View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.

uk brought to you by CORE

provided by ZENODO

International J.Math. Combin. Vol.3 (2009), 01-22

Combinatorial Field - An Introduction

Dedicated to Prof. Feng Tian on his 70th Birthday

Linfan Mao

(Chinese Academy of Mathematics and System Science, Beijing 100080, P.R.China)

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: A combinatorial field WG is a multi-field underlying a graph G, established on a

smoothly combinatorial manifold. This paper first presents a quick glance to its mathemati-
cal basis with motivation, such as those of why the WORLD is combinatorial? and what is a
topological or differentiable combinatorial manifold? After then, we explain how to construct
principal fiber bundles on combinatorial manifolds by the voltage assignment technique, and
how to establish differential theory, for example, connections on combinatorial manifolds.
We also show applications of combinatorial fields to other sciences in this paper.

Key Words: Combinatorial field, Smarandache multi-space, combinatorial manifold,

WORLD, principal fiber bundle, gauge field.

AMS(2000): 51M15, 53B15, 53B40, 57N16, 83C05, 83F05.

§1. Why is the WORLD a Combinatorial One?

The multiplicity of the WORLD results in modern sciences overlap and hybrid, also implies its
combinatorial structure. To see more clear, we present two meaningful proverbs following.

Proverb 1. Ames Room

An Ames room is a distorted room constructed so that from the front it appears to be
an ordinary cubic-shaped room, with a back wall and two side walls parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the horizontally level floor and ceiling. As a result of the optical illusion, a
person standing in one corner appears to the observer to be a giant, while a person standing in
the other corner appears to be a dwarf. The illusion is convincing enough that a person walking
back and forth from the left corner to the right corner appears to grow or shrink. For details,
see Fig.1.1 below.

1 Reported at Nanjing Normal University, 2009.

2 Received July 6, 2009. Accepted Aug.8, 2009.
2 Linfan Mao

Fig.1.1

This proverb means that it is not all right by our visual sense for the multiplicity of world.

Proverb 2. Blind men with an elephant

In this proverb, there are six blind men were be asked to determine what an elephant
looked like by feeling different parts of the elephant’s body, seeing Fig.1.2 following. The man
touched the elephant’s leg, tail, trunk, ear, belly or tusk claims it’s like a pillar, a rope, a tree
branch, a hand fan, a wall or a solid pipe, respectively. They then entered into an endless
argument and each of them insisted his view right.

Fig.1.2

All of you are right! A wise man explains to them: Why are you telling it differently is because
each one of you touched the different part of the elephant. So, actually the elephant has all
those features what you all said. Then

What is the meaning of Proverbs 1 and 2 for understanding the structure of WORLD?

The situation for one realizing behaviors of the WORLD is analogous to the observer in
Ames room or these blind men in the second proverb. In fact, we can distinguish the WORLD
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 3

by known or unknown parts simply, such as those shown in Fig.1.3.

unkown

unknown known unknown

unknown

Fig.1.3

The laterality of human beings implies that one can only determines lateral feature of
the WORLD by our technology. Whence, the WORLD should be the union of all characters
determined by human beings, i.e., a Smarandache multi-space underlying a combinatorial struc-
ture in logic. Then what can we say about the unknown part of the WORLD? Is it out order?
No! It must be in order for any thing having its own right for existing. Therefore, these is
an underlying combinatorial structure in the WORLD by the combinatorial notion, shown in
Fig.1.4.

unknown unknown

known part now

Fig.1.4

In fact, this combinatorial notion for the WORLD can be applied for all sciences. I pre-
sented this combinatorial notion in Chapter 5 of [8], then formally as the CC conjecture for
mathematics in [11], which was reported at the 2nd Conference on Combinatorics and Graph
Theory of China in 2006.

Combinatorial Conjecture A mathematical science can be reconstructed from or made by

combinatorialization.

This conjecture opens an entirely way for advancing the modern sciences. It indeed means
a deeply combinatorial notion on mathematical objects following for researchers.

(i) There is a combinatorial structure and finite rules for a classical mathematical system,
which means one can make combinatorialization for all classical mathematical subjects.
4 Linfan Mao

(ii) One can generalizes a classical mathematical system by this combinatorial notion such
that it is a particular case in this generalization.
(iii) One can make one combination of different branches in mathematics and find new
results after then.
(iv) One can understand our WORLD by this combinatorial notion, establish combinato-
rial models for it and then find its behavior, and so on.
This combinatorial notion enables ones to establish a combinatorial model for the WORLD
and develop modern sciences combinatorially. Whence, a science can not be ended if its com-
binatorialization has not completed yet.

§2. Topological Combinatorial Manifold

Now how can we characterize these unknown parts in Fig.1.4 by mathematics? Certainly, these
unknown parts can be also considered to be fields. Today, we have known a best tool for
understanding the known field, i.e., a topological or differentiable manifold in geometry ([1],
[2]). So it is more natural to think each unknown part is itself a manifold. That is the motivation
of combinatorial manifolds.
Loosely speaking, a combinatorial manifold is a combination of finite manifolds, such as
those shown in Fig.2.1.

T2
B1 M3 T2 B1 B1

(a) (b)

Fig.2.1

In where (a) represents a combination of a 3-manifold, a torus and 1-manifold, and (b) a torus
with 4 bouquets of 1-manifolds.

2.1 Euclidean Fan-Space

A combinatorial Euclidean space is a combinatorial system CG of Euclidean spaces Rn1 , Rn2 ,

· · · , Rnm underlying a connected graph G defined by

V (G) = {Rn1 , Rn2 , · · · , Rnm },

T
E(G) = { (Rni , Rnj ) | Rni Rnj 6= ∅, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ m},

denoted by EG (n1 , · · · , nm ) and abbreviated to EG (r) if n1 = · · · = nm = r, which enables us

to view an Euclidean space Rn for n ≥ 4. Whence it can be used for models of spacetime in
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 5

physics.
e 1 , · · · , nm ) is the combinatorial Euclidean space EKm (n1 , · · · , nm )
A combinatorial fan-space R(n
n1 n2 nm
of R , R , · · · , R such that for any integers i, j, 1 ≤ i 6= j ≤ m,

\ m
\
Rni Rnj = Rnk .
k=1

T
m
A combinatorial fan-space is in fact a p-brane with p = dim Rnk in String Theory ([21],
k=1
[22]), seeing Fig.2.2 for details.

