Microcontroller - Introduction

BY MR. AKETCH - A TVET TRAINER - KENYA COAST NATIONAL POLYTECNIC MOMBASA.
DATE 05/04/2019
COMPILED BY MR. AKETCH - A TVET TRAINER - KENYA COAST NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC. DATE 05/04/2019
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TOPIC ONE
INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLERS
Welcome to the wonderful world of microcontrollers. As you might be
aware microprocessors in general and microcontrollers in particular have
substantially changed the electronics today.
Nowadays electronic devices and circuits are not

designed as electronic connections,
but as software running within the microcontrollers.
So electronic devices today are the blend
of hardware and software.
These small devices have revolutionized the world of electronics.
Today microcontrollers are everywhere, think of a device and you

will find a microcontroller somewhere in it. May it be your remote
Control, air conditioner, microwave oven, DVD player, television or
cell phone all have a microcontroller sitting inside.
. Moreover they are very simple to use, you don't need to be an expert in
electronics to use them in your next project. A basic understanding of
electronics and digital circuits is all that is required to get started. Once
you are in the business, sky is the limit. Think of any logical application
and you will find microcontroller handling the job nicely. Industrial
automation including automatic assembly lines, robots and quality
control systems all are backed by some kind of microcontroller.
So exactly what is a microcontroller or a microprocessor? As a

hobbyist or as a student of electronics you must have come across a
number of integrated circuits. These are small devices, with lots of
circuitry inside them, having few connections for external
communication. However all these integrated circuits differ from each
BY MR. AKETCH - A TVET TRAINER - KENYA COAST NATIONAL POLYTECNIC MOMBASA. DATE 05/04/2019
COMPILED BYMR. AKETCH - A TVET - KENYA COAST NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC. DATE 05/04/2019
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other, in terms of function. The circuit inside an integrated circuit, may
it be digital or analog, is purpose designed. Like 555, a very popular
timing IC, has all the necessary circuitry inside to make various types
of oscillators. Similarly a 7447 is a binary to 7-segment decoder, and
has input pins to accept binary coded decimal (BCD) number; the
output pins will then turn on and off accordingly to display the number
on a 7-segment display. So on and so forth, you come across hundreds
and thousands of ICs with specific functions. In order to get an
application work, you must know specifically the function, input and
output requirements of the particular integrated circuit.
Microcontrollers and microprocessors are integrated circuits (IC), but

they differ fundamentally from other ICs. They are a class in
themselves, that the designers have not made them to do a particular job.
As such when you buy them from the market, you can not specify what
function it will do.
In order to get some useful function, these ICs have to be configured.

Thus a microprocessor or microcontroller can be configured to check
the status of a button, and then turn a motor ON or OFF. While the same
IC can be configured later, to read the status of an infra-red sensor,
decode the signal and turn another device ON or OFF.
If these two types of circuitries were to be made using conventional

digital ICs, it would have required a large number of components.
Moreover any change in the specification, like change of Infra-Red
codes would result in total change in design!
Using a configurable IC, is a great idea. Not only the same IC, can be
configured t o do different tasks, but a change in specifications can
easily be implemented by just changing the device configuration. This
greatly facilitated the engineers and hobbyists to rapidly develop new
electronic devices, and continuously improve previous ones. Not only
the hardware requirements decreased, but also design time, and time to
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market were decreased.
Microcontrollers and microprocessors therefore took over the market.
Large hardware designs were reduced, and most of the circuitry was
replaced by the configuration scripts. Today we call this ability to
configure a microprocessor or microcontroller, programming.
A program is a series of instructions, in a correct and logical manner to

instruct the microprocessor or microcontroller respond to various inputs.
By changing the program, the behavior of microcontroller will change.

Think of it as a music system. The manufacturer has not designed it
to produce any particular sounds out of its speakers. Yet it has all the
necessary circuitry to do that. What music it will produce would depend
upon the tape, or CD inserted. Thus you change the CD, and the same
hardware is playing different thing. So we can say that the music system
is a programmable device, and the information stored on tape, or CD is
the program, or instructions to help the music system, make sounds.
Similarly microprocessors and microcontrollers are programmed to do a

job. The job can be changing a TV channel to controlling complex
movements of a robot. All these applications have a microcontroller
doing its specific job. It can be astonishing to find the same
microcontroller in the remote control, and the robot. In one place it is
driving an infra-red LED and in other it is driving the motors.
Definitions
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit (IC)
containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output
ports.
It is a single IC which contains the microprocessor with integrated

peripherals like memory, serial ports, parallel ports, timer/counter,
interrupt controller, data acquisition interfaces like ADC, DAC is
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called Microcontroller.
It can also be defined as a compact integrated circuit designed to govern

a specific operation in an embedded system. It is called an embedded
controller because the microcontroller and its support circuits are
often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control.
A typical microcontroller includes a processor, memory and input/output

(I/O) peripherals on a single chip.
A microcontroller sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU)
Where do we find microcontrollers?

Microcontrollers are found in vehicles, robots, office machines, medical
devices, mobile radio transceivers, vending machines and home
appliances among other devices.
They are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and
other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a
design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even
more devices and processes
They are especially designed for embedded applications. This is in

contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other
general purpose applications
Most programmable microcontrollers that are used today as said before

are embedded in other consumer products or machinery including phones,
peripherals, automobiles and household appliances for computer systems.
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Input and output devices to the microcontroller include solenoids, LCD

displays, relays, switches and sensors for data like humidity, temperature
or light level, amongst others
Just as mentioned, you can find microcontrollers in all kinds of electronic
devices these days.
Any device that measures, stores, controls, calculates, or displays

information must have a microcontroller chip inside.
The largest single use for microcontrollers is in automobile industry

(microcontrollers here widely used for controlling engines and power
controls in then automobiles).
You can also find microcontrollers inside keyboards, mouse, modems,

printers, and other peripherals.
In test equipments, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as
the ability to store measurements, to create and store user routines, and to
display messages and waveforms.
Other consumer products that use microcontrollers include digital

camcorders, optical players, LCD/LED display units, implantable medical
devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys
and etc. And these are just a few examples.
The first microcontrollers were Intel 8048 integrated into PC keyboards,

Intel 8051 and 68HCxx series of microcontrollers from Motorola.
Microcontrollers perform numeric operations that include;
• Supermarkets in Cash Registers, Weighing Scales, etc.
• Home in Ovens, Washing Machines, Alarm Clocks, etc.
• Toys, VCRs, Stereo Equipment, etc.
• Office in Typewriters, Photocopiers, Elevators, etc.
• Industry in Industrial Automation, safety systems, etc.
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• On
roads in Cars, Traffic Signals, etc.
A microcontroller basically contains one or more following components:
 Central processing unit(CPU)
 Random Access Memory)(RAM)
 Read Only Memory(ROM)
 Input/output ports
 Timers and Counters
 Interrupt Controls
 Analog to digital converters
 Digital analog converters
 Serial interfacing ports
 Oscillatory circuits
A microcontroller is available in different word lengths like

microprocessors (4bit,8bit,16bit,32bit,64bit and 128 bit microcontrollers
are available today).
Block diagram of a typical microcontroller
Figure 1.1: A block diagram of a microcontroller.

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CPU
It is the brain of the controller and contains the arithmetic logic unit, the control unit, and the registers.
CPU is responsible for fetching the instruction, decoding, then finally executing the instruction.
The
CPU connects every part of a microcontroller into a single system. The primary function of CPU is
fetching and decoding instructions. The instruction fetched from program memory must be
decoded by the CPU.
Memory
The function of memory in a microcontroller is the same as a microprocessor. It is used to store
data and program. A microcontroller usually has a certain amount of RAM and ROM (EEPROM,
EPROM, etc) or flash memories for storing program source codes.
Memory is split into program memory and data memory. This is not shown in the block diagram
above.
Parallel input/output ports

Parallel input/output ports are mainly used to drive/interface various devices such as LCD’S,
LED’S, printers, memories, etc to a microcontroller.
Serial ports
Serial ports provide various serial interfaces between a microcontroller and other peripherals like
parallel ports.
Timers/counters
This is the one of the useful function of a microcontroller. A microcontroller may have more
than one timer and counters. The timers and counters provide all timing and counting functions
inside the microcontroller. The major operations of this section are performed clock functions,
modulations, pulse generations, frequency measuring, making oscillations, etc. This also can be
used for counting external pulses. Watchdog Timer is used to reset the controller in case of
software “crashes” to ensure safety of critical systems for microcontrollers.
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

ADC converters are used for converting the analog signal to digital form. The input signal in this
converter should be in analog form (e.g. sensor output) and the output from this unit is in digital
form. The digital output can be used for various digital applications (e.g. measurement devices).
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

DAC perform reversal operation of ADC conversion.DAC converts the digital signal into analog
format. It usually used for controlling analog devices like DC motors, various drives, etc.
Interrupt control
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The interrupt control is used for providing interrupt (delay) for a working program. The interrupt
may be external (activated by using interrupt pin) or internal (by using interrupt instruction during
programming).
Special functioning block

Some microcontrollers are used only for some special applications (e.g. space systems and
robotics) these controllers containing additional ports to perform such special operations. This
considered as special functioning block.
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History
This is how it all got started…
It was year 1969, and a team of Japanese engineers from
the BUSICOM Company arrived to United States with a
request that a few integrated circuits for calculators be
made according to their projects. The proposition was set
to INTEL, and Marcian Hoff was responsible for the
project. Since he was the one who has had experience in
working with a computer (PC) PDP8, it occurred to him to
suggest a fundamentally different solution instead of the
suggested construction. This solution presumed that the
function of the integrated circuit is determined by a
program stored in it. That meant that configuration would
be more simple, but that it would require far more memory
than the project that was proposed by Japanese engineers
would require.
After a while, though Japanese engineers tried finding an

easier solution, Marcian's idea won, and the first
microprocessor was born. In transforming an idea into a
ready made product , Frederico Faggin was a major help
to INTEL. He transferred to INTEL, and in only 9 months
had succeeded in making a product from its first
conception. INTEL obtained the rights to sell this integral
block in 1971. First, they bought the license from the
BUSICOM Company who had no idea what treasure they
had. During that year, there appeared on the market a
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microprocessor called 4004. That was the first 4-bit

microprocessor with the speed of 6 000 operations per
second.
Not long after that, American company CTC requested

from INTEL and Texas Instruments to make an 8-bit
microprocessor for use in terminals. Even though CTC
gave up this idea in the end, Intel and Texas Instruments
kept working on the microprocessor and in April of 1972,
first 8-bit microprocessor appeared on the market under a
name 8008. It was able to address 16Kb of memory, and it
had 45 instructions and the speed of 300 000 operations
per second. That microprocessor was the predecessor of all
today's microprocessors. Intel kept their developments up
in April of 1974, and they put on the market the 8-bit
processor under a name 8080 which was able to address
64Kb of memory, and which had 75 instructions, and the
price began at $360.
In another American company Motorola, they realized

