round the option he likes. Interest inventories can be constructed in
several ways. You can also adapt any of the standardized interest inventories such as Strong
Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB), Kuder Preference Records etc. You can modify them for
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your local use. You will have to note that interests are not abilities. Interests change,
especially for young people below the age of 18 years. Therefore, any information on
interest should be seen as provisional or valid only for the time it is collected. So any
predictions made on the basis of interest should be done with caution.
10.8 Sociometric Technique
This is a technique used for measuring the social structure of a group. It is used for the
assessment of the social status of each individual with regards to other members in a group.
It can be used to show the pattern of social relationships in a group of people. According to
Onuche and Akeju (1988), it is an instrument that is aimed at evaluating the pattern or
finding out the extent to which a pupil is accepted by his peers in a given situation. This is
why sociometric technique is called peer-atappraisal method. It can be used to determine the
most popular members of the group. You can decide to ask your students to write in a piece
of paper. Who they like best or who they would want to work within their group. The result
will tell you how popular each member of the group
10.9 Tests
In such courses as Measurement and Evaluation and continuous assessment, test as a subject
has been fully discussed. If you have not done them, you will do those courses very soon. In
this section, we shall only touch briefly on tests as an important tool for data collection in
research.
Tests are specialised instruments for the measurement of mental/cognitive abilities,

physical/psychomotor abilities and emotional/affective tracts. Tests are regarded as the most
objective measure of sample behaviour in research. There are different types of tests. These
are divided into two broad categories of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.
Norm-Referenced Tests
These refer to tests given to individuals in order to compare their scores to those of other
individuals or groups called a norm group. Most of the tests here are standardized and are
used at the state and national levels. The Common Entrance Examination for selection of
students into postprimaryorganisations are typical examples.
You see that NECO conducts its own entrance examination for the Unity Organisations in
the country, while all the states have their own entrance examinations. The type of tests used
is the norm-referenced tests. You can give other examples like UME, etc.
Criterion-Referenced Tests
These are tests designed to measure some specified behaviour on a criterion that has
comparison with any normative or referenced group. You want to see how much of the
specified subject matter your students have mastered. You want to see how much of the
objectives your students have achieved. In this case, you are free to construct your own test
or use a standardized test. If you make your own test, you have to conduct a trial test of the
instrument on subjects similar but not those to be used in the research to avoid test-
wiseness. The trial-testing or pilottesting of the instrument will help yo0u to ensure the
validity and reliability of the items before they are finally used in research.
The various types of tests that could be used for data collection in research include:
intelligence tests, aptitude tests, achievement tests, sociometric tests which measure
interpersonal relationship skills in a group.
1. Differentiate between interest inventory and sociometric techniques.

2. Explain the two broad types of tests.
10.11 Conclusion
In this unit, you have gone through some other methods and instruments for data collection
in research. Whichever method you choose to use, you need to trial-test the measuring
instrument using a few subjects whose characteristics are similar to those in the sample. The
multifaceted purpose of trial-testing is to ensure a satisfactory level of functionality, to
estimate reliability, to obtain new insights, and to eliminate ambiguities. You have to avoid
instrumental problems which may be mistaken for genuine difficulties in the research. This
may lead to unnecessary expensive repetitions or abandoning of the research erroneously.
Trial-testing of the instrument makes you see the feasibility or otherwise of the research
study.
10.12 Summary
In this unit, you were able to study five other methods of data collection. Rating scales are
developed to discriminate human behaviour into categories or levels. Attitude scales are
developed to measure feelings, emotions and personality of the individuals. The Likert
scale, Thurnstone scale and Guttmann scale belong to this category. Interest inventories are
used for measuring person‘s likes and dislikes.
Sociometric technique is used for measuring mental/cognitive, psychomotor, emotional etc.

abilities/tracts. It could be classified into norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.
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1. Construct a 10-item behaviour rating scale for the measurement of your

employee‘s/students‘ behaviour in your classes/organisation.
2. Construct a 10-item attitude questionnaire for the measurement of your
employee‘s/students‘ attitude towards work/management.
Businessand Social Sciences. Jos: Savannah Publishers Limited.
UNIT 11
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
10.0 Introduction
In the previous units, we have discussed various methods of collecting data using
different instruments. However, the instruments have to be validated so as to
come up with more reliable results. This unit therefore, discusses the reliability
and validity of research instruments.
11.1 Measurement Error
Errors in measurement could arise from faulty instruments incorrect interpretations of the
values obtained or instability in the behaviour of the respondents or testees. These errors
could be systematic or random.
A systematic error can occur when the errors are very frequent and are made in one
direction away from the true score. Take for instance, your table clock in your office which
is always adding time or always faster than the true time or an achievement test which keeps
reporting very high scores for every testees.
Random errors can occur when measurement values deviate from the true score and as
frequently in one direction as another. If you take the clock as an example, you will see that
sometimes the clock will gain time and lose time on the other times. Random error can be
attributed to chance factors. It should as much as possible be estimated and adjusted for or
its sources eliminated.
In the case of the clock in your office, how do you think you can eliminate the error? Your
answering has been to improve the working condition or to replace it. An instrument should
as much as possible be designed to measure the true score. The degree to which an
instrument measures the true score is an indication of two very important factors. These are
reliability and validity. We are going to look at these in the next two sections. Meanwhile,
note that the degree of random error is inversely related to the degree of reliability while the
degree of nonrandom error is inversely related to the same variable or when you use a large
sample in your study, random errors tend to average out over repeated measurements.
Therefore, to improve reliability of an instrument, the best strategy is to use multiple

