Chemical Problem Soils

Salt - affected soils

The salt-affected soils occur in the arid and semiarid

regions where evapo-transpiration greatly exceeds
precipitation. The accumulated ions causing salinity or
alkalinity include sodium, potassium, magnesium,
calcium, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates. The
salt- affected soils can be primarily classified as saline
soil and sodic soil.
Saline soils
Saline soils defined as soils having a conductivity of the
saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an
exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15. Saline
soils defined as soils having a conductivity of the
saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an
exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15. The pH is
usually less than 8.5. Formerly these soils were called
white alkali soils because of surface crust of white salts.
Saline soils formation
The process by which the saline soil is formed is called
Salinization. Saline soils occur mostly in arid or semi arid
regions. In arid regions saline soils occur not only
because there is less rainfall available to leach and
transport the salts but also because of high evaporation
rates, which tend to concentrate the salts in soils and in
surface waters.
Major production constraints
Presence of salts leads to alteration of osmotic potential
of the soil solution. Consequently water intake by plants
is restricted and thereby nutrients uptake by plants are
also reduced. In this soil due to high salt levels microbial
activity is reduced. Specific ion effects on plants are also
seen due to toxicity of ions like chloride, sulphate, etc.
Management of saline soils
The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the
removal of salts from the saline soil through the
processes of leaching with water and drainage. Provision
of lateral and main drainage channels of 60 cm deep and
45 cm wide and leaching of salts could reclaim the soils.
Sub-surface drainage is an effective tool for lowering the
water table, removal of excess salts and prevention of
secondary salinisation of ions like chloride, sulphate, etc.
Irrigation Management of saline soils
The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the
removal of salts from the saline soil through the
processes of leaching with water and drainage. Provision
of lateral and main drainage channels of 60 cm deep and
45 cm wide and leaching of salts could reclaim the soils.
Sub-surface drainage is an effective tool for lowering the
water table, removal of excess salts and prevention of
secondary salinisation.
Irrigation management
Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water
with saline water and then using it for irrigation reduces
the effect of salinity. Alternate furrow irrigation favours
growth of plants rather than flooding. Drip, sprinkler and
pitcher irrigation have been found to be more efficient
than the conventional flood irrigation method since a
relatively lesser amount of water is used under these
improved methods.
Fertilizer management
Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20-25%
of recommended level will compensate for the low
availability of N in these soils. Addition of organic
manures like, FYM, compost, etc helps in reducing the ill
effect of salinity due to release of organic acids produced
during decomposition. Green manuring (Sunhemp,
Daincha, Kolingi) and or green leaf manuring also
counteracts the effects of salinity.
Crop choice / Crop management
Crops are to be chosen based on the soil salinity level.
The relative salt tolerance of different crops is as follows:
Soil / cultural management
Planting the seed in the centre of the raised bed / ridge
may affect the germination as it is the spot of greatest
salt accumulation. A better salinity control can be
achieved by using sloping beds with seeds planted on the
sloping side just above the water line. Alternate furrow
irrigation is advantageous as the salts can be displaced
beyond the single seed row. Application of straw mulch
had been found to curtail the evaporation from soil
surface resulting in the reduced salt concentration in the
root zone profile within 30 days.
Formation of Saline and
Sodic Soils
All soils contain soluble salts. The salts in the root zone
determine whether it is normal, or salt affected. The
excessive salts in the soil could adversely affect crop
growth. Salt affected soils exist mostly under arid and
semi-arid regions, in more than 100 countries. Annual
rainfall is arid and semi-arid regions are not sufficient to
leach down the salts to the deeper layers of the soil.
High evaporation can also result to the accumulation of
salts in the root zone.
Soil salinity could be due to natural causes and/or due to irrational land use and
