0400ECT402052301

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY Eighth Semester B. Tech Degree

Supplementary Examination October 2023 (2019 Scheme)

Course Code: ECT402

Course Name: WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Max. Marks: 100 Duration:3 Hours

PART A (3 marks.)

1. Compare and contrast the analog and digital cellular systems.

Ans:

FEATURE ANALOG CELLULAR DIGITAL CELLULAR

SYSTEM SYSTEM
Signal Encoding Use continuous waveforms to Encode voice and data into binary

represent sound or data. digits (0s and 1s). These digits are
Signals are modulated to carry then transmitted as discrete pulses

voice or data information. of electricity.

Voice Quality Often suffer from noise and Digital systems typically offer better

interference, resulting in voice quality with reduced noise

poorer voice quality, and clearer transmission, as the

especially over long distances. digital signals are less susceptible to

interference.

Capacity and Efficiency This have lower capacity and It can carry more calls per unit of

are less efficient in terms of bandwidth, making them more

spectrum utilization efficient in spectrum usage.

compared to digital systems.

 Security Analog systems are generally Digital systems offer better security

less secure as they can be through encryption algorithms,

intercepted and making it harder for unauthorized

eavesdropped more easily. parties to intercept and decode

communication.
Data services Analog systems have limited Digital systems provide better

support for data services and support for data services such as
are primarily designed for text messaging, internet browsing,

voice communication. and multimedia transmission.

Battery life Analog phones generally have Digital phones may consume more

better battery life compared power due to additional processing

to digital phones. requirements, potentially leading to

shorter battery life.
Global Standardization Analog systems had multiple Digital systems, such as GSM and

standards across different CDMA, are more standardized

regions, leading to globally, enabling seamless

compatibility issues. roaming and interoperability

between networks.

2. What are the methods adopted for hand-off procedures?

Ans : Hard handoff:

• Channel in source cell is released and cahnnel in target cell is engaged

• Connection to source is broken even before connection to target is made( break before
make)
• This is perceived as an event during call by n/w engr.
• Earlier in analog system beep is heard, but in digital it is unnoticeable.
 Advantage:
• Phone h/w does not need to receive 2 or more channels in parallel
Disadvantage:
• Temporary disruption of a call
Soft handoff:
• Source channel is retained in parallel with channel in target (make before break)
• Reliability of connection is higher
• The soft handoff is perceived by network engineers as a state of the call, rather than a brief
event
• A soft handoff may involve using connections to more than two cells, e.g. connections to
three, four or more cells can be maintained by one phone at the same time. When a call is
in a state of soft handoff the signal of the best of all used channels can be utilized for the
call at a given moment or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the
signal.
• When such combining is performed both in the downlink(forward link) and the uplink(
reverse link) the handoff is termed as softer
• This advantage comes at the cost of more complex hardware in the phone,which must be
capable of processing several channels in parallel. Another price to pay for soft handoffs
is use of several channels in the network to support just a single call. This reduces the
number of remaining free channels and thus reduces the capacity of the network .

3. How does fading occur? Derive the expression for Doppler shift.

Ans: In wireless communication fading is a phenomenon in which the strength and quality of a
radio signal fluctuate over time and distance. Fading is caused by a variety of factors, including
multipath propagation, atmospheric conditions and the movement of objects in the transmission
path. Fading can have a significant impact on the performance of wireless communication systems,
particularly those that operate in high frequency band.
 4. Assume a receiver is located 10km away from a 50W transmitter. Given f = 900 MHz, Gt = 1 and
Gr= 2. Find the power at receiver and RMS voltage at receiver antenna matched with 50 Ω resistor.

Ans:
 5. How is the outage probability computed for a wireless channel?

Ans : In AWGN the probability of symbol error depends on the received SNR or, equivalently,
on γs

• In a fading environment the received signal power varies randomly over distance or time as a
result of shadowing and/or multipath fading

• Thus, in fading, γsis a random variable

• The performance metric when γs is random depends on the rate of change of the fading.