6

 p-brane -

?
Fig.2.2
e 1 , · · · , nm ) we can present it by an m × nm coordinate matrix [x] following
For ∀p ∈ R(n
xl
with xil = m for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ l ≤ m, b

 
x11 ··· x1m
b x1(m)+1)
b · · · x1n1 ··· 0
 
 x ··· x2m x2(m+1) · · · x2n2 ··· 0 
 21 b b 
[x] =  .
 ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 
 
xm1 · · · xmm
b xm(m+1)
b ··· ··· xmnm −1 xmnm

Let Mn×s denote all n × s matrixes for integers n, s ≥ 1. We introduce the inner product
h(A), (B)i for (A), (B) ∈ Mn×s by

X
h(A), (B)i = aij bij .
i,j

Then we easily know that Mn×s forms an Euclidean space under such product.

2.2 Topological Combinatorial Manifold

For a given integer sequence 0 < n1 < n2 < · · · < nm , m ≥ 1, a combinatorial manifold M f is a
f, there is a local chart (Up , ϕp ) of p, i.e., an open
Hausdorff space such that for any point p ∈ M
neighborhood Up of p in Mf and a homoeomorphism ϕp : Up → R(n e 1 (p), n2 (p), · · · , ns(p) (p)), a
combinatorial fan-space with

{n1 (p), n2 (p), · · · , ns(p) (p)} ⊆ {n1 , n2 , · · · , nm },

6 Linfan Mao

S
{n1 (p), n2 (p), · · · , ns(p) (p)} = {n1 , n2 , · · · , nm },
f
p∈M

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) or M
denoted by M f on the context and

Ae = {(Up , ϕp )|p ∈ M
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ))}
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ).
an atlas on M
A combinatorial manifold M f is finite if it is just combined by finite manifolds with an
underlying combinatorial structure G without one manifold contained in the union of others.
Certainly, a finitely combinatorial manifold is indeed a combinatorial manifold. Examples of
combinatorial manifolds can be seen in Fig.2.1.
For characterizing topological properties of combinatorial manifolds, we need to introduced
the vertex-edge labeled graph. A vertex-edge labeled graph G([1, k], [1, l]) is a connected graph
G = (V, E) with two mappings

τ1 : V → {1, 2, · · · , k}, τ2 : E → {1, 2, · · · , l}

for integers k, l ≥ 1. For example, two vertex-edge labeled graphs on K4 are shown in Fig.2.3.

2 1

2 3
1 1 1
2
4 1 4
2 1 2
3 4 3 4
2 1

Fig.2.3

Let Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) be a finitely combinatorial manifold and d, d ≥ 1 an integer. We

construct a vertex-edge labeled graph Gd [M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )] by

[
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )]) = V1
V (Gd [M V2 ,
where V1 = {ni − manifolds M ni in M f(n1 , · · · , nm )|1 ≤ i ≤ m} and V2 = {isolated intersection
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ m}. Label ni for each
points OM ni ,M nj ofM ni , M nj in M
ni -manifold in V1 and 0 for each vertex in V2 and
[
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )]) = E1 E2 ,
E(Gd [M
T T
where E1 = {(M ni , M nj ) labeled with dim(M ni M nj ) | dim(M ni M nj ) ≥ d, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ m}
and E2 = {(OM ni ,M nj , M ni ), (OM ni ,M nj , M nj ) labeled with 0|M ni tangent M nj at the point
OM ni ,M nj for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ m}.
Now denote by H(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) all finitely combinatorial manifolds M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )
L L L
and G[0, nm ] all vertex-edge labeled graphs G with θL : V (G ) ∪ E(G ) → {0, 1, · · · , nm }
with conditions following hold.
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 7

(1)Each induced subgraph by vertices labeled with 1 in G is a union of complete graphs

and vertices labeled with 0 can only be adjacent to vertices labeled with 1.
(2)For each edge e = (u, v) ∈ E(G), τ2 (e) ≤ min{τ1 (u), τ1 (v)}.
Then we know a relation between sets H(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) and G([0, nm ], [0, nm ]) following.

Theorem 2.1 Let 1 ≤ n1 < n2 < · · · < nm , m ≥ 1 be a given integer sequence. Then
every finitely combinatorial manifold Mf ∈ H(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) defines a vertex-edge labeled graph
G([0, nm ]) ∈ G[0, nm ]. Conversely, every vertex-edge labeled graph G([0, nm ]) ∈ G[0, nm ] defines
a finitely combinatorial manifold Mf ∈ H(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) with a 1 − 1 mapping θ : G([0, nm ]) →
f such that θ(u) is a θ(u)-manifold in M
M f, τ1 (u) = dimθ(u) and τ2 (v, w) = dim(θ(v) T θ(w))
for ∀u ∈ V (G([0, nm ])) and ∀(v, w) ∈ E(G([0, nm ])).

2.4 Fundamental d-Group

For two points p, q in a finitely combinatorial manifold M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), if there is a sequence

B1 , B2 , · · · , Bs of d-dimensional open balls with two conditions following hold.
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) for any integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ s and p ∈ B1 , q ∈ Bs ;
(1) Bi ⊂ M
T
(2) The dimensional number dim(Bi Bi+1 ) ≥ d for ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ s − 1.
Then points p, q are called d-dimensional connected in M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) and the sequence
B1 , B2 , · · · , Be a d-dimensional path connecting p and q, denoted by P d (p, q). If each pair p, q
of points in the finitely combinatorial manifold M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is d-dimensional connected,
f
then M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is called d-pathwise connected and say its connectivity≥ d.
Choose a graph with vertex set being manifolds labeled by its dimension and two manifold
adjacent with a label of the dimension of the intersection if there is a d-path in this combinatorial
manifold. Such graph is denoted by Gd . For example, these correspondent labeled graphs gotten
from finitely combinatorial manifolds in Fig.2.1 are shown in Fig.2.4, in where d = 1 for (a)
and (b), d = 2 for (c) and (d).

1 1
0 0
1 1 3 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0
1 1
(a) (b)

1 1
0 0
1 3 2 2 0 0 2 0 0
0 0
1 1
(c) (d)

Fig.2.4

Let Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) be a finitely combinatorial manifold of d-arcwise connectedness for

an integer d, 1 ≤ d ≤ n1 and ∀x0 ∈ M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), a fundamental d-group at the point
8 Linfan Mao

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), x0 ) is defined to be a group generated by all homotopic

x0 , denoted by π d (M
classes of closed d-pathes based at x0 . If d = 1, then it is obvious that π d (Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), x0 )
f
is the common fundamental group of M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) at the point x0 ([18]). For some special
graphs, their fundamental d-groups can be immediately gotten, for example, the d-dimensional
graphs following.
m
z }| {
A combinatorial Euclidean space EG (d, d, · · · , d) of Rd underlying a combinatorial structure
G, |G| = m is called a d-dimensional graph, denoted by M fd [G] if

fd [G] \ V (M
(1) M fd [G]) is a disjoint union of a finite number of open subsets e1 , e2 , · · · , em ,
each of which is homeomorphic to an open ball B d ;
(2) the boundary ei − ei of ei consists of one or two vertices B d , and each pair (ei , ei ) is
d
homeomorphic to the pair (B , S d−1 ).
Then we get the next result by definition.