inappropriate agricultural practices. Primary salinity can happen naturally in
soils. Salt accumulation processes could happen naturally with certain types of
topography, geomorphological and hydrogeological conditions. A high-water
table could impede drainage with only evaporation and transpiration processes
can control the ground water table. Secondary salinity could be caused by
excessive water inputs through irrigation and leaching of soils in the absence of
appropriate drainage systems which can use rapid rising of the water table.
Soil salinity is caused by various factors or combinations of factors. The main
sources of salinity are salts that are present on its parent materials,
mineralized grounds, surface water and wind-blown deposits. The presence
of saline parent materials such as rock salts and salt domes are the major
cause of natural soil salinization. Aeolian transport of salts from the sea
surface (salt spray) is another cause. Hydrogenic salt accumulation is an
important source of salts in soils within the areas of groundwater springs and
shallow groundwater tables. Biogenic salt accumulation associated with the
ability of plants to accumulate certain salts and later return these to soils as
plant litter undergoes decomposition.
The major constituents of dissolved salts in soil are the
following:
● Na+
● Ca2+
● Mg2+
● Cl-
● SO4 2-
● CO3 2-
● HCO-
Salinity can be expressed as electrical conductivity (EC) of the irrigation
water (ECw), the soil water (ECss) or the saturated soil extract (ECe).
Sodicity is measured in the soil by exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) and in the soil solution by sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Too
much sodium can cause problems related to soil structure. As sodium
increases, the risk of soil aggregate dispersion (Figure 1) increases.
Cations are flocculators. They bring negatively charge clay particles to
flocculate soil clay. Na+ is a much poorer flocculator than Ca2+ and Mg2+
because it has less charge and its ionic size in water is much larger.
Flocculation is important because water moves through large pores and
plant roots grow mainly in pore space. Dispersed clay plugs soil pores and
impeded water movement and soil drainage. Any salt that accumulates in
excessive amounts can cause toxicity and plant growth problems.
 The difference between flocculated (aggregated)
and dispersed soil structure (Choudhary & Kharche,
2018).
Classification of Salt -affected Soils
Saline soils – this contains sufficient neutral soluble salts which
adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. The soluble salts
are chiefly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate. It also contains
chlorides and sulfates of Ca2+ and Mg2+.These soils are
characterized by electrical conductivity of the saturated extract
(ECe) more than 4 dS m-1 at 25 oC and exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) less than 15 and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
less than 13. The soil pH is ordinarily less than 8.5. These soils are
usually in a flocculated state and their permeability is equal to or
higher than the normal soils. Most of these soils have salt
efflorescence or white encrustation of soluble salts at the
surface.
Classification of Salt -affected Soils
Sodic soils - These soils are also known as alkali soils which
contain sodium salts capable of causing alkaline hydrolysis,
mainly Na2CO3 (Figure 2). The sodic soils have ECe less than 4 dS
m-1 at 25oC, ESP more than 15 and SAR more than 13. Most of the
sodium is in exchangeable form. Very small amounts of free salts
are present in soil solution. The soil pH is more than 8.5. As a
result of irrigation, strongly alkaline conditions may develop in
these soils and pH values reaching or exceeding 10 are common.
When organic matter is dispersed and deposited on the surface,
sodic soils appear brown-black and are known as black alkali soils.
Barren sodic soil (Choudhary & Kharche, 2018).
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) refers to
the degree by which the exchange sites of colloids
are occupied by sodium ions. This is used in the
classification of saline and alkali soils or to
determine if a sodium hazard exists and is computed
by taking the ratio of the me of Na+ and that of the
cation exchange capacity (CEC).
The soil becomes highly dispersed with high ESP values (>15%).
High ESP is undesirable because it leads to poor aeration and
drainage or permeability to water.
Saline-sodic soils - are a specific type of soil that exhibit characteristics of
both saline soils and sodic soils. These soils have high levels of both soluble
salts, such as sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and chloride
(Cl-), and sodium ions dominating the exchange complex.

