E04-037 - Introduction To Control and Instrumentation - US
E04-037 - Introduction To Control and Instrumentation - US
E04-037 - Introduction To Control and Instrumentation - US
Instrumentation
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Introduction to Control and Instrumentation – E04-037
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 3
Definitions 4
Instrumentation 4
Control System 4
Process Control 4
Variables 4
Control Loop 4
CONTROL LOOP DESCRIPTION, ELEMENTS, AND TYPES 5
Open Loop 5
Closed Loop 5
Comparison between Closed and Open Loops 6
Elements of a Control Loop 7
PRIMARY SENSORS 9
Instrument Characteristics 9
PRESSURE 10
Definition 10
Atmospheric Pressure 12
Gauge, Absolute and Differential Pressure 12
Other pressure units 12
Pressure Sensors 13
Pressure Instrument Calibration 14
Pressure Instruments Figures 15
Definitions 18
Temperature Sensors 19
Temperature Sensors – Length Based 19
Electrical Based Temperature Sensors 21
LEVEL 23
Level Sensors 23
Level Sensor and Transducers Figures 26
FLOW 28
Flow instruments 28
Figure 19 – Pressure tube location for DP measurementsOther Methods for
Measuring Flow Rate 30
MOTOR CONTROLS 33
Introduction 33
Motor Controllers 33
Motor Control Elements 35
Starters 36
Modern Automatic Motor Controls 39
INTRODUCTION
This course will present the following areas of control and instrumentation:
Definitions
Instrumentation:
Use of technology and devices to detect and control physical and chemical characteristics
of materials; this includes motion, light, color, acidity, etc.
Control System
A system that takes the information from instruments of a process manipulating it using
logic (algorithms) then applying the results to a process or system to change its
characteristics.
Process Control
A control system that is used in the process and chemical industries. A process control
has the characteristic of automatically regulating a process. Automatic in this context
means that the process is controlled without the need of human intervention.
Variables
Are defined as the characteristic of the process. Some variables are temperature, speed,
humidity, viscosity, density, etc. There are two basic types of variables: measured or
controlled, and manipulated.
Control Loop
Control loop is a control system architecture that will manage a process using elements
that sense, adjust, and act upon the process. We can define it as the configuration by
which the control system manipulates the control parameters.
Figure 1
Closed Loop
A closed loop defines the action of sending a signal to a modulating valve to open it half
way; the controller applies the open signal until the valve reaches the half way point. The
position of the valve is determined by an instrument that detects the position and sends
the signal back to the controller to close the loop. The loop is made from the controller to
the valve actuator to the position device to the controller. See Figure 1 for a closed loop
control.
Figure 2
Process:
The controlled system is called the process. It could be defined as a conditioned situation
that produces results which must be kept under an expected value or range of values. As
in Figure 2, the process deals directly with the product. Product in this case could be
taken as a material, fluid, or whatever is produced, manufactured, or treated.
Primary Sensor:
The primary sensor is normally an instrument that has properties to detect the physical
property desired to be measured. An example is a thermocouple which produces a change
in an electrical circuit proportional to the temperature; this signal is sent to a transducer to
be detected and interpreted.
Transducer:
The transducer is a device that translates the signal from the sensor into a processed
electric signal that can be amplified and used by the controller.
Set Point:
This is a fixed value that is contained in the controller, set by the operator or by an
intelligent algorithm or device. This value is compared to the measured value from the
transducer. The difference of this comparison is called the Error.
Controller:
The controller is normally an electrical or electronic device that has the following
functions:
• Compares the sensing signal from the transducer to the Set point (at the
summation point)
• Produces an Error signal from the comparison
• Processes the error signal:
o To convert it into an actuation signal
o To manipulate it to condition it by an algorithm, this algorithm will make
it:
proportional to the error
as a function signal that anticipate changes
as a function signal that uses history of changes to apply the
correction
as a function signal with a combination of the above features.
Other algorithms are available easily today in the controllers; an example could be the
rate-lag operator which uses a combination of PID elements.
Amplifier:
The amplifier increases the intensity of the signal until it is large enough to be able to be
used by the actuator.
Actuator:
It is an electromechanical device that takes the actuation signal and converts it into
motion following the actuation signal. This motion could be a position as in the case of a
solenoid valve, on or off, or a motion, as in the positioning of a modulating or control
valve.
It is the element upon which the actuator operates. This device is in contact with the
process itself.