measures, multiple measurements and multiple investigators. This is what the triangulation
theory of Denzin (1978) specified.
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11.2 Validity
You have been reading about validity and reliability. What is validity? It refers to the extent
to which an instrument measures exactly what it purports to measure and nothing else. As a
researcher, you are faced with several Business variables for measurement. These include:
intelligence, attitude, achievement, aptitude, creativity among others.
Validity is always specific to some particular use. An instrument may be valid for one
purpose, but not for another. You should therefore ask yourself whether the instrument is
valid for the purpose to which you intend to put it. For instance, an instrument that has a
high validity in reasoning ability may have very low validity for measuring arithmetic
ability. An instrument may be valid for one culture or geographical setting, but not valid for
another.
Validity can be classified into three major types. These are content, construct and criterion-
related validities.
11.2.1 Content Validity
This refers to the degree with which the items of an instrument are representative of the
content and behaviours specified by the theoretical concept being measured. It is estimated
using the sample of items and comparing them with the content and behaviours which they
should represent. A high degree of content validity is achieved if the sample of items covers
all aspects of the content and behaviours.
A way of estimating the content validity of a test is by constructing a test-blue point

otherwise called table of specification. This systematically specifies the content, objectives
and evaluation techniques in the process of generating valid test instruments.
Face-to-face validity – This is a type of content validity. Most people, some of the times,
erroneously equate it with content validity. But it refers to the subjective judgement of
assessors about what an instrument appears to be measuring, that is, on the face value. There
is no systematic procedure adopted for this purpose.
11.2.2 Construct Validity
This refers to the extent to which a particular instrument reflects hypothetical constructs
presumed to underlie the performance and also the extent to which the instrument reflects
the theories underlying the constructs. Some psychological concepts such as: intelligence,
creativity, anxiety, attitude, reasoning etc. which cannot be seen with the eyes but their
existence can only be inferred from manifested characteristics or behaviour are called
constructs. For you to design a test, you have to ask: To what extent do certain explanatory
concepts or qualities account for students‘ performance on a test?
The process of construct validity is easy to determine only when the construct is specified.
Therefore, the construct should be precisely defined before you undertake to develop the
instrument. Let us take students‘ interest in your subject, for instance. In the definition of
interest, you specify such behaviour as prompt attendance, alertness, carrying out
assignments, smiles on their faces when they understand, curiosity to learn, asking relevant
questions etc. So when you administer a testing the subject and notice that students who
exhibit the abovementioned behaviours perform better, you can say that the test has good
construct validity.
11.2.3 Criterion Related Validity
This refers to the extent to which an instrument yields the same results as a more widely
accepted measure. If you want to verify the degree of criterion-related validity of your test,
you can compare the result of your test and that from a known test like the Standford –
Binet Intelligence Test, using correlation coefficients. If your test correlates highly with the
known test, you say it possesses a high degree of criterion-related validity. This is possible
if the two tests are on a related area. For instance, Eyesenk Personality Inventory can be
used as a criterion for a new personality measures. Criterion-related validity is of two types.
They are concurrent and predictive validities.
(a) Concurrent Validity
This is applicable when a new instrument is administered at the same point in time as well
as a known instrument. It can be very useful if the equivalent form of an instrument is
required concurrent validity is attained when the correlation between the results of the
newly developed instrument and those of suitable equipment is sufficiently high.
(b) Predictive Validity
This is concerned with the prediction of future performance. It is the degree to which
predictions made by an instrument are confirmed by the later behaviour of respondents. For
instance, you can use the results from an intelligence test or aptitude tests to predict success
at organisation. You can also use the results from JAMB or UME to predict the
performance of students in undergraduate courses. A second instrument can be administered
after the behaviour which the first instrument attempts to predict has occurred. The results
yielded by the two instruments are correlated. A sufficiently high correlation index shows
predictive validity.
Activity
1. What is validity?
2. Describe the two types of criterion-related validity.
3. What are the two types of measurement errors?
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11.3 Reliability
This is a common word in everyday usage. But in Business research, it refers to the extent
of consistency with which an instrument measures what it is measuring. An instrument is
regarded as reliable if it yields the same results time after time, or if similar results come out
consistently under the same or slightly different test conditions. It is very important that the
test you are going to use for your research project is reliable, especially if your research
study is going to involve pretest and posttest, experimental and control groups. If your
instrument has low level of reliability, it may not be able to discriminate between pretest
scores and posttest scores. It may not discriminate effectively between the performance of
the experimental and control group. Correlation coefficient is an important statistical
procedure for determining the degree of reliability. You will be learning more of it in the
module containing statistics. The methods of estimating reliability include: testretest,
alternative form, split-halves and internal consistency methods.
11.3.1 Test-Retest Method
This involves the repeated administrations of the instrument to the same people on two
occasions. It is usually recommended that the time interval be between two weeks and one
month. The scores resulting from the two administrations of the test are correlated to
determine the coefficient of stability. You will have to note that if the time interval is too
short, the memory of the responses to the first test will affect the second. A long time
interval may create opportunity for candidates to learn more or to forget what they had
known.
11.3.2 Alternate-Form Method or Equivalent Form Method
In this method, two parallel forms of an instrument are administered to the same
respondents at a single sitting or with a short time interval between the two. The scores from
the two tests are correlated to determine the coefficient of equivalence.
You have to note that parallel forms of an instrument are expected to have the same
specification of content and objectives and measures the same behaviours.
11.3.3 Split-Halves Method
This is a measure of internal consistency. It requires the administration of a single test