quickly what was happening, so they put out on the market
an 8-bit microprocessor 6800. Chief constructor was
Chuck Peddle, and along with the processor itself,
Motorola was the first company to make other peripherals
such as 6820 and 6850. At that time many companies
recognized greater importance of microprocessors and
began their own developments. Chuck Peddle leaved
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Motorola to join MOS Technology and kept working

intensively on developing microprocessors.
At the WESCON exhibition in the USA in 1975, a crucial

event in the history of the microprocessors took place.
MOS Technology announced that it was selling processors
6501 and 6502 at $25 each, that interested customers
could purchase immediately. It was such a sensation that
many thought it was a kind of fraud, considering that
competing companies were selling the 8080 and 6800 at
$179 each. On the first day of the exhibit, in response to
the competitor, both Motorola and Intel cut the prices of
their microprocessors to $69.95. Motorola accused MOS
Technology and Chuck Peddle of plagiarizing the protected
6800. Because of that, MOS Technology gave up further
manufacture of the 6501, but kept manufacturing the 6502.
It was the 8-bit microprocessor with 56 instructions and
ability to directly address 64Kb of memory. Due to low
price, 6502 became very popular so it was installed into
computers such as KIM-1, Apple I, Apple II, Atari,
Commodore, Acorn, Oric, Galeb, Orao, Ultra and many
others. Soon several companies began manufacturing the
6502 (Rockwell, Sznertek, GTE, NCR, Ricoh, Commodore
took over MOS Technology). In the year of its prosperity
1982, this processor was being sold at a rate of 15 million
processors per year!
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Other companies did not want to give up either. Frederico

Faggin left Intel and started his own company Zilog Inc. In
1976 Zilog announced the Z80. When designing this
microprocessor Faggin made a crucial decision. The 8080
had already been developed and he realized that many
would remain loyal to that processor because of the great
expenditures which rewriting of all the programs would
result in. Accordingly he decided that a new processor had
to be compatible with the 8080, i.e. it had to be able to
perform all the programs written for the 8080. Apart from
that, many other features have been added so that the Z80
was the most powerful microprocessor at that time. It was
able to directly address 64Kb of memory, had 176
instructions, a large number of registers, a built-in option
for refreshing dynamic RAM memory, a single power
supply, greater operating speed etc. The Z80 was a great
success and everybody replaced the 8080 by the Z80.
Certainly the Z80 was commercially the most successful 8-
bit microprocessor at that time. Besides Zilog, other new
manufacturers such as Mostek, NEC, SHARP and SGS
appeared soon. The Z80 was the heart of many computers
such as: Spectrum, Partner, TRS703, Z-3 and Galaxy.
In 1976 Intel came up with an upgraded version of the 8-bit
microprocessor called the 8085. However, the Z80 was so
much better that Intel lost the battle. Even though a few
more microprocessors appeared later on the market (6809,
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2650, SC/MP etc.), the die had already been cast. There
were no such great improvements which could make
manufacturers to change their mind, so the 6502 and Z80
along with the 6800 remained chief representatives of the
8-bit microprocessors of that time.
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Microprocessor
It is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register-based,
electronic device that reads binary instructions from memory, accepts
binary data as input and processes data according to instructions
(program), and provides result as output.
Figure 1.2: Microprocessor simplified block diagram
Figure 1.3: Basic connections between the microprocessor and external memory
Comparison of a Microprocessor and a Microcontroller

Microprocessors Microcontrollers
1 It is only a general purpose computer It is a micro computer itself
2 Memory, I/O ports, timers, interrupts are All are integrated inside the microcontroller chip
not available inside the chip
3 It must have many additional digital It can function as a micro computer without any
components to perform its operation additional components.
4 The systems become bulkier and It make the system simple, economic and compact
expensive.
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5 It not capable for handling Boolean It effective handling Boolean functions
functions
6 It has higher accessing time required It has low accessing time
7 Have very few pins are programmable Most of its pins are programmable
8 Cost of the entire system increases Cost of the entire system is low
9 Have very few number of bit handling Have many bit handling instructions
instructions.
10 It widely Used in modern PC and laptops This is widely in control systems e.g.
e.g. INTEL 8086,INTEL Pentium series INTEL8051,89960,PIC16F877
Table 1.0: Summery of comparison of a Microprocessor and a Microcontroller
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Another table of comparison is here:
Table 1.1: Summery of comparison of a Microprocessor and a Microcontroller
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Figure 1.3: Difference between a Microprocessor and Microcontroller
Types of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are divided into various categories based on bits, memory/device, family,
instruction sets, and memory architecture. So the microcontroller can be classified according
to their characteristics as shown in graph below:
Figure 1.4: Types of microcontroller
Bit
Based on bit configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into three categories.
i) The 8-Bit Microcontroller
This type of microcontroller is used to execute arithmetic and logical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication division, etc. For example, Intel 8031 and 8051 are
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8 bits microcontroller.
ii) 16-bit microcontroller
This type of microcontroller is used to perform arithmetic and logical operations
where higher accuracy and performance is required. For example, Intel 8096 is a
16-bit microcontroller.
iii) The 32-Bit Microcontroller
This type of microcontroller is generally used in automatically controlled appliances
like automatic operational machines, medical appliances, etc.
Memory/Device
Based on the memory configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into two categories.
i) External memory microcontroller − this type of microcontroller is designed in such a
way that they do not have a program memory on the chip. Hence, it is named as external
memory microcontroller. For example: Intel 8031 microcontroller.
ii) Embedded memory microcontroller − This type of microcontroller is designed in such a
way that the microcontroller has all programs and data memory, counters and timers,
interrupts, I/O ports are embedded on the chip. For example: Intel 8051 microcontroller.
Instruction Set
Based on the instruction set configuration, the microcontroller is further divided into two
categories.
i) CISC − CISC stands for complex instruction set computer.
- It was first developed by Intel.
- It contains large number of complex instructions.
- In this instructions are not register based.
- Instructions cannot be completed in one machine cycle.
- Data transfer is from memory to memory.
- Micro programmed control unit is found in CISC.
- Also they have variable instruction formats.
ii) RISC − RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers.
- It reduces the operational time by shortening the clock cycle per instruction.
- It is a type of microprocessor that has a limited number of instructions.
- They can execute their instructions very fast because instructions are very small
and simple.
- RISC chips require fewer transistors which make them cheaper to design and
produce.
- In RISC, the instruction set contains simple and basic instructions from which more
complex instruction can be produced.
- Most instructions complete in one cycle, which allows the processor to handle many
instructions at same time.
- In this instructions are register based and data transfer takes place from register to
register.
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Difference between CISC and RISC summarized

Architectural Reduced Instruction Set
Complex Instruction Set Computer(CISC)
Characterstics Computer(RISC)
Instruction size and Large set of instructions with variable Small set of instructions with
format formats (16-64 bits per instruction). fixed format (32 bit).
Data transfer Memory to memory. Register to register.
Most micro coded using control memory
Mostly hardwired without control
CPU control (ROM) but modern CISC use hardwired
memory.
control.
Instruction type Not register based instructions. Register based instructions.
Memory access More memory access. Less memory access.
Clocks Includes multi-clocks. Includes single clock.
Instructions are reduced and
Instruction nature Instructions are complex.
simple.
Table 1.1: Difference between CISC and RISC summarized
Memory Architecture [start here next time]

i) Von Neumann Microcontroller Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture or Princeton Architecture is a Computer Architecture, where
the Program i.e. the Instructions and the Data are stored in a single memory.
Since the Instruction Memory and the Data Memory are the same, the Processor or CPU
cannot access both Instructions and Data at the same time as they use a single bus.
The Von Neumann architecture developed for the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Computer) uses the same memory and data paths for both program and data
storage. ENIAC was the world's first general-purpose computer. ENIAC was designed and
built for the United States Army to calculate artillery firing tables.
Figure 1.5: Von Neumann Microcontroller Architecture

This type of architecture has severe limitations to the performance of the system as it
creates a bottleneck while accessing the memory.
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ii) Harvard Microcontroller Architecture

Harvard Architecture, in contrast to Von Neumann Architecture, uses separate memory for
Instruction (Program) and Data. Since the Instruction Memory and Data Memory are
separate in a Harvard Architecture, their signal paths i.e. buses are also different and hence,
the CPU can access both Instructions and Data at the same time.
Both the concepts are similar except the way they access memories. The idea behind the
Harvard architecture is to split the memory into two parts – one for data and another for
programs.
Real world computer designs are actually based on modified Harvard architecture and are
commonly used in microcontrollers and DSP (Digital Signal Processing).
Almost all Microcontrollers, including 8051 Microcontroller implement Harvard
Architecture.
Figure 1.6: Von Harvard Microcontroller Architecture

Microprocessors widely use von Neumann architecture, while microcontrollers use Harvard
architecture. Why?
Microprocessors use von Neumann architecture, because (except for the boot code) they usually
load programs off of an external device such as a hard drive, SSD, or USB stick and execute them
out of RAM, same as where their data is stored. Harvard architecture would have been awkward
in this situation, as it would have meant two separate RAM memories, one for code and one for
data.
Microcontrollers usually have their programs burned into flash memory (and earlier, ROM,
EPROM, or EEPROM), while the data is in separate RAM memory. So this lead to them naturally
gravitating to a Harvard architecture because of the distinct memories (and the separate busses
meant faster access).
Advantages of Microcontrollers
The main advantages of microcontrollers are given.
- As the higher integration inside microcontroller reduces cost and size of the system.
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- Usage of a microcontroller is simple, easy to troubleshoot and system maintaining.
- Most of the pins are programmable by the user for performing different functions.
- Easily interface additional RAM, ROM,I/O ports.
- Low time required for performing operations.
Disadvantages of Microcontrollers
- Microcontrollers have got more complex architecture than that of microprocessors.
- Only perform a limited number of executions simultaneously.
- Mostly used in micro-equipments.
- Cannot interface high power devices directly.
Applications
You can find microcontrollers in all kinds of electronic devices these days. Any device that
measures, stores, controls, calculates, or displays information must have a microcontroller chip
inside.
The largest single use for microcontrollers is in the automobile industry (microcontrollers widely
used for controlling engines and power controls in automobiles). You can also find
microcontrollers inside keyboards, mouse, modems, printers, and other peripherals.
In test equipment, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to store
measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages and waveforms.
Consumer products that use microcontrollers include digital camcorders, optical players,
LCD/LED display units, etc. And these are just a few examples.
Some basic applications of a microcontroller are given below.
- Used in biomedical instruments.
- Widely used in communication systems.
- Used as a peripheral controller in PC.
- Used in robotics.
- Used in automobile fields.
- Light sensing and controlling devices like LED.
- Temperature sensing and controlling devices like microwave oven, chimneys.
- Fire detection and safety devices like Fire alarm.
- Measuring devices like Volt Meter.
What types of microcontrollers are there? Nowadays