An example would be a valve which closes or opens as operated by the actuator and
controls in such a way the flow of a process, liquid, or gas.
PRIMARY SENSORS
Primary sensors detect the variable to be measured. The following sensing instruments
will be presented in this portion of the course:
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Level
• Flow
Instrument Characteristics
The following table presents the most important general characteristics of instruments
and their commonly accepted definitions
Characteristics
Static Dynamic
Applicable to variables that are not changing Apply when variables are changing
Accuracy: Fidelity
Is the instrument characteristic or capability to is the capability of the instrument to correctly
present the real or actual measured variable? indicate or record a change in a measured
If applied to a control system: it is the variable?
capability of the control system to maintain the For a control system, it is the ability of the
actual measured value during the control controller to follow the changes in the input
process variable with the correct output signal
Static error: Dynamic error is the deviation of the controller
The difference between the actual or true value output from its correct value
and the measured or indicated value
Static error in a control system refers to the
deviation from the desired control value
contributed by the control system
Reproductivity Responsiveness
• The ability of the instrument to • is characteristic of the instrument to
produce identical values of the same follow variable changes
measured variable when the measured Measuring lag
value is the same under the same • is the measured inability of the
previous conditions instrument to follow a variable change?
• A displacement from the same • the measured duration of this lag is
previous value is called drift called dead time
Characteristics
Static Dynamic
Sensitivity
is the magnitude of the smallest value that an
instrument can measure?
Dead Zone
For instrumentation, it is the range where the
instrument cannot measure
For control systems, it is the area of control
where the system cannot respond
Table 2
PRESSURE
Definition
Pressure is a physical function of force and surface. The mathematical definition of
pressure is F/A where F is force and A is area.
Mathematically:
F
P =
A
To demonstrate the above concepts, we will use the case of the column of water pressure
measurement.
One of the characteristics of matter is density. It is defined by the ratio between mass and
volume that it occupies. Water density has been given the value of 1.
The relation that expresses density is:
Mass
ρ = Volume = 1 for water
For specific density, we can replace mass by weight and the equation becomes:
Weight
sd = Volume = 1 for water
weight = sd (Volume)
F Weight sd (Volume)
P = = =
A A A
But Volume = Area times height or
sd ( Ah)
P = = (sd) h, since for water sd = 1
A
P = h for water.
The pressure exerted by the water column represented in Figure 3 is the height of the
water column (A to B). For another fluid, its P is AB times the fluid specific density.
Atmospheric Pressure
The column of atmospheric air has weight. Air applies pressure everywhere on earth that
is exposed to the atmosphere. Because pressure depends on the height of column of fluid,
atmospheric pressure is smaller at higher altitudes. This property is the basis of earlier
altitude instruments. Also, water will boil using less heat at a higher altitude. Water will
boil at a lower temperature in Mexico City than in New York City.
To measure atmospheric pressure:
When the height of the column of mercury is measured, the value is 29.9 in. at sea level.
This pressure is indicated as 29.9 in of mercury.
These units are equivalent to 14.7 psi or pounds per square inch = 1 atmosphere (atm) =
101.3 kPa (kilopascals) = 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch) = 760 torr.
Pressure Sensors
Step Procedure
1 Load the measuring piston with calibrated weights
2 Add or retrieve load until the loaded measuring piston rises and appears to float
on the fluid
3 F
Calculate the pressure using the formula P =
A
4 Use the weights as the force and the area of the piston as the A
Table 4
Temperature
This section will present the basic concepts of temperature, its measurements, and
techniques. Definitions and a small section of the physics of temperature will begin the
section; later a presentation of the most commonly used temperature sensors and
transducers will be outlined including reference material for practical engineering use.
Definitions
Temperature is defined as the degree of heat or cold that an element exhibits. This
concept comes from practical evaluation of the thermal behavior of substances, most
commonly water.
A more sophisticated definition would be: the measurement of temperature is the
measurement of the average thermal energy per molecule contained in a material.
The unit used to describe the thermal energy per molecule of a certain material is the
degree of temperature. These units are arranged in a scale called the temperature scales.
An important place to calibrate a temperature scale is a point of equilibrium thermal
equilibrium in the substance. This point is seen as a temperature in which the substance
remains at an equilibrium, (ie. ice and water mixture or water an steam).
In water, there are several points of thermal equilibrium at a given pressure.