instrument to the students once then the items of the instrument are split into two parts.
In other words, the total set of items is divided into halves. The scores on the halves are
correlated to obtain the estimate of reliability. You can split the items using odd and even
numbers, or randomly dividing the items into two groups etc. You can see that the result you
get from it for a half test. Therefore, it is corrected using the Spearman-Brown formula:
r = 2r½ or rc = nrs
1 + r½ 1+(n–1)rs
where r = reliability of the whole test r½ or rs =

reliability of the half test.
11.3.4 Internal Consistency Method
The estimate here is obtained through an analysis of the individual items following a single
administration of the measuring instrument.
(a) The Rational Equivalence Method
This uses the formation of equivalent halves by considering all possible splits and
computing the reliability coefficient by employing either Kuder Richardson formula (for
dichotomous items) or Cronbach‘s alpha (for Likert scales). Kuder and Richardson (1937)
developed coefficients for estimating the reliability of instruments composed of
dichotomouslyscored items. You may note that dichotomous items are scored one or zero
for presence or absence and for positive or negative responses to characteristics under
investigation.
The most widely used formulae are numbers 20 and 21 otherwise called KR20 and KR21.
KR21 is simpler and can be used for instruments developed by individual researchers, while
KR20 which is more technical is used for determining the degree of reliability of
standardized tests.
KR20 is given by; KR20 = ( N) (1 – ∑Piqi)

N–1 Qt2
where N = the number of dichotomous items

Pi = the proportion of positive responses to the ith item
qi = 1 – Pi
∑ = summation
Q2t = the variance of the total composite
KR21 is given by; KR21 = ( N) (Qt – ∑Pq)

N–1 Qt2
where N = the total number of items
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P = the proportion of positive responses to the each item
q = the proportion of negative responses to each item
∑ = summation
2
Qt = variance of the total composite
Cronbach‘s alpha is a unique estimate of the expected correlation of one instrument with an
alternative form that can be used for polychotomous items while Cronbach alpha is a
generalization of it.
Cronbach‘s alpha is given by ∞ = ( N) (1 – ∑Q2(Pqi))

N–1 Qt2
where N = the number of items

∑Q2(Yi) = the sum of item variances
Qt2 = the variance of the total composite
(b)Standard Error of Measurement
This is an estimate of test reliability obtained from the reliability coefficient and the
standard deviation of test scores. It is inversely related to the reliability coefficient.
(c) Factor Analysis
This is used to obtain estimates of reliability which approximate the true reliability better
than all other coefficients. It is represented by coefficient theta (Ø) which is derived from
principal components factor analysis. It can be used to estimate reliability.
Another coefficient called omega (Ω) also derived from factor analysis can also be used to
estimate reliability.
Do not be scared by these estimates of reliability. You may not need to use them at this
stage. They are mentioned for you to know that there are more methods.
1. What is reliability of an instrument?

2. What are the methods of estimating reliability?
UNIT 12
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
12.0 Introduction
In the previous modules/units, you worked through the different methods of collecting data
in research. The question is: what do you do with this seemingly unmanageable bulk of
data?
This question will take us to ‗Data Analysis‘, which we shall describe ―as the process of
organizing and summarizing data in order to provide answers to the research questions or
test hypotheses stated in the study‖. This process, most of the times, involves the use of
statistical procedures to summarise and describe the characteristics of samples and
populations of the study.
In this unit, we shall first look at the meaning of statistics, the types of statistics and
organisation of data.
12.1 Objectives
• define the concept statistics

