related data and a set o 5 ion of inte! tem is a collection 0! A database management system ection of data, usually referred to ag the a - se infemetion srovant to an enterprise. The primary sel of ‘utes mnanagement system is to provide a way to store and retrieve databas. i i i venient and efficient. aaa eens e designed to manage large bodies G information os of data involves both defining structures ie eae o, information and providing mechanisms for the manipulation of information. The database system mug ensure the safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at | unauthorized access. If data are to be shared among several users, the system mut avoid possible anomalous results. Information is so important in most organization, computer scientists have developed a large body of concepts and techniques for managing data. _PURPOSE OF DATABASE SYSTEMS Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications: 1. Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking transactions. 2 3. Universities: For student information, and grades. Course registration, course registrations, 4 Credit card transactions: F, : For ; . monthly statements, Purchases on credit cards and generation of Telecommunication; B mono ee For keeping Tecords of calls made, generatin g monthly bills Ces Prepaid calling ¢ eon communication networks, ards, and storing information about tbe 6. Finance: For storing information about holdin, nds. © sales, and purchases of financis! instruments such as stocks and boSales: For customer, product and purchase informati rmation. Manufacturing: For management t of suppl; i p B items in factories, inventories of ite, ply chain and for tracking production of ‘ms in warehouses/stores, and orders for items. Human resources: For information al benefits, and for generation of paych bout employees, salaries, payroll taxes and ecks. Data are facts, set of symbols to represent objects, events, activities and quantities. he word ‘data’ is the plural of the word ‘datum’, which means fact. Therefore, data ans any collection of facts. Data can be considered as the raw material of formation. The data may be numerical such as sales report, inventory figures etc., or on-numerical like customer’s names, addresses etc. Data can be classified as: + Fact — e:g., price of a printer. + Event — e.g., arrival of new stock, or a patient has reported to the doctor's receptionist. Transaction — e.g., making a booking. Data arranged in certain order and form which is useful to the recipient is called ormation. Davis & Olson define a fairly good definition as, “data that have been ocessed into a form, that is meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived lue in current or prospective actions or decisions”. For example: The weight of students are 60, 70, 57, 41, 36, 44, 53... > What is average weight? * The average weight is 51.57. The answer 51,57 is meaningful data for recipient, which represent asL Data Storage | Data Vs. Information Data Raw facts and figures Unstructured Unprocessed data What exists? Raw Data data A Processing The word data and information is not same thing. The interchangeably have some clear distinction, which ig 'Y are often used as | following: 1. Data is raw materials whereas information is finisheq aoe 2. Data always refers to facts, though information is Process, ‘ facts. ed data, it never refers to Though information generates from data, all data do not me j B Data are independent of users whereas information is use, information. : _ * dependent Data are unstructured but information is structured. * NP 7 Pw Data are meaningless but information must be meaningfu) Data are the result of the routine recording of e A an vents automatically. Generation of information is user drive Whi a Which . a activities automatic.re of Information The information has some features or attributes that give more value to nformation processing system and make it more useful. The most important features e following: Information adds to a representation. | It corrects or confirms previous information. i) It has surprise element or news value. ,) It reduces uncertainty. ) It has value in decision-making. ") It is reusable. Quality of Information quality of information should be - ) Brief: Vital facts in summary form without lots of extraneous detail. Exception reports list items on which there needs to be action. Accurate: Inaccurate data leads to poor decisions. Some decisions may be based _ on probability. i) Up-to-date information is essential if a customer needs to know, if a particular item is in stock. Argos stores have small keypads in which a customer keys in a numerical stock code to interrogate the database to check if the item is available. )) Timely: Reports should be with the right person at the right time. Right level of detail: Often it is better to report only items that need action. Too much detail might make it hard to make sense. However too little detail can lead to simplistic response. H) In an appropriate format, large tables of figures are meaningless. - Information plays a very important role in management. It help in management in decision-making, and in building models, backgrounds and motivation. In a 8s organization, the value of information is affected due to various factors like Pleteness, timeliness, correctness, consistency, appropriateness, validity, usability, ‘ance and accessibility. Information can be justified or can be considered to havei i iring it. I " high value if its expected value is more than the costs of acquiring it. Information hig a value when it has: @) Surprise: The information tells me something I didn’t know. Gi) Change in decision: I actually decide something differently because of thig bey information. (ii) Payoff: The change results in an increased payoff. Example-1: Value of developing a market research information system: () Suppose the information it produces changes our view of the market. Suppose it tells us that the probability of Rs. 50 million sales for a Rs. 3 million newspaper advertising campaign. ii) Altered Decisions: Suppose this causes us to use TV instead of newspaper advertising increase in profit? Example-2: Value of determining the best sales price: @) Surprises: Tells us to sell our product at a lower price, increase demand by 25%. @) Altered Decisions: We would produce more, but our factory is at full capacity, and 25% increase in sales won't justify building a new factory. Gii) Since capacity is low, the new information doesn’t matter. Example-3: Value of. purchasing a shipping (delivery) information system: | @ Surprises: Tells us which shipper to use for a given customer address ant | priority. Gi) Altered Decisions: We used to always use one shipper. ii) Increase profits, or just pass these savings on to the customer? | 1. Information helps in management control: Information helps in ensurité Proper management control. There are three types of control that exist in ” organization. These are preliminary controls, screening controls and post actio® control. Preliminary controls ensure that the information is collected. Sereeni# control ensures that the information is put to use in the right way. Post acti” control ensures that the gathered information reaches the right audience.Information helps-in decision-making: The process of decision-making is marked by a great deal of uncertainty and risk. Decisions in organizations are usually taken based on past experience and their outcome. Decision-making under certainty assumes perfect information as outcomes; risk assumes information as to the probability of each outcome. The person taking decision has to have good knowledge about various aspects and alternatives available. He should also have good knowledge about likely outcome in each of those alternatives. All these are possible only when the decision maker has the right information available. In decision theory, the value of information is the value of the change in decision behavior caused by the information less the cost of obtaining the information. Information helps in building background, models and motivation: Information helps in building up knowledge within the organization so that decisions can be taken internally without external experts having to be employed. An organization’s business model is also decided on the basis of the flow of information in the organization. Such models enable learning and build expertise within the organization. Information also acts as a motivational factor as the employees feel good and get motivated if they receive information about their work being appreciated by their superiors. Such information is vital as it affects the performance of the individual employee as well as the overall productivity of the organization. of Good Information ’ Detail: The amount of detail must be sufficient to convey the information required but it must not be allowed to become excessive so that the meaning is obscured. Most people just want to be aware of the summary, although that does need to be based on relevant detail. need to know the work assignment for each of the workers that he is responsible for. The managing director needs to know the productivity of each department. ) Confidence: To be credible, the information must be accurate, up to date and complete. It must be from a reliable source and be able to be evidenced. Without this, the user would not be truly confident in its worth and would be reluctant to act on it. Sometimes, however, correct information does come from unreliable sources, but the lack of credibility may lead to its being ignored.