Theorem 2.2 fd [G], x0 ) ∼

π d (M = π1 (G, x0 ), x0 ∈ G.

Generally, we know the following result for fundamental d-groups of combinatorial mani-
folds ([13], [17]).

Theorem 2.3 Let M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) be a d-connected finitely combinatorial manifold for an

integer d, 1 ≤ d ≤ n1 . If ∀(M1 , M2 ) ∈ E(GL [M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )]), M1 ∩M2 is simply connected,
then

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )]) and x0M ∈ M ,

(1) for ∀x0 ∈ Gd , M ∈ V (GL [M

M M
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), x0 ) ∼
π d (M =( π d (M, xM0 )) π(Gd , x0 ),
M∈V (Gd )

where Gd = Gd [Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )] in which each edge (M1 , M2 ) passing through a given point
xM1 M2 ∈ M1 ∩ M2 , π d (M, xM0 ), π(Gd , x0 ) denote the fundamental d-groups of a manifold M
and the graph Gd , respectively and
(2) for ∀x, y ∈ Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ),

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), x) ∼
π d (M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), y).
= π d (M

2.5 Homology Group

For a subspace A of a topological space S and an inclusion mapping i : A ֒→ S, it is readily

verified that the induced homomorphism i♯ : Cp (A) → Cp (S) is a monomorphism. Let Cp (S, A)
denote the quotient group Cp (S)/Cp (A). Similarly, we define the p-cycle group and p-boundary
group of (S, A) by ([19])

Zp (S, A) = Ker∂p = { u ∈ Cp (S, A) | ∂p (u) = 0 },

Bp (S, A) = Im∂p+1 = ∂p+1 (Cp+1 (S, A)),

 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 9

for any integer p ≥ 0.It follows that Bp (S, A) ⊂ Zp (S, A) and the pth relative homology group
Hp (S, A) is defined to be

Hp (S, A) = Zp (S, A)/Bp (S, A).

We know the following result.

Theorem 2.4 Let M f be a combinatorial manifold, M

fd (G) ≺ M
f a d-dimensional graph with
f d
E(M (G)) = {e1 , e2 , · · · , em } such that

fd [G] = S S Bij .
k li
f\M
M
i=2 j=1

f, M
Then the inclusion (el , ėl ) ֒→ (M fd (G)) induces a monomorphism Hp (el , ėl ) → Hp (M
f, M
fd (G))
for l = 1, 2 · · · , m and


 Z ⊕ · · · Z, if p = d,
∼ | {z }
f fd
Hp (M , M (G)) = m


0, if p 6= d.

§3. Differentiable Combinatorial Manifolds

3.1 Definition

For a given integer sequence 1 ≤ n1 < n2 < · · · < nm , a combinatorial C h -differential man-
f(n1 , · · · , nm ); A)
ifold (M e is a finitely combinatorial manifold M
f(n1 , · · · , nm ), M
f(n1 , · · · , nm )
S e f
= Ui , endowed with a atlas A = {(Uα ; ϕα )|α ∈ I} on M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) for an integer
i∈I
h, h ≥ 1 with conditions following hold.
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ).
(1) {Uα ; α ∈ I} is an open covering of M
ϕα
-
Uα T
ϕβ (Uα Uβ )
−1
Uα ∩ Uβ ϕβ ϕα T
?
ϕβ (Uα Uβ )
Uβ

ϕβ
-
Fig.3.1
T
(2) For ∀α, β ∈ I, local charts (Uα ; ϕα ) and (Uβ ; ϕβ ) are equivalent, i.e., Uα Uβ = ∅ or
T
Uα Uβ 6= ∅ but the overlap maps

\ \
ϕα ϕ−1
β : ϕβ (Uα Uβ ) → ϕβ (Uβ ) and ϕβ ϕ−1
α : ϕα (Uα Uβ ) → ϕα (Uα )
10 Linfan Mao

are C h -mappings, such as those shown in Fig.3.1.

(3) Ae is maximal, i.e., if (U ; ϕ) is a local chart of M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) equivalent with one
e
of local charts in A, then (U ; ϕ) ∈ A. e
Denote by (M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ); A)
e a combinatorial differential manifold. A finitely combi-
natorial manifold Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is said to be smooth if it is endowed with a C ∞ -differential
structure. For the existence of combinatorial differential manifolds, we know the following result
([13],[17]).

Theorem 3.1 Let M f(n1 , · · · , nm ) be a finitely combinatorial manifold and d, 1 ≤ d ≤ n1 an

integer. If for ∀M ∈ V (Gd [Mf(n1 , · · · , nm )]) is C h -differential and

f(n1 , · · · , nm )])
∀(M1 , M2 ) ∈ E(Gd [M
there exist atlas

A1 = {(Vx ; ϕx )|∀x ∈ M1 } A2 = {(Wy ; ψy )|∀y ∈ M2 }

such that ϕx |Vx T Wy = ψy |Vx T Wy for ∀x ∈ M1 , y ∈ M2 , then there is a differential structures

Ae = {(Up ; [̟p ])|∀p ∈ M

f(n1 , · · · , nm )}

f(n1 , · · · , nm ); A)
such that (M e is a combinatorial C h -differential manifold.

3.2 Local Properties of Combinatorial Manifolds

f1 (n1 , · · · , nm ), M
Let M f2 (k1 , · · · , kl ) be smoothly combinatorial manifolds and

f1 (n1 , · · · , nm ) → M
f :M f2 (k1 , · · · , kl )

be a mapping, p ∈ M f1 (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ). If there are local charts (Up ; [̟p ]) of p on M

f1 (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )
and (Vf (p) ; [ωf (p) ]) of f (p) with f (Up ) ⊂ Vf (p) such that the composition mapping

fe = [ωf (p) ] ◦ f ◦ [̟p ]−1 : [̟p ](Up ) → [ωf (p) ](Vf (p) )

is a C h -mapping, then f is called a C h -mapping at the point p. If f is C h at any point p of

f1 (n1 , · · · , nm ), then f is called a C h -mapping. Denote by Xp all these C ∞ -functions at a
M
point p ∈ M f(n1 , · · · , nm ).
Now let (M f(n1 , · · · , nm ), A)
e be a smoothly combinatorial manifold and p ∈ M
f(n1 , · · · , nm ).
A tangent vector v at p is a mapping v : Xp → R with conditions following hold.