• explain the types of statistics
• organize a set of scores under (a) sequencing, (b) frequency distribution table, (c)
bar chart.
12.2 Meaning of Statistics
Statistics, as a word, has different shades of meaning. These meanings can be in the plural
form or singular form.
(i) It is regarded as a state arithmetic: In this case, it involves observing, recording

and computing the amount of resources, financial, human and material, available to
a government for the purpose of governance or war. Every government needs
accurate statistics to make governance easier.
(ii) Statistics can be regarded as pieces of information: Statistics imply data or pieces
of information e.g. the age of Banda, the height of Sakuwaha, the weight of
Mulenga, the number of students in Mr. Sikalumbi‘s class, the number of classes in
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the school of business. Others are: number of accidents on road A for a year, number
of candidates employed by company B in 2019, the number of workers retrenched
during the reform programme.
(iii) Statistics as summaries of information: In this case, it can be used as summaries

of information about a small group of individuals selected from large group for the
purpose of investigating the large group. This is called sample statistics. This can be
in the form of sample size, mean, median, variance, standard deviation, mode, etc.
Each of these is regarded as a statistic.
(iv) Statistics as Mathematical function or models: In this case, it is used for

comparison of two or more samples. In other words, it can be used for pair wise
differences, ratios of 2-test, 2-score, tscore, t-test, f-test etc are examples.
(v) Statistics as academic discipline: In this case, it is regarded as a subject or field of
study, in which case, it is an aspect of applied mathematics.
According to Spiegel (1972), statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting,
organizing, summarizing, presenting and analysing data as well as drawing valid
conclusions and making reasonable decisions on the basis of such analysis.
You can get so many definitions of statistics from so many textbooks. Since this course is
not purely on statistics, we shall look at statistics as the science of decision making in the
face of uncertainties. Look at Hays (1973). He says that statistics serves in two capacities
by:
(1) giving methods for organizing, summarizing and communicating data, and
(2) providing methods for making inference beyond the observations.
In summary, statistics involves observation, collection of data, organisation of data,

presentation of data, analysis of data, interpretation of data and decision making. You may
wish to note that statistics, when used as a subject, is not the plural of statistic. A statistic is
a measure which we obtain by observing the characteristics of the sample. You have learnt
that we study a sample in order to make inferences about the population.
Therefore, the characteristic of the population which we estimate from a sample

characteristic or statistic is called a parameter. The mean of a sample is 50. The mode of the
distribution is 45. It means that 50 is a statistic, 45 is also a statistic. You can give other
examples.
12.3 Types of Statistics
You may have heard about different types of statistics, such as correlational, probability,
parametric, non-parametric, etc. statistics. All these have been grouped into two major
types. These are descriptive and inferential statistics. In this section, you will read a brief
presentation of these major types.
12.3.1 Descriptive Statistics
This can be described as a type of statistical application which is concerned with the
organisation and presentation of data in a convenient, usable and communicable form.
Spiegel (1972) described it ―as the set of methods serving the functions of organizing,
summarizing and communicating data.
You can use descriptive statistical methods when you are interested in merely describing the
characteristics of the group or the sample of study. It means that the descriptive analysis
which you make will not generalize beyond the particular group or sample observed. In the
same way, conclusions drawn from the study are limited and apply only to that group of
study.
12.3.2 Inferential Statistics
These are statistical methods used for arriving at conclusions extending beyond immediate
data. They are the phases of statistics which can be used to deal with conditions under which
conclusions are drawn about a larger group based on data collected from some smaller
group or groups chosen from and related to the larger group.
Inferential statistics can be described as a statistical procedure which makes use of sample
statistics to make inferences about the population parameters. It involves the process of
sampling that is representative of the population. It makes use of the aspect of inferential
statistics called parametric statistics which are powerful tests that make use of the normal
probability model, or making comparison involving the setting up of confidence limit,
setting up of the degree of freedom etc. We shall discuss this later.
12.4 Benefits of the Study of Statistics
When you study statistics, you stand to derive some general benefits. These benefits focus
on the useful knowledge, skills, capabilities or dispositions which you will acquire from the
study of, or training in statistics. They vary, according to the extent and level of study, or
training in the subject. Some of these benefits include that the study of statistics will enable
you to:
1. Acquire knowledge and skills in observation, collection, organisation,

communication, analysis of data, drawing inferences from
the analysis of data and making sound decisions;
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2. Make meaningful contributions to local, national or international debates on topical
issues;
3. Read, understand and interpret communicated data, follow inferences drawn

therefrom and appreciate decisions made consequent upon the inferences drawn;
4. Successfully execute empirical research. No reasonable or worthwhile empirical

research can be carried out or reported without statistics for answering research
questions, testing hypotheses or taking decisions and making predictions;
5. Read, interpret and make use of research reports or articles;
6. Follow and critique contributions to debates presented with facts and figures;
7. Acquire the skills and techniques for estimating, predicting and projecting into the
future based on the previous and present data;
8. Draw sound conclusions based on some pieces of information that are probable or
not quite certain.
12.5 Organisation of Data
Data collected in Business can be from various sources and can be in various forms, such as:
opinions, scores/marks, frequencies, verbal etc.
The data can be organized or arranged to make them meaningful. In this section, we shall
look at sequencing, tables, frequency distribution tables, bar charts, etc.
Sequencing
This involves arranging the data in order of magnitude – ascending or descending order. See
example below:
Example 1:
Given that the test scores of 10 students in statistics are:
8, 9, 2, 5, 7, 6, 4, 9, 8, 3.
This could be arranged in ascending order thus:
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9 or in descending order thus: 9, 9, 8, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2.