———_=_—_-- © (iv) Format: Large blocks of text with tables of figures do not make compelling reading and even worse presentations. (v) Style: The way in which the information is presented is important. Too often y le look for the entertainment value in a presentation and ae E the risk that it be “dumped down” This can lead to the information losing its impact and it can being less authoritative informally may not have the same impact as a repor, | (vi) Manner: A report circulated ig. However circulating a report before a meeting may | presented at a formal meeting well lead to more informed and productive discussion. (vii) Timing: If information is to be effective it must be presented at the right time, |: must be available at a time when the knowledge gained from the information can be used to influence the decisions to be made. (viii) Channet: Information has to be sent using the proper procedures, so that, it can be checked where necessary. (ix) Destination: For information to be of use, it must reach the right person. This will | be the person who has the power needed to make decisions based on the information. (x) Understandable: Finally the information must be understandable. If all the above factors are present but the information itself is not understandable - perhaps because of the use of jargon, or bad . . grammar, then it will ; or axes missed off graph: Information provided to management must be the particular manager's job, relevant. It should not only relate but also its level of detail should be appropri” inte Br that contains too little or too much detail will his! | decision making process. In the early days of computers they were used [| septation rm where “ aa pe was important. Now-a-di!*External lo Top Source of Management infgrmatio: Structured Middle information Management Operational Internal Management high Information can be: At the operational level, for example, the day-to-day running of a business, such as payroll and invoicing. For middle management, tactical information is needed for effective management. Examples include how well a product is selling, and whether a special promotion is needed. At the top level, senior managers need strategic information, such as new businesses opening up, employment patterns outside the company. These can build computer models on the information as well as historical company data to assess how well the company would perform if key strategic decisions were made. Internal Information: The information gathered from within the organization is internal information. From within the organisation — possibly from data Processing. ii) External Information: The information gathered from external agencies and external sources to the organization is external information. Possibly purchased or found in the public domainY ted from original data. has been output by processing othe, times, because it has been Processes (iii) Primary Information: Information ation: Secondary data t reliable as some! ot up to date. (iv) Secondary Inform: data. Secondary data is no} from primary data that is n can be classified into quantitative informatio, Based on nature, information ; : mation and informal information. qualitative information, formal infor: antitative information refers to information lik, ich is quantitative in nature. This information reted in light of persona] ji) Quantitative Information: Qui numbers, statistics, scores etc., W! ctual unbiased data. It is not biased or interp: provides fa le and can be measured. opinions or experiences as it is quantifiabl (ii) Qualitative Information: Qualitative information refers to information which is gathered through personal and direct methods like personal interview, observation, case studies etc. Qualitative information is used for understanding the perceptions and interpretations of individuals and situations. (iti) Formal Information: Formal information refers to the information which is presented in a structured format. Compared to informal information, formal information should be the roughly verified and checked for accuracy and reliability. (iv) Informal Ii ion: i i i Info rman information; tnformal information is presented in unstructured i ore cai i ne : suey presented and also is less reliable than forma formation. For example, informal information in ization i a an organization is usually shared among employees through word of mouth, what i as “grapevine”. , what usually is called Tame (i) Strategic Information: Strategic information pertains mostly to th nnisatio” e orga as a whole and its environments, su i , such as informatio: nm about i ess natural resources, new technologies, new products. anmaaelll (ii) Tactical Information: Tactical information i : ion is required for short-term plannité by middle level managers, sales analyses and forecasts, cash {1 , P etc are examples of tactical information. , low projection®I . ional Infori ion: ; (i) Operat a nee enon: Operational information relates to very short period that may a few ours to a few weeks, It may be about current stock levels of inventory, 0 ig orders from customers, work schedule for next shift etc. on application/Use Based on application, information can be divided into planning information, control information and knowledge information. , a) Planning Information: Specific rules, norms, standards and specifications that need to be adhered to while planning any activity. Hence, such information is called the planning information. The time standards, operational standards, the design standards are the examples of planning information. (ii) Control Information: The information that is used to put in place a feedback mechanism is called control information. Such information is used to compare the actual with the predetermined standards and to take corrective action wherever there are deviations. (iii) Knowledge Information: This is the information collected through library reports and research studies. Such information is collected for building a knowledge base and may not directly influence decision-making. Based on structure/Type Based on structure, information can be classified into detailed information, summarized information, sampled information and aggregated information. () Detailed Information: Detailed information contains very specific details about a Particular object, person, place, company or an issue. For example, information Tegarding the performance of a company over the years would provide detailed information about the company. However, using this information, one cannot make assumptions or arrive at conclusions about other companies. Thus, this type ; of information provides all the information about a particular aspect. 7 Summarized Information: Summarized information comprises an outline of the tal information, It is a summary of several items. Such information bearagha nn for drawing conclusions about a single entity in the group. For com =a 500 ‘ge amount of pocket money received by a teenager a Bangalore acca Per month. However, there will be many teenagers in the city Wh————— money than just Rs. 500 and at the same time there woulg be much higher pocket many who don’t get the pocket money at all. rmation: Sampled information is a type of information which j items that are randomly selected. For example. distributing it to a set of selected customer bas, t is called sampled information, The dis a true representation of the ent, (iii) Sampled Info obtained by examining a set of product is tested in the market by The information obtained from such a tes! information assumes that the sample selecte population under consideration. (iv) Aggregated Information: Aggregated information comprises cua single Dit of snformation about all the entities in a group. This information 1 very detailed in nature and is gathered from various data sources. Aggregated information jy different from detailed information. Detailed information provides the details about a single entity in the group while aggregated information provides details about all the entities in the group. For example, an industry report on the textile industry would include the performance and contribution of the industry to the economy, the various players in the industry, their individual performance ani respective contribution to the industry, etc. This is an aggregated information as one can find information about the entire textile industry as a whole as well as the detailed information about individual players in the industry. (i) Historical Information: Information based on data collected over some period in the past e.g., sales figures for the past year. Whether or not information * historical depends on how quickly the underlying data is changing. (ii) Current Information: Based on the latest data. (iii) Future Information: Information based on predicted or possibly known fut’ data values. Predicted data values could be based on current data modified bv historical data. Sometimes predictions are little more