• The outage probability, Pout, defined as the probability that γs falls below a given value
corresponding to the maximum allowable Ps

The outage probability relative to γ0 is defined as

• Where γ0 typically specifies the minimum SNR required for acceptable performance

• In Rayleigh fading the outage probability becomes

• Inverting this formula shows that, for a given outage probability, the required average SNR γs is

In decibels this means that 10 log γs must exceed the target 10 log γ0 by

• in order to maintain acceptable performance more than 100 · (1− Pout

) percent of the time.

• The quantity Fd is typically called the dB fade margin.

6. Explain the significance of using cyclic prefix in an OFDM system

Ans : This hybrid technique does not require contiguous spectrum between sub-bands, and it also
allows more flexibility in spreading user signals over different-size sub- bands depending on their
requirements. The cyclic prefix (CP) plays a crucial role in mitigating the effects of multipath fading
and inter-symbol interference (ISI), thus ensuring reliable communication over wireless channels.

I. Guard Interval: The cyclic prefix is essentially a guard interval inserted at the beginning
of each OFDM symbol.
 II. Multipath Fading Mitigation: Wireless channels introduce multipath propagation, where
transmitted signals reach the receiver via multiple paths due to reflections, diffractions, and
scattering.
III. Simplified Equalization: The cyclic prefix simplifies the equalization process at the
receiver. Instead of employing complex equalization techniques to counter the effects of
multipath fading and ISI, the cyclic prefix allows for a simple and efficient frequency-
domain equalization.
IV. Robustness to Channel Variations: OFDM systems with cyclic prefix exhibit robustness
against variations in channel conditions, such as time-varying fading channels.
V. Spectral Efficiency: Despite the overhead introduced by the cyclic prefix, OFDM systems
remain spectrally efficient.

7. Differentiate between microdiversity and macrodiversity.

Ans: Micro-diversity Technique: These techniques are used in a small-scale fading environment--two
antennas are separated by a fraction of a meter.

Macro-diversity Technique: These techniques are used in a large scale fading environment-
antennas are quite far apart and not shadowed (variation in signal strength caused by obstructions
or obstacles in the propagation environment, such as buildings, trees, terrain, and other physical
objects.)

8. Compare pros and cons of linear equaliser over non-linear equaliser.

Ans:

Pros of Linear Equalizers over Non-linear Equalizers:

1. Simplicity: Linear equalizers are generally simpler to design and implement compared to their
non-linear counterparts. They often involve straightforward filtering techniques like FIR or IIR
filters, which are easier to understand and implement.

2. Stability: Linear equalizers tend to be more stable, particularly in systems with rapidly changing
channel conditions. They are less prone to convergence issues and instability compared to non-
linear equalizers, making them more reliable in certain scenarios.

3. Low Complexity: Linear equalizers typically have lower computational complexity, making
them suitable for real-time applications or environments with limited computational resources.

4. Precise Frequency Response Control: They offer precise control over the frequency response,
allowing for targeted adjustments to specific frequency bands. This makes them suitable for
applications where fine-tuning of the frequency response is critical.

Cons of Linear Equalizers compared to Non-linear Equalizers:

1. Limited Correction Capability: Linear equalizers may struggle to correct nonlinear distortions
effectively, particularly in channels with severe nonlinearities. They are not as adept at
compensating for nonlinear effects such as amplitude and phase distortion.

2. Less Effective in Highly Nonlinear Channels: In channels with significant nonlinearities, such
as high-power amplifiers, linear equalizers may not provide sufficient compensation, leading to
degraded performance.

3. Inability to Handle Nonlinear Noise: Linear equalizers are not well-suited for handling nonlinear
noise or other nonlinear channel impairments beyond basic linear distortions.
4. Potential Performance Trade-offs: While linear equalizers offer simplicity and stability, they
may sacrifice performance compared to non-linear equalizers in scenarios where nonlinear effects
dominate the channel behavior.

9. Deduce the expression for critical frequency of an ionised region in terms of its maximum
ionization density.

Ans: Critical frequency (f) The highest frequency that would be returned to earth in a wave directed
for normal incidence. Maximum usable frequency (MUF).

The highest frequency that will be returned to earth for a given angle of incidence. If the angle of
incidence to the normal is θ, the

MUF = fc / cos θ= fc sec θ .

Critical value of electronic density for reflecting the wave back to earth is

Nmax=f^2 cos^2 θ/81 .