If the data consists of names, they can be arranged in alphabetical order. If they consists of
objects, events, animals, etc. they can be arranged according to kinds, species, groups etc.
Tables
A table can be regarded as a two-dimensional representative of statistical information or

data. Tables can be simple or complex as shown in the examples below.
Example 1.
Table 16.1: Students‘ Enrolment in public university, 2010 – 20017.

S/N Year Boys Girls Total
1. 2010 200 170 370
2. 2011 210 165 375
3. 2012 230 170 400
4. 2013 220 175 395
5. 2014 240 180 420
6. 2015 225 170 395
7. 2016 242 182 424
8. 2017 250 200 450
Example 2.
Table 16.2: Distribution of Business teachersin provinces (assumed)

S/N Local Government No. of Teachers
1. Copperbelt 525
2. Central 425
3. Lusaka 600
4. Southern 400
5. N/ Western 325
6. Luapula 425
Total 2,700
Frequency Distribution Table
A frequency distribution table shows the number of times each score, value or item occurs
in a distribution. It consists of two columns – one for the scores/items and the other for the
frequency.
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Example 3:
The scores of some students in a Mathematics test are given below. Present the scores in a
frequency table.
10, 15, 18, 12, 14, 15, 20, 15, 16, 11, 12, 14, 19, 20, 17, 18, 15, 13, 11, 12, 19, 13, 10, 14,
17, 19, 16, 15, 15, 15.
Table 16.3: Frequency Distribution Table

S/N Score Tally Frequency
1. 10 \\ 2
2. 11 \\ 2
3. 12 \\\ 3
4. 13 \\ 2
5. 14 \\\ 3
6. 15 \\\\ \\ 7
7. 16 \\ 2
8. 17 \\ 2
9. 18 \\ 2
10. 19 \\\ 3
11. 20 \\ 2
30
Note that when you tally, each number tallied is neatly cancelled to avoid confusion.
1. What is statistics?
2. What are the two types of statistics?
UNIT 13
WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS AND REPORTS
13.0 Introduction
The final stage of any research process is the writing of the research report. Research is
very important, because the findings generated can be used for rational decision-making
and, according to Nkpa (1979), as a springboard for further research.
The main aim of writing research report is to communicate or disseminate the research
findings to the literate audience. In writing the research report, the impersonal mode is
preferred. That is to say, instead of say ―I did this‖, you should say ―the study was carried
out to do this‖.
You will have to note that in presenting a research report, you have to use the required
format. Most institutions have their own format. These formats or house-styles do not vary
significantly from the general format.
CHAU and School of Leadership and Business Management, has its own house-style. For
the purpose of this unit, we shall discuss the general format.
13.1 Objectives
• itemise the chapter titles and sub-titles in a research project report

• prepare a research report based on the given format.
13.2 Sample Format of a Research Proposal
A research proposal provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to

follow. It is written in the future tense showing a detailed account of:
(i) the research topic one intends to pursue,
(ii) why it is of interest to pursue the topic, and
(iii) how one intends to gather and analyse data.
It has various functions, one of which is to enable people determine the quality of a
study before it is actually carried out. Below are the guidelines.
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PROPOSAL GUIDELINES
1. The recommended length of pages per proposal would be between 8 - 20 pages
depending on the level of academic study, exclusive of the Title page, budget, time
line and references.
2. In terms of font type and size, Arial or Times New Roman font 12 is preferred while
1.5-line spacing is allowed.
3. The table of content must be included to guide the reader.
4. Title page
The title page should carry the following information suitably spaced and
centered:
(i) Full title of the study
(ii) By
(iii) Student’s full name
(iv) The statement ‘A proposal submitted to …………………………. (name
of institution) in partial fulfillment for the requirements of the award of
a Bachelor of Business …… (name of qualification) degree in.’
(v) Institution name, town; and
(vi) Year
TITLE/TOPIC: A research title is the first statement that helps the reader begin to
understand the nature of the study. It should have the following information:
- Must convey to the reader the main focus of the research. (Describes what the study is
about, giving a quick summary of the idea in a proposal or dissertation).
- Must link key variables
- It should be limited to a single statement and not more than twenty words.
- Be manageable (researchable) and material should be available.
- The topic should be related to education or program some is studying.
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
- This is a brief overview of the problem the researcher aspires to tackle.
- It provides a picture of the problem to be researched.
- Some literature review in which an explanation on what previous studies state about
the topic is given.
- It must tackle the global aspect, continental if any, national and then narrow it to the
area of concentration.
1.2 Statement of the problem