than guesses and must be viewed with a great deal of care. Based on Frequency (i) Real Time Information: Real time information will be based on current data it! transaction processing application such as a supermarket, The information © be changed as the underlying data is updated. For example, at the start of the >_ there may be 42 bottles of a particular red wine in stock. Immediately a bottle is sold, the stock level is changed to one less. ji) Periodic Information: How often the information is put together — e.g., annual report, quarterly sales report. The longer the period, the more likely it is that the jnformation will be strategic rather than operational. d on Form ‘The form that information is presented in will often be decided by the mechanism Written Information: Information is typed onto a piece of paper, a hard copy. It - ig low tech, but really quite reliable. The paperless office has been long promised put never delivered. ii) Visual Information: Presentation of sales trends in the form of a chart, or line ii Aural Information: At its simplest, this means listening to a senior person in the _ organisation droning on. You will find out that it’s not just teachers who drone on. gotten almost as soon as it’s received. Some Aural presentation is often fort organisations record presentations onto tape so that people can listen to the tape while driving into work. Often when a new ‘product is released, people in the vy) Sensory Information: _ organisation want to see it, touch it, and feel it for themselves. Communication is often at its most effective if all the senses are involved. Information can be classified into vertical and horizontal based on its flow within n organisation. Vertical Information: Information flowing up or down the organisation hierarchy is called vertical information. ) Horizontal Information: The information which is flowing opposite of vertical information is called horizontal information.Other — (i) Action and No-action Information: Action information refers to informas,, that induces some action while information that does not induce any 2eting called no-action information. For example, ‘no stock’ report calls for Purchagi action while the stock ledge showing the store transactions and the stock Dalene, is no-action information. (ii) Recurring and Non-recurring Information: The information that i at frequent intervals of time is recurring information e.g. monthly sg; while the information that is generated once at the end of any p; S Batherey ales re articular tine Study it may ] period is non-recurring information, for example, the market research conducted by the company would constitute non-recurring information as be conducted periodically. Databases could fall into three major categories — * Flat files * Relational database * Object oriented databaseobject Oriented databases entered the IT market, however they did not gain too much ppularity since they were unable to beat the data integrity provided by relational Front-end applications are another component of Information Technology. Storing he data and displaying it on the screen in a customized format are two different areas. The data is stored in databases. Employees of one department may want to use part of hat data and perform some calculations on it, while employees of some other epartment may want to use some other data stored in the same database. Each epartment of the company, for example, would develop its own front-end applications o-display data on the screen, to perform some calculation on it and then store the new alculated data back to the database, to run some reports on the data. Therefore, we mderstand that each person or group of people can use different front-end applications p display the data of their interest form the database and to perform some calculations it. Different users could connect to one database using the same or different front- nd application. Front-end applications could be developed using tools or pure nguages. Examples of front-end tools are Developer/2000, Visual Basic, Jdeveloepr, builder. Examples of pure languages are C and Java. Developer/2000, Visual Basic, developer, Jbuilder. Some companies sell pre-built applications for specific operations with some room or customization. For example, Oracle Financial and SAP are two famous Enterprise esource Planning (ERP) applications which an organization may install and mplement in order to perform its accounting tasks on a big scale, rather than eveloping its own accounting application. Another example of pre-built applications is Retek, which is used by retail stores. oth Retek and Oracle Financial are built using Developer/2000, while SAP is written nC. Front-end applications can be written for the web, enabled front-end applications. t ork ; Database is installed on a powerful because many people access it simultaneously. his computer is called a Server. In order to access the database you do not necessarily 've to use the Server computer where the database is installed. You can access thedatabase through any computer where your front-end application is rene The front-end application will then connect to the Server computer to access , . taba through a network. Therefore, networking in another ae edmstin Technology. Networking technology consists ce both sotiwa ~ 8. Novey networking, CISCO and NTO networking are big names in this field. Operating System ; . All the software including database and front-end applications are installed On an operating system. Therefore managing an operating system is also an important task for a company. Operating systems form another important component of Information Technology. Usually databases are installed on a secure operating system like Unix, while front-end applications are installed on an easy-to-use operating system like Unix, while front-end applications are installed on an easy-to-use operating system like Windows which can provide Graphics User Interface (GUI). Linux is another operating system which is immensely popular nowadays. It is a secure system like Unix and provides Graphics User Interface like Windows and most of all it is free. There are two types of database on the basic of their functionality and their location. They are Centralized database and Distributed Database. Database Centralized database [ Distributed database Centralized database work on a client-server basis, They are located on # operations.Client 1 Database Client 4 Client 3 Centralized Database Distributed Database Pistributed Database Distributed database is dispersed across many geographical locations. Data communication is harder they should communicate through different system to different platforms. Security is a very much crucial part because it can be tapped or hacked in between the transmission. Files are maintained on the basis of names rather than location because ‘location independence’ is one of the major characteristics of distributed database system. It is much suitable for such types of organizations, which spread all over with similar objective and similar data sets, large operation and heterogeneous systems. Every database system logically organizes data with respect to some model called ‘Data Model”. A data model describes how various pieces of data in the database are “cally related to each other. The data model represents the relationship between the i ”. The(i) Hierarchical Database Model that resembles a t; In this model, files are arranged in a top-down aoa ales sated ieee | is called the root, the bot ; , alogy chart. The top file is cal ce we — files have one parent or owner file and one or pee ch fi Rae oldest of the database architectures, many hierarchic: exist iy ong the ary nizations, This technology is best applied when the conceptual data m, larger orga 7 | mbles a tree and when most data access begins a same file. Hierarchiy al wah technology is used for high-volume transaction processing and Mg latabase é ° (Management Information System) application. Mechanical Parts Ware House Electrical Parts Gear Box Engine Tanks Plugs | [ switches | [Fans For example, system. If we w: Advantages we consider the hierarchical model rey ‘ant to search records of truck en; model we must first specify the warehor reach engines, Finally we search the e Presentation of an inventory gines to find a particular year and use. Then we search mechanical parts until we ngine file, @ It is the easiest model of database. without consulting to its pare! (ii) Searching is fast and easy, Disadvantages nt. if parent is known, (iv) Very efficient in handing ‘one-to-ma: ny’ relationship, @ It is old fashioned, outdated database model, (i) Modification and addition of child very hard. So, it is non-flexible database without consulting the parent is impossible ” model. ;;) Can't handle ‘many-to-many’ relationshi Ip. y) Increases redundancy becaus. i ‘e same data is to be written in different places. eleting a parent from tl ») D m the database deletes all the children. Network Database Model In this model, each file may be associated with an arbi | though very flexible as any relationship can be | ene | plementation, usually using pointers between related vee mie in ie an tee reates significant overhead in storage apace and ————— erent es Network model systems are still popular on powerful mainframes and for high. Jume transaction processing applications. Since the database designer has such tailed control over data organizations, it is possible to design highly optimized tabase with network systems. Order Entry Dealer Records Records N Inventary “4 4 Records NN Part Description / Records \ Suppliers Records Network. systems support a wider variety of processing requirements than do till require significant ‘eters. tarchical database systems, but network systems §' hanming and database design knowledge and time, and hence are ee y ‘ose organizations with significant expertise with such technology. 