So critical frequency can be written as

fc =9√Nmax. And MUF= 9√Nmax sec θ

where θ is the angle of incidence MUF is usually 3 to 4 times of critical frequency.

10. Explain the mechanism of wave bending in ionosphere with suitable diagram.

Ans.
Upper part of atmosphere absorbs large quantity of radiant energy from sun, producing ionization.
Ionized region consists of free electron, positive ions and negative ions.important ionizing agents
are UV, α, β rays, cosmic rays and meteors.Different parts of ionosphere are called layers.Three
principle layers during day time and are called E, F1 and F2. Beside theseregion below E, called
D region.During night the F1 and F2 layers combine and form one layer called F layer and D
region vanishes altogether.
 PART B

(14 marks)

MODULE 1

11. a) Describe the features of the GSM system architecture with the help of a neat block diagram
Ans:

1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed for communication
with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a
transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and
receiving.

2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication between user
equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.

3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider the BSC as a local
exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have BTS.

4. MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication switching
functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed
at the MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.
 ● VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the exact
location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If you are going
from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the database of VLR.

● HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent data
regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you purchase SIM card from in the
HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which plan you are taking,
which caller tune you are using etc.

● AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber that
wants to connect in the network.

● EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the record of all
allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then you can’t enter the
network, and you can’t make the calls.

● PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with MSC. PSTN
originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost entirely digital in its core
network and includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed telephones. The earlier landline
phones which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.

5.OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the performance of
each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces. Total three interfaces
are there:

1. Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and BTS is
called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.

2. Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.

3. A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.

b) How does cell splitting and sectoring improve the capacity and coverage of the cellular system.

Ans : Cell splitting :

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing congested cell in to smaller cell with their own Base
station Corresponding reduction in antenna height Corresponding reduction in transmitter power.
Splitting of cells reduces the cell size and thus more number of cells has to be used. Cell splitting
allows a system to grow by replacing large cells by small cells, without upsetting the channel
allocation. By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells and by
installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases due
to the additional number of channels per unit area. Cells are split to add channels with no new
spectrum usage Depending on traffic patterns the smaller cells may be activated/deactivated in
order to efficiently use cell resources.
In the figure shows that the original base station A has been surrounded by six new microcell base
stations.
The smaller cells were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency reuse plan of the system.

Cell splitting scales the geometry of the cluster.

Suppose the cell radius of the new cell are reduced by half , reduce R to R/2.

Transmission power reduction from to Pt1 to Pt2 .

Examining the receiving power at the new and old cell boundary.

Cell sectoring :
The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing system capacity by using
directional antennas is called sectoring. The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced
depends on the amount of sectoring used. Cell Sectoring keeps R unchanged and reduces D/R. Capacity
improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells per cluster, thus increasing frequency reuse. It
is necessary to reduce the relative interference without decreasing the transmitter power. The co-channel
interference may be decreased by replacing the single omni-directional antenna by several directional
antenna, each radiating within a specified sector. A directional antenna transmits to and receives from
only a fraction of the total number of co-channel cells. Thus co-channel interference is reduced. A cell is
normally partitioned into three 1200 sectors or six 60° sectors.

Radio transmitters called repeaters are used to provide coverage in these areas.

∙ Repeaters are bidirectional.

∙ Receive signals from the base station

∙ Amplify the signals

∙ Reradiates the signals.

∙ Received noise and interference is also reradiated.

OR
12. a) Explain the different channel assignment strategies used in cellular system.

Ans: It is a Frequency reuse scheme for increasing capacity and minimizing interference is
required.
• For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme is used.
• So that capacity is increased, interference is reduced.
• Channel assignment strategy improves the performance of the system.
• Used to manage calls when handoff is done.
• Minimize connection set-up time
• Adapt to changing load distribution Fault tolerance capability
• Low computation and communication overhead Minimize handoffs
• Maximize number of calls that can be accepted
Channel assignment strategies can be classified
1. Fixed Channel assignment
2. Dynamic Channel assignment
Fixed Channel assignment
• Channels are pre-allocated to the cells during planning phase.
• Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
• Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that
particular cell.
• If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the subscriber does not
receive service.
• Due to short term fluctuations in the traffic, FCA schemes are often not able to maintain
high quality of service and capacity attainable with static traffic demands.
• One approach to address this problem is to borrow free channels from neighboring cells.
• Variation: Borrowing Strategy : Cell allowed to borrow channels from neighboring cells
if it all of its own channels are already occupied
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC) supervises such borrowing procedures
• Ensure the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt or interfere with any of the call in
progress in the donor cell.