- It is a brief description of the issues that need to be addressed by the researcher.
- It clearly states the problem by indicating unanswered question(s), gap(s) or area(s)
that have not been understood, determined or tested.
- The problem should be supported with literature.
- The statement of the problem should not be written in a poetic, comical or emotional
language.
- It should be stated in a simple declarative statement such as ‘We do not know…….’
- It is a summary of what you want to prove or answer in the report.
1.3 Purpose of the study

- It is a general statement of what the researcher hopes to accomplish by the end of the
study.
- It assists in the formulation of objectives as it pinpoints to the purpose of the study.
1.4 Objectives of the study

- In research, an objective is a specific statement relating to the defined aim of the
study.
- These are intentions or purposes stated in specific measurable terms.
- They provide opportunities for evaluating the end results.
- When writing specific objectives, they should be:
(i) few (not more than four), depending on the level of academic study.
(ii) specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time bound (SMART).
1.5 Research questions

- These are questions the researcher seeks to answer.
- Each question should be linked to a specific objective.
- They guide the research process by addressing the variables of the study.
- The number of research questions must be equal to the number of objectives.
1.6 Delimitation of the study
- This provides a description of site/area where the study will be conducted.
1.7 Limitations of the study
- The researcher indicates challenges estimated or to be faced such as time and
financial constraints that influence the scope of the study, data accessibility, and
unanticipated occurrences.
1.8 Significance of the study

- This part gives a rough idea or the importance of the study, beneficiaries, if any and
how they shall benefit from such a study.
1.9 Theoretical framework

- This is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories.
- It accounts for or explains phenomena.
- It tries to clarify why things are the way they are based on theories.
- The theory a researcher picks/selects must have related to the study.
- A researcher should clearly show how the theory selected will help him/her
understand the research topic.
- Pick one or two related theories (also depending on the level of academic study).
1.10 Definitions of operational terms

- These are the key terms that you are going to use in the study.
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- They are interpreted according to the way they will be used in your study.
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
- This is a summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of previous research

providing evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and
what is still unknown and untested.
- Citing studies that show substantial agreement and those that seem to present
conflicting conclusions helps to sharpen and define understanding of existing
knowledge in the problem area, provides a background for the research project and
makes the reader aware of the status of the issue.
- Attempt to answer all your research questions in your literature review.
- Provides a critique of the validity of the literature.
- Consider the global view, continental and then national view
- Restrict your literature review to the research questions and objectives. The center
should be the problem statement. How is it addressed by other scholars/researchers?
- In-text sighting is encouraged.
- Paraphrasing is encouraged.
- Plagiarism is not tolerated.
- Reference every information that is not yours by quoting.
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research design

- The research design is a scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to
the research problem.
- Will your research be qualitative or quantitative or mixed?
- Justification must always be shown for choosing a particular research design.
3.2 Target population
- The section shows the population (a group of individuals, objects or items) from
which the researcher plans to select the sample.
- Variables that are frequently included, depending on the type of project proposed
include: chronological age, grade level, socioeconomic status, sex, race, mental age,
academic achievement level, and other pertinent attributes to the target population.
3.3 Sample size

- The number of subjects selected from the target population to participate in the study.
- From each group of the population, how many do your intent to consider in your
research?
- It can be stated either in actual numbers or in percentage.
3.4 Sampling techniques

- This is a procedure the researcher uses to select subjects for the study.
- This involves explaining the type of sampling procedure to be used to select the
sample.
- Is it randomly, stratified, purposeful or convenient sampling technique among others?
- Justification should be provided for selecting a particular sampling technique.
3.5 Research instruments
- Describes what data gathering devices will be used. These may include
questionnaires, interview schedules, observations and focus group discussions
(FGDs) among others.
3.6 Data collection procedure

- A research permit is required before embarking on the collection of data. The
researcher should explain in the proposal how he/she will go about this.
- It describes in detail what will be done, how it will be done, what kind of data will be
obtained, what data will be needed and how it will be treated and kept.
3.7 Data analysis
- This section indicates the tools and procedure to be used in analyzing data and their
justification.
- The information given in the data-analysis section should be specific and detailed
enough to demonstrate exactly what is planned.
3.8 Ethical considerations