5 . or example, Let us consider a network data model for an invento! pecified subassembly on an uy ene order clerk wants to know the part list for a 8) ieee ill Loe, te request a query of the inventory maste! r émably ; the sub assembly description in the sub ¥ is located the parts list can be located. Se ry system. assembly records.Advantages () More flexible than hierarchical because accepts many~ ta shouldn’t ii because da‘ Gi) Reduces redundancy beca' aan nare ta needed. For such case, a parent can real parent. Gii) Searching i Disadvantages G) Very complex type of dat (i) Needs long programs to handle (ii) Pointers needed in the database model increase: (iv) Less security in comparison to hierarchical model, because 1 (iii) Relational Model This is a popular model in DBMS because of the simplicity and understandable nature. The relational model evolved by the efforts of E. F. CODD in 1971 s faster because of multidirectional p* tabase model. the relationship. 3 overhead of storage. ointers. Representation of data in this model is done using a named table. In relational data model, data are placed into tables that are logically equivalent to files, where rows represent records and columns represents fields. In this model the data elements are not pre-related at all. Data can be related dynamically by users, as an application is being developed. The relational model is the most recent of the three database structures. It was developed in an attempt to simplify the representation of relationships among data elements in large database. Database management syste? packages based on the relational model can link data elements from various tables #0 provide information to users. For example, consider the relational model representation to-many relationship, tbe repeated if same type of data ;, n one virtual parents and One it is open to all. for a student. Fae key Student Tale Rottunter | Hanes = fe (02 UHC 03007 Amit Roy BBA sana. o1eC3509 || Arai Saha vEA aa |e ee Nebed aston Bsc Computer 4,50,000- orrxcaieo |] Kets. Ba cam DomainJational model use: i i Are S a two dimensional table to represent its database. Rows presents records or tuples and columns show the attributes of entiti i alues of an attribute of relation should have distinct es of entities (Domains). The name. dvantages ‘ in advantage of relati ; () The main a’ ‘ional model is its abili .. accessing records. its ability to simplify the process of (i) Records are accessed through one of the attributes identified as the key attribute A key attribute is a unique field knowing which, it is possible for the ; access the entire record. users to Gi) Relational model allow user to easily receive information in response to adhoc request. Because all the relationships between the data elements in a relational organized database do not need to be specified when the database is created. (iv) Relational database are easier for programmer to work and maintain than the other two models. (y) Normalization of database is possible in this method. Disadvantages () Itis more complex than other models. (i) Too many rules make database non-user-friendly. The object oriented model defines a databast and their operations. Objects with the same stru and classes are organized into hierarchical or acyclic graphs. Class are specified in terme of predefined procedures called methods. A set of variables s to attributes in the E-R model. Another wt contain the data for the object is analogou! ture of object-oriented model is inheritance i.e., derived class can be made base class. Objects in an OOP (Object Oriented Programming) language exist only during Program execution. An object oriented database provides capabilities so that objects can ‘reated to exist permanently or persist, and be shared by numerous programs. istent objects permanently on secondary rograms and e in terms of objects, their properties ture and behavior belong to a classObject Oriented Databases were proposed to meet the needs of more Compley applications. The object oriented approach offers the flexibility to handle some of those requirements without being limited by the data types and query aah available jn traditional database systems. Key future of object oriented databases i ne power thy give the designer to specify both the structure of complex objects and the operation, that can be applied to these objects. DATABASE SYSTEM dea | Database system gives centralized control over the database. The database systen, is created and maintained either by a group of application programs written specification for that task or by a Database Management System (DBMS). Finally, database contains data elements describing entities and relationships among entities. The below figure outlines some of the entities and relationships in a database for an electric utility. It also shown are some of the business applications that depend on access to the data elements in the database. Some Important Properties are following: @) Database represent some aspect of Real World which is known as Mini- world or Universe of Discourse (WOD). Database reflect the changes that made in mini-world. (i) A random collection of data can be said as a database. It is a logically interrelated collection of data. (ii) Database contains only data, no information. (iv) Database is flexible and can store huge quantity of data. Extemal |< database ‘onthe: r intemet and 'ersonal online services computer or a eee ‘Network computer databases oninanets 5 Operational == Organisation End user Dain Data Me warehouse, “ Fig : Database System0 ntrolled Redundancy: Redun + cnet If versions of the same praneelen vvening he system often gives conflicting information, A unique aspect of “ates ds a : : storing data only once, which controls redundancy and —— spon performance. Ease of. Learning and Use: A major feature of a user-friendly database package is how easy it is to learn and use. Related to this point is that a database can be modified without interfering with established ways of using the data. More Information at Low Cost: Using, storing, and modifying data at low cost are important. Although hardware prices are falling, software and programming costs are on the rise. This means that programming and software enhancement should be kept simple and easy to update. Data Independence: An important database objective is changing hardware and storage procedure or adding new data without having to rewrite application programs. Accuracy and Integrity: The accuracy of a database ensures that data quality and context remain constant. Integrity controls detect data inaccuracies where they occur. Privacy and Security: For data to remain private, security measures must be ta base security means that data are taken to prevent unauthorized access. Dat protected from various forms of destruction; users must be positively identified and their actions monitored. .d that the database is designed Shared: In multi-user applications, it is expectes different users. The sharing of such that the data can be shared or accessed by data is possible only if the database is integrated. cess to a database, the system must Recovery from Failure: With multi-user a¢ f transactions. This objective also Tecover quickly after it is down with no loss o helps maintain data accuracy and integrity. tive emphasizes response time to inquiries suitable to the Performance: This objec! : This ob; , e is depends on the nature of the Use of the data. How satisfactory the response tim ‘ser-database dialogue.There are three important terms used in database which are explain below: Field: Fields contain one piece of information of entry. E.g., in an address eachentry has fields for first name, last name, address, phone number, e-maij, bina, date etc. each unique type of information is stored in its own field. Record: One full set of fields i.e. all related information about one person OF Obj is called Record. For example, for an address book all the information for first Person one record and the information for the second persons is called another record and ay on. Table: A complete collection of records is called a table. A table contains rows and columns. Each column of a table represents field and each row represents record, Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications: J. Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking transactions. 2. Airlines: For reservations and schedule information, Airlines were among the first to use databases in a geographically distributed manner terminated situated around the world accessed the central database system though phone lines and other data networks. 3. Universities: For student information, course registration, course registrations, and grades. 4. Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly statements. 5. Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills. maintaining balances prepaid calling cards, and storing information about th? communication networks. 6. Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financis! instruments such as stocks and bonds. 7. Sales: For customer, product and purchase information.Manufacturing: ao management of supply chain and for tracking production of tories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores, and orders for items. items in fac! Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and penefits, and for generation of paychecks. ances and Schemes The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is ed an Instance of database. The overall design of the database is called Scheme. f Definition Li ) ‘A database scheme is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a language ed Data Definition Language (DDL). This Language contains commands, used to eate and destroy databases and database objects. DDL statement is a set of tables hat is stored in a special file called data dictionary. DDL statements are used to define he database structure or schema. The DDL operations are as followings - CREATE - to create objects in the database ALTER - alters the structure of the database DROP - delete objects from the database TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, e records are removed COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary RENAME - rename an object including all spaces allocated for A Data Manipulation Language (DML ) is a language that enables users to access Maintain data as organized by the appropriate database systems. These commands ill be used by all database users during the routine operation of the database. The ML statements are used for managing data within schema objects. The DML tations are as followings - SELECT - retrieve data from the a databaseee oN INSERT - insert data into a table UPDATE - updates existing data within a table DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain MERGE - UPSERT operation (insert or update) CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data LOCK TABLE - control concurrency Data Control Language (DCL) ‘A Data Control Language (DCL) is a computer language and a subset of Sq, used to control access to data in a database. Examples of DCL commands include: GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command Transaction Control (TCL) statements are used to manage the changes made by DML statements. It allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions. COMMIT - save work done SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like isolation level and what rollback segment to use. In a database environment, the primary resource is the database itself and secondary resource is the DBMS and its related software. In an organization, ma! users share these resources. Then there arises a need to manage these resources. DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the database, coordinating and monitos™ its use and for acquiring software and hardware resources as needed. The ppa¥ accountable for problems such as breach of security or poor system response time.‘Phe person controlling and coordinating th, ator (DBA). ig the DBMS system is called the Database bilities of the DBA can be listed as follows: saministe he responsi The DBA administers the three levels of the database like i conceptual level and external level of the DBMS architecture and — wii with the overall user community, sets up the definition of the dobal — conceptual level of the database. The DBA further specifies the oxtornal — of the various users and applications He is responsible for the definition and implementation of the internal level, including the storage structure and access methods to be used for the optimum performance of the DBMS. Changes to any of the three levels necessitated by changes or growth in the organization and/or emerging technology are under the control of the DBA. Mappings between the internal and the conceptual levels, as well as between the internal and conceptual levels, as we;; as between the conceptual and external levels, are also defined by the DBA. The DBA that ensure that appropriate measures are in place to maintain the integrity of the database and that the database is not accessible to unauthorized users. The DBA is responsible for granting permission to the users of the database and stores the profile of each user in the database. This profile describes the permissible activities of a user on that portion of user profile can be used by the database system to verify so that a particular user performs a given operation on the database. The DBA is also responsible for defining procedure to recover the database from lilures due to human, natural, or hardware causes with minimal loss of data. This covery procedure should enable the organization to continue to function and the tact portion of the database should continue to set be available. ieinnnammmnnaanaanene re are different class of database users which are explained below: Database Administrator (DBA): Database Administrator is administrating the database and the secondary resources. The job of a DBA is to plan, design, create, modify and maintain the database with special emphasis on security and integrity- A DBA also maintains the schema and data dictionary.(b) Database Designer: The designer are identifying the data to be storeq ing Database and choosing appropriate structures to represent and store thoge dy They also developed a view of the data that meet the requirements of data ang processing. (c) End User: The job of end user is to access the database for querying, UDdatin and generating reports. There are several groups of end user. (i) Casual: The users access the database occasionally when they nen different information each time. (ii) Naive or parametric: The users access the database constantly with standard types of quires & updates. (iii) Sophisticated: The class includes engineers, scientists, business analysts ay a sophisticated user. (iv) Stand alone user: The users only maintain personal database by Using ready-made program package that provide easy to use menu or graphics based interfaces. (d) System Analysis and Application Programmers: Application Programmer implements those specifications as programs, then testing, debugging, documenting and maintaining. System analysis is also known as softwar engineers, determines the requirement offend user and develop specifications for canned transaction. A Database Management System (DBMS) consists of a collection of interrelated data and a set of program to access those data. The collection of data, usually refer! to as the database, contains information about one particular enterprise. The prima! goal of DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and efficient tou in retrieving and storing database information. This System involves the control of databases are created, interrogated and maintained to provide information needed ! end users and the organization. Database Management System (DBMS) acts 23 interface between the application Programs and the database. Some of the DBMS Packages are: o MS-Access o MySQL o SyBASE o Oracle o Fox PROUser Programmers Database ‘System Application programs/ DBMS Software Software of processing quries/programsf Software for access store data Stored database Fig: Database System with DBMS Support for Data Modeling: One of the they encourage the separation of the logic: structure of the data. A data Model is an abstract representation the way data items are organized and related. most important features of DBMS is that al structure of the data from the physical at data. It defines . Physical vs. Logical Data Structure: The physical data description specifies how the data is to be stored in the hardware. This includes specifying the file type, the size of the fields, the file formats, etc. In contrast, the logical data description is intended to capture more of the meaning of the data. These models often focus on identifying the relationships that exist between data elements. Data Modeling : The challenge in logical data modeling is to capture the relationships between pieces of data in a concise, consistent way. (@) Hierarchical and Network Data Models: The hierarchical model relates mnship. Representation of different entities by a parent-child relatior relationships is being done by a tree structure. The problem of hierarchical data model, where it is not possible to represent a many-to-many relationship is overcome. in the network model. In network model an entity 6 can have more than one parent. ) Relational Data Model: A relational database or a Rel Management Systems (RDBMS) is a system, which supports the relational data model as the logical model. ational Database use of theDIFFERENCE BETWEEN FILE MANAGEMENT SYSTENig» _AND DBMS File System DBMS File system is a software that manages and organizes the files in a storage medium within a computer. DBMS is a software for Managiny the database. 2. Redundant data can be present in a file system. 3. It doesn’t provide backup and recovery of data if it is lost. 4. There is no efficient query processing in file system. 5. There is less data consistency in file system. It is less complex as compared to DBMS. File systems provide less security in comparison to DBMS. It is less expensive than DBMS. The purpose of DBMS is to the database. It provides the fol 1. File sharing: This is perhay work with the same set of files. Reduced data redundancy: Data facilitate huge stora; lowing advantages: PS the biggest benefit, In DBMS there is no redundan data. It provides backup and recovery ¢ data even if it is lost. Efficient query processing is there in DBMS. There is more data consistency because of the process of normalization, It has more complexity in handling as compared to file system. DBMS has more __ security mechanisms as compared to fie system. It has a comparatively higher oo than a file system. ge and quick retrieval of data fr . Now all authorized users “ ; redundancy means that the same data fil" (a person’s address, say) appear , ; 7 wn many different files and often in differ_ EE << formats. In the old file system, separate file storage apace. In a database, the informa storage capacity. Moreover, the same info 7 would repeat the same data, wasting eae Just once, freeing up more ation is availal i Improved data integrity: Data integrity means that ia . vote wen and upto ae In the old system, when a change was m: ‘i Pai oe not get made in another. The result was that some report we vom se oe erroneous on Tn a DBMS, reduced redundancy increase th i 7 data integrity - the chances that the data is accurate, consistent a : od : because each updating change is made in only one place. “eae consistent 4. Increased security: Although various departments may share data, access to specific information can be limited to selected users. Thus, through the use of passwords, a student's financial, medical, and grade information in a university database is made available only to those who have a legitimate need to know. _ DISADVANTAGES OF I The following are some disadvantages of DBMS: 1. Higher data processing costs: The system causes higher data processing costs due to the austere and large procedure for data access, updating and processing. 2 Increasing hardware and software costs: It requires more direct access memory capacity, greater communication capability and additional processing powers which increase hardware and software costs. technology is complex. That’s why 3. Insufficient database expertise: Database al expertise to implement and most organizations don’t have enough person! manage database systems.1. Internal Level tet Internal level is that level where the actual file is stored on the disk. 2. External Level i eed ‘At this level the user is concerned as to what data items are needed anq be i ith th uired i these would be represented. The user 1s concerned only with e req! fields in the records. The user specifies his own view and develops his program. 3. Conceptual Level It is the bridge between internal and external le al levels. This level matches the requirements of user's view vel. This level has the informatio, of all internal and extern: (external level) with the stored files and records therein. If some changes are made 3 the internal level and changes are brought in records etc., the same will be absorbed by the conceptual level and provided to the user. _FILE ORGANIZATION IN DBMS. In Database Management System, how files and data are stored or organized is called File Organization. There are two types. (i) Sequential Access File In Sequential Access File method, information in the file is processed in order, that is, one record after the other. It is based on tape model of a file. Editors and compiles usually access files in this faction the read operation automatically reads the nett portion of the file and advances file pointer and write operation appends to the end df the file and advances to the end of the newly written material. (ii) Direct Access File In Direct Access File method, a file is made up of fixed length logical records th! allow programs to read and write records rapidly in no particular order. It is based” ae model of a file. The file is viewed as a numbered sequence of blocks or records. direct access file allows arbitrary blocks to be read or written.various components of DBMS are: e ;) Data Dictionary: The data dictionary is a more general software utility used by i) designers, users and administrators for information resource management. It is an electronic document which contain data elements. It is considered to be the core or hub of the DBMS. The data dictionary may maintain information on system hardware, software, documentation, users, and other aspects. It is also used to document the database design process itself and can accumulate meta-data ready to feed into the system catalog. It describes the data and their characteristics such as their location, size and type. It also identifies data origin, ownership, security and methods of accessing of data. ii) Data Mining: Data mining, the extraction of hidden predictive information from large databases, is a powerful new technology with great potential to help companies focus on the most important information in their data warehouse. Data mining (DMM), also called Knowledge-Discovery in Databases (KDD) or Knowledge-Discovery and Data Mining. fiii) Data Warehousing: Data warehouse is a collection based information, designed to recognize the information and access them using simple tools for the users. It also provides tools to satisfy the information needs of the employees’ at all organizational levels. The main reasons for developing data ware house are to integrate operational data from various sources into a single and consistent architecture that supports analysis and decision-making within the organization. iv) Data Mart: Data marts are smaller than data warehouses and generally contain information from a single department of a business or organization. It can be regarded as subset of Data Warehouse. Data warehouse is analogous to physical warehouse. Physical warehouse is a ilding for Storing goods before distribution to retailers. Similarly, Data warehouse is collection based information, designed to recognize the information and access them sing simple tools for the users. It also provides tools to satisfy the information needs of ©mployees’ at all organizational levels. The main reasons for developing data ®rehouse are to integrate operational data from various sources into a single andInformation 0 Ee i cision-making within consistent architecture that supports analysis and ie earycere thy organization. Since the early 1990s, data warehouses 2 ppenaraan sat information technology applications as a way for organizations ity information for business planning and decision making. sing aso ya Data Warehouse supports information processing by providing platform n consolidated, historical data for analysis. Data warehouses are computer based information systems that are home for al “secondhand” data that originated from either another application oe from an externa arehouses optimize database query and reporting tools because at their ability to analyze data, often from disparate databases aoe in interesting way They are a way for managers and decision makers to extract information quickly an easily in order to answer questions about their business. Data areas are Tead. only, integrated database designed to answer comparative and “what if” question. systems or sources. Wi FEATURES OF D. A data warehouse is a relational database that is designed for query and analysis rather than for transaction processing. It usually contains historical data derived from transaction data, but it can include data from other sources. It separates analysis workload from transaction workload and enables an organization to consolidate data from several sources. A common way of introducing data warehousing is to refer to the characteristics of a data warehouse as set forth by William Inmon: 1. Subject Oriented Data warehouses are designed to help you analyze data. For example, to lear more about your company’s sales data, you can build a warehouse that concentrates 00 sales. Using this warehouse, you can answer questions like "Who was our best customer for this item last year?" This ability to define a data warehouse by subject matter, sales in this case, makes the data warehouse subject oriented. 