Dynamic Channel assignment

• No pre-allocation: In a dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not
allocated to different cells permanently.
• Each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel from the MSC.
• MSC then allocates a channel to the requested cell using an algorithm that takes into
account
• To ensure minimum quality of service, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that
frequency is not currently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within the limiting
reuse distance.
• Dynamic channel assignment reduces the likelihood of blocking increasing the capacity
of the system.
• Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the MSC to collect real-time data on
channel occupancy and traffic distribution on a continuous basis.

b) Enumerate the features of 4G wireless network

Ans:

● High usability: anytime, anywhere and with any technology.

● Support for multimedia services at low transmission cost.
● Higher bandwidth , tight network security.
● Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps
 ● Enhanced security and mobility
● Reduced latency for mission-critical applications
● High-definition video streaming and gaming
● Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice)

Module II

13. a) Consider a wireless channel, where power falloff with distance follows the formula
Pr(d)=Pt(d0/d)^3 for d0=50m. Assume the channel has bandwidth B =50KHz and AWGN
with noise PSD N0/2 , Where N0=10-9 W/Hz. For a transmit power of 2W, find the
capacity of this channel for a receive transmit distance of 200m and 1KM? What is your
conclusion?

b) Derive the expression for the impulse response model of a multipath channel
 OR
14. a) What is the received power in dBm for a free space signal, whose transmit power is 1W and
carrier frequency is 2.4GHz. If the receiver is at a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km) from the
transmitter. What is the path loss in dB?
Ans:

b) What is inferred by the channel capacity of AWGN channel?

Ans : Consider a discrete-time AWGN channel with channel input /output relationship

y[i] = x[i] + n[i],

where

∙ x[i] is the channel input at time i,

∙ y[i] is the corresponding channel output,

∙ n[i] is a white Gaussian noise random process.

✔ Assume a channel bandwidth Band received signal power P.

✔ The received signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) – the power in x[i]divided by the power in n[i] –
is constant and given by

γ = P/N0B,

∙ where N0/2 is the power spectral density (PSD) of the noise.

✔ The capacity of this channel is given by Shannon’s well-known formula

✔ where the capacity units are bits per second (bps).

✔ Shannon’s coding theorem proves that a code exists that achieves data rates arbitrarily close to
capacity with arbitrarily small probability of bit error.
✔ The converse theorem shows that any code with rate R > C has a probability of error bounded
away from zero. The theorems are proved using the concept of mutual information between the
channel input and output.
✔ For a discrete memoryless time-invariant channel with random input x and random output y, the
channel’s mutual information is defined as

Shannon proved that channel capacity equals the mutual information of the channel maximized over all
possible input distributions:
 Shannon capacity is generally used as an upper bound on the data rates that can be achieved under real
system constraints.

✔ At the time that Shannon developed his theory of information, data rates over standard telephone
lines were on the order of 100 bps.
✔ Thus, it was believed that Shannon capacity, which predicted speeds of roughly 30 kbps over the
same telephone lines, was not a useful bound for real systems.
✔ Wireless channels typically exhibit flat or frequency-selective fading.

c) What is meant by time selective Fading?

In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration. That is, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the
transmitted signal. This causes Frequency dispersion (also called time selective fading) due to
Doppler spreading, which leads to signal distortion. In the frequency domain, signal distortion due
to fast fading increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal. Therefore, a signal undergoes fast fading if

It should be noted that when a channel is specified as a fast or slow fading channel, it does not specify
whether the channel is flat fading or frequency selective in nature. Fast fading only deals with the rate of
change of the channel due to motion. In flat fading channel, the impulse response of the flat fading
channel is a delta function (no time delay). Hence, a flat fading, fast fading channel is a channel in which
amplitude of the delta function varying faster than the rate of change of the transmitted baseband signal.
In case of a frequency selective, fast fading channel, the amplitudes, phases, and time delays of any one
of the multipath components vary faster than the rate of change of the transmitted signal. In practice,
fast fading only occurs for very low data rates.