 8051 – The ‘8051 core’ was one of the most popular standards in 8-bit microcontrollers ever
with large derivatives, extra features & vast community support. Developed by Intel in the
1980s, it still seems to be the instruction set they love to teach you in college & used till date in
many applications.
 PIC microcontrollers are a family of specialized microcontroller chips produced by
Microchip Technology in Chandler, Arizona. The acronym PIC stands for "peripheral
interface controller," although that term is rarely used nowadays. This is the classic
microcontrollers. It is Very simple, very proven, but it lacks many of the features that other
manufacturers are building into their chips.
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 AVR – This is basically a direct competitor of PICs. They do everything a PIC does, but in my
opinion, better, faster, cheaper, simpler, & with wide community support.
 MSP – examples is MSP430. These are very good microcontrollers by Texas Instruments (TI),
not as beefy as AVR or PICs. However they are popular for low-power applications. Imagine
running a complete system on single A battery for 5 years. This is in the realm of nano-amp
(One thousand millionth) current consumption. Awesome!
 ARM – An ARM processor is one of a family of CPUs based on the RISC (reduced instruction
set computer) architecture developed by Advanced RISC Machines (ARM). They are taking
over the world but can be really intimidating if you’ve never played with any microcontrollers
before.
CHOICE OF THE MICROCONTROLLER TO USE
As the ‘brain’ of an embedded system, the processor has a big effect on the system’s overall
success or failure. Selection of the right device is therefore extremely important. How following
are crucial factors worth considering:
Steps to selecting a microcontroller
Selecting the right microcontroller for a product can be a daunting task. Not only are there a
number of technical features to consider, there are also business case issues such as cost and lead-
times that can cripple a project.
At the start of a project there is a great temptation to jump in and start selecting a microcontroller
before the details of the system has been hashed out. This is of course a bad idea. Before any
thought is given to the microcontroller, the hardware and software engineers should work out the
high levels of the system, block diagram and flowchart them and only then is there enough
information to start making a rational decision on microcontroller selection. When that point is
reached, there are 10 easy steps that can be followed to ensure that the right choice is made.
Step 1: Make a list of required hardware interfaces

Using the general hardware block diagram, make a list of all the external interfaces that the
microcontroller will need to support. There are two general types of interfaces that need to be
listed. The first are communication interfaces. These are peripherals such as USB, I2C, SPI,
UART, and so on. Make a special note if the application requires USB or some form of Ethernet.
These interfaces greatly affect how much program space the microcontroller will need to support.
The second type of interface is digital inputs and outputs, analog to digital inputs, PWM’s, etc.
These two interface types will dictate the number of pins that will be required by the
microcontroller. Figure 1 shows a generic example of a block diagram with the i/o requirements
listed.
Step 2: Examine the software architecture

The software architecture and requirements can greatly affect the selection of a microcontroller.
How heavy or how light the processing requirements will determine whether you go with an 80
MHz DSP or an 8 MHz 8051. Just like with the hardware, make notes of any requirements that will
be important.
Step 3: Select the architecture

Using the information from steps 1 and 2 an engineer should be able to start getting an idea of the
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architecture that will be needed. Can the application get by with eight bit architectures? How about
16 bits? Does it require a 32 bit ARM core? Between the application and the required software
algorithms these questions will start to converge on a solution. Do not forget to keep in mind
possible future requirements and feature creep. Just because you could currently get by with an 8
bit microcontroller doesn’t mean you shouldn’t consider a 16 bit microcontroller for future features
or even for ease of use.
Step 4: Identify Memory Needs

Flash and RAM are two very critical components of any microcontrollers. Making sure that you do
not run out of program space or variable space is undoubtedly of highest priority. It is far easier to
select a part with too much of these features than not enough. Getting to the end of a design and
discovering that you need 110% or that features need to be cut just is not going to fly.
Step 5: Start searching for microcontrollers

Now that there is a better idea of what the required features of the microcontroller will be the
search can begin! One place that can be a good place to start is with a microcontroller supplier.
Step 6: Examine Costs and Power Constraints

At this point the selection process has revealed a number of potential candidates. This is a great
time to examine the power requirements and cost of the part. If the device will be powered from a
battery and mobile, then making sure the parts are low-power is absolutely precarious. If it does
not meet power requirements then keep weeding the list down until you have a select few. Do not
forget to examine the piece price of the processor either.
Step 7: Check part availability

With the list of potential parts in hand, now is a good time to start checking on how available the
part is. Some of the things to keep in mind are what the lead times for the part? Are they kept in
stock at multiple distributors or is there 6 – 12 week lead time? What are your requirements for
availability? You don’t want to get stuck with a large order and have to wait three months to be
able to fill it. Then there is a question of how new the part is and whether it will be around for the
duration of your product life cycle. If your product will be around for 10 years then you need to
find a part that the manufacturer guarantees will still be built in 10 years.
Step 8: Select a development kit

One of the best parts of selecting a new microcontroller is finding a development kit to play with
and learn the inner working of the controller. Once an engineer has settled their heart on the part
they want to use they should research what development kits are available.
Step 9: Investigate compilers and tools

The selection of the development kit nearly solidifies the choice of microcontroller. The last
consideration is to examine the compiler and tools that are available. Most microcontrollers have a
number of choices for compilers, example code and debugging tools. It is important to make sure
that all the necessary tools are available for the part. Without the right tools the development
process could become tedious and expensive.
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Step 10: Start Experimenting
Even with the selection a microcontroller nothing is set in stone. Usually the development kit
arrives long before the first prototyped hardware. Take advantage by building up test circuits and
interfacing them to the microcontroller. Choose high risk parts and get them working on the
development kit. It may be that you discover the part you thought would work great has some
unforeseen issue that would force a different microcontroller to be selected. In any event, early
experimentation will ensure that you made the right choice and that if a change is necessary, the
impact will be minimal!
Frequently Used Terms

Before we concentrate on microcontrollers, it is important terms to understand the following
terms you will frequently encounter in the embedded systems field.
Microprocessor
It is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register-based electronic device that reads binary
instructions from memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data according to instructions
(program), and provides result as output.
Microcontroller
It is a small computer on a single integrated circuit (IC) containing a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output ports.
A microcontroller already contains all components which allow it to operate as stand-alone, and it
has been designed in particular for monitoring and/or control tasks.
Mixed-Signal Controller
This is a microcontroller which can process both digital and analog signals.
Embedded System
In embedded systems, the control unit is integrated into the system like in a cell phone, where the
controller is included in the device.
Real-Time System
Controllers are frequently used in real-time systems where the reaction to an event has to occur
within a specified time as found in aerospace, railroad, or automotive areas,
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

Digital signal processors are used to process signals like in telecommunications where a mobile
phone contain a DSP and are designed for fast addition and multiplication.
Embedded processor
Is simply a computing device placed inside a system it controls. A processor embedded into a
system handles all the computation and logical operation of a computer. The embedded processor
also handles such tasks as storing and retrieving data from memory, and processing data from any
inputs or outputs. Embedded processors often work as part of a computer system, alongside
memory and I/O devices.
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The primary difference between microcontrollers and embedded processors is makeup and
integration. Embedded processors, while in a sense "controlling" the system they are a part of,
require external resources such as RAM and registers in order to do so. A processor is not a control
"system." Microcontrollers, on the other hand, contain everything required to control a system in a
single chip. A microcontroller might contain an embedded processor as part of its makeup, but also
combines other computer parts, such as memory and signal registers, in a single chip.
Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so that they
can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a microcontroller, therefore, is
"embedded controller."
Exercises
Exercise 1.1 What is the difference between a microcontroller and a microprocessor?
Exercise 1.2 Why do microcontrollers exist at all? Why not just use a normal processor and add all
necessary peripherals externally?
Exercise 1.3 What do you believe are the three biggest fields of application for
microcontrollers? Discuss you answers with other students.
Exercise 1.4 Name the basic components of a microcontroller. For each component, give an
example where it would be useful.
Exercise 1.5 What is an embedded system? What is a real-time system? Are these terms
synonyms? Is one a subset of the other? Why or why not?
Exercise 1.7 Why are there so many microcontrollers? Wouldn’t it be easier for both manufacturers
and consumers to have just a few types?
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TOPIC TWO
MICROCONTROLLER FAMILIES
A microcontroller family or a CPU family (also microprocessor family) is a group of
microcontrollers, microprocessors, or component chips that make up one, developed by a specific
manufacturer that share the same general architecture and feature set.
Within a specific family, chips may be further classified according to their model which may have
different capabilities, clock speeds, and applications.
Models may be further divided into stepping which have minor refinements and tweaks (a sharp
twist or pull) in order to correct and enhance the stability and reliability of the model.
While families is a good way of classifying chip according to architecture, historically, there has
been more than a few instances where developers introduces significant architectural changes to
the same family such as XD, NX, and various SSE extensions in the case of Intel.
On occasion, a manufacturer may decide to group a number of smaller microprocessor families

into a larger extended family which represents a large groups of chips that share a common
theme and possibly root ISA.
Below is a list of microprocessor families organized by company, alphabetized
 Adapteva  MediaTek
 Ambric  MIPS Technologies
 AMD (Advanced Micro Devices)  MOS Technology
 Atmel  Motorola
 Broadcom  National Semiconductor
 Centaur Technology  NexGen
 Clearspeed  Phytium
 Cray Inc.  Qualcomm
 Cypress Semiconductor  Quantum Effect Devices
 Cyrix  Rapport
 Digital Equipment Corporation  Ross Technology
 Exponential Technology  SGI
 Fujitsu  Sun Microsystems
 General Instrument  Sunway
 HAL Computer Systems  Tesla (czech)
 Hitachi  Transmeta
 HP  Western Design Center
 IBM  Western Digital
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 Intel  Zilog
Table 2.0: List of microprocessor families
Recall in our previous discussion on types of microcontrollers, we found that microcontrollers can
be divided into various categories based on bits, memory/device, family, instruction sets, and
memory architecture. Here our focus is family. Microcontroller families basically refer to common
name of architecture. It is important to note that microcontroller belonging the same family share
certain features and compatibility.
Fig. 2.0: Types of microcontrollers