The most notable point for water is the point in which solid, liquid, and gas are at
equilibrium (triple point). This point exits at normal atmospheric pressure of one
atmosphere and it is the zero-degree point for the Celsius thermal scale.
Another point of the scale calibration could be found at the point where liquid and gas
water are at equilibrium at one atmosphere. This point was arbitrarily given the value of
100 on the Celsius scale. Then the scale was built dividing it into 100 equal divisions.
Other scales use other equilibrium points; the Fahrenheit scale uses a zero point as the
point where a mixture of salt (NaCl) and water allows the existence of liquid and solid
water to remain at equilibrium.
The relations shown below can help to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to
Celsius
5
C = (F-32)
9
9
F= C +32
5
Temperature Sensors
Temperature is measured using the fact that when exposed to temperature changes, some
materials change. Some changes are changes in physical properties and physical
dimensions.
There many types of change that are related to thermal variations such as:
• Length
• Electrical properties
• Energy
Length
Some metals change in length of as well as expand and contract when subjected to
temperature changes. These changes are used to design temperature sensors.
Electrical
Generation
When temperature changes are applied to two different materials in physical contact,
there is a migration of electrons from one of the materials to the other due to the
difference of each material’s electrochemical properties. This effect is used in
thermocouples.
Resistance
Because resistance is a thermal property of materials (discovered by Joule), it would be
expected that a change in temperature would produce a change in resistance; this is used
by RTDs.
Energy
Infrared
Infrared temperature measurement is used to measure temperature in radiating bodies and
at a distance. Such measurement could be the temperature of an oven or the temperature
of a remote hot object. The explanation of this method of temperature measurement uses
quantum mechanics starting with Plank’s radiation law.
The most commonly used sensor based on length changes is the bimetallic sensor. Its
importance is due to its practical use and price. Bimetallic sensors are used in many
electrical applications, including motor overload trip devices and temperature measuring
indicators.
A metal exposed to heat will expand or contract with heat. The length that a metal will
expand at given temperature is different for each metal.
When two strips of different metals are joined together at both ends they will bend as the
temperature is increased. One metal will expand more than the other, forcing the pair to
bend. The distortion depends on the amount of temperature surrounding the metals.
This property can be used to create a thermometer as shown in Figure 10.
The instrument shown in Figure 10 is made with a spiral wound bimetallic wire. As the
wire gets hot the wire size increases and bends due to the constraint of one metal by the
other.
Thermocouples
Generation of electricity is a phenomenon that occurs when two dissimilar metals are
joined together. Each metal has a different level of energy due to its electronic level. This
is referred sometimes as the energy well of the metal.
When two different metals are joined together with a small separation between them,
there is a thermos-ionic migration from the metal that has the smallest energy level.
This effect is called the tunnel effect and occurs for very small distances, small enough to
allow the electronic energy level of each metal superimpose each other.
A distance of 10-7 centimeters would allow this effect to happen. A detailed explanation
of this effect is beyond the intent of this course.
The previously described effect is called thermocouple effect. The increase in
temperature will increase the amount of energy in the junction and more current will flow
from one metal to the other.
RTDs are used when the following important factors are required:
• Accuracy
• Stability
• Repeatability
• Immunity to electrical noise
Additionally, the time response of RTDs is better than other similar thermal instruments
used in the same applications, such as thermocouples.
Both thermocouples and RTDs are placed in thermowells when the temperature is to be
sensed inside a tank or a pipe. See Figure 11 –Thermowell.
Figure 11 –Thermowell
LEVEL
Level Sensors
Level measurements are an essential part of modern industry. Tanks containing fluids and
solids have their levels continuously monitored to determine the amount of material, to
prevent spills or overflow, and to determine the need to add more material.
One way to classify level sensors is by how the measurement is made, either directly or
indirectly, depending on the material that is being monitored.
Direct methods are used to measure liquid levels, granular material such as grains, and
powder, or flour and salts.
Indirect methods use other physical properties to indirectly determine the level of
materials. Among these physical properties are: pressure which could vary with the
increase or decrease of material in a container, or weight inside the container.
Another way to classify these instruments is how the sensor senses the material. In this
case, the detection could be either continuous detection or a single point detection. The
continuous detection sensors detect the level as it changes. This detection method senses
the level at a certain specific point. One example would be a low-level point; another
point would be a high-level point. This type of sensor is normally a switch or switches
located to be activated as the corresponding level is reached.
The following table will present the most common level sensors.
Level sensors
Sensor Type/Description
Floats This type of sensor is a direct measurement and point detection sensor.
Traditionally it has been a floating ball connected to the controller by
means of a rod or link, the movement of the ball positions a linked
lever that actuates the corresponding switch.
More modern units use a floating cylinder containing a ferromagnetic
material. See Figure 12. This cylinder slides on a shaft that contains a
magnetic link or rod. The link or rod moves as the level varies, the
position of a cam on the other end of the link or rod actuates switches
mounted in the switching housing.
Pneumatic This type of sensor is a direct measurement as well as point detection
sensor.
Pneumatic level sensors are used in hazardous areas, such as those
classified as IE by the NEC, or where there is no electric power, and in
applications involving material such as sludge.
The mechanism of these devices is as follows:
When the level of the material changes, it compresses a column of air
which is in contact with a diaphragm. This diaphragm actuates a
switch, which is in turn is used for determining the level.
Conductivity probes This type of sensor is a direct measurement and point detection sensor.
See Figure 14.
Conductive probes use low voltages and currents. The current and
voltage in this unit is very small; due to this feature these sensors could
be classified according to the NEC as “Intrinsically Safe” since they
FLOW
Flow is the movement of a fluid in a contained path. Flow measurements are normally
classified using two features of flow: Flow rate and Total flow.
Flow rate is the amount of flow that moves past a certain point per unit time.
Total Flow is the amount of flow that passes a given point during a period.
Flow instruments
Flow instruments are designed to measure either flow rate or total flow. An instrument
that can measure a combination is also available.
Differential pressure The orifice plate is a flat piece of metal that has an orifice or hole
Primary elements: drilled or cut in it. The orifice is usually circular or concentric to
the pipe but other shapes are also used. Installation is made
Orifice Plates locating the plate between two flanges.
The orifice plate, by constraining the surface, reduces the flow,
and increases the velocity of the fluid, creating a different pressure
at the exit of the fluid than at the inlet. Thus, there is a differential
pressure across the plate.
A pressure measurement on both sides of the plate is made and the
differential pressure used to calculate the flow rate as indicated
above.
One disadvantage of the orifice plate is that it adds losses to the
flow because it restricts the flow which in turn, due to friction,
adds resistance to the fluid flow.
Table 6
Differential pressure The flow nozzle is an intermediate step between the orifice plate and
Primary elements: the Venturi Tube. It looks very like the Venturi Tube and resembles
half of a Venturi Tube.
Flow Nozzle The cost is less than a Venturi Tube but its accuracy is almost as
much as the Venturi Tube
Location of the pressure Pressure taps to measure differential pressure are located at a
taps distance from each other to be able to detect the pressure at the
normal flow and the pressure after the constriction.
As one chamber charges and discharges with the flow, this event is
counted as one count. The calculations must consider the volume
of the chamber. Each time a chamber is filled determines a volume
of fluid that has moved along the pipe. The number of times the
chamber is filled multiplied by the volume is divided by unit time
to determine the total flow.
MOTOR CONTROLS
Introduction
Motor Control is an area of control systems that pertains to the control of the most used
motion actuator in industry: the electric motor. The electrical circuit connecting motors
includes a power source and protection, and a manual starter with the overheat protection;
the latter is part of the motor control.
Today, due to the advances of motor control technology, the motor is controlled
automatically. The motor control includes a sophisticated algorithm that can make
changes of speed and direction to the motor using ramping speeds and accelerations.
Motors also have changed; the improvement in windings and copper alloys has made
possible a smaller motor which can produce the same power output as the old larger one.
These new motors are (if designed so) capable of sustaining harmonics and other non-
sinusoidal feed signals.
Motor Controllers
A motor controller consists of a group of devices that govern, regulate, and energize or
de-energize a motor.
The functions of a motor controller include:
• Starting
• Stopping
• Accelerating
• Reversing
• Protecting
• Manual
• Automatic
A manual controller is as the name indicates: one in which the motor is being controlled
by hand. Many systems still have manual controllers even if the motor is controlled
automatically. The reason behind keeping a manual control is first for safety and second
for maintenance of the motor or machine.