2. Integrated Integration is closely related to subject orient: : ation, Data warehouses must PU! data from disparate sources into a consistent forntat . . : ae . They must resolve such problems as naming conflicts and inconsistencies among units of measure. When they achiev this, they are said to be integrated. .Nonvolatile Nonvolatile means that, once entered into the warehouse, js is logical because the purpose of a warehouse is to enable curred. data should not change. you to analyze what has Time Variant In order to discover trends in business, very much in contrast to online transa formance requirements demand that his! arehouse's focus on change over time is analysts need large amounts of data. This ction. Processing (OLTP) systems, where torical data be moved to an archive. A data what is meant by the term time variant. . Workload Data warehouses are designed to accommodate ad iow the workload of your data warehouse in advance, ptimized to perform well for a wide variety of possible hoc queries. You might not so a data warehouse should be query operations. OLTP systems support only predefined operations. Your applications might be ecifically tuned or designed to support only these operations. . Data modifications A data warehouse is updated on a regular basis by the ETL process (run nightly or eekly) using bulk data modification techniques. The end users of a data warehouse do ot directly update the data warehouse. In OLTP systems, end users routinely issue individual data modification ‘atements to the database. The OLTP database is always up to date and reflects the wrent state of each business transaction. - Schema design Data warehouses often use denormalized or partially denormalized schemas (such “star schema) to optimize query performance. OLTP systems often use fully normalized schemas to optimize update/insert/delete “formance and to guarantee data consistency. Typical operations ; A typical data warehouse query scans thousands or millions of rows. For example, " at ” ind the total sales for all customers last month.A typical OLTP operation accesses only a handful of records. Fop Xa, “Retrieve the current order for this customer.” 9. Historical data Data warehouses usually store many months or years of data. This ig to Sup, historical analysis. OLTP systems usually store data from only a few weeks or months, The orp | system stores only historical data as needed to successfully meet the requiremeny the current transaction. __REASON FOR BUILDING DATA WAREHOUSE 1. Access to data from multiple sources, have a comprehensive data collection, 2. Separate transactional and analysis systems: Improve query response time, 3. Easy formulation of complex queries. 4. Access to historical data (not in operational systems). 5. Improved data quality (fewer errors and missing values). ANTAGES OF DATA WAREHOUSE 1. A data warehouse allows reduction of staff. 2. Accurate and reliable data can be obtained from data warehouse. 3. An enterprise can maintain better customer relationships by correlating all custome data. : u Patterns, finding predictive information their expectations. experts may miss because it lies outsidepata mining techniques can be implemented rapidly on existing software and pordare platforms to enhance the value of existing information resources. When implemented on high performance client/sever or parallel processing computers, data pinin tools can analyze massive databases to deliver answers to questions such as, «which clients are most likely to respond to my next promotional mailing and why?”. Data Mining is also called Knowledge-Discovery in Database or Knowledge- Discovery and Data Mining. Example: A simple example of data mining, often called Market Basker Analysis, is its use for retail sales. If a clothing store records the purchases of customers, a data mining system could identify those customers who favour silk shirts over cotton ones. Although some explanations of relationships may be difficult, taking advantage of it is easier. COMMONLY USED TEC! The most commonly used techniques in data mi ural Networks: Non-linear predictive models that learn through rks in structure. ing are: 1. Artificial Ne training and resemble biological neural netwo! Decision Trees: Tree-shaped structures that represent sets of decisions. These decisions generate rules for the classification of a dataset. Specific decision tree methods include Classification And Regression Trees (CART) and Chi Square Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID). Optimization techniques selection in Genetic Algorithms: that use processes such as genetic combination, mutation and natural a design based on the concepts of evolution. Nearest Neighbor Metho based on a combination of historical dataset. Sometime Jhnique that classifies each record in a dataset 5 of the k record(s) most similar to it in a ‘k-nearest neighbor technique’. d: A tec! the classe! s it is called the Rule Induction: The extraction of useful if-then statistical significance. rules from data based onMs-Access is a Relational Database Management Syatem Package (RDBMS), in which data and information are kept in terms of fields (attributes or columns),tuples (records 5 rows), tables, database and relationship. A relationship is established between the tables With some common charactersitics. ed Microsoft ‘Access is a powerful program to create and manage your databases. Tthas many built in features to assist you in constructing and viewing your information. Access ig much more involved and is a more genuine database application than other programs such as Microsoft Works. Microsoft Access calls anything that can have a name an object. Within an ] ‘Access Database, the main objects are tables, queries, forms, reports, data access Pages, macros and modules. MS-Access’s main advantage is its versatility and programmability. With a small amount of training Access can be used to create quite intricate and powerful application for storing and managing data. It can also be used in a multi- user environment. The advantages are that it is one of the best database programs and given that you know how to use it properly, you can create a super, all powerful sophisticated relational database which if properly designed can be used to run a whole company. MS Access is a superb and virtually unique desktop application. 1, Access doesn’t have a good backup scheme; scheme at all. Being file-based, there are two an Access database. in fact, it doesn’t have a back? Problems with attempting to back "? It is near impossible to modify an Access database while it is ‘live’, e.g. while 2% user has a page opened that is accessing any table within, or if another user b* the MDB file open in the Access GUI. You have to copy the database, make changes and replace the ‘live’ version, _has a tendency toward corrupting its MDB files. ‘Access versions of Access do not support database files larger than 2GB. pecen ss only has the ability to password protect a database on a single file basis, so es soe Acct can’t have custom permissions per query, table or view. you 7 . cess i8 8 file-based database and since in many hosting scenarios it is just placed ane web structure somewhere, it is very easy for intruders to find the database a (by guessing its location either manually or through a dictionary attack), or trying to force an error in your application that might yield the location of the file jn the error message. 1. It contains the menu bar and formatting bar. Database Window : The window that appears when you open a Microsoft Access Database (in the diagram below) and a Microsoft Access project. The Access Database contains Tables, Queries, Forms, Reports, Pages, Macros and Modules. In the Database Window to display a list of all objects of that type in the database. In an Access Project, which is connected to a SQL Server, database, includes Tables, Views, Stored Procedures, Database Diagrams, Forms, Reports, Pages, Macros and Modules of the Database Window. To display the Database Window, click Database Window on the toolbar or press F11 to switch to the Database Window from any other window. Database Objects : In a Microsoft Access Database, the types of database objects available are Tables, queries, Forms, Reports, Macros and Modules. For a Microsoft Access Project connected to a SQL Server database, the database objects are Tables (including indexes, triggers, keys, constraints, defaults, rules and user-defined data types), Views, Stored Procedures and Database Diagrams. The Access Project Obiccts are Forms, Reports, Macros and Modules. From both Access Databases and Access Projects, it can be created Data Access Page Objects, which are stored as “*parate files outside the Access Database or Access Project file. Groupe : Different types of database objects can organize into a group. A group “sists of shortcuts to the database objects that belong to it; adding an object to a “up does not change that object’s original location.DIFFERENT TYPES OF BARS. This tells you which application package is currently running and which slide Fy currently open. VP RISC ise Edit View Insert Tools Window Help salsa7lie=asl[o|%- frie) Create table by using wizard @] create table by entering data This is the traditional Windows style drop down 1 menu. When you point to a"! menu title and click once with the mouse, the menu will open, displaying all th commands available under this menu title. Alternatively, this menu can also activated by pressing the access keys from the keyboard. Press Alt + F to activate th? File menu. You will notice that, the access key for each menu option is underlined, ¢£ Alt + E for Edit menu, Alt + I for Insert menu and so on. Once a roll down menu b® been activated, commands have ellipses (...) in front of them. These commands havefurther sub commands. Commands appearing dimmed cannot be executed unless the re-requisite functions required by that command have been performed, e.g. you Pi anot use the Copy or Cut command from the Edit menu unless you have selected a piece of text first. Many commands also have a keyboard