For example in the 8051 family, they are the 8052 and the 8031. The 8052 has all the standard
features of the 8051 as well as an extra 128 bytes of RAM and an extra timer. For example in AVR
family the following chips of AVR are included
 Atmega-8
 Atmega-16
 Atmega-32
 Atmega-128
 Atmega-328
 AT90S1200
THE 8051 MICROCONTROLLER FAMILY MEMBERS

The first microprocessor 4004 was invented by Intel Corporation. Intel 8085 and 8086
microprocessors were also invented by Intel.
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History of 8051 and Key Developments
Intel Corporation fabricated the 8051microcontroller, an 8-bit microcontroller, which was referred
as MCS-51 in 1981. This microcontroller was also referred as “system on a chip” because it has
128 bytes of RAM, 4Kbytes of ROM, 2 Timers, 1 Serial port, and four ports on a single chip. The
CPU can work for only 8bits of data at a time because 8051 is an 8-bit processor. In case the data is
larger than 8 bits then it has to be broken into parts so that the CPU can process conveniently. Most
manufacturers have put 4Kbytes of ROM even though the quantity of ROM can be exceeded up to
64 K bytes.
Intel permitted other manufacturers to fabricate different versions of 8051 but with the limitation
that code compatibility should be maintained. This has added advantage that if the program is
written then it can be used for any version of 8051 despite of manufacturer.
When it became widely popular, Intel allowed other manufacturers to make and market different
flavors of 8051 with its code compatible with 8051. It means that if you write your program for one
flavor of 8051, it will run on other flavors too, regardless of the manufacturer. This has led to
several versions with different speeds and amounts of on-chip RAM.
Main Features of the 8051(summery)
Features Quality
ROM 4K bytes
RAM(Data Memory) 128 bytes
Timer 2 (16 bit Timer/Counter)
I/O pins 32
Serial Port 1 (Using UART makes it simpler for serial communication)
Interrupt sources 6
Input/output Pins 4 Ports of 8 bits each on a single chip
ALU 8 – bit ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Speed execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second with a clock
frequency of 12MHz.
Data size 8 bits
Address lines 16 bits. Therefore memory capacity is 216 = 64 KB
Architecture Harvard Memory Architecture – It has 16 bit Address bus (each
of RAM and ROM) and 8 bit Data Bus.
NB ROM amount indicates on-chip program space
Table 2.1: Features of the 8051 microcontroller
This microcontroller is also called as “System on a chip” because it has all the features on a single
As years passed by, the quality of technology surpassed the expectation of the greatest minds, with
gadgets becoming smaller, sleeker and more efficient. Microcontrollers were seen as the answer to
the requirements was raised in advanced electronics. This is the reason why manufacturers have
now focused their production around the following main developmental aspects:
i. Ease-of-use
ii. Market availability
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iii. Less power usage
iv. Smaller processing power
v. More integrated features like RF and USB
vi. Smaller form factors
Block Diagram of 8051 Microcontroller

The following illustration shows the block diagram of an 8051 microcontroller –
Figure 2.1: 8051 Microcontroller Block Diagram

CPU (Central Processor Unit):
As we know that the CPU is the brain of any processing device of the microcontroller. It monitors
and controls all operations that are performed on the Microcontroller units. The User has no control
over the work of the CPU directly. It reads program written in ROM memory and executes them
and do the expected task of that application.
Interrupts:
As its name suggests, Interrupt is a subroutine call that interrupts of the microcontrollers main
operations or work and causes it to execute any other program, which is more important at the time
of operation.
The feature of Interrupt is very useful as it helps in case of emergency operations. An Interrupts
gives us a mechanism to put on hold the ongoing operations, execute a subroutine and then again
resumes to another type of operations.
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The Microcontroller 8051 can be configured in such a way that it temporarily terminates or pause
the main program at the occurrence of interrupts. When a subroutine is completed, then the
execution of main program starts.
Generally five interrupt sources are there in 8051 Microcontroller. There are 5 vectored interrupts
are shown in below
 INTO
 TFO
 INT1
 TF1
 R1/T1
Out of these, INT0 and INTI are external interrupts that could be negative edge triggered or low
level triggered. When All these interrupts are activated, set the corresponding flags except for serial
interrupt, The interrupt flags are cleared when the processor branches to the interrupt service
routine (ISR), provides the interrupt is a negative edge triggered whereas the timers and serial port
interrupts two of them are external interrupts, two of them are timer interrupts and one serial port
interrupt terminal in general.
Memory:
Microcontroller requires a program which is a collection of instructions. This program tells
microcontroller to do specific tasks. These programs require a memory on which these can be
saved and read by Microcontroller to perform specific operations of a particular task.
The storage space which is employed to momentarily store data for functioning is acknowledged as
Data Memory and we employ Random Access Memory or RAM for this principle reason.
Microcontroller 8051 contains code memory or program memory 4K so that is has 4KB Rom and
it also comprise of data memory (RAM) of 128 bytes.
BUS:
Basically Bus is a collection of wires which work as a communication channel or medium for
transfer of Data. These buses consist of 8, 16 or more wires of the microcontroller. Thus, these can
carry 8 bits, 16 bits simultaneously. Hire two types of buses that are shown in below
1. Address Bus
2. Data Bus
Address Bus: Microcontroller 8051 has a 16 bit address bus for transferring the data. It is used to
address memory locations and to transfer the address from CPU to Memory of the microcontroller.
It has four addressing modes that are
 Immediate addressing modes.
 Bank address (or) Register addressing mode.
 Direct Addressing mode.
 Register indirect addressing mode.
Data Bus: Microcontroller 8051 has 8 bits of the data bus, which is used to carry data of particular
applications.
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Oscillator:
An electronic circuit or electronic device that is used to generate periodically oscillating electronic
signal is called as an electronic oscillator
The microcontroller being a digital circuit piece of equipment, it requires clock pulses for its
operation of microcontroller applications. For this purpose, microcontroller 8051 has an on-chip
oscillator which works as a clock source for Central Processing Unit of the microcontroller. The
output pulses of oscillator are stable. Therefore, it enables synchronized work of all parts of the
8051 Microcontroller.
Input/output Port
Normally microcontroller is used in embedded systems to control the operation of machines.
Therefore, to connect it to other machines, devices or peripherals, we require I/O interfacing ports
in the microcontroller interface. For this purpose microcontroller 8051 has 4 input, output ports to
connect it to the other peripherals
Timers/Counters
8051 microcontroller has two 16 bit timers and counters. These counters are again divided into an 8
bit register. The timers are used for measurement of intervals to determine the pulse width of
pulses. This will be discussed further later.
System Clock (or Internal Clock)

In this mode, the timer is incremented with every tick of the system clock. This is the default
mode. Note that the term “internal” only refers to the fact that this is the clocking source the
whole controller uses. The oscillator responsible for it may well be external.
Prescaler
Prescaler is a kind of slow down for Timer incrementing, instead of incrementing each clock
cycle it can be adjusted to every 2nd, 4th, 8th. etc
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THE PIN DIAGRAM
The pin out diagram of 8051 microcontroller consists of 40 pins. The following image shows the
8051 Microcontroller Pin Diagram with respect to a 40-pin Dual In-line Package (DIP).
Figure 2.2: 8051 Microcontroller pin out diagram

 Pins 1 to 8 − These pins are known as Port 1. Different from other ports. This port does not
serve any other functions. It is internally pulled up, bi-directional I/O port.
 Pin 9 − It is a RESET pin, which is used to reset the microcontroller to its initial values.
 Pins 10 to 17 − These pins are known as Port 3. This port serves some functions like
interrupts, timer input, control signals, serial communication signals RxD and TxD, etc.
 Pins 18 & 19 − These pins are used for interfacing an external crystal to get the system
clock.
 Pin 20 − This pin provides the power supply to the circuit.
 Pins 21 to 28 − These pins are known as Port 2. It serves as I/O port. Higher order address
bus signals are also multiplexed using this port.
 Pin 29 − This is PSEN pin which stands for Program Store Enable. It is used to read a
signal from the external program memory.
 Pin 30 − This is EA pin which stands for External Access input. It is used to enable/disable
the external memory interfacing.
 Pin 31 − This is ALE pin which stands for Address Latch Enable. It is used to demultiplex
the address-data signal of port.
 Pins 32 to 39 − These pins are known as Port 0. It serves as I/O port. Lower order address
and data bus signals are multiplexed using this port.
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 Pin 40 − This pin is used to provide power supply to the circuit. It is termed as Vcc is the
chief power supply. By and large it is +5V DC.
The 8051 microcontrollers have 4 I/O ports each of 8-bit, which can be configured as input or
output. Hence, total 32 input/output pins allow the microcontroller to be connected with the
peripheral devices.
 Pin configuration, i.e. the pin can be configured as 1 for input and 0 for output as per the
logic state.
* Input/output (I/O) pin − All the circuits within the microcontroller must be
connected to one of its pins except P0 port because it does not have pull-up
resistors built-in.
* Input pin − Logic 1 is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE transistor is
turned off and the other pin remains connected to the power supply voltage over a
pull-up resistor of high resistance.
 Port 0 − The P0 (zero) port is characterized by two functions −
* When the external memory is used then the lower address byte (addresses A0A7) is
applied on it, else all bits of this port are configured as input/output.
* When P0 port is configured as an output then other ports consisting of pins with
built-in pull-up resistor connected by its end to 5V power supply, the pins of this
port have this resistor left out.
Input Configuration
If any pin of this port is configured as an input, then it acts as if it “floats”, i.e. the input has
unlimited input resistance and in-determined potential.
Output Configuration
When the pin is configured as an output, then it acts as an “open drain”. By applying logic 0 to a
port bit, the appropriate pin will be connected to ground (0V), and applying logic 1, the external
output will keep on “floating”.
In order to apply logic 1 (5V) on this output pin, it is necessary to build an external pull-up
resistor.
Port 1
P1 is a true I/O port as it does not have any alternative functions as in P0, but this port can be
configured as general I/O only. It has a built-in pull-up resistor and is completely compatible with
TTL circuits.
Port 2
P2 is similar to P0 when the external memory is used. Pins of this port occupy addresses intended
for the external memory chip. This port can be used for higher address byte with addresses A8-
A15. When no memory is added then this port can be used as a general input/output port similar to
Port 1.
Port 3
In this port, functions are similar to other ports except that the logic 1 must be applied to
appropriate bit of the P3 register.
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Timers and Counters in 8051 Microcontroller
Many of the microcontroller applications require counting of external events such as frequency of
the pulse trains and generation of precise internal time delays between computer actions. Both
these tasks can be implemented by software techniques, but software loops for counting, and
timing will not give the exact result rather more important functions are not done. To avoid these
problems, timers and counters in the micro-controllers are better options for simple and low-cost
applications. These timers and counters are used as interrupts in 8051 microcontroller.
The 8051 microcontrollers have two timers/counters which work on the clock frequency.
Timer/counter can be used for time delay generation, counting external events et
Clock
Every Timer needs a clock to work, and 8051 provides it from an external crystal which is the
main clock source for Timer. The internal circuitry in the 8051 microcontrollers provides a
clock source to the timer which is 1/12th of the frequency of crystal attached to the
microcontroller, also called as Machine cycle frequency.
Figure 2.3: 8051 Microcontroller clock source for timer