(1) ∀g, h ∈ Xp , ∀λ ∈ R, v(h + λh) = v(g) + λv(h);

(2) ∀g, h ∈ Xp , v(gh) = v(g)h(p) + g(p)v(h).

f be a smooth curve on M
Let γ : (−ǫ, ǫ) → M f and p = γ(0). Then for ∀f ∈ Xp , we usually
define a mapping v : Xp → R by

df (γ(t))
v(f ) =|t=0 .
dt
We can easily verify such mappings v are tangent vectors at p.
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 11

Denote all tangent vectors at p ∈ Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) by Tp Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) and define

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), λ ∈ R and f ∈ Xp by
addition+and scalar multiplication·for ∀u, v ∈ Tp M

(u + v)(f ) = u(f ) + v(f ), (λu)(f ) = λ · u(f ).

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is a vector space under these two
Then it can be shown immediately that Tp M
operations+and·. Let
S
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )) =
X (M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ).
Tp M
f
p∈M

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is a mapping X : M
A vector field on M f → X (M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm )), i.e.,
f
chosen a vector at each point p ∈ M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ). Then the dimension and basis of the
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) are determined in the next result.
tangent space Tp M

Theorem 3.2 For any point p ∈ M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) with a local chart (Up ; [ϕp ]), the dimension
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is
of Tp M
s(p)
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) = sb(p) + P (ni − sb(p))
dimTp M
i=1

with a basis matrix

∂
[ ]s(p)×ns(p) =
∂x

 
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
s(p) ∂x11 ··· s(p) ∂x1bs(p) ∂x1(bs(p)+1)
··· ∂x1n1
··· 0
 
 1 ∂
··· 1 ∂ ∂
··· ∂
··· 0 
 s(p) ∂x21 s(p) ∂x2bs(p) ∂x2(bs(p)+1) ∂x2n2 
 
 ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 
 
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
s(p) ∂xs(p)1 ··· s(p) ∂xs(p)bs(p) ∂xs(p)(bs(p)+1)
··· ··· s(p)(ns(p) −1) s(p)ns(p)
∂x ∂x

where xil = xjl for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ s(p), 1 ≤ l ≤ sb(p), namely there is a smoothly functional matrix
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ),
[vij ]s(p)×ns(p) such that for any tangent vector v at a point p of M
 
∂
v= [vij ]s(p)×ns(p) , [ ]s(p)×ns(p) ,
∂x
P
k P
l
where h[aij ]k×l , [bts ]k×l i = aij bij , the inner product on matrixes.
i=1 j=1

For ∀p ∈ (M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ); A),

e the dual space T ∗ M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is called a co-
p
∗f f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ).
tangent vector space at p. Let f ∈ Xp , d ∈ Tp M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) and v ∈ Tp M
Then the action of d on f , called a differential operator d : Xp → R, is defined by

df = v(f ).

We know the following result.

12 Linfan Mao

Theorem 3.3 For ∀p ∈ (M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ); A)

e with a local chart (Up ; [ϕp ]), the dimension
∗f ∗f f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) with a basis
of Tp M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is dimTp M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) = dimTp M
matrix [dx]s(p)×ns(p) =

 
dx11 dx1bs(p)
s(p) ··· s(p) dx1(bs(p)+1) · · · dx1n1 ··· 0
 
 dx21
··· dx2bs(p)
dx2(bs(p)+1) · · · dx2n2 ··· 0 
 s(p) s(p) 
 
 ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 
 
dxs(p)1 dxs(p)bs(p)
s(p) ··· s(p) dxs(p)(bs(p)+1) ··· ··· dxs(p)ns(p) −1 dxs(p)ns(p)

where xil = xjl for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ s(p), 1 ≤ l ≤ sb(p), namely for any co-tangent vector d at a point
f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ), there is a smoothly functional matrix [uij ]s(p)×s(p) such that,
p of M
D E
d = [uij ]s(p)×ns(p) , [dx]s(p)×ns(p) .

3.3 Tensor Field

f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) be a smoothly combinatorial manifold and p ∈ M
Let M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ). A
tensor of type (r, s) at the point p on M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) is an (r + s)-multilinear function τ ,

f × · · · × T ∗M
τ : Tp∗ M f × Tp M f → R,
f × · · · × Tp M
p
| {z } | {z }
r s

where Tp Mf = Tp M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ) and Tp∗ M

f = Tp∗ Mf(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ). Denoted by Tsr (p, M
f)
f
all tensors of type (r, s) at a point p of M (n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ). We know its structure as follows.

f(n1 , · · · , nm ) be a smoothly combinatorial manifold and p ∈ M

Theorem 3.4 Let M f(n1 , · · · , nm ).
Then

f) = Tp M
Tsr (p, M f ⊗ Tp∗M
f ⊗ · · · ⊗ Tp M f ⊗ · · · ⊗ Tp∗ M
f,
| {z } | {z }
r s

where Tp M f(n1 , · · · , nm ) and

f = Tp M f
Tp∗ M = f(n1 , · · ·
Tp∗ M , nm ), particularly,
s(p)
P
f) = (b
dimTsr (p, M s(p) + (ni − sb(p)))r+s .
i=1

3.4 Curvature Tensor

f is a mapping D
A connection on tensors of a smoothly combinatorial manifold M e : X (M
f) ×
rf rf e e f r f
Ts M → Ts M with DX τ = D(X, τ ) such that for ∀X, Y ∈ X M , τ, π ∈ Ts (M ),λ ∈ R and
f),
f ∈ C ∞ (M