- Ethics deal with morals and the principles of morality. Most educational research
involves using human beings as subjects. It is the responsibility of the researcher to
protect the people participating in the research. For example, names of participants
should not be disclosed. Here the researcher explains how he/she will deal with
ethical issues.
REFERENCES
- This is a list of all the literature sources that have been read and cited in the research
report.
- Only the literature used in the text should be shown and the references must be
written in alphabetical order.
- The American Psychological Association (APA) style of referencing must be used in
education research.
APPENDICES
- The researcher gives information here which may be of interest but not critical to the
study.
- The information usually includes research instruments, copies of letters (respondents
and researcher’s introductory letter), the budget and work plan.
Work plan
- This is the time frame for the study showing the times when particular aspects of the
study will be undertaken.
- This is outlined in as much detail as possible.
- It helps to demonstrate the practicability of the study in a very visible way.
Budget
- This refers to the amount of money needed for the project.
- It is important to see how finances will be allocated for the study.
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13.3 Sample Format of a Research Report
As you have seen in the introduction, a research project report is a detailed account of what
the researcher has done in the process of carrying out the research the findings of this study.
The report is not presented in any form. It follows an agreed format as summarised below.
This format is only a guideline. Though this is the conventional format, only relevant
section should be used in line with your house style. The report starts from the chapter three
of the research proposal. It only has chapter four (presentation of the findings) and chapter
five (Discussion and interpretation of the findings). Chapter six will be conclusion and
recommendations. References will follow and appendix where you include questionnaires,
research maps, ethical documents, and any other additional data to your findings.
Additionally, the report will be written in past tense hence the grammar in the research
proposal which is in future tense is changed to past tense.
1. Preliminary pages:
i. Title page
ii. Declaration page
iii. Approval / Acceptance page
iv. Certification page
v. Dedication
vi. Acknowledgement page
vii. Abstract
viii. Table of Contents
ix. List of tables
x. List of figures
xi. List of appendices
Steps in Research Report Format
You have already noted that a research report is a straight forward, clearly and precisely
written document in which you attempt to explain how you have resolved the problem
before you. The presentation, in this unit, is consistent with the most acceptable formats. So
let us explain them.
Preliminary Pages
i. The title page: This is the first page of this section. It contains the title of the study,
the name of the author, the relationship of the research to a course or degree
requirement, name of the institution where the report is to be submitted, and the date
of presentation.
The title should be concise and state clearly the purpose of the study. The essential
elements to be included in the title are the major variables and the target population. These
should be phrased in such a way as to describe what the study is all about. You should not
state your title so broadly that it may claim more than it can actually deliver. For instance,
sex differences in the enrolment of SSCE candidates in Technical Drawing from 2004 to
2007, or The effect of group discussions on learning outcomes in the Open and Distance
Business system. You can note the variables here. The title should be typed in capital letters,
single-spaced, and centred between the right and left margins of the page.
ii. Approval/Acceptance page: The specifications vary from institution to institution. It