Most automatic controls performed today use two basically different methods:
• Relay logic
• Programmable equipment:
o Programmable Logic Devices (PLC)
o DCS equipment (computer system)
A typical manual controller diagram is shown in Figure 23 – Motor Manual Control
below:
In Figure 24 – Motor Electrical Control Connection. The power and control connections
are shown in a schematic manner. The elements of this diagram show that power is
connected to the motor via a controller. The controller will energize the motor and supply
the power waveform if the controller has the capability to change the feeding power
wave. Devices such as AC drives are designed to manipulate the incoming power wave
and convert it in a power waveform of different frequency. This new power supplied to
the motor will be able to rotate the motor at a different speed.
The following table lists and describes the basic elements of motor control:
Control Stations Operate the motor starter remotely. They also function as safety
stopping stations (E Stops).
Relays and Contactors Elements that interlock permissive conditions to the motor running or
stopping. Contactors are the large control components that allow motor
current to be supplied to the motor. Relay contacts normally activate
contactor coils.
Remote Actuators Permissive contacts that are included in the control logic that provide
the desired conditions to the motor to run or to stop. Such components
could be limit switches, level switches or other switch or contacts.
Table 8
Starters
Manual Starters
These starters supply the simplest way to start a motor. They are usually toggle switches
with an overload element connected in series with the contacts.
The motor wires are connected directly to the starter. Schematic of this connection is
shown below:
Application of manual motor starters is usually applied to small motor controls. Motors
called fractional motors are in this type of application. The term fractional refers to motor
with horsepower ratings smaller than unity. However, fractional motors also include
motors. Wound field designs include motors through 3 HP and permanent magnet
designs through 5 HP.
Automatic starters
Relay Logic
Relay logic is used to control the motor using relays and their contact arranged in a
structure called ladder programming.
A simple control using relay logic includes the starting motor coil (contactor or starter
coil) a light to indicate the motor running, motor protection (thermal element) and the
contacts from the contactor. This motor can be started either automatically by moving the
selector switch to Automatic and starting by the action of the limit switch; or by moving
the switch to selector switch to Manual. The “C” contacts in a motor control schematic
(also sometimes shown as “M” contacts) are contacts from the main contactor of the
motor circuit. These contacts allow the voltage to be applied to the motor control circuits
and to the motor.
Relay logic, three-phase motor starting circuit is presented below in Table 9 – Motor
control components. Also see Figure 27 – Basic Automatic Motor Starting and Control
Circuit.
Component Function
Stop push button Opens the circuit branch that feeds the motor operating control coil
(M), disconnecting the motor from the supply voltage
Start Push button Closes the branch that energizes the motor operating control coil
allowing the contacts to close and thus allows voltage to be applied
across the motor
Starting coil Is the motor operating control coil and acts as the primary auxiliary
control device
Auxiliary starting coil Contacts from the starting coil. One of them is the seal in contact. This
contacts contact maintains the coil energized after starting.
Three Phase circuit Power conductors that energize the motor and the control circuit
feeder
Control Transformer Transforms supply power voltage to control power voltage
Circuit protection There are two protection sets: one that is connected immediately after
the main switch and the other before the control transformer feed
The relay coils and contacts are arranged in rungs. Similar to the rungs of a ladder. This
type of arrangement is called ladder programming. In the case shown in the schematics
below, the ladder programming is made using relays; therefore, the motor control using
this technology is called relay logic.
When the programming uses an electronic device such as a computer based unit (PLC),
the ladder is made in a virtual manner. This means that the relays and contacts are logic
conditions that are established using computer logic. The final conditions to be produced
or received as permissives in the logic are interfaced with the motor or real world device
using input or output cards. The signals or conditions going or coming from the program
to the real world are called inputs and outputs. The interface with the computer is made
using hardware such as cards that contains micro relays and logic chips that can talk to
both the computer hardware and to the relays or instrumentation in the field. All these
software operations are performed using a PLC usually installed inside a cabinet of a unit
in the MCC or Motor Control Center.
The organization of these MCCs is further discussed below.
Modern Automatic Motor controls are normally placed inside a cabinet. This cabinet is a
modular unit that contains a series of starters. The starters are mounted inside a sliding
drawer called a bucket. Buckets are placed in sections. These sections are assembled in a
group that makes the Motor Control Center. One of the sections contains the mains.
Another section contains the controller or programming device, most common PLC. The
programming is made using, among other software tools, a software based ladder. The
bucket also houses lights, push buttons, and manual controls. Each individual starter is
connected to a common bus (set of copper or copper clad aluminum bars that are
connected to a main protection fused switch or breaker). The bus is located on the back of
the cabinet. Wiring is normally placed and routed inside specific protected areas in each
section. An MCC section is shown below.