(1) De X+f Y τ = D
eX τ + f D
e Y τ ; and De X (τ + λπ) = D
e X τ + λD
e X π;
(2) De X (τ ⊗ π) = D
eX τ ⊗ π + σ ⊗ D e X π;
r f
(3) for any contraction C on Ts (M ),

e X (C(τ )) = C(D
D e X τ ).
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 13

f, D)
A combinatorial connection space is a 2-tuple (M e consisting of a smoothly combinatorial
manifold Mf with a connection D e on its tensors. Let (M f, D)
e be a combinatorial connection
f e
space. For ∀X, Y ∈ X (M ), a combinatorial curvature operator R(X, f) → X (M
Y ) : X (M f) is
defined by

e
R(X, Y )Z = D eY Z − D
eX D eX Z − D
eY D e [X,Y ] Z
f).
for ∀Z ∈ X (M
f f) = S T 0 (p, M
Let M be a smoothly combinatorial manifold and g ∈ A2 (M f). If g is
2
f
p∈M
symmetrical and positive, then M f is called a combinatorial Riemannian manifold, denoted by
f, g). In this case, if there is a connection D
(M e on (M
f, g) with equality following hold

e Z , Y ) + g(X, D
Z(g(X, Y )) = g(D eZY )

then Mf is called a combinatorial Riemannian geometry, denoted by (M

f, g, D).
e In this case,
calculation shows that ([14])

e=R
R e(σς)(ηθ)(µν)(κλ) dxσς ⊗ dxηθ ⊗ dxµν ⊗ dxκλ

with

e(σς)(ηθ)(µν)(κλ) 1 ∂ 2 g(µν)(σς) ∂ 2 g(κλ)(ηθ) ∂ 2 g(µν)(ηθ) ∂ 2 g(κλ)(σς)

R = ( κλ ηθ + µνν σς − − )
2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xκλ ∂xσς ∂xµν ∂xηθ
ξo ξo
+ Γϑι
(µν)(σς) Γ(κλ)(ηθ) g(ξo)(ϑι) − Γ(µν)(ηθ) Γ(κλ)(σς)ϑι g(ξo)(ϑι) ,

where g(µν)(κλ) = g( ∂x∂µν , ∂x∂κλ ).

§4. Principal Fiber Bundles

In classical differential geometry, a principal fiber bundle ([3]) is an application of covering

space to smoothly manifolds. Topologically, a covering space ([18]) S ′ of S consisting of a
space S ′ with a continuous mapping π : S ′ → S such that each point x ∈ S has an arcwise
connected neighborhood Ux and each arcwise connected component of π −1 (Ux ) is mapped
homeomorphically onto Ux by π, such as those shown in Fig.4.1.

V1 V2 Vk

π
?
x ∈ Ux

Fig.4.1
14 Linfan Mao

where Vi = π −1 (Ux ) for integers 1 ≤ i ≤ k.

A principal fiber bundle ([3]) consists of a manifold P action by a Lie group G , which is
a manifold with group operation G × G → G given by (g, h) → g ◦ h being C ∞ mapping, a
projection π : P → M , a base pseudo-manifold M , denoted by (P, M, G ), seeing Fig.4.2 such
that conditions (1), (2) and (3) following hold.

(1) there is a right freely action of G on P,, i.e., for ∀g ∈ G , there is a diffeomorphism
Rg : P → P with Rg (p) = pg for ∀p ∈ P such that p(g1 g2 ) = (pg1 )g2 for ∀p ∈ P , ∀g1 , g2 ∈ G
and pe = p for some p ∈ P , e ∈ G if and only if e is the identity element of G .
(2) the map π : P → M is onto with π −1 (π(p)) = {pg|g ∈ G }.
(3) for ∀x ∈ M there is an open set U with x ∈ U and a diffeomorphism TU : π −1 (U ) → U ×
G of the form TU (p) = (π(p), sU (p)), where sU : π −1 (U ) → G has the property sU (pg) = sU (p)g
for ∀g ∈ G , p ∈ π −1 (U ).

P V V V -
TU
U ×G

π −1
?
M x∈U

Fig.4.2

where V = π −1 (U ). Now can we establish principal fiber bundles on smoothly combinatorial

manifolds? This question can be formally presented as follows:

Question For a family of k principal fiber bundles P1 (M1 , G1 ), P2 (M2 , G2 ),· · · , Pk (Mk , Gk )
over manifolds M1 , M2 , · · · , Mk , how can we construct principal fiber bundles on a smoothly
combinatorial manifold consisting of M1 , M2 , · · · , Mk underlying a connected graph G?

The answer is YES! For this object, we need some techniques in combinatorics.

4.1 Voltage Graph with Its Lifting

Let G be a connected graph and (Γ; ◦) a group. For each edge e ∈ E(G), e = uv, an orientation
on e is an orientation on e from u to v, denoted by e = (u, v) , called plus orientation and its
minus orientation, from v to u, denoted by e−1 = (v, u). For a given graph G with plus and
minus orientation on its edges, a voltage assignment on G is a mapping α from the plus-edges
of G into a group Γ satisfying α(e−1 ) = α−1 (e), e ∈ E(G). These elements α(e), e ∈ E(G) are
called voltages, and (G, α) a voltage graph over the group (Γ; ◦).
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 15

For a voltage graph (G, α), its lifting (See [6], [9] for details) Gα = (V (Gα ), E(Gα ); I(Gα ))
is defined by

V (Gα ) = V (G) × Γ, (u, a) ∈ V (G) × Γ abbreviated to ua ;

E(Gα ) = {(ua , va◦b )|e+ = (u, v) ∈ E(G), α(e+ ) = b}.

For example, let G = K3 and Γ = Z2 . Then the voltage graph (K3 , α) with α : K3 → Z2
and its lifting are shown in Fig.4.3.

u0
u
u1
0 1
w0
v0
w v w1 v1
0
(G, α) Gα

Fig.4.3

Similarly, let GL be a connected vertex-edge labeled graph with θL : V (G) ∪ E(G) → L of

a label set and Γ a finite group. A voltage labeled graph on a vertex-edge labeled graph GL is
a 2-tuple (GL ; α) with a voltage assignments α : E(GL ) → Γ such that

α(u, v) = α−1 (v, u), ∀(u, v) ∈ E(GL ).

Similar to voltage graphs, the importance of voltage labeled graphs lies in their labeled
lifting GLα defined by

V (GLα ) = V (GL ) × Γ, (u, g) ∈ V (GL ) × Γ abbreviated to ug ;

E(GL L
α ) = { (ug , vg◦h ) | for ∀(u, v) ∈ E(G ) with α(u, v) = h }

with labels ΘL : GLα → L following:

ΘL (ug ) = θL (u), and ΘL (ug , vg◦h ) = θL (u, v)

for u, v ∈ V (GL ), (u, v) ∈ E(GL ) with α(u, v) = h and g, h ∈ Γ.