contains some of the following information: the names, signatures of the head of
department, the dean, the supervisor(s) and dates, the names(s) of the student(s).
iii. Certification page: This contains the attestation of originality of the research project.
It may also include the name and signature of the external examiner.
iv. Dedication: Here, emotionally-laden words may be permitted in order to pay tribute
to persons who are dear to the author or those who contributed in one way or the
other to the success of the project and those who would particularly be interested in
the research findings.
v. Acknowledgement page: This is used to express gratitude to those who helped in the
process of conducting the research and preparing the report. It should be simple and
restraining.
vi. Abstract: This is a succinctly summarised form of the report containing the aim of
the investigation, the sample, methods of investigation, the instruments used for data
collection, the analysis and findings.
vii. Table of Contents: This serves an important purpose of providing the outline of the
contents of the report. It lays out in a tabular form, the chapters, headings and sub-
headings of the report. It is sequentially arranged and numbered from the
preliminary to the supplementary pages. Page references for each topic are so
indicated.
viii. List of tables and figure and appendices: If tables and/or figures are used in the
report, a separate page is included for each list. It should indicate the page numbers
in which the tables or figures presented in the report are located. The numbers and
titles are serially listed. Also contained is the list of appendices that are embodied in
or annexed to the report.
The pages of the preliminary section are numbered with lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii,
iii, iv, v, etc).
Page | 124
NOTE: Chapter one to three is already in the approved proposal. It is only changed to
reported speech. The only addition are chapter four (presentation of the findings) and five
(discussion and interpretation of the findings) discussed below.
Results and Discussion (chapter four and five)
Presentation and Analysis of data: This is the heart of the research report. The results are
clearly and concisely set out using the most illuminative modes of presentation. Tables,
figures, graphs and textual descriptions are used to clarify significant relationships. They
should be serially numbered and titled so as to be self explanatory. They should be simple
and should be directly related to the hypotheses and/or the research questions.
Interpretation of the finding: The most important task which you have to undertake in
writing the results of your study is to identify and interpret the major findings. You should
be able to discuss possible reasons why the results occurred the way they did. You should
try to fit them into the findings of previous research, suggest the applications to the field and
make theoretical interpretations.
Summary and Conclusions
i. The Summary: In this section, you should clearly and concisely restate the problem,
the hypotheses and/or research questions, the main features of the method omitting
most of the details concerning the subjects and measures and list the main findings.
The summary must be very brief, but consistent with a clear presentation of all important
information about the problem, method and findings. The findings should be listed by
number. You should summarise each major finding in one or two statements.
ii. The Conclusion: This gives answers to the questions raised or the statements of
acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. It should be based solely on the findings
generated by the research.
iii. Implication of the study: In this section, you may include ideas on the relevance of
the findings to Business theory and practice. But these ideas should be directly be
derived from the study.
iv. Suggestions for further study: It may be appropriate here to suggest areas of
problems for further investigation. This is made as a result of matters arising from
the research.
Supplementary Pages
i. Reference: In this section, you should include all references cited in the report and
those not cited, but consulted to shed light on the problem. References are cited
uniformly and according to a given style.
Most universities adopt the APA format. References are done serially and alphabetically.
You can look for the APA format and go through it.
ii. The Appendices: This contains extra information which is part of the report the
reader should know about, but not necessarily for inclusion in the main report.
They include long tables, forms, instruction aids, data collecting instruments, items
analysis data, scoring protocols and procedures, lengthy quotations etc.
Each separate entry heading is listed as APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B, etc.
Go to any university library and select three different research projects. List the items on
the table of content and compare them.
13.5 Summary
In this unit, we have discussed and presented a sample format of a research report. We have
also discussed these steps in details stating from the preliminary stages to the supplementary
stages. We have emphasised that your reports should not be presented with personal
pronouns like I, my, we etc. Instead use impersonal pronouns and passive voice. You should
make sure that the report is written in a clear, simple and straightforward style. Your motive
should be effective communication. Therefore, use very simple language. You should
always be brief so as not to bore your reader. Abbreviations should only be used after they
have been written in full earlier. Avoid the use of generalizations or conclusions, which are
not supported by the findings. We also said that every source cited in the work or used but
noted cited in the work should be documented in the reference page. Improper citation or
inability to give details of a source cited in the body of the work should be documented in
the reference page. Improper citation or inability to give details of a source cited in the
body of the work should be avoided. Remember that proofread the report thoroughly after
typesetting. This will help you not submit avoidable errors.
Page | 126
Pick up any four (4) research projects. Study the abstracts. What are the things that are
common to all of them?
Business and Social Sciences. Jos: Savannah Publishers Limited.
Limited.
Publishers.
14. CONCLUSION
At the end of your programme, you are expected to carry out a research. At the end of the
research, you are also expected to submit a written report of the investigation. In this unit,
you have gone through the involvement in the writing of the report. A very important
demand here is that you must be as objective as possible in your report. At the initial stage,
you cannot make any statement that would show you are in favour or against an idea. Your
report should be devoid of emotional or subjective statements. You should arrange the
different parts of the report so as to make it possible for a reader to easily locate any section
of particular interest to him.

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Chalimbana University

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE BUSINESS

BRM3101: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

FIRST EDITION 2020

© 2020 Chalimbana University

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievable system, or transmitted

• The research process;

OVER VIEW OF RESEARCH

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.3 Meaning of Research

• mere information gathering;

1.4 Business Research

1.5 Characteristics of Business Research

According to Anaekwe (2002), some of the characteristics are:

(iv) Research is Testable/Measurable: Research is not speculative, but quantifiable. It

(v) Research is Replicable/Verifiable: Results or findings of a research can be verified

In summary of the characteristics, we can therefore, say Research:

(i) emphasises the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be

(iii) demands accurate observation and description;

(vi) requires expertise;

(viii) involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems;

(ix) is characterized by patient and unhurried activity;

(x) is carefully reported and recorded; and

(xi) requires courage.

1.6 Purposes of Business Research

(i) Determining the status of phenomenon, past and present;

(i) Provide training in problem-solving. This is because research involves problem-

(iii) Evaluate Business programmes, activities, practices, resources and methods of

(i) Provide objective evidence to improve business practices;

(ii) Controvert myths surrounding certain practices and principles in Business;

1.7 Revision questions

3. What are the four-fold purposes of Business research?

3 Discuss the purposes of Business researches as presented

1.9 Further Reading

THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND TYPES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the steps in the research process

2.2 Steps in the Research Process

Business research is described as applied scientific method or basic research. It implies

(ii) Review of Related Literature

(iii)Formulating Hypotheses and/or Research Questions

(iv)Selecting the Research Design

(v) Collection of Data

(vi)Data Analysis and Interpretations

(vii)Discussion of Research Findings

(viii)Conclusions, Generalisation and Recommendations

2.3 Types of Research

On the Basis of Goal Typology

(a) Basic Research

It investigates relationships between methods, personal characteristics, environmental

(b) Applied Research

(ii) Evaluation Research

This is used to assess Businessactivities, organisational policies, employee performance,

(iii) Research and Development

On the Basis of Method of Investigation Typology

(a) Experimental Research

(b) Ex Post Facto Research

(c) Descriptive Research

This is concerned with either description and interpretation of existing relationships,