shortcut specified against their names. Standard Toolbar Toolbars contain buttons, drop-down menus and other controls that help you quickly alter the appearance and arrangement of documents by executing a variety of Access commands. Toolbars are very helpful and convenient in quickly executing commands without having to go through menus. The standard toolbar contains icons for basic functions like opening new files, printing files, sending and receiving e-mails, address book etc. When you open an Access database, you often see a screen labeled Main Switchboard that provides buttons to enable you to use the database easily. A table is a collection of data about a specific topic, such as products or suppliers. Using a separate table for each topic means that you store that data only once, which makes your database more efficient and reduces data-entry errors. Tables organize data into columns (called fields) and rows (called records). A common field relates two tables so that Microsoft Access can bring together the data from the two tables for Viewing, editing or printing. In Table Design View, you can create an entire table from Scratch, or add, delete, or customize the fields in an existing table. In Table Datasheet View, you can add, edit, view, or otherwise work with the data in a table. You can also display records from tables that are related to the current table by displaying sub- datasheets within the main datasheet. With some restrictions, you can work with the data in subdatasheets in many of the same ways that you work with data in the main datasheet,Steps to create table and records are following? 1. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. In the Database window, click Tables under object and than click New on he Database Window toolbar. Double click Design view @ Define each of the fields in the table by the following Way Gi) Click in the field name colum In the Data type column, keep the and select the data type from the list. type a description of the field aving the table by selecting the field or fields as n and type the name for the field. qi) default (Text) or click the arrow uy) ii) ‘In the description column, Define a primary key field before si the primary key and clicking the primary key on the toolbar Now click save on the toolbar Open a Datasheet (a window that display data from the table) Click New Record on the toolbar Type data and then Press TAB to go to the next, field At the end of the record, press TAB to go to the next record. Close any tables you have open. You can’ 7 t create o1 i i ‘ tweed open tables. r modify relationships be' If you haven't already done so, switch to the database window. You can press fi to switch to the database window from any other window. Click Relationships on the toolbar, I . pana ae an any relationships defined, the Show Table dial cally be displayed. If you need * T relate and the Sho dial : to add the tables you ¥9" toolbar. If the tablen vou na ® box isn’t displayed, click Show Table 0 want to relate are already displayed, skip to steP 6. Double-click the names of the tables you want to relat the sb” Table dialog box. late, and then closeDrag the field that you want to relate from one table to the related field in the other table. To drag multiple fields, press the CTRL key and click each field before dragging them. In most cases, you drag the primary key field (which is displayed in bold text) from one table to a similar field (often with the same name) called the foreign key in the other table. The related fields don’t have to have the same names, but they must have the same data type (with two exceptions), contain the same kind of information and same FieldSize property. 7. The Edit Relationships dialog box is displayed. Check the field names displayed in the two columns to ensure they are correct. You can change them if necessary. Set the relationship options if necessary. For information about a specific item in the Relationships dialog box, click the question mark button and then click the Item. 8. Click the Create button to create the relationship. 9. Repeat steps 5 through 8 for each pair of tables you want to relate. Two tables: (ji) department Gi) employeefollowing is the data window of employee table: a acini : Ni 9 WT A 100 kamala 200 antha 300 vanitha 400 sumathi 500 savitha Step 3: The folowing i the data window of departmen G Microsoft Access - [department ; Table] 2100 science 3100 ats 4100 maths 0An object designed for formatting, calculating, printing and summarizing selected data. You can view a report on your screen before you print it. Areport is an effective way to present your data in a printed format. "ave control over the size and appearance of everything on a report, © information the way you want to see it. Most of the information tom an underlying table, ata. Other information Because you you can display in a report comes query or SQL statement, which is the source of the report’s in the report is stored in the report’s design. A Report is an effective way to represent the data in a printed format, (Le.) we can “ntrol the size and appearance of event thing on the report. Steps to create a blank report and select a record source are: lm the Database window, click Reports under Objects. Click the New button on the Database window toolbar. Tn the New Report dialog box, click the wizard that you want to use. A description of the wizard appears in the left side of the dialog box.4. OHek the table or query that containa the dite: you want to Ines YOUR respons, on BK Nek OK, 6 Wyou clicked Report Wivard, Chart Wixard or Labol Wizard in slop 4 folly . ( 2 Ty the directions in the wivard dialog boxon, Ifyou click AutoReport: Tabula nr \ rr hie Hronlon your AutoRoport: Columnar, Micronolt, Accor automatically oro YOUr report QUERY Quory in an object that providos a cuntom viow of data from ono or More tabloy, Ih Accoss, you ean uno tho graphical quory by oxamplo (QBI) facility or you can wriy, SQL statomonta to croato your quorios, You can define quories to seloct, update, ingupt or dolote data, You can also dofine quorios that croate now tables from data in one yp more existing tablos, In Microsoft Quory or Microsoft, Accoss, a means of finding all the records stored in a data sourco that fit a sot of criteria you namo. In the Microsoft Knowledge Base, one or more phrases that givo the Knowledge Base instructions on what to search for Queries can contain operators, quotation marks, wildcard characters and parentheses to help focus your search, FORMS An object designed primarily for data input or display or for control of application execution. You use forms to customize the Presentation of data that your application extracts for queries or tables, You can also print forms. You can design a form to run macro or a Visual Basic procedure in response to any of a number of events. fo" example, to run a procedure whon the value of data changes. Forms are frequently used on Web Pages to collect and provide data, For exam!’ you might create a form on a Web Page that allows users to search a database 0” " Web server for a specific book. The user types the nai clicks the submit button that you placed on the form, The information is sent tot Web Server and the database is searched, The results are sent back to the user al appear in another Web page in their Web browser. me of the book into your form asl135 sate a form with a wizard ollowing are the steps to create q form: In the New Form dialog box, of the wizard appears in the left Side of the di, to base your form on. Click OK. Tf you set the ValidationRule Property but not the ValidationText Property, erosoft Access displays a standard error message when the validation rule is violated. You set the ValidationText Property, the text you enter is displayed as the error 888. For example, when a record is added for a new employee, you can enter ey alidationRule Property requiring that the value in the employee's StartDate field fal ween the company’s founding date and the current date. Ifthe date entered ins in Bs range, you can display the ValidationText ‘property message: “Start date is Ifyou create a control by dragging a field from the field list, the field's validation Temains in effect, although it isn’t displayed in the control's ValidationRule *Perty box in the property sheet. This is because a field’s validation rule is inheriteg © * control bound to that field. leoN Control, field and record validation rules are applied as follows: Validation rules you set for fields and controls are applied when you edit the det and the focus leaves the field or control. Validation rules for records are applied when you move to another record, If you create validation rules for both a field and a control bound to the field, both validation rules are applied when you edit data and the focus leaves the contro) The following table contains expression examples for the ValidationRule and ValidationText properties. Validation Rule Property | Validation Text Property >0 Entry must be a non zero value. > 1000 Or Is Null | Entry must be blank/greater than 1000. | Like “A222” Entry must be 5 characters and begin | with the letter “A”. >= #1/1/96# And <#1/1/974 Entry must be a date in 1996. DLookup “CustomerID”, Entry must be a unique CustomerID