For example, suppose we have crystal frequency of 11.0592 MHz then microcontroller will
provide 1/12th i.e. Timer clock frequency = (Xtal Osc.frequency)/12 = (11.0592 MHz)/12
= 921.6 KHz
Period T= 1/(921.6 KHz)=1.085 μS
Timer
8051 has two timers Timer0 (T0) and Timer1 (T1), both are 16-bit wide. Since 8051 has 8-bit
architecture, each of these is accessed by two separate 8-bit registers as shown in the figure below.
These registers are used to load timer count.
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Figure 2.4: 8051 Microcontroller timer registers
8051 has Timer Mode Register and Timer Control Register for selecting a mode of operation
and controlling purpose.
Let's see these registers,
TMOD register
TMOD is an 8-bit register used to set timer mode of timer0 and timer1.
Figure 2.5: 8051 Microcontroller TMOD registers

Its lower 4 bits are used for Timer0 and upper 4 bits are used for Timer1
Bit 7,3 – GATE:
1 = Enable Timer/Counter only when the INT0/INT1 pin is high and TR0/TR1 is set.
0 = Enable Timer/Counter when TR0/TR1 is set.
Bit 6,2 - C/ (Counter/Timer): Timer or Counter select bit

1 = Use as Counter
0 = Use as Timer
Both can do the same work but they both are used in different scenarios. A counter is normally used to count number of clock cycles, interrupt is
raised, or simply any changes occurred based on the programmer's choice. In Counter mode , 8051 count number of pulses. So if you want to
measure frequency of a signal, you can start counting number of pulses received in a second and you get the frequency of an unknown signal. In
Timer, there is a fixed frequency, so you can generate a interrupt after a fixed interval of time. A timer uses the frequency of the internal clock, and
generates delay. A counter uses an external signal to count pulses.
Bit 5:4 & 1:0 - M1:M0: Timer/Counter mode select bit

These are Timer/Counter mode select bit as per below table
M1 M0 Mode Operation
0 0 0 (13-bit timer mode) 13-bit timer/counter, 8-bit of THx & 5-bit of TLx
0 1 1 (16-bit timer mode) 16-bit timer/counter, THx cascaded with TLx
8-bit timer/counter (auto reload mode), TLx reload with
1 0 2 (8-bit auto reload mode)
value held by THx each time TLx overflow
Split 16-bit timerx into two 8-bit timer i.e. THx and TLx
1 1 3 (split timer mode)
like two 8-bit timer
Table 2.2 Timer/Counter mode select bit table
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TCON Register
Figure 2.6: 8051 Microcontroller TCON registers

TCON is 8-bit control register and contains timer and interrupt flags.
Bit 7 - TF1: Timer1 Overflow Flag
1 = Timer1 overflow occurred (i.e. Timer1 goes to its max and roll over back to zero).
0 = Timer1 overflow not occurred.
It is cleared through software. In Timer1 overflow interrupt service routine; this bit will get
cleared automatically while exiting from ISR.
Bit 6 - TR1: Timer1 Run Control Bit
1 = Timer1 start.
0 = Timer1 stop.
It is set and cleared by software.
Bit 5 – TF0: Timer0 Overflow Flag
1 = Timer0 overflow occurred (i.e. Timer0 goes to its max and roll over back to zero).
0 = Timer0 overflow not occurred.
It is cleared through software. In Timer0 overflow interrupt service routine, this bit will get cleared
automatically while exiting from ISR.
Bit 4 – TR0: Timer0 Run Control Bit
1 = Timer0 start.
0 = Timer0 stop.
It is set and cleared by software.
Bit 3 - IE1: External Interrupt1 Edge Flag
1 = External interrupt1 occurred.
0 = External interrupt1 Processed.
It is set and cleared by hardware.
Bit 2 - IT1: External Interrupt1 Trigger Type Select Bit
1 = Interrupt occur on falling edge at INT1 pin.
0 = Interrupt occur on low level at INT1 pin.
Bit 1 – IE0: External Interrupt0 Edge Flag
1 = External interrupt0 occurred.
0 = External interrupt0 Processed.
It is set and cleared by hardware.
Bit 0 – IT0: External Interrupt0 Trigger Type Select Bit
1 = Interrupt occur on falling edge at INT0 pin.
0 = Interrupt occur on low level at INT0 pin.
Let's see the timers modes
Timer Modes
Timers have their operation modes which are selected in TMOD register using M0 & M1 bit
combinations.
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Mode 0 (13-bit timer mode)
Mode 0 is 13-bit timer mode for which 8-bit of THx and 5-bit of TLx (as Prescaler) is used. It is
mostly used for interfacing that is possible with old MCS-48 family microcontrollers.
Figure 2.7: Microcontroller Mode 0 (13-bit timer mode)

Example
Let's generate a square wave of 2mSec period using an AT89C51 microcontroller with timer0 in
mode0 on P1.0 pin of port1. Assume xtal oscillator frequency of 11.0592 MHz.
Figure 2.8: square wave

As Xtal oscillator frequency is 11.0592 MHz we have machine cycle of 1.085uSec. Hence,
required count to generate delay of 1mSec. is,
Count =(1×10^-3)/(1.085×10^-6) ≈ 921
Maximum count of Mode0 is 2^13 (0 - 8191) and Timer0 count will increment from 0 – 8191. So
we need to load value which is 921 less from its maximum count i.e. 8191. Also, here in the below
program, we need additional 13 MC (machine cycles) from call to return of delay function. Hence
value needed to be loaded is,
Value=(8191-Count)+Function_MCycles+1 =7284= 0x1C74
So we need to load 0x1C74 value in Timer0.
1C74 = 0001 1100 0111 0100 b, now load lower 5-bit in TL0 and next 8-bit in TH0 so here we get,
TL0 = 0001 0100 = 0x14 and TH0 = 1110 0011 = 0xE3
Other members of the 8051 family (8051 Flavors / Members)
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There are two other members in the 8051 family of microcontrollers. They are the 8052 and the
8031.
8052 microcontroller
The 8052 is another member of the 8051 family. The 8052 has all the standard features of the 8051
as well as an extra 128 bytes of RAM and an extra timer. In other words, the 8052 has 256 bytes of
RAM and 3 timers. It also has 8K bytes of on-chip program ROM instead of 4K bytes.
8031 microcontroller
Another member of the 8051 family is the 8031 chip. This chip is often referred to as a ROM-less
8051 since it has OK bytes of on-chip ROM. To use this chip you must add external ROM to it.
This external ROM must contain the program that the 8031 will fetch and execute. Contrast that to
the 8051 in which the on-chip ROM contains the program to be fetched and executed but is limited
to only 4K bytes of code.
The ROM containing the program attached to the 8031 can be as large as 64K bytes. In the process
of adding external ROM to the 8031, you lose two ports. That leaves only 2 ports (of the 4 ports)
for I/O operations. To solve this problem, you can add external I/O to the 8031. Interfacing the
8031 with memory and I/O ports such as the 8255 chip is discussed in Chapter 14. There are also
various speed versions of the 8031 available from different companies.
Table 2.2: Comparison of 8051 Family Members

As can be seen from Table above, the 8051 is a subset of the 8052; therefore, all programs written
for the 8051 will run on the 8052, but the reverse is not true.
ADDRESSING MODES OF 8051

Addressing mode is a way to address an operand. Operand means the data we are operating upon
(in most cases source data). It can be a direct address of memory, it can be register names, it can be
any numerical data etc. Consider the following data move instruction of 8051.
MOV A, #6AH
Here the data 6A is the operand, often known as source data. When this instruction is executed, the
data 6AH is moved to accumulator A.
There are 5 different ways to execute this instruction and hence we say, we have got 5 addressing
modes for 8051.
They are
1. Immediate addressing mode
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2. Direct addressing mode
3. Register direct addressing mode
4. Register indirect addressing mode
5. Indexed addressing mode.
Immediate Addressing Mode

Let’s begin with an example.
MOV A, #6AH
In general we can write MOV A, #data
This addressing mode is named as “immediate” because it transfers an 8-bit data immediately to
the accumulator (destination operand).
Figure 2.9: Illustration on Immediate Addressing Mode
The figure above describes the above instruction and its execution. The opcode for MOV A, # data
is 74H. The opcode is saved in program memory at 0202 address. The data 6AH is saved in
program memory 0203. (See, any part of the program memory can be used, this is just an example)
When the opcode 74H is read, the next step taken would be to transfer whatever data at the next
program memory address (here at 0203) to accumulator A (E0H is the address of accumulator).
This instruction is of two bytes and is executed in one cycle. So after the execution of this
instruction, program counter will add 2 and move to o204 of program memory.
Note: The ‘#’ symbol before 6AH indicates that operand is a data (8 bit). If ‘#’ is not present then
the hexadecimal number would be taken as address.
Direct Addressing Mode

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This is another way of addressing an operand. Here the address of the data (source data ) is given
as operand. Let’s take an example.
MOV A, 04H
Here 04H is the address of register 4 of register bank#0. When this instruction is executed,
whatever data is stored in register 04H is moved to accumulator. In the picture below we can see,
register 04H holds the data 1FH. So the data 1FH is moved to accumulator.
Note: We have not used ‘#’ in direct addressing mode, unlike immediate mode. If we had used ‘#’,
the data value 04H would have been transferred to accumulator instead 0f 1FH.
Figure 2.10: Illustration on Direct Addressing Mode

As shown in figure above this is a 2 byte instruction which requires 1 cycle to complete. Program
counter will increment by 2 and stand in 0204. The opcode for instruction MOV A, address is E5H.
When the instruction at 0202 is executed (E5H), accumulator is made active and ready to receive
data. Then program control goes to next address that is 0203 and look up the address of the
location (04H) where the source data (to be transferred to accumulator) is located. At 04H the
control finds the data 1F and transfers it to accumulator and hence the execution is completed.
Register Direct Addressing Mode

In this addressing mode we use the register name directly (as source operand). An example is
shown below.
MOV A, R4
At a time registers can take value from R0, R1…to R7. You may already know there are 32 such
registers. So how you access 32 registers with just 8 variables to address registers? Here comes
the use of register banks. There are 4 register banks named 0,1,2 and 3. Each bank has 8 registers
named from R0 to R7. At a time only one register bank can be selected. Selection of register bank
is made possible through a Special Function Register (SFR) named Processor Status Word (PSW).
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PSW is an 8 bit SFR where each bit can be programmed. Bits are designated from PSW.0 to
PSW.7 Register banks are selected using PSW.3 and PSW.4 These two bits are known as register
bank select bits as they are used to select register banks. A picture below shows the PSW register
and the Register Bank Select bits with status.
Figure 2.11(a): Illustration on Register Direct Addressing Mode

So in register direct addressing mode, data is transferred to accumulator from the register (based on
which register bank is selected).
Take a look at the figure below.
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Figure 2.11(b): Illustration on Register Direct Addressing Mode

So we see that opcode for MOV A, R4 is EC. The opcode is stored in program memory address
0202 and when it is executed the control goes directly to R4 of the respected register bank (that is
selected in PSW). If register bank #0 is selected then the data from R4 of register bank #0 will be
moved to accumulator. (Here it is 2F stored at 04 H). 04 H is the address of R4 of register bank #0.
Movement of data (2F) in this case is shown as bold line. Now please take a look at the dotted line.
Here 2F is getting transferred to accumulator from data memory location 0C H. Now understand
that 0C H is the address location of Register 4 (R4) of register bank #1. Programmers usually get
confused with register bank selection. Also keep in mind that data at R4 of register bank #0 and
register bank #1 (or even other banks) will not be same. So, wrong selection of register banks will
result in undesired output.
Also note that the instruction above is 1 byte and requires 1 cycle for complete execution. This
means using register direct addressing mode can save program memory.
Register Indirect Addressing Mode

So in this addressing mode, address of the data (source data to transfer) is given in the register
operand.
MOV A, @R0
Here the value inside R0 is considered as an address, which holds the data to be transferred to
accumulator.
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Example: If R0 holds the value 20H, and we have a data 2F H stored at the address 20H, then the
value 2FH will get transferred to accumulator after executing this instruction. Got it? See the
figure below.
Figure 2.12: Illustration on Register Indirect Addressing Mode

So the opcode for MOV A, @R0 is E6H. Assuming that register bank #0 is selected. So the R0
of register bank #0 holds the data 20H. Program control moves to 20H where it locates the data
2FH and it transfers 2FH to accumulator.
This is a single byte instruction and the program counter increments 1 and moves to 0203 of
program memory.
Note: Only R0 and R1 are allowed to form a register indirect addressing instruction. In other words
programmer can must make any instruction either using @R0 or @R1. All register banks are
allowed.
Indexed Addressing Mode

Well let’s see two examples first.
MOVC A, @A+DPTR and MOVC A, @A+PC
where DPTR is data pointer and PC is program counter (both are 16 bit registers). Lets take the
first example.
MOVC A, @A+DPTR
What’s the first impression you have now? The source operand is @A+DPTR and we know we
will get the source data (to transfer) from this location. It is nothing but adding contents of DPTR
with present content of accumulator. This addition will result a new data which is taken as the
address of source data (to transfer). The data at this address is then transferred to accumulator.
Take a look at the figure below.
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Figure 2.13: Illustration on Indeax Addressing Mode

The opcode for the instruction is 93H. DPTR holds the value 01FE, where 01 is located in DPH
(higher 8 bits) and FE is located in DPL (lower 8 bits). Accumulator now has the value 02H. A 16
bit addition is performed and now 01FE H+02 H results in 0200 H. Whatever data is in 0200 H
will get transferred to accumulator. The previous value inside accumulator (02H) will get replaced
with new data from 0200H. New data in the accumulator is shown in dotted line box.
This is a 1 byte instruction with 2 cycles needed for execution. What you infer from that? The
execution time required for this instruction is high compared to previous instructions (which all
were 1 cycle).
The other example MOVC A, @A+PC works the same way as above example. The only
difference is, instead of adding DPTR with accumulator, here data inside program counter (PC) is
added with accumulator to obtain the target address.
I hope you now have a clear cut understanding of 8051 addressing modes. If you have any doubts
or need any additional clarifications, please post your comments below. I will answer them.
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TOPIC THREE
MEMORYARCHITECTURE
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily. Memory
is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer cannot perform
simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type:
1. Primary memory / Volatile memory and
2. Secondary memory / non-volatile memory
Primary Memory
This is the internal memory and is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. Stored
data can be recalled instantly, quickly accessed and correctly whenever desired by the CPU for
reading or storing. Primary memory is classified into two types: Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read- Only Memory (ROM).
Figure 3.0: Computer memory classifications

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is also called the read/write memory because information can be read from and written
onto it. It is holds instructions for the computer, its programs and the data and the CPU can
directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. The storage of data and instructions in
RAM is temporary as long as the computer is running but it disappears from RAM as soon as
power to the computer is switched off. It is therefore a volatile memory.
There are two basic types of RAM as given below:

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
2. Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM
As the name suggests, it is dynamic in nature/operation. The stored information, DATA is
lost in a very short time, it can be in order of milliseconds depending upon the design and
specifications and internal structure.
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It is a cheaper and slower memory device. It is made up using semiconductor device technology.
Millions of pn- junction transistors and capacitors are used in making the Dynamic Random
Access Memory. It requires periodically refresh as the capacitors get discharged.
Operation of DRAM
DRAM is an Integrated Circuit (IC) and the most basic form of computer memory, Inside
the DRAM, Dynamic Memory Cell, represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the
bit of information – a 0 or a 1. The charged state of capacitor is taken as binary“1”(one) and the
discharged state as “0”(zero). Due to leakage of capacitors, refresh is required. The pn -junction
transistors act as a switch. This transistor switch is used by the control circuitry on the memory
chip to read the capacitor or change physical state of charging/ discharging. Capacitor stores the
charge. When it is fully charged it is treated as binary“1”(high level) in the memory cell. When
there is no charge stored in capacitor, it is treated as binary“0”(low level). It’s discharging rate is
very high and it takes few milliseconds.
For DRAM to work, it is to be recharged before they get discharged. Instructions are written so
that the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back by charging. Refreshing
operation is performed automatically thousands of times per second. The DRAM loses the data if
it does not get refresh operation. Refresh operation is an important and essential task for the
successful operation of Dynamic Random Access memory (DRAM).
Static RAM
Static RAM is a memory device in which the information or the data stored in it remains
protected unless and until the power supply is removed. It is costlier than the DRAM and it
consumes more power. It has higher working speed than DRAM.
SRAM made up of different technology than that of DRAM. This retains stored information only
as long as the power supply is on. Static RAM’s are costlier and consume more power. They have
higher speed than D-RAMs.
Operation of SRAM
A Flip Flop is used in static RAM, which holds each bit of memory that is binary 1 or 0. It
does not require refresh operation. A number of transistors are used in flip-flop for a Memory
Cell which never has to be refreshed. This is the main reason why static RAM is significantly
faster than dynamic RAM.
SRAM has more parts; its static memory cell takes up a lot of more space on a chip than it takes in
a dynamic memory cell. During design a Memory chip Engineer has to optimize the space
significantly to have a better memory. Because of more parts in SRAM, one get less memory per
chip and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive than DRAM. Hence, Static RAM is fast and
expensive; on the other hand, Dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower.
Similarity between SRAM and DRAM is that both lose data once the power is removed from
the device. However, DRAM essentially needs to be refreshed periodically. The key
difference between SRAM and DRAM is the technology that is being used for holding
information or the data. SRAM makes use of latches (flip-flops) in order to store data (transistor
circuit), whereas DRAM uses capacitors for storing bits in the form of charge (bits: binary“1” for
P a g e | 47
full charge and “0” for no charge). High speed complementary Metal Oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) technology is the basis for SRAM construction, whereas Dynamic RAM uses Special
DRAM processes for construction. Static RAMs have a complex internal structure than in
comparison to DRAMs.
Non-Volatile RAM - (NVRAM)

This is a type of memory that combines the advantages of volatile and non-volatile memories
and is achieved by add a small internal battery to an SRAM device so that when external power
is switched off to retain power so that the SRAM still retains its content or by combining a
SRAM with an EEPROM in one package. Upon power-up, data is copied from the EEPROM to
the SRAM. During operation, data is read from and written to the SRAM. When power is cut off,
the data is copied to the EEPROM.
2. Read- Only Memory (ROM)

It is called Read-only memory. Information can only be read from it and cannot be written or
changed onto ROM. The storage of data and instructions in ROM is permanent. It is a ‘built-in’
memory of a computer and stores some Basic Input – Output Instructions (BIOS) put by the
manufacturer to operate the computer. Read Only Memories (ROMs) were the first types of non-
volatile semiconductor memories. If you want to use ROMs, you have to hand the data over to
the chip manufacturer, where a specific chip is made containing your data.
Mask-ROM - (MROM).
An MROM is composed of several layers. The geometrical layout of those layers defines the
chip’s function. A MROM contains a matrix of memory cells. The name Mask-ROM is derived
from the one mask which defines the row-column connections.
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) is a matrix of memory cells, each containing a
silicon fuse. Each fuse is intact and each cell reads as a logical 1. By selecting a cell and applying
a high current pulse, the cell’s fuse can be destroyed, thereby programming a logical 0 into the
selected cell.
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

EPROM programming is non-destructive and memory is stored in so-called field effect
transistors (FETs) or rather in one of their pins called gate. This gate is named as the floating
gate as it is completely insulated from the rest of the circuit. By applying an appropriately high
voltage, it is possible to charge the floating gate through a physical process called avalanche
injection. Once a cell is programmed, the electrons remain in the floating gate indefinitely.
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The EPROM is non-volatile. Has a quartz window in order to erase data. To erase you have to use
ultraviolet light every time. The whole chip gets erased by exposing to ultraviolet. So you can not
erase byte by byte. The OTP type of EPROM (one time programmable) don’t have this quartz
window, therefore you can’t erase. EPROM used IC is in the image to the right. No EPROM for
PIC 16F84 since it has EEPROM which will be discussed next.
Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-modifiable read-only
memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly through the
application of higher than normal electrical voltage. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not
need to be removed from the computer to be modified. However, an EEPROM chip has to be
erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively. It also has a limited life - that is, the
number of times it can be reprogrammed is limited to tens or hundreds of thousands of times. In
an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed while the computer is in use, the life of the
EEPROM can be an important design consideration.
A special form of EEPROM is flash memory, which uses normal PC voltages for erasure and
reprogramming.
Flash Memory
Flash memory, also known as flash storage, is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases data in
units called blocks. A block stored on a flash memory chip must be erased before data can be
written or programmed to the microchip. Flash memory retains data for an extended period of
time, regardless of whether a flash-equipped device is powered on or off.
This type of memory is used to store the program you compile for the microcontroller. Also used
in Flash Drives. This type also wears out eventually and erase/write cycles are mentioned in the
data sheet of the microcontroller.
Flash EEPROM is used for program and not data memory. Flash-EEPROMs have a lower
guaranteed write/erase cycle endurance compared to EEPROMs – about 1,000 to 10,000 cycles.
Flash-EEPROMs are cheaper.
Accessing Memory
Many microcontrollers come with on-chip program and data memory with two methods of
accessing memory:
i. Each memory is addressed separately. In ATmega16, the address ranges has three
different memory types. The programmer specifies which memory is to be accessed by
using different access methods.
ii. All memory types share a common address range. In HCS12 the programmer accesses
EEPROM in the same way as SRAM. The microcontroller uses the address to decide
which memory the access goes to.
Suppose a 16 bit controller writes a word (two bytes) into SRAM, say at address 0x0100. The
word consists of a low and a high byte. There are two variants: the low byte could go to 0x0100
and the high byte to the next address (0x0101), or the other way around.
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8051 MICROCONTROLLER MEMORY ORGANIZATION
The 4 discrete types of memory in 8051 are:

i. Internal RAM (Data Memory) – This memory is located from address 0 to 0xff.The
memory locations from 0x00 to 0x7F are accessed directly. The bytes from 0x20 to 0x2F are
bit- addressable. Loading R0 and R1 the memory location from 0x80 to 0xFF can easily
accessed.
ii. Program Memory (ROM) – This is read only memory which is located at address 0. With
the help of 16 bit Special Function Register DPTR, this memory can also save the tables of
constants.
iii. Special Function Registers (SFR) – Located from address 0x80 to 0xFF of the memory
location. The same instructions used for lower half of Internal RAM can be used to access
SFR’s. The SFR’s are bit addressable too.
iv. External Data Memory – Located at address 0. The Instruction MOVX (Move External)
should be used to access the external data memory.
The 8051 Microcontroller Memory is separated in Program Memory (ROM) and Data Memory
(RAM). The Program Memory of the 8051 Microcontroller is used for storing the program to be
executed i.e. instructions. The Data Memory on the other hand, is used for storing temporary
variable data and intermediate results.
8051 Microcontroller has both Internal ROM and Internal RAM. If the internal memory is
inadequate, you can add external memory using suitable circuits.
Program Memory (ROM) of 8051 Microcontroller

In 8051 Microcontroller, the code or instructions to be executed are stored in the Program Memory,
which is also called as the ROM of the Microcontroller. The original 8051 Microcontroller by Intel
has 4KB of internal ROM.
Some variants of 8051 like the 8031 and 8032 series does not have any internal ROM (Program
Memory) and must be interfaced with external Program Memory with instructions loaded in it.
Almost all modern 8051 Microcontrollers, like 8052 Series, have 8KB of Internal Program
Memory (ROM) in the form of Flash Memory (ROM) and provide the option of reprogramming
the memory.
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Figure 3.1: 8051 Program memory (ROM)
In case of 4KB of Internal ROM, the address space is 0000H to 0FFFH. If the address space i.e. the
program addresses exceed this value, then the CPU will automatically fetch the code from the
external Program Memory.
For this, the External Access Pin (EA Pin) must be pulled HIGH i.e. when the EA Pin is high, the
CPU first fetches instructions from the Internal Program Memory in the address range of 0000H to
0FFFFH and if the memory addresses exceed the limit, then the instructions are fetched from the
external ROM in the address range of 1000H to FFFFH.
Figure 3.1: 8051 External Program memory (ROM)

There is another way to fetch the instructions: ignore the Internal ROM and fetch all the
instructions only from the External Program Memory (External ROM). For this scenario, the EA
Pin must be connected to GND. In this case, the memory addresses of the external ROM will be
from 0000H to FFFFH.
Figure 3.2: EA Pin connected to GND in order to access external ROM
Data Memory (RAM) of 8051 Microcontroller

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The Data Memory or RAM of the 8051 Microcontroller stores temporary data and intermediate
results that are generated and used during the normal operation of the microcontroller. Original
Intel’s 8051 Microcontroller had 128B of internal RAM.
But almost all modern variants of 8051 Microcontroller have 256B of RAM. In this 256B, the first
128B i.e. memory addresses from 00H to 7FH is divided in to Working Registers (organized as
Register Banks), Bit – Addressable Area and General Purpose RAM (also known as Scratchpad
area).
In the first 128B of RAM (from 00H to 7FH), the first 32B i.e. memory from addresses 00H to
1FH consists of 32 Working Registers that are organized as four banks with 8 Registers in each
Bank.
Figure 3.2: 8051 Memory banks and special Registers
The 4 banks are named as Bank0, Bank1, Bank2 and Bank3. Each Bank consists of 8 registers
named as R0 – R7. Each Register can be addressed in two ways: either by name or by address.
To address the register by name, first the corresponding Bank must be selected. In order to select
the bank, we have to use the RS0 and RS1 bits of the Program Status Word (PSW) Register (RS0
and RS1 are 3rd and 4th bits in the PSW Register).
When addressing the Register using its address i.e. 12H for example, the corresponding Bank may
or may not be selected. (12H corresponds to R2 in Bank2).
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The next 16B of the RAM i.e. from 20H to 2FH are Bit – Addressable memory locations. There are
totally 128 bits that can be addressed individually using 00H to 7FH or the entire byte can be
addressed as 20H to 2FH. For example 32H is the bit 2 of the internal RAM location 26H.
The final 80B of the internal RAM i.e. addresses from 30H to 7FH, is the general purpose RAM
area which are byte addressable.
These lower 128B of RAM can be addressed directly or indirectly. The upper 128B of the RAM
i.e. memory addresses from 80H to FFH is allocated for Special Function Registers (SFRs). SFRs
control specific functions of the 8051 Microcontroller. Some of the SFRs are I/O Port Registers
(P0, P1, P2 and P3), PSW (Program Status Word), A (Accumulator), IE (Interrupt Enable), PCON
(Power Control), etc.
Table 3.0: 8051 Registers and functions

SRFs Memory addresses are only direct addressable. Even though some of the addresses between
80H and FFH are not assigned to any SFR, they cannot be used as additional RAM area.
In some microcontrollers, there is an additional 128B of RAM, which share the memory address
with SFRs i.e. 80H to FFH. But, this additional RAM block is only accessed by indirect
addressing.
Interfacing External Memory with 8051 Microcontroller
We have seen that a typical 8051 Microcontroller has 4KB of ROM and 128B of RAM (most
modern 8051 Microcontroller variants have 8K ROM and 256B of RAM).
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The designer of an 8051 Microcontroller based system is not limited to the internal RAM and
ROM present in the 8051 Microcontroller. There is a provision of connecting both external RAM
and ROM i.e. Data Memory and Program.
The reason for interfacing external Program Memory or ROM is that complex programs written in
high-level languages often tend to be larger and occupy more memory.
Another important reason is that chips like 8031 or 8032, which doesn’t have any internal ROM,
have to be interfaced with external ROM.
A maximum of 64B of Program Memory (ROM) and Data Memory (RAM) each can be interface
with the 8051 Microcontroller.
The following image shows the block diagram of interfacing 64KB of External RAM and 64KB of
External ROM with the 8051 Microcontroller.
The 8051 Microcontroller Special Function Registers (SFRs)

The internal RAM or Data Memory of the 8051 Microcontroller is divided in to General Purpose
Registers, Bit Addressable Registers, Register Banks and Special Function Registers or SFRs.
The 8051 Microcontroller Special Function Registers are used to program and control different
hardware peripherals like Timers, Serial Port, I/O Ports etc. In fact, by manipulating the 8051
Microcontroller Special Function Registers (SFRs), you can assess or change the operating mode
of the 8051 Microcontroller.
As a reminder, the following image shows you the basic structure of 8051 Microcontroller’s
Internal RAM (refer to Figure 3.2: 8051 Memory banks and special Registers)
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The 8051 Microcontroller Special Function Registers act as a control table that monitor and control
the operation of the 8051 Microcontroller. If you observe in Internal RAM Structure, the Address
Space from 80H to FFH is allocated to SFRs.
Out of these 128 Memory Locations (80H to FFH), there are only 21 locations that are actually
assigned to SFRs. Each SFR has one Byte Address and also a unique name which specifies its
purpose.
Since the SFRs are a part of the Internal RAM Structure, you can access SFRs as if you access the
Internal RAM. The main difference is the address space: first 128 Bytes (00H to 7FH) is for
regular Internal RAM and next 128 Bytes (80H to FFH) is for SFRs.
List of Registers
Refer to table to Table 3.0: 8051 Registers and functions
The 21 Special Function Registers of 8051 Microcontroller are categorized in to seven groups.
They are:
Math or CPU Registers: A and B

Status Register: PSW (Program Status Word)
Pointer Registers: DPTR (Data Pointer – DPL, DPH) and SP (Stack Pointer)
I/O Port Latches: P0 (Port 0), P1 (Port 1), P2 (Port 2) and P3 (Port 3)
Peripheral Control Registers: PCON, SCON, TCON, TMOD, IE and IP
Peripheral Data Registers: TL0, TH0, TL1, TH1 and SBUF
CPU or Math Registers

A or Accumulator (ACC)
The Accumulator or Register A is the most important and most used 8051 Microcontroller SFRs.
The Register A is located at the address E0H in the SFR memory space. The Accumulator is used
to hold the data for almost all the ALU Operations.
Some of the operations where the Accumulator is used are:

 Arithmetic Operations like Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication etc.
 Logical Operations like AND, OR, NOT etc.
 Data Transfer Operations (between 8051 and External Memory)
The name “Accumulator” came from the fact this register is used to accumulate (or store) the result
of all Arithmetic and most of the Logical Operations.
B (Register B)
The B Register is used along with the ACC in Multiplication and Division operations. These two
operations are performed on data that are stored only in Registers A and B. During Multiplication
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Operation, one of the operand (multiplier or multiplicand) is stores in B Register and also the
higher byte of the result.
In case of Division Operation, the B Register holds the divisor and also the remainder of the result.
It can also be used as a General Purpose Register for normal operations and is often used as an
Auxiliary Register by Programmers to store temporary results.
Register B is located at the address F0H of the SFR Address Space.
Program Status Word (PSW)

The PSW or Program Status Word Register is also called as Flag Register and is one of the
important SFRs. The PSW Register consists of Flag Bits, which help the programmer in checking
the condition of the result and also make decisions.
Flags are 1-bit storage elements that store and indicate the nature of the result that is generated by
execution of certain instructions. The following image shows the contents of the PSW Register.
The following table describes the function of each flag.
Pointer Registers
Data Pointer (DPTR – DPL and DPH)
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The Data Pointer is a 16-bit Register and is physically the combination of DPL (Data Pointer Low)
and DPH (Data Pointer High) SFRs. The Data Pointer can be used as a single 16-bit register (as
DPTR) or two 8-bit registers (as DPL and DPH).
DPTR doesn’t have a physical Memory Address but the DPL (Lower Byte of DPTR) and DPH
(Higher Byte of DPTR) have separate addresses in the SFR Memory Space. DPL = 82H and DPH
= 83H.
The DPTR Register is used by the programmer addressing external memory (Program-ROM or
Data-RAM).
Stack Pointer (SP)

SP or Stack Pointer points out to the top of the Stack and it indicates the next data to be accessed.
Stack Pointer can be accesses using PUSH, POP, CALL and RET Instructions. The Stack Pointer
is an 8-bit register and upon reset, the Stack Pointer is initialized with 07H.
When writing a new data byte into the stack, the SP (Stack Pointer) is automatically incremented
by 1 and the new data is written at an address SP+1. When reading data from stack, the data is
retrieved from the Address in SP and after that the SP is decremented by 1 (SP-1).
I/O Port Registers (P0, P1, P2 and P3)

The 8051 Microcontroller four Ports which can be used as Input and/or Output. These four ports
are P0, P1, P2 and P3. Each Port has a corresponding register with same names (the Port Registers
are also P0, P1, P2 and P3). The addresses of the Port Registers are as follows: P0 – 80H, P1 –
90H, P2 – A0H and P2 – B0H.
Each bit in these SFRs corresponds to one physical Pin in the 8051 Microcontroller. All these Port
Registers are both Bit Addressable and Byte Addressable. Writing 1 or 0 on a Port Register Bit will
reflect as an appropriate voltage (5V and 0V) on the corresponding Pin.
If a Port Bit is SET (declared as 1), the corresponding Port Pin will be configured as Input and
similarly if a Port Bit is CLEARED (declared as 0), the corresponding Port Pin is configured as
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Output. Upon reset, all the Port Bits are SET (1) and hence, all the Port Pins are configured as
Inputs.
Peripheral Control Registers

PCON (Power Control)
The PCON or Power Control register, as the name suggests is used to control the 8051
Microcontroller’s Power Modes and is located at 87H of the SFR Memory Space. Using two bits in
the PCON Register, the microcontroller can be set to Idle Mode and Power Down Mode.
During Idle Mode, the Microcontroller will stop the Clock Signal to the ALU (CPU) but it is given
to other peripherals like Timer, Serial, Interrupts, etc. In order to terminate the Idle Mode, you have
to use an Interrupt or Hardware Reset.
In the Power Down Mode, the oscillator will be stopped and the power will be reduced to 2V. To
terminate the Power Down Mode, you have to use the Hardware Reset.
Apart from these two, the PCON Register can also be used for few additional purposes. The
SMOD Bit in the PCON Register is used to control the Baud Rate of the Serial Port.
There are two general purpose Flag Bits in the PCON Register, which can be used by the
programmer during execution.
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SCON (Serial Control)

The Serial Control or SCON SFR is used to control the 8051 Microcontroller’s Serial Port. It is
located as an address of 98H. Using SCON, you can control the Operation Modes of the Serial
Port, Baud Rate of the Serial Port and Send or Receive Data using Serial Port.
SCON Register also consists of bits that are automatically SET when a byte of data is transmitted
or received.
Serial Port Mode Control Bits
TCON (Timer Control)
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Timer Control or TCON Register is used to start or stop the Timers of 8051 Microcontroller. It also
contains bits to indicate if the Timers has overflowed. The TCON SFR also consists of Interrupt
related bits.
TMOD (Timer Mode)

The TMOD or Timer Mode register or SFR is used to set the Operating Modes of the Timers T0
and T1. The lower four bits are used to configure Timer0 and the higher four bits are used to
configure Timer1.
The Gatex bit is used to operate the Timerx with respect to the INTx pin or regardless of the INTx
pin.
GATE1 = 1 ==> Timer1 is operated only if INT1 is SET.
GATE1 = 0 ==> Timer1 is operates irrespective of INT1 pin.
GATE0 = 1 ==> Timer0 is operated only if INT0 is SET.
GATE0 = 0 ==> Timer0 is operates irrespective of INT0 pin.
The C/Tx bit is used selects the source of pulses for the Timer to count.
C/T1 = 1 ==> Timer1 counts pulses from Pin T1 (P3.5) (Counter Mode)
C/T1 = 0 ==> Timer1 counts pulses from internal oscillator (Timer Mode)
C/T0 = 1 ==> Timer0 counts pulses from Pin T0 (P3.4) (Counter Mode)
C/T0 = 0 ==> Timer0 counts pulses from internal oscillator (Timer Mode)
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IE (Interrupt Enable)
The IE or Interrupt Enable Register is used to enable or disable individual interrupts. If a bit is
SET, the corresponding interrupt is enabled and if the bit is cleared, the interrupt is disabled. The
Bit7 of the IE register i.e. EA bit is used to enable or disable all the interrupts.
IP (Interrupt Priority)
The IP or Interrupt Priority Register is used to set the priority of the interrupt as High or Low. If a
bit is CLEARED, the corresponding interrupt is assigned low priority and if the bit is SET, the
interrupt is assigned high priority.
Peripheral Data Registers

SBUF (Serial Data Buffer)
The Serial Buffer or SBUF register is used to hold the serial data while transmission or reception.
P a g e | 61
TL0/TH0 (Timer 0 Low/High)

The Timer 0 consists of two SFRs: TL0 and TH0. The TL0 is the lower byte and the TH0 is the
higher byte and together they form a 16-bit Timer0 Register.
TL1/TH1 (Timer 1 Low/High)

The TL1 and TH1 are the lower and higher bytes of the Timer 0.
P a g e | 62
Applications of 8051 Microcontroller:
The microcontroller 8051 applications include large amount of machines, principally because it is
simple to incorporate in a project or to assemble a machine around it. The following are the key
spots of spotlight:
1. Energy Management: Efficient measuring device systems aid in calculating energy
consumption in domestic and industrialized applications. These meter systems are prepared
competent by integrating microcontrollers.
2. Touch screens: A high degree of microcontroller suppliers integrate touch sensing abilities in
their designs. Transportable devices such as media players, gaming devices & cell phones are
some illustrations of micro-controller integrated with touch sensing screens.
3. Automobiles: The microcontroller 8051 discovers broad recognition in supplying automobile
solutions. They are extensively utilized in hybrid motor vehicles to control engine variations. In
addition, works such as cruise power and anti-brake mechanism has created it more capable with
the amalgamation of micro-controllers.
4. Medical Devices: Handy medicinal gadgets such as glucose & blood pressure monitors bring
into play micro-controllers, to put on view the measurements, as a result, offering higher
dependability in giving correct medical results.
5. Medical Devices: Handy medicinal gadgets such as glucose & blood pressure monitors bring
into play micro-controllers, to put on view the measurements, as a result, offering higher
dependability in giving correct medical results.
Assigment (To be submitted for marking)

With the aid diagram(s), explain Flash memory operation basics
Exercises
Exercise 2.2.1 What are the advantages of PROM over ROM? Are there any disadvantages?
Exercise 2.2.2 Why do EPROMs have a window, while EEPROMs do not have a window? What
is the window used for?
Exercise 2.2.3 What is the difference between an EEPROM and a Flash-EEPROM?
Exercise 2.2.4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of a RAM compared to an EEPROM?
Exercise 2.2.5 Why do microcontrollers use SRAMs and not DRAMs?
Exercise 2.2.8 Why does the NVRAM not copy every write access into the EEPROM? Would
that not be more secure?
Exercise 2.2.9 When is an OTP memory useful? Would you put a controller with OTP memory
into a cell phone?

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BY MR. AKETCH - A TVET TRAINER - KENYA COAST NATIONAL POLYTECNIC MOMBASA.

Nowadays electronic devices and circuits are not

These small devices have revolutionized the world of electronics.

Today microcontrollers are everywhere, think of a device and you

So exactly what is a microcontroller or a microprocessor? As a

Microcontrollers and microprocessors are integrated circuits (IC), but

In order to get some useful function, these ICs have to be configured.

If these two types of circuitries were to be made using conventional

A program is a series of instructions, in a correct and logical manner to

By changing the program, the behavior of microcontroller will change.

Similarly microprocessors and microcontrollers are programmed to do a

It is a single IC which contains the microprocessor with integrated

It can also be defined as a compact integrated circuit designed to govern

A typical microcontroller includes a processor, memory and input/output

A microcontroller sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU)

Where do we find microcontrollers?

They are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

They are especially designed for embedded applications. This is in

Most programmable microcontrollers that are used today as said before

Input and output devices to the microcontroller include solenoids, LCD

Any device that measures, stores, controls, calculates, or displays

The largest single use for microcontrollers is in automobile industry

You can also find microcontrollers inside keyboards, mouse, modems,

Other consumer products that use microcontrollers include digital

The first microcontrollers were Intel 8048 integrated into PC keyboards,

A microcontroller is available in different word lengths like

Block diagram of a typical microcontroller

Figure 1.1: A block diagram of a microcontroller.

Parallel input/output ports

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

Special functioning block

After a while, though Japanese engineers tried finding an

microprocessor called 4004. That was the first 4-bit

Not long after that, American company CTC requested

In another American company Motorola, they realized

Motorola to join MOS Technology and kept working

At the WESCON exhibition in the USA in 1975, a crucial

Other companies did not want to give up either. Frederico

Figure 1.2: Microprocessor simplified block diagram

Comparison of a Microprocessor and a Microcontroller

Table 1.1: Summery of comparison of a Microprocessor and a Microcontroller

Figure 1.3: Difference between a Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Figure 1.4: Types of microcontroller

Difference between CISC and RISC summarized

Memory Architecture [start here next time]

Figure 1.5: Von Neumann Microcontroller Architecture

ii) Harvard Microcontroller Architecture

Figure 1.6: Von Harvard Microcontroller Architecture

What types of microcontrollers are there? Nowadays

Step 1: Make a list of required hardware interfaces

Step 2: Examine the software architecture

Step 3: Select the architecture

Step 4: Identify Memory Needs

Step 5: Start searching for microcontrollers

Step 6: Examine Costs and Power Constraints

Step 7: Check part availability

Step 8: Select a development kit

Step 9: Investigate compilers and tools