For a voltage labeled graph (GL , α) with its lifting GL
α , a natural projection π : G
Lα
→ GL
is defined by π(ug ) = u and π(ug , vg◦h ) = (u, v) for ∀u, v ∈ V (GL ) and (u, v) ∈ E(GL ) with
α(u, v) = h. Whence, (GLα , π) is a covering space of the labeled graph GL . In this covering,
we can find

π −1 (u) = { ug | ∀g ∈ Γ}

for a vertex u ∈ V (GL ) and

π −1 (u, v) = { (ug , vg◦h ) | ∀g ∈ Γ }

16 Linfan Mao

for an edge (u, v) ∈ E(GL ) with α(u, v) = h. Such sets π −1 (u), π −1 (u,v) are called fibres
over the vertex u ∈ V (GL ) or edge (u, v) ∈ E(GL ), denoted by fibu or fib(u,v) , respectively.
A voltage labeled graph with its labeled lifting are shown in Fig.4.4, in where, GL = C3L and
Γ = Z2 .
3
3
2 3 1
2 1 1
4 2 2 5
4 2 5 4 2 5
L
(G , α) GLα

Fig.4.4

A mapping g : GL → GL is acting on a labeled graph GL with a labeling θL : GL → L if

gθL (x) = θL g(x) for ∀x ∈ V (GL ) ∪ E(GL ), and a group Γ is acting on a labeled graph GL if
each g ∈ Γ is acting on GL . Clearly, if Γ is acting on a labeled graph GL , then Γ ≤ AutG.
Now let A be a group of automorphisms of GL . A voltage labeled graph (GL , α) is called
locally A-invariant at a vertex u ∈ V (GL ) if for ∀f ∈ A and W ∈ π1 (GL , u), we have

α(W ) = identity ⇒ α(f (W )) = identity

and locally f -invariant for an automorphism f ∈ AutGL if it is locally invariant with respect to
the group hf i in AutGL . Then we know a criterion for lifting automorphisms of voltage labeled
graphs.

Theorem 4.1 Let (GL , α) be a voltage labeled graph with α : E(GL ) → Γ and f ∈ AutGL .
Then f lifts to an automorphism of GLα if and only if (GL , α) is locally f -invariant.

4.2 Combinatorial Principal Fiber Bundles

For construction principal fiber bundles on smoothly combinatorial manifolds, we need to in-
troduce the conception of Lie multi-group. A Lie multi-group LG is a smoothly combinato-
f endowed with a multi-group (Af(LG ); O(LG )), where Af(LG ) = S Hi and
m
rial manifold M
i=1
S
m
O(LG ) = {◦i } such that
i=1

(i) (Hi ; ◦i ) is a group for each integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m;

f] = G;
(ii) GL [M
(iii) the mapping (a, b) → a ◦i b−1 is C ∞ -differentiable for any integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m and
∀a, b ∈ Hi .
Notice that if m = 1, then a Lie multi-group LG is nothing but just the Lie group ([24])
in classical differential geometry.
Now let Pe , M f be a differentiably combinatorial manifolds and LG a Lie multi-group
(Af(LG ); O(LG )) with
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 17

m
[ s
[ m
[ m
[
Pe = f=
Pi , M Mi , Af(LG ) = H◦i , O(LG ) = {◦i }.
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

f with group LG consists of a differentiably

Then a differentiable principal fiber bundle over M
combinatorial manifold P , an action of LG on P , denoted by Pe (M
e e f, LG ) satisfying following
conditions PFB1-PFB3:

PFB1. For any integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, H◦i acts differentiably on Pi to the right without
fixed point, i.e.,

(x, g) ∈ Pi × H◦i → x ◦i g ∈ Pi and x ◦i g = x implies that g = 1◦i ;

PFB2. For any integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, M◦i is the quotient space of a covering manifold
P ∈ Π−1 (M◦i ) by the equivalence relation R induced by H◦i :

Ri = {(x, y) ∈ P◦i × P◦i |∃g ∈ H◦i ⇒ x ◦i g = y},

written by M◦i = P◦i /H◦i , i.e., an orbit space of P◦i under the action of H◦i . These is a
canonical projection Π : Pe → M f such that Πi = Π|P◦ : P◦i → M◦i is differentiable and each
i
−1
fiber Πi (x) = {p ◦i g|g ∈ H◦i , Πi (p) = x} is a closed submanifold of P◦i and coincides with an
equivalence class of Ri ;
PFB3. For any integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, P ∈ Π−1 (M◦i ) is locally trivial over M◦i , i.e., any
x ∈ M◦i has a neighborhood Ux and a diffeomorphism T : Π−1 (Ux ) → Ux × LG with

T |Π−1 (Ux ) = Tix : Π−1 x

i (Ux ) → Ux × H◦i ; x → Ti (x) = (Πi (x), ǫ(x)),
i

called a local trivialization (abbreviated to LT) such that ǫ(x ◦i g) = ǫ(x) ◦i g for ∀g ∈ H◦i ,
ǫ(x) ∈ H◦i .
Certainly, if m = 1, then Pe(M
f, LG ) = P (M, H ) is just the common principal fiber bundle
over a manifold M .

4.3 Construction by Voltage Assignment

f.
Now we show how to construct principal fiber bundles over a combinatorial manifold M

Construction 4.1 For a family of principal fiber bundles over manifolds M1 , M2 , · · · , Ml ,

such as those shown in Fig.4.5,

H◦1 H◦2 H◦l

? ? ?
PM1 PM2 PMl

ΠM1 ΠM2 ΠMl

? ? ?
M1 M2 Ml

Fig.4.5
18 Linfan Mao

where H◦i is a Lie group acting on PMi for 1 ≤ i ≤ l satisfying conditions PFB1-PFB3, let M f
L f
be a differentiably combinatorial manifold consisting of Mi , 1 ≤ i ≤ l and (G [M ], α) a voltage
graph with a voltage assignment α : GL [Mf] → G over a finite group G, which naturally induced
a projection π : GL [Pe ] → GL [M f]. For ∀M ∈ V (GL [M f]), if π(PM ) = M , place PM on each
Lα −1 Lα f
lifting vertex M in the fiber π (M ) of G [M ], such as those shown in Fig.4.6.

PM PM PM
| {z }
π −1 (M )

?
M

Fig.4.6
f]). Then Pe = S
Let Π = πΠM π −1 for ∀M ∈ V (GL [M PM is a smoothly combinato-
f ])
M∈V (GL [M
S
rial manifold and LG = HM a Lie multi-group by definition. Such a constructed
f
M∈V (GL [M])
combinatorial fiber bundle is denoted by PeLα (M
f, LG ).

For example, let G = Z2 and GL [Mf] = C3 . A voltage assignment α : GL [M

f] → Z2 and its
induced combinatorial fiber bundle are shown in Fig.4.7.

v0 w1 PM2 PM3

u1 u0 PM1 PM1
w0 v1 PM3 PM2

?π ?Π
u
M3
1 1
w 1 v M1 M2

Fig.4.7

Then we know the existence result following.

Theorem 4.2 A combinatorial fiber bundle Peα (M f, LG ) is a principal fiber bundle if and only
f]) and (PM ′ , PM ′′ ) = (M ′ , M ′′ )Lα ∈ E(GL [Pe]), ΠM ′ |P ′ ∩P ′′ =
if for ∀(M ′ , M ′′ ) ∈ E(GL [M M M

ΠM ′′ |PM ′ ∩PM ′′ .

We assume Pe α (M
f, LG ) satisfying conditions in Theorem 4.2, i.e., it is indeed a principal
f. An automorphism of Pe α (M
fiber bundle over M f, LG ) is a diffeomorphism ω : Pe → Pe such
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 19

that ω(p ◦i g) = ω(p) ◦i g for g ∈ H◦i and

S
p∈ P , where 1 ≤ i ≤ l.
P ∈π −1 (Mi )

Theorem 4.3 Let Pe α (M

f, LG ) be a principal fiber bundle. Then

AutPeα (M
f, LG ) ≥ hLi ,

where L = { bhωi | b
h : PMi → PMi is 1PMi determined by h((Mi )g ) = (Mi )g◦i h f or h ∈
G and gi ∈ AutPMi (Mi , H◦i ), 1 ≤ i ≤ l}.

A principal fiber bundle Pe (Mf, LG ) is called to be normal if for ∀u, v ∈ Pe , there exists
an ω ∈ AutPe(Mf, LG ) such that ω(u) = v. We get the necessary and sufficient conditions of
normally principal fiber bundles Pe α (M
f, LG ) following.

Theorem 4.4 Pe α (Mf, LG ) is normal if and only if PMi (Mi , H◦i ) is normal, (H◦i ; ◦i ) = (H ; ◦)
f] is transitive by diffeomorphic automorphisms in AutGLα [M
for 1 ≤ i ≤ l and GLα [M f].

4.4 Connection on Principal Fiber Bundles over Combinatorial Manifolds

A local connection on a principal fiber bundle Pe α (M

f, LG ) is a linear mapping i Γu : Tx (M
f) →
Tu (Pe ) for an integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ l and u ∈ Πi (x) = i Fx , x ∈ Mi , enjoys with properties
−1

following:
f);
(i) (dΠi )i Γu = identity mapping on Tx (M
(ii) i Γi Rg ◦i u = d i Rg ◦i i Γu , where i Rg is the right translation on PMi ;
(iii) the mapping u → i Γu is C ∞ .
Similarly, a global connection on a principal fiber bundle Pe α (M f, LG ) is a linear mapping
f) → Tu (Pe) for a u ∈ Π−1 (x) = Fx , x ∈ M
Γu : Tx (M f with conditions following hold:
(i) (dΠ)Γu = identity mapping on Tx (M f);
(ii) ΓRg ◦u = dRg ◦ Γu for ∀g ∈ LG , ∀◦ ∈ O(LG ), where Rg is the right translation on Pe;
(iii) the mapping u → Γu is C ∞ .
Local or global connections on combinatorial principal fiber bundles are characterized by
results following.

Theorem 4.5 For an integer i, 1 ≤ i ≤ l, a local connection i Γ in Pe is an assignment

H : u → i Hu ⊂ Tu (Pe ), of a subspace i Hu of Tu (Pe ) to each u ∈ i Fx with
i

(i) Tu (Pe) = i Hu ⊕i Vu , u ∈ i Fx ;
(ii) (d i Rg ) i Hu = i Hu◦i g for ∀u ∈ i Fx and ∀g ∈ H◦i ;
(iii) i H is a C ∞ -distribution on Pe .

Theorem 4.6 A global connection Γ in Pe is an assignment H : u → Hu ⊂ Tu (Pe ), of a subspace

Hu of Tu (Pe ) to each u ∈ Fx with
(i) Tu (Pe) = Hu ⊕ Vu , u ∈ Fx ;
(ii) (dRg )Hu = Hu◦g for ∀u ∈ Fx , ∀g ∈ LG and ◦ ∈ O(LG );
(iii) H is a C ∞ -distribution on Pe.
20 Linfan Mao

Theorem 4.7 Let i Γ be a local connections on Peα (M f, LG ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ l. Then a global

connection on Pe (M
α f, LG ) exists if and only if (H◦i ; ◦i ) = (H ; ◦), i.e., LG is a group and
i f]), 1 ≤ i, j ≤ l.
Γ|Mi ∩Mj = Γ|Mi ∩Mj for (Mi , Mj ) ∈ E(GL [M
j

A curvature form of a local or global connection is a Y(H◦i , ◦i ) or Y(LG )-valued 2-form

i
Ω = (d i ω)h, or Ω = (dω)h,
where (d i ω)h(X, Y ) = d i ω(hX, hY ), (dω)h(X, Y ) = dω(hX, hY ) for X, Y ∈ X (PMi ) or
X, Y ∈ X (Pe). Notice that a 1-form ωh(X1 , X2 ) = 0 if and only if i h(X1 ) = 0 or i h(X1 2) = 0.
We generalize classical structural equations and Bianchi’s identity on principal fiber bundles
following.

Theorem 4.8(E.Cartan) Let i ω, 1 ≤ i ≤ l and ω be local or global connection forms on a

principal fiber bundle Pe α (M
f, LG ). Then

(d i ω)(X, Y ) = −[ i ω(X),i ω(Y )] + i Ω(X, Y )

and

dω(X, Y ) = −[ω(X), ω(Y )] + Ω(X, Y )

for vector fields X, Y ∈ X (PMi ) or X (Pe).

Theorem 4.9(Bianchi) Let i ω, 1 ≤ i ≤ l and ω be local or global connection forms on a

principal fiber bundle Pe α (M
f, LG ). Then

(d i Ω)h = 0, and (dΩ)h = 0.

§5. Applications

A gauge field is such a mathematical model with local or global symmetries under a group, a
finite-dimensional Lie group in most cases action on its gauge basis at an individual point in
space and time, together with a set of techniques for making physical predictions consistent
with the symmetries of the model, which is a generalization of Einstein’s principle of covariance
to that of internal field characterized by the following ([3],[23],[24]).

Gauge Invariant Principle A gauge field equation, particularly, the Lagrange density of a
gauge field is invariant under gauge transformations on this field.

We wish to find gauge fields on combinatorial manifolds, and then to characterize WORLD
f under
by combinatorics. A globally or locally combinatorial gauge field is a combinatorial field M
a gauge transformation τM f f
f : M → M independent or dependent on the field variable x. If a
f
combinatorial gauge field M is consisting of gauge fields M1 , M2 , · · · , Mm , we can easily find
f is a globally combinatorial gauge field only if each gauge field is global.
that M
 Combinatorial Field - An Introduction 21

Let Mi , 1 ≤ i ≤ m be gauge fields with a basis BMi and τi : BMi → BMi a gauge
τi S
m S
m
transformation, i.e., LMi (BM i
) = LMi (BMi ). A gauge transformation τM
f : BMi → BMi
i=1 i=1
S
m
is such a transformation on the gauge multi-basis BMi and Lagrange density LM
f with
i=1
f |Mi = τi , LM
τM f |Mi = LMi for integers 1 ≤ i ≤ m such that

m
[ m
[
τM
f(
LM BMi ) = LM
f( BMi ).
f

i=1 i=1
S
m
f],
A multi-basis BMi is a combinatorial gauge basis if for any automorphism g ∈ AutGL [M
i=1
m
[ m
[
f(
LM BMi )τM
f ◦g
= LM
f( BMi ),
i=1 i=1

where τMf ◦ g means τM

f composting with an automorphism g, a bijection on gauge multi-
S
m
basis BMi . Whence, a combinatorial field consisting of gauge fields M1 , M2 , · · · , Mm is a
i=1
combinatorial gauge field if M1α = M2α for ∀M1α , M2α ∈ Ωα , where Ωα , 1 ≤ α ≤ s are orbits
f]. Therefore, combining existent gauge fields
of M1 , M2 , · · · , Mm under the action of AutGL [M
underlying a connected graph G in space enables us to find more combinatorial gauge fields.
For example, combinatorial gravitational fields M f(t) determined by tensor equations

1
R(µν)(στ ) − g(µν)(στ ) R = −8πGE(µν)(στ )
2
in a combinatorial Riemannian manifold (M f, g, D)
e with Mf=M f(n1 , n2 , · · · , nm ).
1 2 1
Now let ω be the local connection 1-form, Ω= de ω the curvature 2-form of a local connection
e f, LG ) and Λ : M
on P α (M f → Pe, Π ◦ Λ = id f be a local cross section of Pe α (M f, LG ). Consider
M

1 X
e = Λ∗ ω=
A Aµν dxµν ,
µν

2 X
Fe = Λ∗ Ω= F(µν)(κλ) dxµν ∧ dxκλ , de Fe = 0,

called the combinatorial gauge potential and combinatorial field strength, respectively. Let
1
γ:M f → R and Λ′ : Mf → Pe , Λ′ (x) = eiγ(x) Λ(x). If A
e′ = Λ′∗ ω, then we have

1 1
ω ′ (X) = g −1 ω (X ′ )g + g −1 dg, g ∈ LG ,

for dg ∈ Tg (LG ), X = dR e g X ′ by properties of local connections on combinatorial principal

fiber bundles discussed in Section 4.4, which finally yields equations following

e + de A,
e′ = A
A e de Fe ′ = de Fe,

i.e., the gauge transformation law on field. This equation enables one to obtain the local form
of Fe as they contributions to Maxwell or Yang-Mills fields in classical gauge fields theory.
Certainly, combinatorial fields can be applied to any many-body system in natural or social
science, such as those in mechanics, cosmology, physical structure, economics,· · · , etc..
22 Linfan Mao

References

[1] R.Abraham and J.E.Marsden, Foundation of Mechanics(2nd edition), Addison-Wesley,

Reading, Mass, 1978.
[2] R.Abraham, J.E.Marsden and T.Ratiu, Manifolds, Tensors Analysis and Applications,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1983.
[3] D.Bleecker, Gauge Theory and Variational Principles, Addison-Wesley Publishing Com-
pany, Inc, 1981.
[4] M.Carmeli, Classical Fields–General Relativity and Gauge Theory, World Scientific, 2001.
[5] W.H.Chern and X.X.Li, Introduction to Riemannian Geometry (in Chinese), Peking Uni-
versity Press, 2002.
[6] J.L.Gross and T.W.Tucker, Topological Graph Theory, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
[7] H.Iseri, Smarandache Manifolds, American Research Press, Rehoboth, NM,2002.
[8] Linfan Mao, Automorphism Groups of Maps, Surfaces and Smarandache Geometries, Amer-
ican Research Press, 2005.
[9] Linfan Mao, Smarandache Multi-Space Theory, Hexis, Phoenix,American 2006.
[10] Linfan Mao, Smarandache multi-spaces with related mathematical combinatorics, in Yi
Yuan and Kang Xiaoyu ed. Research on Smarandache Problems, High American Press,
2006.
[11] Linfan Mao, Combinatorial speculation and combinatorial conjecture for mathematics,
International J.Math. Combin. Vol.1(2007), No.1, 1-19.
[12] Linfan Mao, An introduction to Smarandache multi-spaces and mathematical combina-
torics, Scientia Magna, Vol.3, No.1(2007), 54-80.
[13] Linfan Mao, Geometrical theory on combinatorial manifolds, JP J.Geometry and Topology,
Vol.7, No.1(2007),65-114.
[14] Linfan Mao, Curvature equations on combinatorial manifolds with applications to theoret-
ical physics, International J.Math.Combin., Vol.1(2008), No.1, 16-35.
[15] Linfan Mao, Combinatorially Riemannian Submanifolds, International J. Math.Combin.,
Vol. 2(2008), No.1, 23-45.
[16] Linfan Mao, Topological multi-groups and multi-fields, International J.Math. Combin.
Vol.1 (2009), 08-17.
[17] Linfan Mao, Combinatorial Geometry with applications to Field Theory, InfoQuest, USA,
2009.
[18] W.S.Massey, Algebraic topology: an introduction, Springer-Verlag, New York, etc.(1977).
[19] W.S.Massey, Singular Homology Theory, Springer-Verlag, New York, etc.(1980).
[20] Michio Kaku, Parallel Worlds, Doubleday, An imprint of Random House, 2004.
[21] E.Papantonopoulos, Braneworld cosmological models, arXiv: gr-qc/0410032.
[22] E.Papantonopoulos, Cosmology in six dimensions, arXiv: gr-qc/0601011.
[23] T.M.Wang, Concise Quantum Field Theory (in Chinese), Peking University Press, 2008.
[24] C.Von Westenholz, Differential Forms in Mathematical Physics (Revised edition), North-
Holland Publishing Company, 1981.