Saline-sodic soils are often found in areas where there is poor drainage, high
evaporation rates, and inadequate leaching of salts. This can occur in arid and
semi-arid regions or in areas with improper irrigation practices. The
combination of high salt content and high sodium levels can have detrimental
effects on soil structure, water movement, and plant growth.
Management of Salt Affected Soils
Management of Acid and
Nutrient Deficient Soils
Soil acidity affects crop production. Acid soils are
characterized as soils with pH<6.5 in the top layer. The
major factors that affect crop growth are associated with
acid soil infertility including the toxicity of aluminum and
manganese, low pH and deficiencies or low availability of
essential elements such as calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, boron, and molybdenum. Moreover,
strongly acid soils may arise from water stress which
results from restriction of root growth into acid
subsurface horizons.
management strategies for acid soils

1. plant acid tolerant crops

2. Acid soil management
Plant acid tolerant crops

Acid tolerant crops include tomato, cassavas,

strawberry, etc.
Acid soil management
The major problem of highly weathered acid soil is low P. To overcome
this crop limiting factor, application of lime and alternative liming
materials, inorganic and organic nutrient sources, and management of
rhizosphere activities as components of integrated nutrient management,
and genetic improvement of plants for enhanced P uptake could be used
for P management in acid soils.
Acid soil management
Acidity and aluminum toxicity can be ameliorated through liming. Liming
materials could come from ground limestone, which can be calcite
(CaCO3), dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3), or combination of the two. Lime is
usually broadcasted on the soil surface and then mixed with the soil
during tillage operations. With water, CaCO3 dissolved and hydrolysis to
form OH- that reacts with H+. However, since calcite and dolomite have
industrial uses, their application in agriculture is not economical. It has
been suggested that the recommendation of lime should be made in small
quantities to make it cost effective and for better acceptability of
resource-poor farmers.
Acid soil management
Integrated nutrient management can increase crop productivity in acid
soils. Proper application of lime, organic manure and inorganic fertilizers
could be of help. Application of inorganic P at right rate, time and place
can increase P use efficiency in crops There are numerous P solubilizing
microorganisms that could be inoculated to the soil to enhance P
availability. Evidence shows that soil application of organic manures
either alone or in combination of agricultural lime can neutralize soil
acidity. Organic manure, whether in solid or liquid form improves soil
structure, water holding capacity, microbial activity which can promote
plant growth and yield.
Acid soil management
Management for nutrient deficient soil generally includes detection of the
deficient nutrient through soil and plant tissue analyses and observation
of crop nutrient deficiency symptoms. Application of the fertilizers in
response to the deficient nutrient is generally recommended along with
the different recommended nutrient management strategies for different
crops.
Acid soil management
The most favorable pH for growing most agricultural plants is between pH
6 and pH 7 because the availability of the nutrients and activities of
beneficial microorganisms are at maximum at this range. The range of pH
in the Philippines is from pH 5.5 to ph 6.5. When the pH is too low (< 5.0,
strongly acidic), nutrients particularly Ca, Mg, K, P, Mo, N become less
available to plants. N release may also be hindered when the symbiotic
nitrogen fixation and nitrification are inhibited.
Acid soil management
Fe, Al, and Mn become more soluble to the point of toxicity. P becomes
complexed into insoluble forms with Fe and Al. P can also be precipitated
as insoluble manganese phosphate compounds when the soil is rich in
manganese oxides. Soils also become acidic when the bases are leached
out and replaced by H+ ions e.g., old soils in the humid tropics. Soil acidity
may also develop from the decomposition of organic matter due to the
formation of organic acids like fulvic acid, humic acid, and carbonic acid.
Acid soil management
When pH is too high (>8.0, strongly alkaline), the same nutrients become
unavailable. Most micronutrients (except Mo) become unavailable at high
pH. Iron deficiency commonly develops. P becomes complexed with
calcium as precipitates of calcium hydroxyapatite or calcium phosphate
dihydrate. K also competes with the now abundant Ca for plant
absorption.