Module III
15 a) With the help of mathematical equations show how linear convolution is converted to
circular convolution in OFDM using Cyclic prefix.

Ans:
b) Determine the average SNR per bit of BPSK modulation in Rayleigh slow fading channel in
such that 90% of the times , the average probability of bit error is less than 10^-4 .
Ans:
 OR

16. a) How can the subcarrier fading be mitigated in multicarrier modulation system?
Ans. • Multicarrier modulation is relatively narrowband, which mitigates the effect of delay spread.
• However, each sub-channel experiences flat fading, which can cause large bit error rates on some
of the sub-channels.
• The received signal-to-noise power ratio is

Where
- BN is the bandwidth of each sub-channel
- transmit power on subcarrier i is Pi
- fading on that subcarrier is αi
• If αi is small then the received SNR on the ith sub-channel is low, which can lead to a high BER
on that sub-channel
• In wireless channels αi will vary over time according to a given fading distribution, resulting in
performance degradation
• It is important to compensate for flat fading in the sub-channels

b) Explain the techniques employed to reduce PAPR in OFDM .

Ans: There are a number of ways to reduce or tolerate the PAR of OFDM signals
– clipping the OFDM signal above some threshold
– peak cancellation with a complementary signal
– allowing nonlinear distortion from the power amplifier (and correction for it)
– special coding techniques

Module IV

17. a) Describe the working principle of a Zero Forcing Equaliser with the help of a neat diagram.
Ans :
b) Derive the expression for received SNR of transmitter diversity with 2 X 2 Alamouti scheme Ans:
18. a)Describe the steps to compute tap weights iteratively in LMS algorithm?
b)Compare and contrast any three types of multiple access methods adopted in wireless
communication system.
Ans:
 Module V

19 a)A television transmitter antenna mounted at a height of 200 meters and the receiving antenna
has a height of 20 meters. What is the maximum spacing between the transmitter and receiver
through tropospheric propagation? Also compute the radio horizon in this case.
Ans:
b)Derive expression for critical frequency, maximum usable frequency and skip distance (assume
flat earth’s surface) for skywave propagation.
Ans:
20 a)List out the features of the various modes of radio wave propagation.
Ans:
1. Ground Wave Propagation:
- Occurs at lower frequencies (typically up to 2 MHz).
- Follows the curvature of the Earth.
- Ideal for short-range communication, typically up to a few hundred kilometers.
- Affected by terrain, conductivity of the ground, and the Earth's curvature.

2. Sky Wave Propagation (Ionospheric Propagation):

 - Utilizes the ionosphere to reflect radio waves back to Earth.
- Effective for medium and long-range communication, up to thousands of kilometers.
- Frequencies typically range from 3 MHz to 30 MHz (HF band).
- Affected by ionospheric conditions, such as solar activity and time of day.
- Subject to fading and interference due to changes in the ionosphere.

3. Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation:

- Requires a direct unobstructed path between transmitter and receiver.
- Used for short-range communication (typically up to 40-50 kilometers).
- Frequencies range from VHF (Very High Frequency) to microwave bands.
- Suitable for microwave links and terrestrial television broadcasting.

4. Tropospheric Scatter Propagation:

- Utilizes scattering of radio waves by irregularities in the troposphere.
- Effective for long-range communication, typically up to 800 kilometers.
- Frequencies range from UHF (Ultra High Frequency) to microwave bands.
- Less affected by terrain compared to LOS propagation but still requires clear paths.

5. Space Wave Propagation:

- Involves direct propagation of radio waves between transmitter and receiver without reflection.
- Used for communication with satellites in orbit around the Earth.
- Frequencies range from UHF to microwave bands.
- Signal quality depends on the satellite's position, antenna gain, and atmospheric conditions.

b)What is the critical frequency for reflection at vertical incidence if the maximum value of electron density
is 1.24x 108 electrons/cc?
Ans: