NFPA - 72 - 2022 05 Escrito2025-9

ANNEX B 72-397
Table B.2.3.2.6.2(a)
minimum ambient temperature likely to be present at the ceiling B.3.2.3.5 The relationships presented here are based on the
is also very important. When ambient temperature at the ceiling difference between the ceiling height and the height of' the fuel
decreases, more heat from a fire is needed to bring the air item involved in the fire. It is recommended that the designer
surrounding the detector's sensing element up to its rated assume the fire is at floor level and use the actual distance from
(operating) temperature. This results in slower response when the floor to ceiling for the calculations. This will yield a design that
ambient temperature is lower. In the case of a fire that is growing is conservative, and actual detector response can be expected to
over time, lower ambient temperaCures result in a larger fire size exceed the needed speed of response in those cases where the fire
at the time of detection. begins above floor level.
B.3.2.2.2 Therefore, selection of the minimum ambient
temperature has a significant effect on the calculations. The
designer should decide what temperature to use for these
calculations and document why that temperature was chosen.
Because the response time of a given detector to a given fire is
dependent only on the detector's time constant and the
temperature difference between ambient and the detector rating,
the use of the lowest anticipated ambient temperature for the
space results in the most conservative design. For unheated
spaces, a review of historical weather data would be appropriate,
However, such data might show extremely low temperatures that
occur relatively infrequently, such as every 100 years. Depending
on actual desrgn considerations, it might be more appropriate to
use an average minimum ambient temperature, In any case, a
sensitivity analysis should be performed to determine the effect
of changing the ambient temperature on the design results.
B.3.2.2.g In a room or work area that has central heating, the
minimum ambient temperature would usually be about 2(VC
(68? F). On the other hand, certain warehouse occupancies might
be heated only enough to prevent water pipes from freezing and,
in this case, the minimum ambient temperature can be considered
to be 20 C (3501?) , even though, during many months of the year;
the actual ambient temperature can be much higher.
B. 3.2.3 Ceiling Height Considerations.
B.3.2.3.1 A detector ordinarily operates sooner if it is nearer to
the fire. Where ceiling heights exceed 4.9 m (16 ft), ceiling height
is the dominant factor in the detection system response.
B.3.2.3.2 As flaming combustion commences, a buoyant plume
forms. The plume is comprised of the heated gases and smoke
rising from the fire. The plume assumes the general shape of an
inverted cone. The smoke concentration and temperature within
the cone varies inversely as a variable nential function of
the distance from the source, This effect is very significant in the
early stages of a fire, because the angle of the cone is wide. As a
fire intensifies, the angle of the cone narrows and the significance
of the effect of height is lessened.
B.3.2.3.3 As the ceiling height increases, a larger-size fire is
necessary to actuate the same detector in the same length of time.
In view of this, it is very important that the designer consider the
size of the fire and rate of heat release that might develop before
detection is ultimately obtained.
B.3.2.3.4 The procedures presented in 13.3.2.3 are based on
analysis of data for ceiling heights up to 9.1 m (30 ft). No data
were analyzed for ceiling heights greater than 9.1 m (30 ft). In
spaces where the ceiling heights exceed this limit, B.3.2.3 offers
no guidance. [401
2022 Edition
72-398 NATIONAL FIRE ALARM AND SIGNALING CODE@
B.3.2.3.6 Where the designer desires to consider the height of the response from changes in the expected fire growth rate. In some
potential fuel in the room, the distance between the base of the analyses the effect on response will be negligible. Other cases
fuel and the ceiling should be used in place of the ceiling height. might show that a more thorough analysis of potential fuels and
This design option is appropriate only if the minimum height of fire scenarios is necessary:
the potential fuel is always constant and the concept is approved
B.3.2.7 Threshold Fire Size. The user should refer to B.2.3.1 and
by the authority havingjurisdiction.
B.2.3.2 regarding discussions on determining threshold fire sizes
B.3.2,4 Operating Temperature. ( (bo and to meet the design objectives.
B.3.2.4.1 The operating temperature, or rate of temperature B. 3.3 Heat Detector Spacing.
change, of the detector required for response is obtained from the
B. 3.3.1 Fixed-Temperature Heat Detector Spacing. The
manufacturer's data and is determined during the listing process.
following method can be used to determine the response of fixed-
B.3.2.4.2 The difference between the rated temperature of a temperature heat detectors for designing or analyzing heat
fixed-temperature detector (T,) and the maximum detection systems.
ambienttemperature (To) at the ceiling should be as small as
B.3.3.1.1 The objective Of designing a detection system is to
possible. However, to reduce unwanted alarms, the difference
determine the spacing of detectors required to respond to a given
between operating temperature and the maximum ambient
set of conditions and goals. To achieve the objectives, detector
tempera-
response must occur when the fire reaches a critical heat release
rate, or in a specified time.
ture should be not less than 1 I O C (200 F), (See Chapter 17.)
B.3.2.4.3 If using combination detectors incorporating both fixed B.3.3.1.2 NThen analyzing an existing detection system, the
temperature and rate-of-rise heat detection principles to detect a designer is looking to determine the size of the fire at the time
geometrically growing fire, the data contained herein for rate- that the detector responds.
of2rise detectors should be used in selecting an installed spacing,
because the rate-of-rise principle controls the response. The
fixed-temperature set point is determined from the maximum
anticipated ambient temperature.
B.3.2.5 Time Constant and Response Time Index (RTI). The
flow of heat from the ceiling jet into a heat detector sensing
element is not instantaneous. It occurs over a period of time. A
measure of the speed with which heat transfer occurs, the thermal
response coefficient is needed to accurately predict heat detector
response. This is currently called the detector time constant (To).
The time constant is a measure of the detector's
sensitivity: The sensitivity of a heat detector, or RTI, should be
determined by validated test. Research by FM Global [43,44,451
has shown that such a correlation exists and has resulted in a test
method to determine RTI. This test method is documented in FM
Approval Standard 3210, Heat Delectoys for Automatic Fire
Alarm Signaling. Heat detectors should be listed With their RTI
so that heat detector spacing can be appropriately determmed for
various objectives and applications. For older or existing
detectors, given the detector's listed spacing and the detector's
rated temperature (T), Table 13.3.2.5, developed in part by
Heskestad and Delichatsios [101, can be used to find the detector
time constant.
B.3.2.6 fire Growth Rate.
B.3.2.6.1 Fire growth varies depending on the combustion
characteristics and the physical configuration of the fuels
involved, After ignition, most fires grow in an accelerating
pattern. Information regarding the fire growth rate for various
fuels has been provided previously in this annex.
B.3.2.6.2 If the heat release history for a particular fire is known,
the cc or can be calculated using curve fitting techniques for
implementation into the method detailed herein. [161
B.3.2.6.g In most cases, the exact fuel(s) and growth rates Will
not be known. Engineeringjudgment should therefore be used to
select or that is expected to approximate the fire, Sensitivity
analysis should also be performed to determine the effect on
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-399
B.3.3.2 Theoretical Background. [26, 281 The design and Q=Qonv HEA(T
analysis methods contained in Annex B are the joint result of
extensive experimental work and of mathematical modeling of where:
the heat and mass transfer processes involved. The original
= convective heat transfer (kW or Btu/sec)
method was developed by Heskestad and Delichatsios [9, 101,
Beyler [41, and Schifiliti [161. It was recently updated by I-I, = convective heat transfer coefficient for the detector
Marrion 1281 to reflect changes in the original correlations as (kW/m2 • 0 C or
discussed in work by Heskestad and Delichatsios [Ill and Marrion A surface area of the detector's element (m2 or ftQ )
Table B.3.2.5 Time Constants (To) for Any Listed Heat Detector [at a reference velocity of 1.5 m/sec (5 ft/sec)l
Listed Spacing Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Factory Mutual
53.30C 57.2'C 62.80C 71.rc 76. rc 91.10C Research Corporation
(1280F) (1350F) (1450F) (1 GOO F) (1700F) (1960F) (All Temperatures)
3.05 10 400 330 262 195 160 97 196
4.57 15 250 190 156 110 89 110
6.10 20 165 135 105 70 52 70
7.62 25 124 100 78 48 32 .48
9.14 30 95 80 61 36 22 36
12.19 40 71 41
57 18
15.24 50 59 44 30
70 36 24
21.34
9
Notes: (l) These time constants are based on an analysis [10] of the Underwriters Laboratories Inc. and Factory Mutual listing test procedures. (2)
These time constants can be converted to response time index (RTI) values by using the equation RTI —To (5.0 ft/sec) (See also B. 3.3,)
[271. Additional research has been conducted by FM Global [43, Te = temperature of fire gases at the detector ( oc or OF)
449 451. Paragraph B.3.3.2 outlines methods and data Td = temperature rating, or set point, of the detector ( Q C or
correlations used to model the heat transfer to a heat detector, as
well as velocity and temperature correlations for growing fires at
B.3.3.3.2 Asuming the detection element can be treated as a
the location of the detector. Only the general principles are
lumped mass (m) (kg or lbm), its temperature change can be
described here. More detailed information is available in
defined as follows:
References 4, 9, 10, 16, and 28 in K. 1.2.19.
B.g.g.3 Heat Detector Correlations. The heat transfer to a
[8.3.3.3.21
detector can be described by the following equation:
dt
[B.3.3.31
= + Qad where:
where: dTd/dt = change in temperature of detection element
total heat transfer to a detector (kW or Btu/sec) (deg/sec)
= conductive heat transfer Q = heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) detector
= convective heat transfer element'smass (kg or lbm) c = detector element's
= radiative heat transfer specific heat (EJ/kg• 0C or Btu/
1bm,0F)
B.3.3.3.1 Because detection typically occurs during the initial B.g.3.3.3 By inserting Equation B.3.3.3.2 into Equation
stages of a fire, the radiant heat transfer component (Qad) can be 13.3.3.3.1, the change in temperature of the detection element
considered negligible, In addition, because the heat-sensing over time is expressed in Equation B.3.3.3.3.
elements of most of the heat detectors are thermally isolated from
the rest of the detection unit, as well as from the ceiling, it can be [B.3.3.3.3]
assumed that the conductive portion of the heat release rate ( Ll)
is also negligible, especially when compared to the convective dTa HrA(Tg-Td)
heat transfer rate. Because the majority of the heat transfer to the dt
detection element is via convection, the following equation can
be used to calculate the total heat trans- Note that the variables are identified in Section 13.7.
fer: B.3.3.3.4 The use of a time constant (f) was by
Heskestad and Smith [81 in order to define the convective heat
[B.3.3.3.1] transfer to a specific detector's heat-sensing element. This time
2022 Edition
constant is a function of the mass, specific heat, convective heat RTI of 36 (or 67 sec" ftŽ ). On the other hand, a detector that has
transfer coefficient, and area of the element and van be an RTI of 36 sec (or 67 would have a To of 23.7 seconds, if
expressed as follows: measured in an air velocity of m/ sec (8 ft/sec).
B.3.3.3.10 The following equation can therefore be used to
[B.3.3.3.41 calculate the heat transfer to the detection element and thus
determine its temperature from its local fire-induced environme
nt:
where: [B.g.3.3.101
detector element's mass (kg or lbm) detector element's
specific heat (RJ/kg• 0 C or Btu/lbm • OF)
HE — convective heat transfer coefficient for the detector
(kW/m2 • 0C or surface area of the detector's Note that the variables are identified in Section B. 7.
element (n+ or ftQ) detector time constant (seconds)
B.3.3.4 Temperature and Velocity Correlations. [26, 28] In order
B.3.3.3.5 As seen in the equation 13.3.3.3.4, T is a measure of to predict the operation of any detector, it is necessary to
the detector's sensitivity. By increasing the mass of the detection characterize the local environment created by the fire at the
element, the time constant, and thus the response time, increases. location of' the detector. For a heat detector, the important
B.3.3.3.6 Substituting into equation B..3.3.3.3 produces the variables are the temperature and velocity of the gases at the
following: detector. Through a program of full-scale tests and the use of
mathematical modeling techniques, general expressions for
temperature and velocity at a detector location have been
[B.3.3.3.61 developed by Heskestad and Delichatsios (refer to references 4,
9, 10, and 16 in K. 1.2.19). These expressions are valid for fires
that grow according to the following power law relationship:
Note that the variables are identified in Section B.7.

[8.3.3.4]
B.3.3.3.7 Research has shown [24] that the convective heat
transfer coefficient for sprinklers and heat detection elements is
similar to that of spheres, cylinders, and so forth, and is thus where:
approximately proportional to the square root of the velocity of Q theoretical convective fire heat release rate (kW or
the gases passing the detector. As the mass, thermal capacity, and
area of the detection element remain constant, the following
relationship can be expressed as the response time index (RTI) Btu/s ec)
for an individual detector: Q fire growth rate (kW/sec± or Btu/sec3) t =
time (seconds) p = positive exponent
[B. 3.3.3.71 Several other ceiling jet correlations [411 have been devel-
oped over the years that the designer should also review as to
their applicability to the particular design case. Sensitivity
where: analyses should also be conducted with the analysis.
detector time constant (seconds) u = [B.3.3.4.1b1
velocity of fire gases (m/sec or ft/sec)
— instantaneous velocity of fire gases (m/sec or ft/sec)
RTI response time index
B.3.3.3.8 Ifãå is measured at a given reference velocity (uo), T

can be determined for any other gas velocity (ti) for that detector.
A plunge test is the easiest way to measure To. It has also been
related to the listed 'pacing of a detector through a calculation.
Table B.3.2.5 presents results from these calculations 1101. The ATJ-
RTI value can then be obtained by multiplying To values by
where:
B.3.3.3.9 It has become customary to refer to the time constant
using a reference velocity of = 1.5 m/sec (5 It/sec). For example, [B.3.3.4.1c1
where 1.5 m/sec (5 ft/sec), a To of 30 seconds corresponds to an
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-401
and
dTd (t)
[B. 3.3.4.1d1
where:
cupo [B.3.3.4.3c1
Note that the variables are identified in Section 13.7.
B.g.3.4.2 Using the correlations in 13.3.3.4.1, Heskestad and
Delichatsios [91, and with later updates from another paper by
Heskestad [l l], the following correlations were presented for and
fires that had heat release rates that grew according to the power
law equation, with p = 2. As previously discussed [10, 181, the p 1B.3.3.4.3d1
= 2 power law fire growth model can be used to model the heat
D = 0.146+0.242r/H
release rate of a wide range of fuels. These fires are therefore
referred to as t-squared fires. Note that the variables are identified in Section 13.7.
B.3.3.4.4 The steps involved in solving these equations for either
[B.3.3.4.2a1 a design or analysis situation are presented in Figure
B.3.3.4.4 [281,
123=0.861 1+2
B.3.3.5 Limitations. [26]
[B.3.3.4.2b1 B.3.3.5.1 If velocity and temperature of the fire gases flowing
for t; < past a detector cannot be accurately determined, errors will be
introduced when calculating the response of a detector. The
graphs presented by Heskestad and Delichatsios indicate the
1B.3.3.4.2c] errors in the calculated fire—gas temperatures and velocities
/3 [101. A detailed analysis of these errors is beyond the scope of
this annex; however; some discussion is warranted. In using the
method presented in 13.3.3.2, the user should be aware of the
AT; - limitations of these correlations, as outlined in Reference 26. The
[B.3.3.4.2d] designer should also refer back to the original reports.
-0.59 Graphs of actual and calculated data show that errors in T2 can
be high as 50 percent, although generally there appears to be
much better agreement. The maximum errors occur at WI-I
Note that the variables are identified in Section B. 7.
B.3.3.4.1 Relationships have been developed by Heskestad and
Delichatsios [91 for temperature and velocity of fire gases in a
ceiling jet. These have been expressed as follows [261 :
[B.3.3.4.1a1
B.3.3.4.3 Work by Beyler [4] determined that the temperature values of about 0.37. All other plots of actual and calculated data,
and velocity correlations in 13.3.3.4.2 could be substituted into for various r/H, show much smaller errors. In terms of the actual
the heat transfer equation for the detector and integrated. His change in temperature over ambient, the maximum errors are on
analytical solution is as follows: the order of TC to IO O C (90F to 18 0 F). The larger errors occur
with faster fires and lower ceilings.
[B.3.3.4.3a1 At r/H= 0.37, the errors are conservative when the equations
are used in a design problem. That is, the equations predicted
lower temperatures. Plots of data for other values of r/H indicate
that the equations predict slightly higher temperatures.
Errors in fire—gas velocities are related to errors in
temperatures. The equations show that the velocity of the fire
[B.3,3.4.3.b1 gases is proportional to the square root of the change in
temperatures of the fire gases. In terms of heat transfer to a
2022 Edition
detector, the detector's change in temperature is proportional to
the change in gas temperature and the square root of the fire—
gas velocity. Hence, the expected errors bear the same
relationships.
Based on the discussion in this section, errors in predicted
temperatures and velocities of fire gases will be greatest for fast
fires and low ceilings, Sample calculations simulating these
conditions show errors in calculated detector spacings on the
order of plus or minus one meter, or less.
B.3.3.5.2 The procedures presented in this annex are based on an
analysis Of test data for ceiling heights up to 9.1 m (30 ft). No
data were analyzed for ceilings greater than 9.1 m (30 ft). The
reader should refer to Reference 40 for additional insight.
B. 3.3.6 Design Examples.
B.3.3.6.1 Define Project Scope. A fire detection system is to be
designed for installation in an unsprinklered warehouse building.
The building has a large, flat ceiling that is approximately 4 m
(13.1 ft) high. The ambient temperature inside is normally IO O C
(500F). The municipal fire service has indicated that it can begin
putting water on the fire within 5.25 minutes of receiving the
alarm.
B. 3.3.6.2 Identify Goals. Provide protection of property.
B. 3.3.6.3 Define Stakeholder's Objective. No fire spread from
initial fuel package,
B.3.3.6.4 Define Design Objective. Prevent radiant ignition of
adjacent fuel package.
B. 3.3.6.5 Develop Performance Criteria. After discussions With
the plant fire brigade with regard to their capability and analyzing
the radiant energy levels necessary to ignite adjacent fuel
packages, it was determined that the fire should be detected and
suppression activities started prior to its reaching 10,000 kW
(9478 Btu/sec).
B.3.3.6.6 Develop Fire Scenarios and the Design fire. Evaluation
of the potential contents to be warehoused identified the areas
where wood pallets are stored to be one of the highest fire
hazards.
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-403
Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet 128]

Design Example
Determine ambient temperature (TO) ceiling height or
1.
height above fuel (H).
2. Determine the fire growth characteristic or tg) for the
expected design fire. tg kW/sec2
Define the characteristics of the detectors. -c + 273 K RTI=

dTd_
0 C/min
ml/2sec1/2
sec
3b. Design — Establish system goals (tCR or QCT?)
and make a first estimate of the distance (r) from
or the fire to the detector.
Analysis — Determine spacing Of existing detectors
and make a first estimate Of the response time or the
fire Size at detector response (Q = at2 ).
4. Using equation B.3.3.4.2a, calculate the t v —0.861
nondimensional time (t2f) at which the initial heat
front reaches the detector.
5. Calculate the factor A defined by the relationship for
A in equation B.3.3.4.1d.
Use the required response time CtCR) along With the tCR
6.
relationship for t; in equation B.3.3.4.1c and p 2 to
calculate the corresponding value of 2
7. If > continue to step 8. If' not, try a new detector

position (r) and return to step 4.
8. Calculate the ratio -¼using the relationship for Up
2
in equation B.3.3.4.1a. 2 2
9. Calculate the ratio — ATusing the relationship

for
ATP in equation B.3.3.4.1b. 2 2
10. Use the relationship for AT in equation B.3.3.4,2c to 2

2 21
calculate
(0.146 + 0.242r/ H) 2
11.
Use the relationship for
equation B.3.3.4.2d to calculate the ratio
12. Use the relationships for Y and D in equations
B.3.3.4.3c and B.3.3.4.3d to calculate Y. (AT 2)
13, Fixed Temperature HD — Use the relationship for

in equation B. 3.3.4.3a to calculate the
Tact) - + Td(0)
resulting temperature of the detector T (t).
14. Rate ofRise HD — Use the relationship for d in
dTd—
equation B.3.3.4.3b. dt CIT = dt
2022 Edition
15. If: Repeat Procedure Using

Design Analysis
1, a larger r I. a larger tr
2. a smaller r 2, a smaller tr
3 1.41xr = sec
FIGURE B.3.3.4.4 Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet. [28]
B.3.3.6.6.1 The fire scenario involving the ignition Of a stack 146 seconds
of wood pallets will therefore be evaluated. The pallets are
stored 0.5 m (1.5 ft) high. Fire test data [see and thus
TableB.2.3.2.6.2(a)] indicate that this type of fire follows the
power law equation with a tg equal to approximately 150 to [B.3.3.6.6.3b1
310 seconds. To be conservative, the faster fire growth rate will
be used. Thus. u.smg Equation B-3.3.4,
= 1000 kW (948 Btu/sec)
[B.3.3.6.6.1a1
Note that the variables are identified in Section B,7.
B. 3.3.7 Develop Candidate Designs.
1055 kW-— kW/sec2 sec)
kW/se& B. 3.3.7.1 Fixed-temperature heat detectors have been selected
for installation in the warehouse with a 570C (135 0 F) operating
temperature and a UL-listed spacing of 9.1 m (30 ft). From
Table B.3.2.5, the time constant is determined to be 80 seconds
[B.3.3.6.6.1b1 when referenced to a gas velocity of 1.5 m/ sec (5 ft/sec). When
used with Equation B-3.3.3,7, the detector's RTI can be
calculated follows:
1000 Btu/sec = ( Btu/sec3 ) ( 150 sec)2
= 0.044 Btu/sec3
[B.3.3.7.1a]
Note that the variables are identified in Section B. 7.
B.g.g.6.6.2 Using the power law growth equation with p 2, the
time after open flaming until the fire grows to 10,000 kW (9478 RTI = 98 sec or
Btu/ sec) can be calculated as follows:
[B.3.3.7.1b1
[B.3.3.6.6.2a1 179ftJ/2
B.3.3.7.2 To begin calculations, it will be necessary to make a

DO = (for SI units) first guess at the required detector spacing. For this
example, a first estimate of 4.7 m (15.3 ft) is used. This
or correlates to a radial distance of 3.3 m (10.8 ft).
B.3.3.8 Evaluate Candidate Designs. These values can then be
[B.3.3.6.6.2b entered into the design and analysis worksheet shown in
1 Figure B.3.3.8 in order to evaluate the candidate design.
B.3.3.8.1 After 146 seconds, when the fire has grown to 1000
(for inch-pound units) kW (948 Btu/ sec) and at a radial distance of 3.3 m (10.8 1-I)
from the center of the fire, the detector temperature is
too= 461 seconds calculated to be 57o c (135 0F). This is the detector actuation
temperature. If the calculated temperature of the detector were
Note that the variables are identified in Section 13.7. higher than the actuation temperature, the radial distance could
be increased. The calculation would then be repeated until the
B.3.3.6.6.3 The critical heat release rate and time to detection calculated detector temperature is approximately equal to the
can therefore be calculated as follows, assuming equals the actuation temperature.
5.25 minutes necessary for the fire brigade to respond to the
alarm and begin discharging water: B.3.3.8.2 The last step is to use the final calculated value of r
with the equation relating spacing to radial distance. This will
determine the maximum installed detector spacing that will
[B.3.3.6.6.3a1 result in detector response within the established goals.
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-405

[B.3.3.8.21 where:
S spacing of detectors r = radial distance from
fire plume axis (m or ft)
S-4.7 m (15.3ft)
Desi n Exam le
o
Determine ambient temperature (TCI) ceiling height or 10
height above fuel (H). c + 273 = 283
Determine the fin;' growth characteristic or tg) for the 0.047 kW/sec2
2. expected design fire.
150 sec
Define the characteristics Of the detectors, 330 K RTI= 9B ml}2secl/2
C,min clTd
0i
Sec
3b. Design — Establish system goals or QCR) and 146
make a first estimate of the distance (r) from the
or fire to the detector. 3.3
3b. Analysis — Determine spacing Of existing detectors
and make a first estimate Of the response time or the
fire size at detector response (Q at2 ).
4. Using equation B. 3.3.4.2a, calculate the
0.861
nondimensional time (t2f) at which the initial heat
t* = 1.57
5. Calculate the factor A defined by the relationship for A cpTap

in equation B.3.3.4.1d.
0.030
6. Use the required response time (tcn) along with the
relationship for in equation B.3,3.4.1c and p = 2 to
calculate the corresponding value Of
If tv , continue to step 8. If not, try a new detector
position (r) and return to step 4.
8. Calculate the ratio —Fusing the relationship for Up in
equation B-3.3.4. Ia. £ = 0.356
2
9. Calculate the ratio using the relationship for ATP in AT
equation B.3.3.4.1b. AT = 0.913
2 AT
10. Use the relationship for in equation B.3.3.4.2c to
calculate AT 'P
= 105.89
(0.146 + 0.242r/H)
—0.63
11.
= 0.59
Use the relationship for equation
B.3.3.4.2d to calculate the ratio = 0.66
B.3.3.4.3c and B.3.3.4.3d to calculate Y. Y - 1.533
13. Fixed Temperatupv HD — Use the relationship for

Td(t) — in equation B.3.3.4.3a to calculate the 57.25
resulting temperature of the detector Td(tj.
14• Rate ofRise HD — Use the relationship for (1-e -Y)
dt in equation B.3.3.4.3b. I(t/tt2 d'Td=
2022 Edition
15. If: Repeat Procedure Using

Design Analysis
1. a larger r 1. a larger tr
2. a smaller r 2. a smaller tr
3. S —1.41 x r = 4.7 see
FIGURE B.3.3.8Eire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet [28] — Design Example.
B.3.3.8.3 The following example of analysis is provided, Q 1426 Btu/sec
B.3.3.8.3.I The following example shows how an existing heat
detection system or a proposed design can be analyzed to B.3.3.8.3.4 These data can be incorporated into the fire
determme the response time or fire size at response. The detection design and analysis worksheet shown in Figure
scenario that was analyzed in the previous example will be B.3.3.8.3.4 in order to carry out the remainder Of' the
used again, With the exception that the warehouse building has calculations.
existing heat detectors. The fire, building, and detectors have B.3.3.8.3.5 Using a radial distance of' 6.5 m (21 ft) from the
the same characteristics as the previous example with the axis of this fire, the temperature of the detector is calculated to
exception of spacing. The detectors are spaced evenly on the be 41 oc (106 017) after 3 minutes of exposure, The detector
ceiling at 9.1 m (30 ft) intervals. actuation temperature is 570 C (135 017). Thus, the detector
B.3.3.8.3.2 The following equation is used to determine the response time is more than the estimated 3 minutes. If' the
maximum radial distance from the fire axis to a detector: calculated temperature were more than the actuation
temperatore, then a smaller t would be used. As in the previous
example, calculations should be repeated varying the time to
[B.3.3.8.3.2a1 response until the calculated detector temperature is
approximately equal to the actuation temperature. For this
example; the response time is estimated to be 213 seconds.
or This corresponds to a fire size at response of 2132 kW (2022
Btu/ sec).
[B.3.3.8.3.2b1 B.3.3.8.4 The preceding examples assume that the fire
s continues to follow the t-squared fire growth relationship up to
.414 r = detector activation. These calculations do not check whether
this will happen, nor do they show how the detector
6.5 m (21.2 ft) temperature varies once the fire stops following the power law
where: relationship. The user should therefore determine that there
S = spacing of detectors r = radial distance from will be sufficient fuel, since the preceding correlations do not
fire plume axis (m or ft) perform this analysis. If there is not a sufficient amount of fuel,
then there is the possibility that the heat release rate curve will
B.3.3.8.3.3 Next, the response time of the detector or the fire flatten out or decline before the heat release rate needed for
size at response ts estimated. In the preceding design, the fire actuation is reached,
grew to 1000 kW (948 Btu/ sec) in 146 seconds when the B.3.3.8.5 Table B.3.3.8.5(a) through Table B.3.3.8.5(k)
detector located at a distance of 3.3 m (10.8 ft) responded. As provide a comparison of heat release rates, response times, and
the radial distance in this example is larger, a slower response spacings when variables characteristic of the fires, detectors,
time and thus a larger fire size at response is expected. A first and room are changed from the analysis example.
approximation at the response time is made at 3 minutes. The
corresponding fire size is found using the power law fire B. 3.3.9 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detector Spacing.
growth equation 13.3.3.4 with p = 2 and from 13.3..3.6.6.1 B.3.3.9.1 The preceding procedure can be used to estimate the
response of rate-of-rise heat detectors for either design or
[B.3.3.8.3.3a1 analysis purposes. In this case, it is necessary to assume that
the heat detector response can be modeled using a lumped
mass heat transfer model,
B.3.3.9.2 In step 3 of Figure B.3.3.4.4, Figure B.3.3.8, and
Q = (0.047 sec/
Figure 13.3.3.8.3.4, the user must determine the rate of
temperature rise (dTd/dt) at which the detector will respond
(2=1523 kW
from the manufacturer's data. I Note that listed rate-of-rise heat
detectors are designed to actuate at a nominal rate of
temperature rise of 80C (15 0F) per minute.] The user must use
the relationship for in Equation B.3.3.4.3b instead Of
[B.3.3.8.3.3b1 the relationship for Td(t) - in Equation B.3.3.4.3a in order to
Q = (0.044 calculate the rate of change of the detector temperature. This
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-407

value is then compared to the rate of change at which the response of a rate-of-rise detector would require modeling the
chosen detector is designed to respond. heat transfer from the detector body to the air in the chamber,
as well as the air venting through the hole.
NOTE: The assumption that heat transfer to a detector can
be modeled as a lumped mass might not hold for rate-of-rise B. 3.3.10 Rate Compensation—Type Heat Detectors.
heat detectors. This is due to the operating principle of this Ratecompensated detectors are not specifically covered by
type of detector, in that most rate-of-rise detectors operate Annex B. However, a conservative approach to predicting
when the expansion of air in a chamber expands at a rate faster their performance is to use the fixed-temperature heat detector
than it can vent through an opening. To accurately model the guidance contained herein.
Design Analysis 2
Determine ambient temperature (Tci) ceiling height 10
or height above fuel (H). c + 273 = 283
2. Determine the fire growth characteristic (a or tg) for 0.047
the expected design fire. SeckW/sec2
Define the characteristics of the detectors. Ts -C + 27 3 RTI=
Q
clTd C/min sec
3b. Design = Establish system goals (tCR or QCR)
and make a first estimate of the distance (r)
or from the fire to the detector.
3b. Analysis — Determine spacing of existing 6.5
detectors and make a first estimate Of the response *1.41 = 9.2
time or the fire Size at detector response (Q at2 ). sec
4, Using equation B.3.3.4.2a, calculate the t' -0.861 1+2
nondimensional time (Of) at which the initial heat
2.26
5. Calculate the factor A defined by the relationship for

in equation B.3.3.4.1d.
0.030 tCR
6. Use the required response time (tCR) along with the
relationship for in equation B.3.3.4.1c and p = 2 to
calculate the corresponding value Of t2 2
16
7. If > , continue to step S. If not, try anew
2 21
detector position (r) and return to step 4.
8. Calculate the ratio £ using the relationship for Up
in equation B.3.3.4.1a. - 0.356
2
9. Calculate the ratio using the relationship for AT
AT AT
2
AT = 0.913
in equation B.3.3.4.1b.
10. Use the relationship for AT 2 in equation B.3.3.4.2c
to calculate AT
2 = 75.01
11.
Use the relationship for in
equation B.3.3.4.2d to calculate the ratio

B.3.3,4.3c and B.3.3.4.3d to calculate Y. Y = 1.37
D
13 Fixed Temperatzuv HD — Use the relationship
. for Td(t) — Td(O) in equation B.3.3.4.3a to Td (t) 41
2022 Edition
calculate the resulting temperature of the detector

Td(t).
14 Rate ofRise HD — Use the relationship for t) in dTd(AT* )1/4 (1—e -Y)
. equation B.3.3.4.3b. I(t/t'2
15. Repeat Procedure Using
Design Analysis
1. a larger r 1. a larger tr
2. a smaller r 21 a smaller tr
3. s = 1.41xr= sec
FIGURE B.3.3.8.3.4Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet [28] — Analysis Example 2.
Table B. 3.3.8.5(a) Operating Temperature Versus Heat 50 93 61 20.0
Transfer Rate [S = 9.1 m (30 ft)l 150 280 3.7 12.1
Heat Release Rate/ 300 560 2.3 7.6
Operating Temperature Response Time Table B.3.3.8.5(f) Ambient Temperature Versus Spacing
[Qd = 1000 kW (948 Btu/sec)]
kW/ sec Btu/sec/sec
57 135
2132/213 2022/213
74 2798/244
165 2654/244 Ambient Temperature Spacing
93 3554/275 3371/275 0 32 3.8 12.5
Table B.3.3.8.5(b) Operating Temperature Versus Spacing 20 68 5.7 18.7
[Qd = 1000 kW (948 Btu/sec)l
38 100 8.8 28.9
Operating Temperature Spacing
135 4.715.4
74 165 3.5
11.5 Table B.3.3.8.5(g) Ceiling Height Versus Heat Release Rate
93 200 2.5 8.2
Table B.3.3.8.5(ç) RTIVersus Heat Release Rate [S = 9.1 m
(30 ft)l Heat Release Rate
Heat Release Rate/

RTI Response Time
m sec fti sec kW/sec Btu/sec/sec 3056/255 2899/255
Ceiling Height Response Time
50 93 1609/185 1526/ 185
150 280 2640/237 2504/237
300 560 3898/288 3697/288
7.3 24
Table RTIVersus Spacing [Qd 1000 kW
(948 Btu/sec)l TableB.3.3.8.5(h) CeilingHeightVersusSpacing [Qd=
RTI Spacing 1000 kW (948 Btu/sec)l
m sec ft/' sec½
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-409

Ceiling Height Spacing
16
7.3 24 2.1 6.9
Table BX3.8.5(i) Detector Spacing Versus Heat Release 15.2 50 4146/297 3932/297
Rate [S = 9.1m (30 ft)]
Heat Release Rate/ Table B.3.3.8.5(j) Fire Growth Rate Versus Heat Release
Detector Spacing Response Time
15 1000/146 949/ 146 Rate

9.1 30 2132/213 2022/213
Table B.3.3.8.5(e) Ambient Temperature Versus Heat Release
Heat Release Rate

Heat Release Rate/
Response Time
Ambient Temperature Response Time
Btu/ sec/ sec Fire Growth Rate kW/sec
kW/ sec B to/ sec/
sec
Medium = 250 sec
32 2552/233 2420/233
20 68 1751/193 1661/193
38 100 1058/150 1004/150
1250/435 1186/435
1582/306 1499/306
Fast t 100 sec 2769/162 2626/162
2022 Edition
Table B.3.3.8.5(k) Fire Growth Rate Versus Spacing B.4.3.1 Smoke characteristics are a function of the fuel
[Qd= 1000 kW (948 Btu/sec)] composition, the mode of' combustion (smoldering or flaming),
and the amount of mixing with the ambient air (dilution), These
Spacing factors are important for determining the characteristics of the
products of combustion, such as particle size, distribution,
composition, concentration, refractive index, and so on, The
Fire Growth Rate significance of these features with regard to smoke detector
response is well documented. [29, 30]
Slow, 400 sec 8.2 26.9
Mediums tg 250 sec 21.3 B.4.3.2 Whether smoke detectors detect by sensing scattered
6.5
Fast, = 100 sec 12.1 light, loss of light transmission (light extinction), or reduction of
3.7 ion current, they are particle detectors. Thus, particle
BA Smoke Detector Spacing for naming Fires. concentration, size, color, size distribution, and so forth, affect
B.4.I Introduction. each sensing technology differently. It is generally accepted that
a flammg, well-ventilated, energetic fire produces smoke having
B.4.1.1 The listing investigation for smoke detectors does not a larger proportion Of the sub-micron diameter particulates as
yield a "listed spaci1W' it does for heat detectors. Instead, the opposed to a smoldering fire that produces smoke with a
manufacturers recommend a spacing. Because the largest spacing predominance of large, super-micron particulates. It is also
that can be evaluated in the full-scale fire test room is 7.6 m (25 known that as the smoke cools, the smaller particles agglomerate,
ft), it has become common practice to recommend 9.1 m (30 ft) forming larger ones as they age, and are cart-red away from the
spacing for smoke detectors when they are installed on flat, fire source. More research is necessary to provide sufficient data
smooth ceilings. Reductions in smoke detector spacing are made to allow the prediction of smoke characteristics at the source, as
empirically to address factors that can affect response, including well as during transport. Furthermore, response models must be
ceiling height, beamed or joisted ceilings, and areas that have developed that can predict the response of a particular detector to
high rates of air movement. different kinds of smoke as well as smoke that has aged during
B.4.l.2 The placement of smoke detectors, however, should be the flow from the fire to the detector location,
based on an understanding of fire plume and ceiling jet flows, B.4.4 m•ansport Considerations.
smoke production rates, particulate changes due to aging, and the
operating characteristics of the particular detector being used. B.4.4.1 All smoke detection relies on the plume and ceilingjet
The heat detector spacing information presented in Section B.3 flows to transport the smoke from the locus of the fire to the
is based on knowledge of plume and jet flows. An understanding detector. Various considerations must be addressed during this
of smoke production and aging lags considerably behind an transport time, including changes to the characteristics of the
understanding of heat production, In addition, the operating smoke that occur with time and distance from the source, and
characteristics of' smoke detectors in specific fire environments transport time of smoke from the source to the detector.
are not often measured or made generally available for other than B.4.4.2 The smoke characteristic changes that occur during
a very few number of combustible materials. Therefore, the transport relate mainly to the particle sue distribution. Particle
existing knowledge base precludes the development of complete size changes during transport occur mainly as a result of
engineering design information for smoke detector location and sedimentation and agglomeration.
spacing.
B.4.4.3 Transport time is a function of the characteristics of the
B.4.1.g In design applications where predicting the response of travel path from the source to the detector. Important
smoke detectors is not critical, the spacing criteria presented in characteristics that should be considered include ceiling height
Chapter 17 should provide sufficient information to design a very and configuration (e.g., sloped, beamed), intervening barriers
basic smoke detection system. However, if the goals and such •as doors and beams, as well as dilution and buoyancy
objectives established for the detection system require detector effects such as stratification that might delay or prevent smoke in
response within a certain amount of time, optical density, heat being transported to the detector.
release rate, or temperature rise, then additional analysis might
be needed. For these situations, information regarding the B.4.4.4 In smoldering fires, thermal energy provides a force for
expected fire characteristics (fuel and its fire growth rate), transporting smoke particles to the smoke sensor. However,
transport characteristics, detector characteristics, and usually in the context of smoke detection, the rate of energy
compartment characteristics is required. The following (heat) release is small and the rate of growth Of the fire is slow.
information regarding smoke detector response and various Consequently, other factors such as ambient airflow from HVAC
performancebased approaches to evaluating smoke detector systems, differential solar heating of the structure, and wind
response is therefore provided. cooling of the structure can have a dominant influence on the
transport of smoke particles to the smoke sensor when low-output
B.4.2 Response Characteristics of Smoke Detectors. To fires are considered,
determine whether a smoke detector will respond to a given L, a
number of factors need to be evaluated. These factors include B.4.4.5 In the early stages of development of a growing fire, the
smoke characteristics, smoke transport, and detector same interior environmental effects, including ambient airflow
characteristics. from HVAC systems, differential solar heating of the structure,
and wind cooling of the structure, can have a dominant influence
B.4.3 Smoke Characteristics. on the transport of smoke, This is particularly important in spaces
having high ceilings. Greater thermal energy release from the fire
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-411
is necessary to overcome these interior environmental effects. B.4.6.g Because warm air rises, there will usually be a
Because the fire must attain a sufficiently high level of heat temperature gradient in the compartment. Of particular interest
release before it can overcome the interior environmental are those cases where the temperature of the air in the upper
airflows and drive the smoke to the ceiling-mounted detectors, portion of the compartment is greater than at the lower level
the use of closer spacing of smoke detectors on the ceiling might before the ignition, This can occur as a result Of solar load where
not significantly improve the response of the detectors to the fire. ceilings contain glazing materials. Computational methods are
Therefore, when considering ceiling height alone, smoke detector available to assess the potential for intermediate stratification for
spacing closer than 9.1 m (30 ft) might not be warranted, except the following two cases, depicted in Figure B.4.6.3(a).
in instances where an engineering analysis indicates additional Case L The temperature of the ambient is relatively constant
benefit will result. Other construction characteristics also should up to a height above which there is a layer of warm air at uniform
be considered. (Refer to the aPPr0Priate sections of ChaPter 17 temperature. This situation can occur if the upper portion of a
dealing with smoke detectors and their usefor the control of mall, atrium, or other large space is unoccupied and the air is left
smoke spead. ) unconditioned.
B.4.5 Smoke Dilution. Smoke dilution causes a reduction in the Case 2. The ambient interior air of the compartment has a
quantity of smoke per unit of air volume of smoke reaching the constant and uniform temperature gradient (temperature change
detector. Dilution typically occurs either by entrainment of air in per unit height) from floor to ceiling. This case is generally
the plume or the ceiling jet or by effects of HVAC systems. encountered in industrial and storage facilities that are normally
Forced ventilation systems with high air change rates typically unoccupied.
cause the most concern, -particularly in the early stages of fire
development, when smoke production rate and plume velocity The analysis of intermediate stratification is presented in
are both low. Airflows from supply as well -as return vents can Figure B.4.6.3(b). Plume centerline temperatures from two fires,
create defined air movement patterns within a compartment, 1000 kW (948 Btu/sec) and 2000 kW (1896 Btu/sec), are graphed
which can either keep smoke away from detectors Chat are based on estimates from correlations presented in this section. In
located outside of these paths or can inhibit smoke from entering Case 1, a step function is assumed to indicate a (16.5
0
a detector that is located directly in the airflow path, [26] F/ft) change in temperature 15 m (49.2 ft) above the floor due to
the upper portion of the atrium being unconditioned. For Case 2,
There currently are no quantitative methods for estimating a temperature gradient of I .50 C/m (0.82F/ft) is arbitrarily
either smoke dilution or airflow effects on locating smoke assumed in an atrium that has a ceiling height of 20 m (65.6 ft).
detectors. These factors should therefore be considered
qualitatively. The designer should understand that the effects of B.4.6.3.1 Step Function Temperature Gradient Spaces. If the
airflow become larger as the fire size at detection gets smaller. interior air temperature exhibits a discrete change at some
Depending on the application, the designer might find it useful to elevation above the floor, the potential for stratification can be
obtain airflow and velocity profiles within the room or to even assessed by applying the plume centerline temperature
conduct small-scale smoke tests under various conditions to correlation. If the plume centerline temperature is equal to the
assist in the design of the system. ambient temperature, the plume is no longer buoyant, loses its
B.4.6 Stratification.
B.4.6.1 The potential for the stratification of smoke is another
concern in designing and analyzing the response of detectors.
This is of particular concern with the detection of low-energy
fires and fires in compartments with high ceilings.
B.4.6.2 The upward movement of smoke in the plume depends
on the smoke being buoyant relative to the surrounding air.
Stratification occurs when the smoke or hot gases flowing from
the fire fail to ascend to the smoke detectors mounted at a Temperature Temperature profile: Case I
particular level (usually on the ceiling) above the fire due to the profile: Case 2
loss of buoyancy: This phenomenon occurs due to the continuous FIGURE B.4.6.3(a) Pre-Fire Temperature Profiles.
entrainment of cooler air into the fire plume as it rises, resulting
in cooling of the smoke and fire plume gases. The cooling of the 200 (392)
plume results in a reduction in buoyancy, Eventually the plume
cools to a point Where its temperature equals that of the
(302)
surrounding air and its buoyancy diminishes to zero. Once this
point of equilibrium is reached, the smoke will cease its upward
flow and form a layer, maintaining its height above the fire, (212)
regardless of the ceiling height, unless and until sufficient
additional thermal energy is provided from the fire to raise the (122)
layer due to its increased buoyancy. The maximum height to 150
which plume fluid (smoke) will ascend, especially early in the
development of a fire, depends on the convective heat release rate 100
of the fire and the ambient temperature in the compartment.
50
2022 Edition
5 15 20 B.4.6.3.2.g Assuming the ambient temperature varies linearly
(16.4) (32.8) (49.2) (65.6) with the height, the minimum Q required to overcome the
Height, m (ft) ambient temperature difference and drive the smoke to the
111 (200)
FIGURE B.4.6.3(b) Indoor Air and Plume Temperature Profiles
with Potential for Intermediate Stratification. upward
momentum, and stratifies at that height. The plume centerline
temperature can be calculated by using the following equation:
[B.4.6.3.1a1
T =25Q +20 (for Slums)
[B.4.6.3.1b/
T = 316 Q z +70 (for inch-pound units)
where: 7.6 15.2 22.9 30.5 38.1 45.7 53.3 61.0
(25) (50) (75) (100) (125) (150) (175) (200)
T, = plume centerline temperature ( o c or OF)
Q = convective portion of fire heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) Maximum height Of smoke rise, m (tt)
height above the top of the fuel package involved (m or ft) FIGURE B.4.6.3.2.2 Temperature Change and Maximum Height
B.4.6.3.2 Linear Temperature Gradient Spaces. To determine of Smoke Rise for Given fire Sizes.
whether or not the rising smoke or heat from an axisymmetric
fire plume will stratify below detectors, the following equation ceiling (C H) can be determined from the following equation:
can be applied where the ambient temperature increases
linearlywith increasing elevation:
[B.4.6.3.2.3a1
or (2=0.0018/45 (for Sl units)
tB.4.6.g.2a1
zm 5,54Ql (for SI units)

[B.4.6.3.2.3b]
or Q = 2,39x104 f-/ 5 (for inch-pound units)
[B.4.6.3.2b] Note that the variables are identified in Section B. 7.

13.4.6.3.2.4 The theoretical basis for the stratification calculation
is based on the works of Morton, Taylor, and Turner [151 and
zm -14.7 Q/ 4 (for inch-pound units) Heskestad [91 . For further information regarding the derivation
where: of the expression defining 4, the user is referred to the work of
= maximum height of smoke rise above the fire surface and Milke [131 and NFPA 92.
(m or ft) 13.4.7 Detector Characteristics.
To = difference between the ambient temperature at the B.4.7.1 General. Once smoke is transported to the
location of detectors and the ambient temperature at additional factors become important in determining whether
the level of the fire surface ( P C or OF) response will occur. These include the aerodynamic
Q = convective portion of the heat release rate (kW or Btu/ characteristics of the detector and the type of sensor within the
sec) detector. The aerodynamics of the detector relate to how easily
13.4.6„3.2.1 The convective portion of the heat release rate (Q) smoke can pass through the detector housing and enter the sensor
can be estimated as 70 percent of the heat release rate. portion of the unit. Additionally, the location of the entry portion
B.4.6.g.2.2 As an alternative to using the noted expression to to the sensor with respect to the velocity profile of the ceiling jet
directly calculate the maximum height to which the smoke or heat is also an important factor, Finally, different sensing methods and
will rise, Figure 13.4.6.3.2.2 can be used to determine for given algorithms will respond differently, depending on the smoke
fires. Where Z,u, as calculated or determined graphically, is characteristics (e.g., smoke color, particle size, optical density,
greater than the installed height of detectors, smoke or heat from and so forth). Within the family of photoelectric devices, there
a rising fire plume is predicted to reach the detectors. Where the will be variations depending on the wavelengths of light and the
compared values of and the installed height of detectors are scattering angles employed. Paragraphs B.4.7.2 through B.4.7,5
comparable heights, the prediction that smoke or heat will reach discuss some of these issues and various calculation methods.
the detectors might not be a reliable expectation. B.4.7.2 Resistance to Smoke Entry.
13.4.7.2.1 All spot-type smoke detectors require smoke to enter
the detection chamber in order to be sensed, This requires
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-413
additional factors to be taken into consideration when attempting detectors. This again assumes a horizontal, smooth ceiling. Care
to estimate smoke detector response, as smoke entry into the should also be taken when using this correlation, such that
detection chamber can be affected in several ways, for example, consideration is given to potential effects Of coagulation and
insect screens, sensing chamber configuration, and location of agglomeration, and settling of the smoke within the ceiling jet as
the detector with respect to the ceiling. it moves away from the fire source and loses its buoyancy. The
velocity for smoke entry might be present, but the concentration
B.4.7.2.2 In trying to quantify this, Heskestad 132] developed the
of smoke might not be sufficient to actuate the detector.
idea of smoke detector lag to explain the difference in optical
density outside versus inside (DUO) of a detector when the B.4.7.4 Response to Smoke Color, Smoke detectors that use an
detector actuates. It was demonstrated that this difference could optical means to detect smoke respond differently to smokes of
be explained by the use of a correction factor Due using the different colors,
following relationship:
B.4.7.4.I Manufacturers currently provide limited information
regarding the response of smoke detectors in their specifications
[B.4.7.2.21 as well as in the information contained on the labels on the backs
d(Dw) of the detectors. This response information indicates only their
nominal response values with respect to gray smoke, not to black,
and is often provided with a response range instead of an exact
response value. This range is in accordance With UL 268, Smoke
where: Detectorsfor Fire Alarm S)stems.
L — characteristic length for a given detector design, B.4.7.4.2 The response ranges allowable by UL for gray smoke
represents the ease of smoke entry into the sensing chamber are shown in Table 13.4.7.4.2. Older editions of UL 268
rate of increase of optical density outside the detec- contained response ranges for black smoke and are also shown
tor for comparison.
V = velocity of the smoke at the detector B.4.7.4.3 Detectors respond at different optical density levels to
B.4.7.2.3 Various Studies regarding this correlation have provided different fuels and different types of smoke. Examples of this are
additional insight regarding smoke entry and associated lags [33, 34, shown in Table B.4.7.L3, which contains values of optical
34a, 34b, 34c, 34d, 34el•, however, the difficulty in quantifying L for density at response recommended by Heskestad and Delichatsios
different detectors and relating it to spacing requirements can have [10] based on their test.
limited usefulness, and the concept of critical velocity (U) could be Note the large variations in response not only to materials
more applicable. 121 J producing relatively the same color of smoke but also to smoke
of cliflërent color, which is much more pronounced. Also note
B.4.7.3 Critical Velocity. smoke detector's critical velocity refers
to the minimum velocity of the smoke necessary to enter the that there was variation in the optical density at response values
sensing chamber to cause an alarm without significant delays due for a given material in the test conducted by Heskestad and
to smoke entry lag. Alarms can occur at velocities less than the Delichatsios, which is not shown in Table B-4.7.4.3. The values
critical velocity value, but their response can be delayed or cited in Table 13.4.7.4,3 are provided as an example of the
require greater smoke concentrations than would normally be variation in optical density at response, but these values are not
necessary. Flow across a detector causes a pressure differential necessarily appropriate for all analyses. For example, the results
between the upstream and downstream sides of the detector. This presented for polyurethane and PVC involved relatively large,
pressure differential is the principal driving force for the smoke rapidly developing fires, and fires with smaller growth rates
entering the unit. could result in smaller values of optical density at response 1101.
More information on the variation of optical density at response
Experimental work has indicated that the critical velocity is is available from Geiman and Gottuk [481 and Geiman 1461,
approximately 0.15 m/sec (0.49 ft/sec) for the ionization
detectors tested in one particular study. [211 Once velocities were B.4.7.5 Optical Density and Temperature. During a flaming fire,
reduced below this level, the smoke concentration level outside smoke detector response is affected by ceiling height and the size
the detector before an alarm condition increased dramatically and rate of fire growth in much the same way as heat detector
when compared to smoke concentration levels when the velocity response. The thermal energy of the flaming fire transports
was above the critical value, Another study found that measured smoke particles to the sensing chamber just as it does heat to a
velocities at the time of alarm for ionization and photoelectric heat sensor. While the relationship between the amount of smoke
detectors in full-scale flaming fire tests generally supported this and the amount of heat produced by a fire is highly dependent on
velocity value, with a mean value of 0.13 m/ sec (0.43 ft/sec) and the fuel and the way it is burning, research has shown that the
a standard deviation of 0.07 m/sec (0.23 ft/sec) [461. Estimating relationship between temperature and the optical density of
the critical velocity can therefore be useful for design and smoke remains somewhat constant
analysis.
It is interesting to note that this critical velocity value (0.15 Table B.4.7.4.2 UL 268 Smoke Detector Test Acceptance
m/sec or 0.49 ft/sec) is close to that at which a smoke detector Criteria for Different Colored Smoke [351
must respond in the UL smoke detector sensitivity chamber in
order to become listed. [351 The location in the ceiling jet where
Acceptable Response Range
this velocity occurs for a given fire and ceiling height might
therefore be considered as •a first approximation for locating
2022 Edition
Color of Smoke B.4.7.5.3 When Appendix C of NFPA 72E [58] was first
published in 1984, a 13 0 C (20 0F) temperature rise was used to
indicate detector response. Schifiliti and Pucci [181 have
Gray 1.6-12.5 0.5—4.0
combined some of the data from Heskestad and Delichatsios [10]
Black 5.0-29.2 1.5-10.0 to produce Table B.4.7.5.3 showing the temperature rise at
Table B.4.7.4.3 Values of Optical Density at Response for naming Fires [181
Optical Density at Response
Dur(fti)
Relative
Ionization Photo electric Ionization Smoke
Material Photoelectric Color
Wood crib 0.016 0.049 0.005 0.015 Light

Cotton 0.002 0.026 0.0005 0.008 Light
fabric 0.164 0.05 0.05 Dark
Polyurethane 0.328 0.1 Dark
0.328 0.1
foam
PVC
Variati on 200: 1 12.5:1
Table B.4.7.5.1 Ratio of Optical Density to Temperature Rise
Representative Representative Maximum:

Material Value Val ue Range Value Value Range Minimum
Wood (sugar pine, 5% moist) 1.20E-03 8.9E-4-3.2E-3 2.00E4)4 1.5E-5.5E4 3.7:1

Cotton (unbleached muslin fabric) 5.9E4/1.2E-3 3.0E-4-1.8E-g I.OE-04/2.O-4 5.0E-5-3.OE-4
Paper (in trash can) 1.80E-03 Data not available 3.00E-04 Data not available
Polyurethane foam 2.40E-03 1.2E-2-3.2E-2 4.00E4)4 2.0E-3-5.5E-3
2.8:1
Polyester fiber (bed pillow) 1.80E-02 Data not available 5.0E-3/1.OE-2 Data not available
PVC (wire insulation) 3.OE-2/5.9E-2 5.9E-3-5.9E-2 3.OOE-03 I.OE-3-1.OE-2 10:1

Foam rubber PU (sofa cushion) 7.70E-02 Data not available 1,30E-02 Data not available
Average 2.1 OE-02 3.0E-4-7.7E-2 3.60E-03 5.OE-05-1.3E-2 260:1
within the fire plume and on the ceiling in the proximity of the detector response. Note that the temperature rise associated with
plume. detector response varies significantly depending on the detector
type and fuel.
B.4.7.5.1 These results were based on the work by He.skestad
and Delichatsios [101 and are indicated in Table B.4.7,5.I Note Also note that the values in Table B.4.7.5.3 are not based on
that for a given fuel, the optical density to temperature rise ratio temperature measurements taken at the detector response times,
between the maximum and minimum levels is 10 or less. but were calculated by Heskestad and Delichatsios [10] from
their recommended values of optical density at response (Table
B.4.7.5.2 In situations where the optical density at detector
13.4.7.4.3) -and their recommended ratios of optical density to
response is known and is independent of particle size
temperature rise (Table B.4.7.5.l).
distribution, the detector response can be approximated as a
function of the heat release rate of the burning fuel, the fire Several experimental studies have cited temperature rises at
growth rate, and the ceiling height, assuming that the preceding detection as low as to 30 C (1.8 0 F to 5.40 F). Of particular note,
correlation exists. Geiman [461 found that for flaming fires, 80 percent of Table
B.4.7.5.3 Temperature Rise for Detector Response [181
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-415
Ionization Scattering QDO = (Itjo
Temp erature Rise Temperature Rise
Material 2000 kW - 0.047 kW/sec2 (tio)
= 210 sec
Wood 13.9 25 41.7 75
Cotton 1.7 3 27.8 50
Polyurethane 7.9 7.2 13
PVC 13 [B.4.8.1.4b1
72 7.2 13
13 1897 Btu/sec — 0.044 Btu/sec 5 (t;o)
Average 7.8 14 21.1 38
the ionization detectors examined in full-scale smoke detection t = 210 sec
tests alarmed at measured temperature rises less than or equal to
30 . 13.4.8.1.5 Next, subtract the time for the fire brigade to respond
B.4.8 Methods for Estimating Smoke Detector Response. to determine what time after ignition that detection should occur.
Note that a 30-second safety factor has been added to the fire
B.4.8.1 General. There are various methods to estimate smoke brigade's response time,
detector response. Research is still needed in this area to reflect
smoke production, transport to the detector; response of the [B.4.8.1.51 t
detector, and performance metrics of the smoke detector. = 210 sec — 120 sec—90 sec
Designers should be aware of the advantages and disadvantages,
as well as limitations, of these methods and undertake sensitivity B.4.8.1.6 Then calculate the critical heat release rate at which
analyses and use of multiple methods where applicable. detection should occur as follows:
B.4.8.1.1 Method 1 — Optical DensityVersus Temperature.
B.4.8.1.2 The following example is intended to determine [B.4.8.1.6a1
whether an existing fire detection system can detect a fire in part 2
of a warehouse used to store wardrobes in sufficient time to [B.4.8.1.6b1
prevent radiant ignition of adjacent wardrobes. The area under
review has a large, flat ceiling, 5 m (16.5 ft) high. The ambient = 0.047 kW/sec2 (90 sec/ —380 kW
temperature within the compartment is (68 0F) The compartment
is not sprinklered. The wardrobes are constructed mainly of or
particleboard. The detectors are ionization-type smoke detectors
spaced 6.1 m (20 ft) on center. The design objective is to keep = 0.044 Btu/sec3 (90 sec/ 360 Btu/sec
the maximum heat release rate ( (b) below 2 MW (1897 Btu/sec)
in order to ensure that radiant ignition of the wardrobes in the B.4.8.1.7 Using the numbers in the fire detection design and
acliacent aisle will not occur. There is an on-site fire brigade that analysis worksheet at 90 seconds into the fire when the heat
can respond to and begin discharging water on the fire within 90 release rate is 380 kW (360 Btu/sec), the temperature rise at the
seconds of receiving the alarm, It can be assumed that there are detector is calculated to be approximately 17 c c (30.6 0F). This,
no other delays between the time the detector reaches its therefore, might be a reasonable approximation to show that the
operating threshold and the time to notification of the fire detector might respond.
brigade. Given this information, would the existing system be B.4.8.2 Method 2 — Mass Optical Density.
suffictent?
B.4.8.2.1 Data regarding smoke characteristics for given fuels
B.4.8.1.3 The following assumptions are made for this example: can be used as another method to evaluate detector response.
B.4.8.2.2 The following example is provided,
[B.4.8.1.31
The design objective established for this scenario is to detect
0.047 kW/sec2 (0.044
the smoke from a flaming 400 g (l .0 1b) polyurethane chair
cushion in less than 2 minutes. The chair is placed in a
RT1=25mJ (45fti compartment that is 40 m2 (431 ft2). The ceiling height is 3.0 m
(10 ft). It has been determined that the burning rate of the cushion
is a steady rate of 50 g/min (0.09 lb/min). Determine whether the
Temperature rise for response = 140 C (25 OF)
design objective will be met.
Refer to Table n.4.7.5.3 for temperature rise to response Of an
B.4.8.2.3 The total mass loss of the cushion due to combustion at
ionization smoke detector for a wood fire.
2 minutes is 100 g (0.22 1b). Therefore, the optical density in the
B.4.8.1.4 Using the power law equation, the design objective room produced by the burning cushion can be calculated from the
response time is calculated as follows: following equation: [51
[B.4.8.1.4a1 [B.4.8.2.3]
2022 Edition
across the detector, nor does it provide for any delay due to
smoke entry. Finally, it assumes uniform smoke concentration
throughout the solution volume. Failure to use prudently selected
where: values for ceiling jet thickness and use of this relation outside the
= mass optical density (m2/g) [261 limitations imposed by the assumptions can lead to invalid
M = mass (g) designs.
Vc — volume of the compartment B.4.8.2.7 The mass optical density method also enables the
D = [(0.22 m2 /g) (100 g)]/ (40 m 2 ) (3 m) 0.183 or designer to analyze existing systems. When we accept the
assumption that smoke detectors listed by UL will respond at an
where: optical density of 0.14 m; l , we can write the relation:
mass optical density (ft2 /lb) 126] M
— mass (1b) Vc=rr2h
V, = volume of the compartment
| (1075 ftù/lb) (0.22 (431 ft2) (9.8 ft) = 0.056 ft-l
B.4.8.2.4 If it is assumed that the detector responds at an optical
density of 0.15 m-l (0.046 ft-l ), the maximum black smoke
optical density allowed in a previous edition of the UL 268
sensitivity test [35], it can be assumed that the detector will
respond within 2 minutes.
B.4.8.2.5 It should be noted that this method presents a very
simplified approach, and that various assumptions would need to
FIGURE B.4.8.2.6 Smoke Layer Volume Model.
be made including that the smoke is confined to the room, is well
mixed, can reach the ceiling, and can enter the detector. [B.4.8.2.7a1
DmM
B.4.8.2.6 The preceding estimation assumes that the smoke is
evenly distributed throughout the entire compartment volume.
This is rarely the case but establishes a very conservative limit.
For design purposes, one can model the smoke layer as a and thus
cylindrical volume centered about the fire plume having a depth
equivalent to the ceiling jet thickness or some multiple of it. [B.4.8.2.7b1
Refer to Figure 13.4.8.2.6.
'The volume of the cylinder can now be used as the solution
volume: for a cylindrical solution volume.
Since H(t)— MAHO and H(t) (oeð)/3s we can MTite the
[B.4.8.2.6a1 relation
[B.4.8.2.7c1
is used with the substitution of
[B.4.8.2.6b1
Substituting, this leads to the relation
To obtain the maximum radius from the fire plume centerline [B.4.8.2.7d]
at which detector response is expected, the nominal 0.14 m-l 2
_ L)A7tr h
optical density criterion is substituted into the relation and an D
explicit relation for r is obtained,
This relation is reorganized to be explicit in t,
[B.4.8.2.6c]
[B.4.8.2.7e]
Note that the results of this calculation are highly dependent

upon the assumed layer thickness, h. The designer must carefully This time estimate must be corrected for the lag time produced
document the value used for the ceiling jet thickness for this by the resistance to smoke entry of the detector, Currently, this
reason. This method does not assume any minimum velocit-y time delay, which is a function of detector design and ceiling jet
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-417
velocity, is not quantified in the listing process. Consequently, B.4.9 Effects of HVAC Systems. The requirement to address the
the designer must make an estimate of' the time delay due to effects of HVAC systems on the performance of smoke detectors
smoke entry, Thus, the response time estimate becomes: was historically reduced to a "3-foot rule." However, research
conducted under the auspices of the Fire Protection Research
[B.4.8.2.7f] Foundation showed that such a simple rule was not adequate in
many cases.
3DÑtr2hAH
Theoretically, the effect of HVAC flows on the performance of
smoke detectors can be implemented by calculating the flow
This relation predicts the time at which the mass optical velocity and smoke concentration at the detector as a function
density attains the detector alarm threshold in the solution of fire growth and HVAC operating parameters. With complex
volume derived from the detector spacing and an assumed ceilings this often requires the use of computational fluid
ceilingjet thickness. Again, the results of this calculation are dynamics models running in computers. One such model is FOS,
highly dependent upon the assumed ceiling jet layer thickness. developed and supported by NIST.
However, once time, t, is known, if the fire can be characterized However, for simple, planar ceilings at heights customarily
as a t-square fire, the fire size can be calculated from the relation
encountered in conventional construction, the effects of HVAC
system van be estimated using a simplified calculation derived
[B.4.8.2.7g] from well-known correlations to identify where a problem is
Consequently, substitution of this relation into the preceding likely. These simple calculations are not a substitute for a fully
relation yields the final analytical relation for the heat release modeled scenario, but they provide the advantage of being
rate at alarm, Q: easily executed in a short time frame.
Ceiling-mounted HVAC system supply and return registers
[B.4.8.2.7h1 are designed to produce specific airflow patterns. The exact
shape of the velocity and flow volume profiles is determined by
the physical design of the register. A commercially available
31)Ftr2hAH register might exhibit a flow profile as shown in Figure B.4.9.
This section considers two cases. The first is where the ceiling
This relation provides an estimate of de tector response jet is being acted upon by an HVAC system supply. The second is
subject to the assumptions and values selected or the relevant where the ceiling jet is being acted upon by an HVAC system
parameters. The estimate can be no better than the data used return. Each case is considered in its bounding value condition
to generate it. to provide a worst-case estimate of the resulting velocity at the
B.4.8.3 Critical Velocity Method. Research shows that a detector.
minimum critical velocity is necessary before smoke can enter In the first case, the flow of air from the ceiling supply can
the sensing chamber of the smoke detector. (Sep 13.4.7.3.) This divert, impede, and dilute the ceiling jet flow, retarding detector
method assumes that, if this critical velocity has been attained, response. This effect can be estimated using a onedimensional
sufficient smoke concentration is in the ceiling jet gas flow to vector analysis of the velocity produced by the HVAC system
produce an alarm signal. Ceiling jet velocity correlations exist for versus that produced by the fire. The velocity profile produced
steady-state fires, not /-square fires. However, a t-square fire by the HVAC supply register is determined by the design of the
can be modeled a succession of steady-state fires for slow and register and the flow volume supplied to it. The velocity at the
medium growth rate fires. In the UL smoke box test, the detector produced by the fire is an artifact of' the ceiling jet. The
minimum flow velocity at the detector is 0.152 m/sec (30 ft/ sum of these two velocities versus the minimum velocity for
minute) . The correlation response can be used to determine if sufficient ceiling jet
velocity exists at the detector to initiate an alarm.
[B.4.8.3a1
In the second case, the HVAC return pulls air up from lower
0.195(Ql/5+1i'2ì
elevations in the compartment, diluting the smoke density in the
576 forr/h ÈO.15 ceiling jet in the vicinity of the HVAC return. This case is
much more difficult to evaluate because it implies a flow volume
is used. Ur is set to equal 0.152 m/sec. With this substitution analysis to determine when the flow to ceiling-mounted HVAC
the relation becomes: returns will distort the concentration profile of the ceiling jet to
the point that it adversely affects detector response.
1B.4.8.3b1 Unfortunately, the listings of smoke detectors do not include an
rs(1.28Q +1 ) explicit measurable value for detector sensitivity in terms that
can relate to the design fire.
This relation is solved to obtain the maximum distance
between the fire plume centerline and the detector at which the B.4.9.1 Effects of HVAC Ceiling supply Registers. This method
critical jet velocity is expected to be obtained for the given makes use of the finding that there is a critical minimum velocity
convective heat release rate and ceiling height. necessary for reliable smoke detector response. The use of the
2022 Edition
30 ft/min (0.15 m/sec) flow velocity in the UL 268 and 217 The ceilingjet velocity can be modeled with the relation for
smoke detector sensitivity test for spot-type smoke detectors critical velocity developed by Alpert.
has led to the evolution of spot-type smoke detectors that are
optimized for that flow velocity. In listing investigations, it has [B.4.9.1b]
been learned that when the ceiling jet velocity is less than the S I2 5
H )r m/ sec
nominal 30 ft/min (0.15 m/sec) commercially available, listed
spot-type smoke detector, performance begins to suffer. (See B. The flow at the detector is the sum of the velocity from the
4.7.3.) ceiling jet and the ceiling supply register. Since the worst-case
For the prediction of spot-type smoke detector response we scenario is where the fire is located such that the flow of the
assume that the ceiling jet velocity at the detector must exceed ceilingjet is directly opposed to the flow from the HVAC supply
this critical velocity, 0.15 m/sec (30 ft/min), at the detector. register, this scenario fOrms the basis for the analysis as shown
in Figure B.4.9.l (b).
The velocity from the ceiling jet is derived from Alpert's
correlations.
1B.4.9.1c]
Airflow pattern Airflow pattern from supply to
return
FIGURE B.4.9 Typical HVAC now Patterns inMercanti1e
and Business Occupancies.
The flow from an HVAC system supply register also produces a where:
flow velocity. When a fire occurs in a room equipped With ceilingget velocity at the detector
ceiling-mounted HVAC system supply, the velocity at the Q = convective heat release, 0.65 Q
detector is the vector sum of the velocity due to the HVAC H ceiling height radius, distance between plume centerline
system supply and the fire ceiling jet. and the detector
To estimate the resultant flow velocity at a smoke detector; the All in metric units.
flow velocity from the ceiling supply is determined as a function of
register design, flow volume, and distance from the supply register. In the case of opposing flows, the resultant velocity at the
The velocity produced by the ceilingjet is calculatecl as a function of detector is the ceilingjet velocity minus the velocity due to the
distance from the fire plume. The worstcase limit condition is where flow from the HVAC supply. The relation becomes:
the detector location is where the ceiling jet flow is directly opposite
in direction to the flow from the HVAC supply register. Consequently, [B.4.9.1d1 v/ -0.195(Q l 3+11 2 )/r5
it is assumed that the ceiling jet is flowing in the opposite direction of
the flow from the ceiling register, Smoke detector response can be expected to be consistent
The flow of air into a compartment Via the HVAC system can with its listing when the value of va is greater than or equal to
be estimated by the flow volume and a flow factor that is related 0.15 m/sec, Thus the relation becomes:
to the flow characteristics of the supply register. See Figure
B.4.9, I (a) for an example of such characteristics. [B.4.9.1e1
The manufacturer Of the ceiling supply register provides a 0.15 m/secsO.195(Q l 2
)/r5
velocity diagram that depicts flow velocity as a function of flow
volume for each register it produces. In the U.S., these diagrams If the right-hand side Of the equation B.4.lO.le exceeds the
generally use conventional feet per minute (FPM) and cubic feet left, the airflow from the HVAC register should not be sufficient
per minute (CFM) units. Since fire protection engineering to reduce the ceiling jet flow from the fire plume to the point
correlations are generally expressed in metric units, it is where response by a smoke detector would not be expected. On
necessary to convert the flow volume and flow velocity from the the other hand, if the calculated resultant velocity is less than
HVAC system to metric units, Replacing CFM with flow volume the 0.15 m/ sec threshold, adjustments should be made to the
per unit time this relation becomes: design to locate the smoke detector where there will be
sufficient ceilingjet velocity to predict alarm response.
[B.4.9.1a1 =
B.4.9.2 Effects of HVAC Returns. When detectors are in close
k(V) / (12 m/sec
proximity to ceiling-mounted HVAC return grilles, the flow of air
Where: upward toward the return grille tends to dilute and cool the
— is the velocity due to the register ceiling jet. This tends to retard the response of detectorsi
Unfortunately the geometry is more complex in this case. The
ceiling jet is moving horizontally across the ceiling while the flow
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-419
toward a ceiling-mounted return grille is essentially m oving sensing detectors operate has been divided into three bands:
vertically. ultraviolet (UV), visible, or infrared (IR). These wavelengths are
defined with the following wavelength ranges: 131
Most ceiling return grilles usually exhibit •a flow velocity
profile that is roughly hemispherical in shape, centered on the ( 1 ) Ultraviolet O. 1—0.35 microns
duct centerline, Figure 13,4.9.2 illustrates this flow velocity (2) Visible 0.35—0.75 microns
profile. (3) Infrared O. 75—220 microns
FIGURE B.4.9.1(b) CeilingJet Flow in Opposition to

Flow from HVAC System.
80 fpm
40 fpm
20 fpm
10 fpm
FIGURE B.4.9.2 Velocity Profile for Ceiling-Mounted

Return Grille.
v= (convertedto metric units)
B.5.1.2 Wavelength. These wavelength ranges correspond to the
FIGURE B.4.9.1(a) Typical HVAC quantum-mechanical interaction between matter and energy.
Volume Diagram that Might be Used to Describe Operation of Photonic interactions with matter can be characterized by
Supply Register. wavelength as shown in Table B.5.l .2.
As the radial distance from the HVAC return increases, the velocity
drops off quite rapidly, proportional to times the square of the increase Table B.5.1.2 Wavelength Ranges
in distance. The relative velocity contri- butions could be again used
to calculate the relative effect, but in this case an explicit sensitivity Wavelength Photonic Interaction
parameter that relates to the design fire is not available. Percent per
foot obscuration cannot be reliably used.
However, the bounding value, worst-case scenario is where the X < 50 micron Gross molecular translations
upward velocity is modeled as if it is flowing directly opposite to 50 pm < X < I .0 pm Molecular vibrations and
that of the ceilingjet. This reduces to the same analysis as for the rotations
ceiling supply. 1.0 pm < X < 0.05 pm Valence electron bond vibrations
These calculations do NOT replace CFD modeling. They are 0.3 pm < X < 0, 05 pm Electron stripping and
limited only for level ceilings of heights normally encountered in recombinations
commercial construction. In that limited context they can be used
to predict smoke detector performance.
B.5 Radiant Energy Detection.
B.5.1.3 Photon Transfer. When a fuel molecule is oxidized in the
B.5.1 General. combustion process, the combustion intermediate molecule must
B.5.1.1 Electromagnetic Radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is lose energy to become a stable molecular species, This energy is
emitted over a broad range of the spectrum during the combustion emitted as a photon with a unique wavelength determined by the
process. The portion of the spectrum in which radiant energy— following equation:
2022 Edition
[B.5.1.3] B.5.1.5.3 Contamination of Optical Surfaces. Radiant energy can
be absorbed or reflected by materials contaminating the optical
surfaces of radiant energy—sensing detectors. The designer
should evaluate the potential for surface contamination and
whe e — energy (joules) h = Planck's implement provisions for keeping these surfaces clean. Extreme
constant (6.63E-23joule-sec) c — speed of caution must be employed when considering the use of surrogate
light (m/sec) — wavelength (microns) windows. Common glass, acrylic, and other glazing materials are
opaque at the wavelengths used by most flame detectors and
r 1.0 joule 5.0345E+18(X), where X is measured in microns,] some spark/ ember detectors. Placing a window between the
B.5.1.4 Type of Detector. The choice of the type of radiant detector and the hazard area that has not been listed by a
energy—sensing detector to use is determined by the type of nationally recognized testing laboratory (NRTL) for use with the
emissions that are expected from the fire radiator. detector in question is a violation of the detector listing and will
usually result in a system that is incapable of detecting a fire in
B.5.1.4.1 Fuels that produce a flame, a stream of combustible or the hazard area.
flammable gases involved in the combustion reaction with a
gaseous oxidizer, radiate quantum emissions. These fuels include B.5.1.5.4 Design Factors. These factors are important for several
flammable gases, flammable liquids, Combustible liquids, and reasons. First, a radiation sensor is primarily a line-ofsight
solids that are burning with a flame. device, and must "see" the fire source. If there are other radiation
sources in the area, or if atmospheric conditions are such that a
B.5.1.4.2 Fuels that are oxidized in the solid phase or radiators large fraction of the radiation could be absorbed in the
that are emitting clue to their internal temperature (sparks and atmosphere, the type, location, and spacing of the sensors could
embers) radiate Planckian emissions. These fuels include be affected. In addition, the sensors react to specific wavelengths,
carbonaceous fuels such as coal, charcoal, wood, and cellulosic and the fuel must emit radiation in the sensor's bandwidth. For
fibers that are burning without an established flame, as well as example, an infrared detection device with a single sensor tuned
metals that have been heated due to mechanical impacts and to 4.3 microns (the C,Ocu emission peak) cannot be expected to
friction. detect a non-carbon-based fire. Furthermore, the sensor needs to
B.5.1.4.3 Almost all combustion events produce Planckian be able to respond reliably within the required time, especially
emissions, emissions that are the result of the thermal energy in when activating an explosion suppression system or similar fast-
the fuel mass. Therefore, spark/ ember detectors that are designed response extinguishing or control system„
to detect these emissions are not fuel specific. Flame detectors B.5.1.6 Detector Response Model. The response of radiant
detect quantum emissions that are the result of changes in energy—sensing detectors is modeled with a modified inverse
molecular structure and energy state in the gas phase. These square relationship as shown in the following eqyation [51:
emissions are uniquely associated with particular molecular
structures. This can result in a flame detector that is very fuel
specific. [B.5.1.6]
B.5.1.5 Effects of Ambient. The choice of radiant energy—

sensing detector is also limited by the effect of ambient where:
conditions. The design must take into account the radiant energy
S radiant power reaching the detector (W or Btu/sec) sufficient
absorption of the atmosphere, presence of non-fire-related
to produce alarm response k proportionality constant for the
radiation sources that might cause nuisance alarms, the
detector P = radiant power emitted by the fire (W or Btu/sec)
electromagnetic energy of the spark, ember, or fire to be detected,
C = extinction coefficient of air at detector operating
the distance from the fire source to the sensor, and characteristics
wavelengths d = distance between the fire and the detector
of the sensor.
(m or ft)
B.5.1.5.1 Ambient Non-fire Radiators. Most ambients contain
This relationship models the fire as a point source radiator, Of
non-fire radiators that can emit at wavelengths used by radiant
uniform radiant output per steradian, some distance (d) from the
energy—sensing detectors for fire detection. The designer should
detector. This relationship also models the effect of absorbance
make a thorough evaluation of the ambient to identify radiators
by the air between the fire and the detector as being a uniform
that have the potential for producing unwarranted alarm response
extinction function. The designer must verify that these modeling
from radiant energy—sensing detectors. Since radiant energy—
assumptions are valid for the application in question.
sensing detectors use electronic components that can act as
antennas, the evaluation should include radio band, microwave, B.5.2 Design of Flame Detection Systems.
infrared, visible, and ultraviolet sources. B.5.2.l Detector Sensitivity. Flame detector sensitivity is
B.5.1.5.2 Ambient Radiant Absorbance. The medium through traditionally quantified as the distance at which the unit can
which radiant energy pmsses from fire source to detector has a detect a fire of given size, The fire most commonly used by the
finite transmittance. Transmittance is usually quantified by its NRTLs in North America is a 0.9 m2 (1.0 ft2 ) fire fueled with
reciprocal, absorbance. Absorbance by atmospheric species regular grade, unleaded gasoline. Some special-purpose detectors
varies with wavelength. Gaseous species absorb at the same are evaluated using 150 mm (6 in.) diameter fires fueled with
wavelengths that they emit. Particulate species can transmit, isopropanol.
reflect, or absorb radiant emission, and the proportion that is B. 5.2.1.1 This means of sensitivity determination does not take
absorbed is expressed as the reciprocal of its emissivity, E. into account that flames can best be modeled as an optically
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-421
dense radiator in which radiant emissions radiated from the far A,. = radiating area (m2 or ft2) h/
side of the flame toward the detector are re-absorbed by the —J flame height (m or ft)
flame. Consequently, the radiated power from a flame is not = flame width (m or ft)
proportional to the area of the fire but to the flame silhouette, and
hence to the height and width of the fire. B.5.2.2.2 The radiant power 0Utpt1t of the fire to the detector can
be approximated as being proportional to the radiating •area of
B.5.2.1.2 Because flame detectors detect the radiant emissions the flamet
produced during the formation of flame intermediates and
products, the radiant intensity produced by a flame at a given
[13.5.2.2.21
wavelength is proportional to the relative concentration of the
P=cA,
specific intermediate or product in the flame and that portion of
the total heat release rate of the fire resulting from the formation Where:
of that specific intermediate or product. This means that the
response of a detector can vary widely as different fuels are used A, = radiating area (m2 or ft2)
to produce a fire of the same surface area and flame width. = power per unit area proportionality constant
P = radiated power (W or Btu/ sec)
B.5.2.1.3 Many flame detectors are designed to detect specific
B.5.2.3 Calculate Detector Sensitivity. Using Eq uation
products such as water (2.5 microns) and C02 (4.35 microns).
B.5.2.2.la or B.5.2.2.lb compute the radiating area of the test fire
These detectors cannot be used for fires that do not
used by the NRTL in the listing process The radiant power output
produce these products as a result of the combustion process.
of the test fire to the detector m the listing process is proportional
B-5.2.1.4 Many flame detectors use time variance of the radiant to the radiating area of the listing test flame.
emissions of a flame to distinguish between non-fire radiators
and a flame, Where a deflagration hazard exists, the designer B.5.2.4 Calculate Detector Response to Design Fire. Because the
must determine the sample time period for such flame detectors sensitivity of a flame detector is fixed during the manufactilt-ing
and how such detectors will operate in the event of' a deflagration process, the following is the relationship that determines the
of fuel vapor or fuel gases. radiant power reaching the detector sufficient to produce an
alarm response:
B.5.2.2 Design Fire. Using the process outlined in Section 13.2,
determine the fire size (kW or Btu/ sec) at which detection must
be achieved.
B.5.2.2.1 Compute the surface area the design fire is expected to [B.5.2.4a1
occupy from the correlations in Table B.2.3.2.6.2(a) or other
sources. Use the flame height correlation to determine the height
of the flame plume; where
[B.5.2.2.1a1 S = radiant power reaching the detector (W or Btu/sec)
sufficient to produce alarm response proportionality
(for SI units) constant for the detector
A/ — radiant area of the listing test fire (m2 or ft2 ) extinction
or coefficient of air at detector operating wavelengths distance
between the fire and the detector during the list, ing fire test (m
[B.5.2.2.1b1 or ft) emitted power per unit flame radiating area correlation
(for inch-pound units)
Because the sensitivity of the detector is constant over the
where: range of ambients for which it is listed;
hr = flame height (m or ft) Q = heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec)
k = wall effect factor. Where there are no nearby walls, use k = [B.5.2.4b1
l; where the fuel package is near a wall, use k = 2; where the keae_cvl•
fuel package is in a corner, use k = 4
Determine the minimum anticipated flame area width
Where flammable or combustible liquids are the fuel load and are where:
unconfined, model the fuel as a circular pool. Compute the
S radiant power reaching the detector (W or Btu/sec) sufficient
radiating area (A) using the following equation:
to produce alarm response proportionality constant for the
detector c emitted power per unit flame radiating area
[B.5.2.2.1c1 correlation radiant area of the design fire (m 2 or ft2 )
1 C extinction coefficient of air at detector operating
wavelengths d? distance between the design fire and the
detector (m or
2h/WL
where: Theft:fore, use the following equation to determine the

following:
2022 Edition
1B.5.2.4c1 question. The larger the difference between the sizes of the
flaming fires, the more precise the determination of q. Ideally,
one test fire would be approximatelv 4 times the heat release rate
(surface area) of the other. The data are then used In the relation:
To solve for d/ use the following equation:
[B.5.2.7.2/
[B.5.2.4d1
džfÿe-©i/'
Ate where:
subscripts referring to the first test fire
This relation is solved iteratively for d', the distance at which — subscripts referring to the second test fire d = maximum
the detector can detect the design fire. distance between the flame detector and the fire at which the
fire is detected
B. 5.2.5 Correction for Angular Displacement.
A = the radiating area of the test fire as determined per
B.5.2.5.1 Most flame detectors exhibit a loss of sensitivity as the B-5.2.2.1
fire is displaced from the optical axis of the detector. This
correction to the detector sensitivity is shown as a polar graph in This relation allows the designer to determine the value of
Figure A. 17.8.3.2.3. for detectors that are already installed or for those that were
evaluated for listing before the inclusion of the requirement for
B.5.2.5.2 When the correction for angular displacement is the publishing of appeared in ANSI/ FM Approval Standard
expressed as a reduction of normalized detection distance, the 3260, Radiant Energy-Sensing Fim Detectms for Automatic Fire
correction is made to detection distance Alarm Signaling
8.5.2.5.3 When the correction for angular displacement is B. 5.3 Desigl of Spark/Ember Detection Systems.
expressed as a normalized sensitivity (fire size increment), the
correction must be made to prior to calculating response distance B. 5.3.1 Design Fire. Using the process outlined in Section 13.2,
determine the fire size (kW or Btu/sec) at which detection must
be achieved,
B.5.2.6 Corrections for Fuel. Most flame detectors exhibit some
level of fuel specificity. Some manufacturers provide "fuel B.5.3.1.1 The quantification of the fire is generally derived from
factors" that relate detector response performance to a fire of one the energy investment per unit time sufficient to propagate
fuel to the response performance of a benchmark fuel. Other combustion of the combustible particulate solids in the fuel
manufacturers provide performance criterra for a list of specific stream. Because energy per unit time is power, expressed in
fuels, Unless the manufacturer's published instructions, bearing watts, the fire size criterion is generally expressed in watts or
the listing mark, contain explicit instructions for the application milliwatts.
of the detector for fuels other than those used in the listing B.5.3.I.2 The radiant emissions, integrated over all wavelengths,
process, the unit cannot be deemed listed for use in hazard areas from a non-ideal Planckian radiator is expressed with the
containing fuels different from those employed in the listing following form of the Stefan—Boltzmann equation:
process.
B.5.2.6.1 M'hen the fuel factor correction is expressed as a [B.5.3.1.2]
detection distance reduction, the correction should be applied
after the detection distance been computed.
B.5.2.6.2 When the fuel factor correction is expressed as a where:
function of normalized fire size, the correction must be made P = radiant power (W or Btu/sec)
prior to calculating detection distance. E = emissivity, a material property expressed as a fraction
B.5.2.7 Atmospheric Extinction Factors. between O and 1.0
A = area of radiator (m2 or ft2)
B.5.2.7.1 Because the atmosphere is not infinitely transmittent at = Stefan—Boltzmann constant 5.67E-8 W/m2K4
any wavelength, all flame detectors are affected by atmospheric
T = temperature (K or R)
absorption to some degree. The effect of atmospheric extinction
on the performance of flame detectors is determined to some B.5.3.I.3 This models the spark or ember as a point source
degree by the wavelengths used for sensing and the detector radiator.
electronic architecture. Values for the atmospheric extinction B.5.3.2 Fire Environment. Spark/ ember detectors are usually
coefficient (q ) should be obtained from the detector used on pneumatic conveyance system ducts to monitor
manufacturer's published instructions. combtLstible particulate solids as they flow past the detector(s).
B.5.2.7.2 The numerical value of C, can be determined This environment puts large concentrations of combustible
experimentally for any flame detector. The detector must be particulate solids between the fire and the detector. A value for
tested with two different sized test fires to determine the distance C, must be computed for the monitored environment. The
at which each of the fires can be detected by the detector in simplifying assumption that absorbance at visible levels is equal
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-423
to or greater than that at infrared wavelengths yields conservative correction must be made to P/ prior to calculating response
designs and is used. distance
B.5.g.3 Calculate Detector Response to Design Fire. Because the B.5.3.5 Corrections for Fuel. Because spark/ ember detectors
sensitivity of a spark/ ember detector is fixed during the respond to Planckian emission in the near infrared portion of the
manufacturing processs spectrum, corrections for fuels are rarely necessary.
B.6 Computer Fire Models. Several special application computer
[B.5.3.3a1 models are available to assist in the design and analysis of both
heat detectors (e.g., fixed-temperature, rate-of-rise, sprinklers,
fusible links) and smoke detectors. These computer models
typically run on personal computers and are available from the
where: NIST website at: http://fire.nist.gov. The SFPL Enginerring
S radiant power reaching the detector (W or Btu/ sec) sufficient Guide: Guidelines for Substantiating a Fire Model for a Given
to produce alarm response k proportionality constant for the Application [60] provides guidance to the engineer on how to
detector P = radiant power emitted by test spark (W or Btu/sec) select a fire model..
C = extinction coefficient of airat detector operating B.6.1 DETACT — T2. DETACT — (DETector ACTuation —
wavelengths d — distance between the fire and the detector time squared) calculates the actuation time of heat detectors
during the listing fire test (m2 or ft2 ) (fixed-temperature and rate-of-rise) and sprinklers to
Because the sensitivity of the detector is constant over the userspecified fires that grow with the square of time. DETACT
range of ambients for which it is listed, —T2 assumes the detector is located in a large compartment with
an unconfined ceiling, where there is no accumulation of hot
g',uses at the ceiling. Thus, heating of the detector is only from
[B.5.3.3b1 the flow of hot gases along the ceiling. Input data include H, To,
RTI, TO S, and c:v. The program calculates the heat release rate
at detector activation, as well as the time to activation,
B.6.2 DETACT — QS. DETACT— QS (DETector ACTuation
where: — quasi-steady) calculates the actuation time of heat detectors
radiant power reaching the detector (W or Btu/sec) sufficient and sprinklers in response to fires that grow according to a user-
to produce alarm response proportionality constantfor the defined fire. DETACT — QS assumes the detector is located in
detector radiant power from the design fire (W or Btu/sec) a large compartment with unconfined ceilings, where there is no
the extinction coefficient of air at detector operating accumulation of hot gases at the ceiling. Thus, heating of the
wavelengths the distance between the design detector is only from the flow of hot gases along the ceiling. Input
fire and the detector (m2 or ft2 ) data include H, To, RTI, T, the distance of the detector from the
fire's axis, and heat release rates at userspecified times. The
Therefore, use the following equation to solve for program calculates the heat release rate at detector activation, the
time to activation, and the ceiling jet temperature.
[B.5.3.3c1
DETACT — QS can also be found in HAZARD 1,
FIREFORM, FPETOOL. A comprehensive evaluation of
DETACT
QS can be found in the STPE Engineering Guide: Evaluation of
To solve for d the Com,Puter Fire Model L)LTACT QS. This guide provides
information on the theoretical bavsis, mathematical robustness,
[3.5.3.3d1 sensitivity of output to input, and an evaluation of the predictive
ability of the model.
B.6.3 LAVENT. LWENT (Link Actuated VENT) calculates the
actuation time of sprinklers and fusible link-actuated ceiling
This relation is solved iteratively for d', the distance atwhich vents in compartment fires with draft curtains. Inputs include the
the detector can detect the design fire. ambient temperature, compartment size, thermch physical
properties of the ceiling, fire location, size and growth rate,
B.5.3.4 Correction for Angular Displacement.
ceiling vent area and location, RTI, and temperature rating of the
B.5.3.4.1 Most spark/ember detectors exhibit a loss of sensitivity fusible links. Outputs of the model include the temperatures and
as the fire is displaced from the optical axis of the detector. This release times of the links, the areas of the vents that have opened,
correction to the detector sensitivity is shown as a polar graph in the radial temperature distribution at the ceiling, and the
Figure A. 17.8.3.2.3. temperature and height of the upper layer,
13.5.3.4.2 When the correction for angular displacement is B. 6.4 JET is a single-compartment, two-zone computer model.
expressed as a reduction of normalized detection distance, the It has been designed to calculate the centerline temperature of the
correction is made to detection distance plume, the ceiling jet temperature, and the ceiling jet velocity.
B.5.3.4.3 When the correction for angular displacement is JET can model ceiling-mounted fusible links, as well as link-
expressed as a normalized sensitivity (fire size increment), the actuated ceiling vents. JET evolved from the model platform used
2022 Edition
for LAVENT and contains many of the same features. Some of of Standards), Center for Fire Research, Gaithersburg, MD
the major differences between them include the ceiling jet 20889.
temperature and velocity algorithms, the fusible link algorithm,
(15) Morton, B. R', Taylor, Sir Geoffrey, and Turner, J. S,
and the use Of a variable radiative fraction. [571
"Turbulent Gravitational Convection from Maintained and
B. 6.5 References. Instantaneous Sources," Proc. Rpyal Society A, 234, 1—23,
1956.
(l) Alpert, R, "CeilingJets," Fire Tachnology, Aug. 1972.
(2) "Evaluating Unsprinklered Fire SFPE (16) Schifiliti, R. "Use of Fire Plume Theory in the Design
Technology Report 83-2. and Analysis of Fire Detector and Sprinkler Response," Master's
Thesis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Center for Firesafety
(3) Babrauskas, Vs, Lawson, J. R. , Walton, W. D., and Studies, Worcester, MA, 1986,
Twilley, W. H, "Upholstered Furniture Heat Release Rates
Measured with a Furniture Calorimeter," (NBSIR 82-2604) (17) Title 47, Code OfFedera1 Regulations,
(Decu 1982). National Institute of Standards and Technology Communications Act of 1934 Amended.
(formerly National Bureau of Standards), Center for Fire (18) Schifiliti, R. and Pucci, W. 'Tire Detection Modelling,
Research, Gaithersburg, MD 20889. State of the Art," 6 May, 1996 sponsored by the Fire Detection
(4) Beyler, C. "A Design Method for Flaming Fire Institute, Bloomfield, CT.
Detection," Fire Technology, Vol. 20, No. 4, Nov. 1984. (19) Forney; G.. Bukowski, R., Davis, W. "Field Modelling:
(5) Hurley, M. J. , Chapter 40, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Effects of Flat Beamed Ceilings on Detector and Sprinkler
Response," Technical Report, Year I . International Fire
Engineering, 5th edition, by Shiflliti, R.P., Custer, R.LP and Meacham,
Detection Research Project, Fire Protection Research
B.J., 2016.
Foundation, Quincy, MA. October, 1993.
(6) Evans, D. D. and Stroup, D, W. "Methods to Calculate
(20) Davis, W. , Forney, G., Bukowski, R. "Field Modelling:
Response Time of Heat and Smoke Detectors Installed Below
Simulating the Effect of Sloped Beamed Ceilings on Detector
Large Unobstructed Ceilings," (NBSIR (Feb. 1985, issued Jul.
and Sprinkler Response," Year I , International Fire Detection
1986). National Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly
Research Project Technical Report, Fire Protection Research
National Bureau of Standards), Center for Fire Research,
Foundation, Quincy, MA. October, 1994.
Gaithersburg, MD 20889.
(21) Brozovski, E. "'A Preliminary Approach to Siting
(7) Heskestad, G. "Characterization of Smoke Entry -and
Smoke Detectors Based on Design Fire Size and Detector
Response for Products-of-Combustion Detectors" Proceedings,
Aerosol Entry Lag Master's Thesis, Worcester Polytechnic,
7th International Conference on Problems of Automatic Fire
Worcester, MAY 1989.
Detection, Rheinish-Westfalischen Technischen Hochschule
Aachen (Mar. 1975). (22) Cote, A. NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th edition,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2008.
(8) Heskestad, G. "Investigation of a New Sprinkler
Sensitivity Approval Test: The Plunge Test," FMRC Tech. (23) Tewarson, A., "Generation of Heat and Chemical
Report 22485, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 1151 Compounds in Fires." SFPE Handbook of Fire Pmtection
Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062, Engineering, Second Edition, NFPA and SFPE, 1995.
(9) Heskestad, G. and Delichatsios, M. A. "The Initial (24) Hollman, J. P, Heat T,nnsfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976.
Convective Flow in Fire: Seventeenth Symposium on
(25) Custer, R. L, P., and Meacham, B. "Introduction to
Combustion," The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1979).
Performance Based Fire Safety," SFPE, 1997.
(10) Heskestad, G. and Delichatsios, M. A. "Environments
of Fire Detectors — Phase 1: Effect of Fire Size, Ceiling Height (26) Schifiliti, R. P., Meacham B. , Custer, R. L P. "Design of
Detection Systems," SFPL Handbook ofFire Protection Engineering.
and Material," Measurements Vol. I (NBS-GCR-77-86),
Analysis vol. 11 (NBSGCR-77-95). National Technical (27) Marrion, C, "Correction Factors for the Heat of
Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA22151 Combustion in NFPA 72," Appendix B, Fire Protection
(Il) Heskestad, G. and Delichatsios, M. A. "Update: The Initial Engineering, SFPE, 1998.
Convective Flow in Fire," fire Safety Journal, Vol. 15, No. 5, (28) Marrion, C. "Designing and Analyzing the Response of
1989. Detection Systems: An Update to Previous Correlations," 1988.
(12) International Organization for Standardization, Audible (29) Custer, R. and Bright, R. "Fire Detection: The State-
Signal, ISO 8201 1987. ofthe-Art," NBS Tech. Note 839, National Bureau of Standards,
(13) Klote, J, and Milke, J, "Principles Of Smoke
Washington, 1974.
Managements" American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and (30) Meacham, Brian J. 'Characterization of Smoke from
Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, 2002. Burning Materials for the Evaluation of Light Scattering-Type
04) Lawson, J. R., Walton, W. D, and Tivilley, W. H. "Fire Smoke Detector Response," MS Thesis, WPI Center for
PerfOrmance of Furnishings as Measured in the NBS Furniture Firesafety Studies, Worcester, MA, 1991
Calorimeter, Part 1," (NBSIR 83-2787) (Aug, 1983). National (31) Delichatsios, M. A. "Categorization of Cable
Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly National Bureau Flammability, Detection of Smoldering, and Flaming Cable
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ANNEX B 72-425
Fires," Interim Report, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Detectors and Its Field Fire Detection and Research
Norwood, MA, NP-1030, Nov. 1980. Applications Symposium, NFPA Research Foundation,January
2003.
(32) Heskestad, G. FMRC Serial Number 21017, Factory
Mutual Research Corp., Norwood, MA, 1974. (45) Nam S., Performance-Based Heat Detector Spacing,
Interflam 2004, pp. 883-892.
(33) Marrion, C. E. "Lag Time Modeling and Effects of
Ceiling Jet Velocity on the Placement of Optical Smoke (46) Geiman,J. A., "Evaluation of' Smoke Detector Response
Detectors," MS Thesis, WPI Center for Firesafety Studies, Estimation Methods," Master of Science Thesis, University of
Worcester, MA, 1989. Maryland, College Park, MD, December 2003.
(34) Kokkala, M. et al. "Measurements of the Characteristic (47) [Reference removed.]
Lengths of Smoke Detectors," Fire Technology, Vol. 28, No. 2, (48) Geiman,J. A, , and Gottuck, D.T., "Alarm Thresholds for
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1992, Smoke Detector Modeling," Fire Safety Science — Procerding of the
(34a) Yamauchi et al. "A Calculation Method for Predicting Seventh International Synposium, 2003, pp. 197—208.
Heat and Smoke Detector's Response."
(49) The SFPL code Official's Guide to Design
(34b) Cleary et al. "Particulate Entry Lag in Spot Type Smoke Review and Analysis of Buildings, Society of Fire Protection Engineers,
Detectors," IAFSS Proceedings, Boston, MA 2000. Bethesda, MD, 2004.
(340 Keski-Rahkonen, "Revisiting Modeling of Fluid (50) NFPA 101, Life safen code, National Fire Protection
Penetration into Smoke Detectors," AUBE 2001 Association, Quincy, MA, 2009.
(34d) Bjoerkman et al. "Determination of Dynamic Model (51) NFPA 909, Code for of Cultural Resource Prop
Parameters of Smoke Detectors," fire Safety Journal, No 37, pp. prties — Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship, National Fire
395-407, 2002. Protection AYsociation, Quincy, MA, 2010.
(34e) Keski-Rahkonen, "A New Model for Time Lag of (52) NEPA 914, code for Fire Protection of Histmic
Smoke Detectors," International Collaborative Project to Structures, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA,
Evaluate Fire Models for Nuclear Power Plant Application, 2010.
Gaithersburg, MD May 2002. (53) Performance-based Building Design Concepts,
(35) UL 268, Standard Smoke Detectors for Fire Signal,ing International Code Council, Washington DC, 2004.
Systems, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL, 2009. (54) Extmme Event Mitigation In Buildings — Analysis and
(36) Deal, Scott. "Technical Reference Guide for FPEtool Design, Meacham, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy MA,
Version 3.2," MSTIR 5486, National Institute for Standards and 2006.
Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce, Gaithersburg, MD,
(55) Geiman, Gottuk, and Milke, "Evaluation of Smoke
Aug. 1994.
Detector Response Estimation Methods: Optical Density,
(37) Mowrer, F. W. "Lag Times Associated with Detection Temperature Rise and Velocity at Alarm," Journal Of Fire
and Suppression," Fire Technology, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 244— Protec€ lion Engineering, 2006.
265, 1990.
(56) Su et al., "Kemano Fire Studies — Part I: Response of
(38) Newman, J. S. "Principles for Fire Detection," Fire Residential Smoke Alarms," Research Report 108, NRCC, April
Techmology, vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 116-127, 1988. 2003.
(39) Custer, R. , Meacham, B. , Wood, C. "Performance (57) Davis, W., The Zone ModelJet, "A Model for the
Based Design Techniques for Detection and Special Suppression Prediction of Detector Activation and Gas Temperature in the
Applications," Proceedings of the SFPE Engineering Seminars Presence ofa Smoke Layer," NISTIR 6324, MST, May 1999.
on Advances in Detection and Suppression Technology, 1994.
(58) NFPA 72E, Standa,rl for Automatic Fire 1984 edition.
(40) SFPE Guide to Perfonnance Based Protection,
2nd edition, SFPE, Gaithersburg, MD, 2007. (59) Guidelines for Peer Review in the Fire Protection
Design Process, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 2009.
(41) SFPE Handbook of Fire Engineering, Fifth Edition, SFPE,
Gaithersburg, MD, 2016. (60) SFPE Lug-inerring Guide: Guidelines for Substantiating a Fire
Model for a Given Application, Society of Fire Protection Engineers,
(42) Drysdale, Dougal, An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, John Gaithersburg, MD, 2011
Wiley 8c sons, Newyork, NY, 1998, ISBN 0 471 90613 1, Second
Edition. B. 7 Nomenclature. The nomenclature used in Annex B is
defined in Table B.7.
(43) Nam S. , Donovan L.P. and Kim S.G., Establishing Heat
Detectors Thermal Sensitivity Through Bench Scale Tests;
Journal, Volume 39, Number 3, 191-215; April 2004. Table B.7 Nomenclature
(44) Nam S., Thermal Response Coefficient TRC of Heat

fire growth rate (kW/sec 2 or Btu/sec3 ) area
(m2 or ft2 )
2022 Edition
g/ (Cp'T,p) or radiating area (m2 Al change in Lime (seconds)
or ft±) radiating area of test fire AT increase above ambient in temperature of' gas
C specific heat of detector element (10 or surrounding a detector ( o c or OF) increase
Btu/lbm • OF) speed of light (m/sec or above ambient in temperature of a detector ( oc or OF)
ft/sec) specific heat of air 110/" (kg K) or change in reduced gas temperature
Btu/lbm R
enelgy (joules or Btu) functional rela
(1.040 kJ/kg
lionship gravitational constant (9.81
Dmass optical density (me/ g or ft2/lb) distance g m/ see or
between fire and radiant energy—sensmg 32 ft/sec2)
detector distance between fire and detector rate
(conlinues)
of increase of optical density outside the detector
D 0.146 + 0.242r/H
Table B. 7 Continued Table B.7 Continued
time to detector response
Planck's constant (6.63E-23joule-sec) ceiling height or height above fire (m or fC) fire growth
Lime to reach 1055 kW
H convective heat transfer coefficient (kW (1000 Btu/ sec) (seconds) or
response time (seconds) heat of combustion (14/
h Q, threshold fire size at which response must occur sprinkler ( o c or OF)
heat transferred by radiation (kW or Btu/sec) instantaneous velocivy of fire gases (m/sec or
fU
total heat transfer (kW or Btu/sec) sec)
critical heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) velocity On/sec or ft/sec)

Qjo design heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) critical velocity
maximum heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) reduced gas velocity
Q, predicted heat release rate (kW or Btu/ sec)
threshold heat release rate at response (kW or velocity ofsmoke at detector

Btu/ sec) flame width (m or ft)
radial distance from fire plume axis (m or ft) defined in equation B. 27

density of ambient air [kg/m3 or lb/ftg (1,1 kg/ height above top of fuel package involved (m or ft)
RTI response time index (m a secÁ or ft Sec ) wavelength (microns)

spacing of detectors or sprinkler heads (m or fi) 4, maximum heigh( of smoke above fire surface
S radiant energy (m or ft)
time at which the design objective heat release detector time constant (secondS)
rate ( (bo) is reached (seconds) detector time constant measured at reference
time at which the critical heat release rate ( (h) velocity (seconds)
is reached (seconds) emissivity, a material property expressed as a

time (seconds) fraction between O and 1.0
mol) critical Lime — time at which fire would reach liespOnd time available, or needed, for response to an
flame a heat release rate of 1055 kW (1000 Btu/ height (m or ft) alarm condition (seconds) heat of
sec) formation (k]/ mol) virtual time Of origin (seconds)
(seconds)
(mnlinues)
2022 Edition
ANNEX B 72-427
L characteristic length for a given detector design arrival time of heat front (for p = 2 power law detector
constant, dimensionless fire) at a point r/ H (seconŒs) mass (kg or Ibrn) reduced arrival Lime Of heat front (for p
=2
P positive exponent power law fire) at a point r/ H (seconds) radiant power (watts or Btu/sec)
reduced time q heat release rate density per unit floor area
(watLS/m2 or Btu/ sec•ft2 temperature CC or O F) heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) ambient
temperature (o c or OF) convection portion of fire heat release rate (kW plume centefline temperature
( bC Of T) or Btu/sec)detector temperature (Q C or O F)
Qo„d = heat transferred by conduction (kW or Btu/ sec)temperature of fire gases ( o c or O F) heat
transferred by convection (kW or Btu/sec) rated operating temperature of a detector or
2022 Edition
Annex C System Performance and Desigm Guide emergency response plan might include investigation of initial
This annex is not a part of the requirements of NIPA document but is alarm signals prior to activating a general alarm or the
includedfor informational Pumoses only. evacuation or relocation of occupants.
C.I Scope. The requirements of the protected premises chapter c02.2.1.2 Communication. Determine appropriate methods to
(Chapter 23) provide for minimum levels of protection for fire provide alarm information, and instructions when required, to
alarm systems to protect life and property, regardless of the building security and operating personnel, supervisory and
building characteristics, contents, or use. This System management personnel, and building occupants. Consider the
Performance and Design Guide provides additional need for predetermined messages, single- or multiple-channel
considerations for users of the NFAC when planning, communications systems, and coordination of communications
designing, and installing protected premises fire alarm systems system coverage and zoning with building subdivisions,
for buildings that might be unusual in scale, mission, use, including smoke compartments and automatic
symbolism, or other critical or high-profile characteristics. system coverage and zoning. Consider the need for multiple
languages in emergency communications.
This guidance suggests potential system characteristics to
enhanced system performance for protection of life, mission, C. 2.2.1.3 Evacuation/ Relocation. Determine the extent to
and property in high-profile and other critical buildings, which the emergency egress plan is based on total evacuation,
including signaling path integrity, redundancies, survivability; relocation and partial evacuation, areas of rescue assistance
backup fire control stations. nonerasable logs, multiple and/or defending in place.
information stations, and the benefits of networked and peer- C.2.2.1.4 Survivability. Consider means to harden the fire
topeer configurations. notification circuits/ paths to attack by fire for a period of time
C.2 Building Scale. The size of a building to be protected necessa1Y to notify building operating personnel and
influences fire alarm system operating characteristics, control occupants of a fire emergency and/ or provide instructions if
functions, circuit integrity, annunciation, and other Factors for appropriate.
protection of life, property, or the mission of the building. C.2.2.1.5 Control. Fire alarm system control units can be
C.2.I Fire Service Response Location(s). arranged to actuate other building systems and to condition
passive fire barriers to enhance fire safety in the building.
C.2.1.1 Location(s). Determine the fire service response
location(s) by inquiry to the responding fire department (and C. 2.2.1.6 Building Systems. Consider activation or release of
building operating personnel, if appropriate). building systems and elements including, but not limited to,
closing fire/smoke doors and dampers, recall of elevators,
C.2.I.2 Quantity. The fire service might desire more than one unlocking stairway doors, activating smoke control systems
response location. Building operators might desire and or shut-down fans to prevent recirculation of smoke.
redundancies for security or operations under emergency
conditions. C.2.2.1.7 fire Scene Operations Compartmentation, water
supply, fire fighter access, and communication links are
C.2.1.3 Functions. The primary response location is the important for manual fire-fighting operations. Fire alarm
normally expected location of the fire command center. In system monitoring; reporting, display, and control functions
general, the fire command center provides information and that enhance the maintenance and operation of these elements
control functions for the entire building. One or more that enhance fire scene operations should be considered in the
redunClant or abbreviated fire command centers might be design, installation, and maintenance of protected premises fire
desired for securigy or operations under emergency conditions. alarm systems. An example would be a flashing visual
C.2.1.3.1 Information. Nonprimary response locations might notification appliance over the fire department connection.
be intended to provide annunciation equipment to provide C.2.2.2 External Response.
information for the entire building, or for a portion of the
building associated with the response location. C.2.2.2.I Resources Available. Determine the availability and
responsibility of fire service resources, An example of the use
C.2.1.3.2 Control. Nonprimary response locations might be of this information might be determining how to stage
intended to provide a partial or complete fire command center evacuation.
or emergency command center to provide control functions for
the entire building, or for a portion of the building associated C.2.2.2.2 Time Required, Consider the time required for fire
with the response location. service response to the building. Consider travel time at various
times of day and seasons of year.
C.2.2 System Operational Characteristics.
C-2.2.2.3 Notification. Determine one or more acceptable
C.2.2.1 On-Premi.ses Response. Determine an emergency means of automatic and manual notification of the fire service
response plan considering the requirements of NFAC, local to initiate response to the building. Consider the extent of
codes and regulations, the availability and responsibility of information that might be transmitted to the responding fire
building operating personnel, and the mobility of occupants. service to enhance response to the building and to provide
C.2.2.1,1 Investigation. Building security or operating incident information prior to its arrival.
personnel should investigate every alarm signal, and the
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ANNEX B 72-429
C. 2.2.2.4 Evacuation/Relocation. Consider system

operational characteristics that might enhance coordination of
control and direction to building operating personnel and
occupants. Consider means of control and shift in control of
evacuation or relocation direction from building operating
personnel to fire service command.
C.2.2.2.5 Knowledge of Premises. Harmonize system
operating characteristics to pre-incident planning with fire
service wand building operating and security personnel.
2022 Edition
C.2.2.2.6 Communications and Control. Provide for firefighter deletion until it is affirmed that no further need for a log exists.
communications through dedicated two-way fire-fighter Caution is recommended to secure system history logs when
communication systems, or consider a means to provide system software changes are made.
enhanced operation of fire service radio communications in the C.4.2 Network Configuration. Systems that use digital means
protected premises. to transfer signal information might provide benefits in economy
C.3 Premises Mission/Use/Property Protection. The loss of use of installation and distribution of information to multiple
or mission of a facility to the effects of accidental fire can have a locations to enable rigorous alarm processing and response.
very significant impact on the community or organization served Transmission of digital alarm information to remote locations
by the facility. In such a case, it is appropriate to enhance might assist responding personnel by providing incident
functional characteristics Of the protected premises system. information prior to arrival at the location of the fire.
Considerations include the following:
C.4.3 Peer to Peer Data Communication. Systems that
(1) Criticality/ Mission Continuity duplicate the operating and history data bases in multiple network
control units provide redundant monitoring and control points on
(a) Community — Loss of operations of the facility
a system that can enhance the reliability of the system and the
might affect the community beyond the facility.
operation of the system during emergency or degraded
Consider the sensitivity of fire detection and the
conditions,
effectiveness of alarm processing, emergency
response, and fire suppression to minimize effects on
the community served due to facility impairment Annex D Speech Intelligibility
by fire. annex is not a part of the requirements of this NFPA document but
(b) Operations is includedfor informational PurPŒses only.
i. On-premises — Fire might result in business Users ofAnnex D should refer back to the text ofNIPA 72 to
interruption or reduced effectiveness. familiarizp themseloes with the specific requirements for the Planning,
ii. Elsewhere — Services provided by the facility design, installation, and testing of voice communications systems.
to remote locations might cease or be reduced.
D.I Introduction.
(2) Life Safety
1).1.1 This annex is intended to provide guidance on the
(a) Evacuation/ Relocation Size, distribution, and
planning, design, installation, and testing of voice
mobility of the occupant population should be
communication systems. The majority of this annex contains
considered with knowledge of facility emergency
recommendations for testing of the intelligibility Of voice
planning and availability of emergency response
systems,
resources to determine the extent to which people
movement might be managed during a fire incident. 1).1.2 As with most systems, proper system performance is
(b) Defend-In-Place — A protected premises system related to good planning, design, installation, and maintenance.
might be used to actuate facility fire safety elements Similarly, test results are a valuable feedback mechanism for
necessary to defend occupants in place or to enhance persons planning, designing, and installing systems.
rescue
D.1.3 This annex describes when, Where, and how to test for
(3) Property speech intelligibility. It is also not the intent of this test protocol
(a) Value — Cost, availability, and time required to to describe how to interpret results or how to correct systems or
reestablish facility contents should be considered environments that contribute to poor speech intelligibility.
when determining the sensitivity of fire detection and D.1.4 For occupancies that do not yet exist, the designer
the effectiveness of alarm processing, emelgency should have an understanding of the acoustic characteristics of
response, and fire suppression. the architectural design, as well as the acoustic performance
(b) Replacement — Availability and time required to properties of available loudspeakers, Architecturally, this
replace damaged facility contents should be includes the physical size and shape of the space, as well as the
considered when determining the sensitivity of fire acoustic properties of the walls, floors, ceilings, and interior
detection and the effectiveness of alarm processing furnishings. A proper design analysis can sometimes reveal that
emergency response and fire suppression. an intelligible system is not achievable unless some features of
(c) Redundancy — Duplication of facility contents in the architectural design are changed. The designer should be
separate locations might reduce the need for prepared to defend such conclusions and, if necessary, refuse to
sensitivity of fire detection or other property certify the installation of such a system, Wiile "hand
protection system capabilities, calculations?' and experience work well for simpler installations,
CA Protected Premises System Features. more complex designs are frequently better and more cost-
effectively analyzed using one of a number of readily available
CA. 1 Event Logs. Computer processor—based systems are computerbased design programs.
capable of assembling logs of system events by date and time,
including alarm history. Such logs are an important resource in 1).1.5 The designer and the authority having jurisdiction should
assessing system performance or malfunctions and in both be aware that the acoustic performance parameters of the
understanding or reconstructing a fire event after the fact. It is chosen loudspeakers, as well as their placement in the structure,
imperative that such logs are preserved and protected against play a role in determining how many appliances are necessary for
adequate intelligibility. The numerical count of appliances for a
2022 Edition
ANNEX D 72-431
given design and protected space cannot, by itself, be used to might have to be considered. In spaces that might be subdivided
determine the adequacy of the design. Sometimes, the acoustic by temporary or mosvnble partitions, such as ballrooms and
problems of certain placement constraints can be satisfactorily meeting rooms, each individual configuration should be
overcome through the careful selection of loudspeakers with the considered a separate ADS. Physical characteristics such as a
requisite performance characteristics, rather than by increasing change in ceiling height of more than 20 percent or change in
their number: acoustical finish, such carpet in one area and tile in another,
would require those areas to be treated as separate ADSs. In
D.2 Fundamentals of Test Protocol.
larger areas there might be noise sources that require a section to
1).2.1 Measurement Method, be treated as a separate ADS. Any significant change in ambient
sound pressure level or frequency might necessitate an area be
D.2.1.1 STI/STWA.
considered a separate ADS.
1).2.1.1.1 Where the method for measuring speech intelligibility
is the Speech Transmission Index (STI), this test protocol should D.2.3.1.4 In areas of 85 CIBA or greater ambient sound pressure
be followed. level, meeting the pass/fail criteria for intelligibility might not be
possible and other means of communication might be necessary.
1).2.1.1.2 There are several methods that measure the STI. One So, for example, the space immediately surrounding a printing
method common to the emergency communications system press or other high noise machine might be designated as a
industry uses a test signal referred to as STIPA — STIPublic separate ADS and the design might call for some form of
Address. effective notification but not necessarily require the ability to
1).2.1.2 Other Methods. Where the method for measuring speech have intelligible voice communication. The aisles or operator's
intelligibility is the Phonetically Balanced Word test (PB), control stations might be separate ADSs where intelligible voice
Modified Rhyme Test (MRT), or Speech Intelligibility Index communication might be desired.
(SII) method, the same methods for determining measurement 1).2.3.1.5 Significant differences in furnishings, for example, an
locations should be used, area with tables, desks, or low dividers adjacent to an area with
1).2.2 References. high shelving, would require separate consideration. The entire
desk area could be a single acoustic zone whereas each area
D.2.2.1 wC 6026816, Sound system equipment —Part 16: between shelving could be a unique zone. Essentially, any
Objeclive rating ofsPeech intelligibility by speech transmissiun noteworthy change in the acoustical environment within an area
index, International Electrotechnival Commission, Geneva, will mandate consideration of that portion of the area to be treated
Switz., 2011. as an acoustic zone. Hallways and stairwells will typically be
1).2.2.2 ISO 724th19, Fire and —Part 19: considered as individual acoustic zones.
Design, Installation, Commissioning and Service of Sound D.2.3.1.6 Spaces confined by walls with carpeting and acoustical
Systems Emergency Purposes, International Organization for ceilings can be deemed to be one ADS, An ADS should be an
Standardization, Geneva, Switz., 1st edition, 15 Aug 2007. area of consistent size and material. A change of materials from
carpet to hard tile, the existence of sound sources such as
1).2.2.3 NEMA Standards Publication SB 50, Emergency Comnue
decorative waterfalls, large expanses of glass, and changes in
nicalions Audio Intelligibility Applications Guide, National Electrical
ceiling height are all factors that might separate one ADS from
Manufacturers Association, Rosslyn VA, 2014,
another,
D.2.3 Terminology.
1).2.3.1.7 Each ADS might require different components and
1).2.3.1 Acoustically Distinguishable Space (ADS). design features to achieve intelligible voice communication. For
example, two ADSs with similar acoustical treatments and noise
1).2.3.1.1 An acoustically distinguishable space (ADS) can be an
levels might have different ceiling heights. The ADS with the
emergency communication system notification zone, or
lower ceiling height might require more ceiling-mounted
subdivision thereof, that can be an enclosed or othenvise
loudspeakers to ensure that all listeners are in a direct sound field,
physically defined space, or that can be distinguished from other
See Figure D.2.3.l .7. Other ADSs might benefit from the use of
spaces because of different acoustical, environmental, or use
alternate loudspeaker technologies such as line •arržys to achieve
characteristics such as reverberation time and ambient sound
intelligibility.
pressure level. The ADS might have acoustical design features
that are conducive for voice intelligibility, or it might be a space 1).2.3.1.8 An ADS that differs from another because of the
where voice intelligibility could be difficult or impossible to frequency and level of ambient sound pressure level might
achieve, require the use of loudspeakers and system components that have
a wider frequency bandwidth than conventional emergency
D.2.3.1.2 All parts of a building or area intended to have
communications equipment. However, designers should not use
occupant notification are subdivided into ADSs as defined. Some
higher bandwidth loudspeakers in all locations unless needed to
ADSs might be designated to have voice communications
overcome certain acoustic and ambient conditions. This is
capability and require that those communications be intelligible.
because the higher bandwidth appliance Will require more
Other spaces might not require voice intelligibility or might not
energy to perform properly. This increases amplifier and wire
be capable of reliable voice intelligibility. Each is still referred to
size and power supply requirements.
a.s an ADS.
1).2.3.1.3 In smaller areas, such as those under 400 ft 2 (40
walls alone will define the ADS. In larger areas, other factors
2022 Edition
D.2.3.1.9 In some spaces it might be impractical to achieve 1).2.3.7 Unoccupied Ambient Sound Pressure Level. The period
intelligibility, and in such a case alternatives to voice evacuation of time when the primary occupants of the facility are not present,
might be required within such areas. or When ambient sound pressure level is not at its highest level.
D.2.3.1.10 There might be some areas of a facility where there 1).2.4 Acceptability Criteria.
are several spaces of the same approximate size and with the
1).2.4.1 The intelligibility of an emergency communication
same acoustic properties. For example, there might be an office
system is considered acceptable if at least 90 percent of the
space with multiple individual offices, each with one
measurement locations within each ADS have a measured STI of
loudspeaker. If one or two are satisfactorily tested, there is no
not less than 0.45 (0.65 CIS) and an average STI of not less than
need to test all of them for speech intelligibility.
0.50 STI (0.70 CIS).
117 ft (35.7 m)
FIGURE D.2.3.1.7 Illustration Demonstrating Effect of Ceiling Height. (Some: R. P. Schifiliti

Associates, Inc.) D.2.4.2 Speech intelligibility is not a physical quantity like
meters, feet, amperes, volts, or even decibels. It is a benchmark
1).2.3.2 Audibility Test. Measurement of the sound pressure of the degree to which we understand spoken language, and as
level of a tone signal in accordance with the requirements of such is a complex phenomenon affected by many variables (see
72 Jacob, K. and Tyson, 71, "Computer-Based Prediction of speech
IntelligibiIi6' for Mass Notification Systems"). There are two
D.2.g.3 Intelligibility Test. A test method used to predict how basic categories of intelligibility testing: (l) subject- (human-)
well ypeech is understood by a listener. based testing and (2) instrument-based test methods. Test
D.2.3.4 Occupied Ambient Sound Pressure Level. The period of methods that use human subjects are only statistical predictions
time when the building involved in the test is occupied and is of how well speech might be understood at any other time for any
reasonably close to having maximum background noise. For other group of listeners. Several subject-based test methods have
example, this might involve the operation of HVAC equipment, been extensively researched, tested for reliability, and
an industrial process, or a maximum number of occupants such standardized. Examples include the Phonetically Balanced (PB)
as might occur in a place of public assembly, or STIPA word scores (256 words or 1000 words) and Modified Rhyme
TestSigna1. Test (MRT). (SpeANS//ASA S3.2, Method for Measuñng the
Intelligibility of Speech Over Communications Systems.)
1).2.3.5.1 A special audio signal that is played over the
emergency communications system being tested. 1).2.4.3 Subject based test methods can gauge how much of the
spoken information is correctly understood by a person or group
1).2.3.5.2 Instruments that measure STI using a STIPA signal use
of persons for that particular test, N'then properly clone, that
a special signal that consists of signals in seven octave bands, The
resulting value is a prediction of how much of the spoken word
sound in each octave band is modulated using two (separate)
will be correctly understood by others at some other time.
modulation frequencies. The STI and STIPA have been
Therefore, the results of speech intelligibility testing are usually
standardized in IEC 60268. However, at the present time, the
described as predictions, not measurements. However, most
implementation of the measurement software and correlations
users of the instruments refer to the results as measurements, not
with the test signal can differ between instrument manufacturers.
as predictions. Since the use of portable instruments is the more
Therefore, until there is further standardization, only the test
common method in the alarm and emergency communications
signal recommended by the instrument manufacturer should be
industries, in this document the results will be referred to as
used with their instrument. Although the STIPA test signals can
measurements to avoid confusion, However, in scientific and
sound similar, there might be speed or other differences that
general acoustic literature, readers can see the measured values
affect results if one manufacturer's test signal is used with another
correctly referred to as predictions.
manufacturer's instrument.
1).2.4.4 Several instrument based methods for predicting speech
1).2.3.6 Talkbox. An instrument usually consisting of a high
intelligibility have been extensively researched and tested for
quality audio loudspeaker and a CD player or other method used
accuracy and repeatability, and the methods have been
to play an STI or STIPA test signal,
standardized, most notably the Speech Intelligibility Index (SII)
2022 Edition
ANNEX D 72-433
(formerly the Articulation Index, Al), Speech Transmission 1).2.4.10 The requirement that only 90 percent of the measured
Index (STI), and Speech Transmission Index for Public Address points in the ADS meet the minimum and that the average for the
(STIPA) [Ref: [EC 60268-16, Sound system equip •men/ — Part entire ADS be 0.50 STI (0.70 CIS) or greater recognizes that in
16: Objective rating o/ speech intelligibility by speech any space, with any system and any set of acoustic conditions,
transmission index, 2003. Ref: ANSI/ASA S3.5, there can be points where the intelligibility score might be below
Calculotion of the speech Intelligibility Index, 1997 (R2017) l. the minimum. See also the discussion in D.2.3.l on the definition
Accuracy is how close the meter corresponds to actual human test of an ADS and how some ADSs might be designated to not
results. Thus, even though an instrument is used, the results are require speech intelligibility at all. For example, in a room that is
subjective in that they correlate with how humans perceive the otherwise similar from an acoustics standpoint, the space around
quality of speech, a loud machine might be one ADS while the rest of the room is a
separate ADS. The ADS surrounding the machine might be
D.2.4.5 Each of the established methods for measuring speech
designed to have some form of occupant notification but not to
intelligibility has its own scale. The common intelligibility scale
have intelligible voice communications. This type of ADS
(CIS) was developed in 1995 to show the relationship between
designation permits the remainder of the room to be scored
the different methods and to permit codes and standards to
without being penalized by the fact that intelligible
require a certain level of performance while permitting any of the
communication near some loud sound sources might not be
accepted measurement methods to be employed (see Barnett, and
possible.
Knight, A.D., "The Common Intelligibility Scale"). The speech
transmission index (STI) is widely used and has been D.2.4.11 The intelligibility performance requirement cited herein
implemented in portable equipment using a modified method intentionally uses two decimal points. Portable instruments that
called STIPA (STI public address). For this reason, the use the STIPA method for measuring the Speech Transmission
performance metrics cited in this document use units of STI with Index (STI) generally have a precision on the order of 0.02 to
units of CIS in parentheses. The relationship between the two is: 0.03 (Ref: Sander J. van Wijngaarden and Jan A. Verhave, Past
CIS = 1+10g (STI). Relationships between other methods can be Present and Future of the Speech Transmission Index, Chapter 9,
found in the literature (see ISO 7240-16, fire detection and alarm Measurement and Prediction of Speech Intelligibility in Traffic
systems —Part 16: Sound system control and indicating Tunnels Using the STI, pi 13, TNO Human Factors, The
equipmpnt). Netherlands, 2002). Other methods that measure STI can have a
greater measurement precision. Other measurement methods,
1).2.4.6 If an ADS is small enough to only require one such as Modified Rhyme Test (MRT), Phonetically Balanced
measurement location (see D.3.7 for the recommendation for Word (PB) lists, and Speech Intelligibility Index (SII), also have
measurement point spacing), the result should be 0.50 STI (0.70 levels of precision in the hundredths when properly conducted
CIS) or more for the ADS to pass the requirement for speech and scored. However, there might be slight variations in
intelligibility. This is based on the requirement for an average of measured values between any two meters or between any two
0.50 STI (0.70 CIS) or more in that ADS. Therefore, a single persons taking measurements with the same instrument, or
measurement of 0.45 STI (0.65 CIS) would not be considered between any two listener panels when using subject based test
acceptable, because that one measurement would be below the methods. This is true for any measurement method or instrument,
minimum required average of 0.50 STI (0.70 CIS) in that ADS. including -simple scales for measuring length or mass.
1).2.4.7 If the value at that one measurement location were less 1).2.4.12 Measurements should be made and recorded using two
than 0.50 STI (0.70 CIS), additional measurements could be decimal places. Averages can be calculated to three decimal
taken at that same single measurement location. As with simple points and rounded. The calculated average value should be
sound pressure level measurements, intelligibility measurements rounded to the nearest five-hundredths (0.05) to reflect possible
at any point will vary. If the average of all the measurement.s at measurement errors and the intent of the requirement (Ref:
that location were 0.50 STI (0.70 CIS) or more, the ADS would Mapp, P. , "Systematic & Common Errors in Sound System STI
pass the requirement for speech intelligibility, and Intelligibility Measurements," Convention Paper 6271
1).2.4.8 Some ADSs might require multiple measurement points Audio Engineering Society, 117th Convention, San Fran, CA,
due to their larger size. (See D.3.7 for the recommendation for 28—31 Oct 2004. Ref: Peter Mapp, Past Present and Future of
measurement point spacing.) However, even in a small ADS the Speech Transmission Index, Chapter 8, Practical Application
where one measurement pomt would be permitted, a designer of STI to Assessing Public Address and Emergency Sound
might intend that multiple measurements be made because of Systems, TNO Human Factors, The Netherlands, 2002). For
conditions that might result in specific points having example, averages of 0.47—0.525 STI would all be rounded to
intelligibility scores below the minimum. Where an ADS has report an average of 0.50 STI (0.70 CIS). The minimum value
multiple measurement locations, the requirement is that at least permitted for all but 10 percent of the measurement locations in
90 percent of the measurement locations have values not less than an ADS should be 0.45 STI (0.65 CIS) or greater. For example,
0.45 STI (0.65 CIS) and that all measurement points average to values of 0.44 STI are below the minimum; they are not rounded
0.50 STI (0.70 CIS) or greater. up to 0.45 STI.
1).2.4.9 The use of an average intelligibility score as a part of the D.2.5 Limitations of Test Method.
requirement permits a wider range of measured values within an 1).2.5.1 Equipment designed in accordance With UL 864 and
ADS than would a simple minimum requirement. A range of fire alarm loudspeakers designed in accordance with UL 1480 are
permitted values is not appropriate since there is no only tested for and only required to produce frequencies of 400
need for an upper limit for intelligibility— perfect intelligibility to 4000 Hz. Speech, however, includes a wider range of
is certainly acceptable. frequencies. Speech intelligibility measurements using STI and
2022 Edition
STIPA include octave band measurements that range from 125 1).2.6.4 Test measurements and other documentation should be
Hz to 8000 HI. STI results are most dependent on the 2000, 1000, maintained as required by the authority havingjurisdiction.
500, and 4000 Hz octave bands (in order of weighting) and to a
1).2.6.5 Impairment management procedures of NFPA 72,
lesser extent the 8000 and 250 HI octave bands and to an even
Section 10.21 should be followed.
lesser the 125 Hz band (again, in order Of weighting).
1).2.6.6 Test Participants. The test participants should include
1).2.5.2 While the lower and higher octave bands in STI
representatives of the following: building owners, the
calculations are weighted much less than the others, under certain
organizations responsible for the fire alarm or emergency
acoustic conditions, systems that do not produce the highs and
communica tions system design and installation, system
the lows can produce speech intelligibility that is less than
equipment supplier and/or manufacturer, and the authority
desired. This does not imply that all systems should use
havingjurisdiction.
equipment capable of greater bandwidth sound reproduction.
While the larger frequency response will probably sound better D.3 Pre-Planning.
and be more intelligible to a listener, it might not be necessary 1).3.1 Facility Occupancy and Use.
for the minimum desired performance. The use of equipment
with higher bandwidth will require an increase in power supplies, 1).3.1.1 Occupancy/Use Types. Prior to testing, the preplanning
amplifiers, and wire sizes to drive the loudspeaker appliances. effort should identify the occupancy or use type to better
minimize disruption to the facility occupants during the tes t.
1).2.5.3 Areas of high ambient sound pressure levels ("noise")
might be incapable of meeting the acceptability criteria in D.2.4. D.3.1.2 Normal Operational Time Periods. Prior to testing, pre-
planning efforts should identifý the operational time periods
D.2.5.4 In areas where the ambient sound pressure level exceeds when the occupied ambient sound pressure level and the
90 CIBA, satisfactory speech intelligibility is difficult to achieve unoccupied ambient sound pressure level are most likely to
with conventional communications equipment and design occur,
practice. A better system design might include alternate
communications methods, such as signs and displays, or might 1).3.1.3 Testing Before Building Furnishing Completion. It
involve providing occupant notification but not voice alarm might be necessary to perform testing to permit partial use before
communication at that location. the building is in its final acoustic configuration. The results of
intelligibility testing at this stage can differ from the final
1).2.5.5 Impulse sounds made during measurements can impact performance of the system. It might be necessary to work with
measurement accuracy or cause instrument error, the authority having jurisdiction to develop a testing plan. For
1).2.5.6 Impulse sounds such as accidentally tapping the meter example, until acoustical treatments such as carpeting, ceiling
microphone, or a nearby door slamming can cause a tiles, and other furnishings are in place, the system can be
measurement error. Some meters will display an error message. partially tested to meet audibility requirements but not
If an impulse sound occurs during the measurement, consider necessarily intelligibility requirements. Other test plans or
taking another measurement to check the results. This process is mitigating procedures might be permitted.
analogous to ignoring temporary sound sources, as permitted by D.3.1.4 Facility Construction and Condition. Construction in the
NIPA 72 when taking sound pressure level measurements. facility to be tested should be completed for areas that will be
1).2.5.7 Natural variation in ambient sound pressure level levels subject to intelligibility testing. This specifically requires that the
can affect the results. command center and all locations of system microphones to be
tested should be completed. Any location of remote system
D.2.6 General Requirements. microphones not tested during this time should be noted, and said
1).2.6.1 The qualified staff should be identified on the system locations should be fully tested with positive results within 90
design documents. Acceptable evidence of qualifications or days of area occupancy or as required by the authority having
certification should be provided when requested by the authority jurisdiction. Also, all building systems such as environmental
having jurisdiction. Qualified personnel should include, but not conditioning systems should be completed and operational, as
be limited to, one or more of the following: they both produce noise and provide acoustic noise travel paths.
(1) Personnel who are factory trained and certified for fire In addition, all floor treatments and any acoustical wall or ceiling
alarm system design of the specific type and brand of treatments should be in place.
system addressed by this test protocol 1).3.1.5 System Under Test Status. The system under test should
(2) Personnel who are certified by a nationally recognized be completed for all areas where intelligibility testing be
certification organization acceptable to the authority done.
havingjurisdiction
(3) Personnel who are registered, licensed, or certified by a 1).3.1.6 System Under Test Power. System under test should be
State or local authority on permanent primary power source as defined in NFPA 72.
1).2.6.2 All necessary precautions should be taken with the 1).3.1.7 System Under Test Secondary Power. Secondary power,
facility owner to work with appropriately qualified staff when where required and/or provided for the system under test, should
handling or performing any function with the emergency be fully functional. If batteries are used for this purpose, batteries
communications system control unit. should be fully charged for a minimum of 48 hours prior to the
commencement of any testing.
1).2.6.3 Testing impairment and record keeping requirements of
1).3.2 Emergency Communications Equipment.
ATPA 72, Chapter 14 should apply.
2022 Edition
ANNEX D 72-435
1).3.2.1 As discussed in D.2.3.1, not all ADSs will require or be D.3.2.5.1.2 The system under test amplifier output or the circuit
capable of intelligible voice communications. It is the designer's being calibrated should have a minimum of a I-watt load during
job to define areas that will have voice communication versus the calibration process.
those that might have tone-only signaling, as well as which
1).3.2.5.1.3 Perform pre-test occupant and remote monitoring
spaces will have visual notification appliances (strobes), textual
station notification requirements specified in NTPA 72, Chapter
signage, or other forms of notification and/or communication.
14,
This document intends that "notification" mean any form of
not just voice communication, whether audible, D.3.2.5.1.4 Introduce a I kHz sine-wave tone (± 100 Hz) at 90
visual, or using some other human sense. dBA-fast 4" (4 in.) to the system microphone on-axis,
perpendicular to the face of the microphone.
D.3.2.2 There might be applications where not all spaces will
require intelligible voice signaling (Ref: NFPA 72, 2007, Section 1).3.2.5.1.5 Place the system under test into manual paging mode
A. 7.4. IA), For example, in a residential occupancy such as an (microphone "live" and connected to amplifier circuitry with
apartment, the authority having jurisdiction and the designer notification appliance circuits active).
might agree to a system that achieves the required audibility
D.3.2.5.1.6 Using a el-digit accuracy RMS meter, set on AC
throughout but does not result in intelligible voice signaling in
scale, set the output of the System Under Test audio notification
the bedrooms. The system would be sufficient to awaken and
appliance circuits to between 24 and 26 Vrms for 25.2 volt
alert. However, intelligibility might not be achieved in the
systems or between 69 and 71 Vrms for 70.7 volt systems.
bedrooms with the doors closed and the sounder in the adjacent
hallway or room. In some cases this can require that messages D.3.2.5.1.7 Once system under test manual paging mode has
repeat a sufficient number of Limes to ensure that occupants can been calibrated, prerecorded tone (if so equipped) should then be
reach a location where the system is sufficiently intelligible to be tested by playing it through the system under test to ensure that
understood. Systems that use tone signaling in some areas and there is no more than a 3 CIBA difference between manual
voice signaling in other areas would not require voice paging using the system microphone and the prerecorded
intelligibility in those areas only covered by the tone. message, The CIBA measurement should be made using an
integrating/averaging meter and averaged over approximately 10
1).3.2.3 Emergency Communications System Control Unit. The seconds of voice announcement to compensate for voice
system under test for the emergency communications system amplitude modulation.
should be located and identified prior to testing, and its operation
features necessary for the testing clarified. Personnel who are 1).3.2.5.1.8 On a system under test with more than one
authorized to access and service the control unit are necessary for emergency paging microphone and/or prerecorded message
the testing and should be included within the team performing the units, the primary units should be calibrated, then secondary
tests. If necessary, notification to locations beyond the facility units tested to ensure that they produce signals throughout the
that is being tested (e.g., fire department or a supervising station) system under test at the same amplitude as the primary units.
should be notified of the tests, and if appropriate, their automatic 1).3.3 Plans and Specifications.
notification feature disabled, Upon completion of the tests the
emergency communications system should be returned to its 1).3.3.1 The approved plans and specifications for the system
normal operating condition. should be used to plan and document the tests.
D.3.2.4 Test Set-up. The function and operation of the D.3.3.2 Testing is best accomplished using large scale plans
emergency communication system control unit should be showing all notification appliances.
reviewed with personnel authorized to access and operate this D.3.3.3 The plans should show the different system notification
equipment. Information should be acquired on the functioning of zones.
the voice notification portion of the system, and whether it has
zone capabilities that will allow minimal disruption to building 1).3.3.4 The type and location of the notification appliances used
occupants by testing each zone individually. The test plan should in the emergency communication system should be identified
also specify whether other functions of the system, such as prior to testing.
elevator recall and air handler control, will be disabled during the 1).3.3.5 Notification appliance symbols should differentiate the
testing of the emergency communications system. type of appliance where more than one type is used.
1).3.2.5 System Under Test Calibration. The complete system 1).3.3.6 Notification appliance symbols should include the
under test audio path should be fully calibrated in accordance design wattage for each loudspeaker appliance.
with manufacturer's published instructions. On systems with
adjustable technology, if manufacturer's published instructions D.g.3.7 The Plans should show the ambient sound pressure levels
are not provided, the alternate calibration procedure offered used as a basis for the system design.
below can be employed to calibrate the system under test. 1).3.4 Estimating a Design's Speech Intelligibility. There are
1).3.2.5.1 Alternate Calibration Procedure. occasions in which a space might not be available to take test
measurements in prior to the design being completed. Calculation
D.3.2.5.l.I This calibration is to be performed with the system methods for speech intelligibility are available so that a design
under test on normal AC power, then checked with the system on can be assessed before actual installation. The calculations use
secondary power (if so equipped) . basic physical parameters of the space and the system arrives at
a speech intelligibility estimate. (Sec K. 1.2.19.) The results of
2022 Edition
the calculation methods can be converted to STI using the CIS 1).3.6.2.2 It might be acceptable to only spot test intelligibility.
described in D.2.4.5. One possible reason for spot sample testing is where the space
has been acoustically designed by individuals having skills
D.3.5 Assignment of Acoustically Distinguishable Spaces.
sufficient to properly destgn a voice/alarm system for the
D.3.5.I ADSs should be assigned prior to the test, and be subject occupancy to be protected (e.g., space has been designed using
to review by all test participants. commercially available computer modeling software acceptable
to the authority havingjurisdiction).
1).3.5.2 ADS assignments should be a part of the original design
process. See the discussion in D.2.3.1 D.3.6.2.3 Possible reasons to test include the following:
D.3.5.3 The design drawings should be used to plan and show the (l ) Appreciable hard surfaces (e g. , glass, marble, tile, metal)
limits of each ADS where there is more than one. (2) Appreciable high ceilings (e.g., atriums, multiple ceiling
heights)
1).3.5.4 All areas that are intended to have audible occupant
notification, whether by tone only or by voice are to be D.3.6.3 In situations where there are several ADSs that have the
designated as one or more ADSs. See D.2.3.1 exact same physical and system configuration, it might be
possible to test only a representative sample and then just check
1).3.5.5 The drawings or a table listing all ADSs should be used the others to confirm system and appliance operation — for
to indicate which ADSs will require intelligible voice example, hotel rooms with similar layouts or offices of similar
communications and which will not. The same drawings or table size and furnishings where each has a loudspeaker appliance. In
could be used to list audibility requirements where tones are used these cases there would be no expected difference in system
and to list any forms of visual or other notification or intelligibility. The only possible problem would be one where an
communications methods being employed in the ADS. appliance was not operational or tapped at the incorrect wattage.
D.3.5.6 ADS layouts that differ from the original, approved These problems would be apparent by a basic "listening" test.
design documents should be approved by the authority having 1).3.6.4 Not all ADSswill require speech intelligibility testing.
jurisdiction. Some areas might be designed for notification, but not for voice
D.3.6 Spaces Not Requiring Testing. communication. Notification can be accomplished by tone-only
signaling or by a pre-alert tone preceding a voice message. See
D.3.6.1 Buildings and areas of buildings that are not acoustically D-3.5.5.
challenging such as traditional office envimnments, hotel guest
rooms, dwelling units, and spaces with carpeting and furnishings 1).3.6.5 By definition, an ADS is uniform in acoustic
generally meet intelligibility levels if the audibility levels are characteristics. However, speech intelligibility will vary at
consistent with the requirements of NFPA 72. Performing different points within an ADS depending primarily on distance
intelligibility testing might not be necessary in these areas. Areas to noise sources and distance to loudspeaker appliances.
of a typical building that can be acoustically challenging could Generally, in smaller spaces up to about 40 ft x 40 ft (12.2 m x
include vehicle parking levels and large lobby areas with hard 12.2 m), one measurement location will be sufficient. The
floors and wall surfaces, stairs, and other spaces with high location should not be directly in front of a wall mounted
reverberation. Intelligibility meeting the requirements in this loudspeaker or directly under a ceiling mounted loudspeaker.
document can be difficult to achieve throughout these spaces„ Neither should it be in the far corner right next to wal[s or
Specialized sound system design procedures, principles, and windows. Generally, try to stay about 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3.0 m)
equipment might be necessary to achieve speech intelligibility in away from vertical surfaces that reflect sound. In larger spaces, a
high noise areas or areas with challenging acoustics. grid of about 40 x 40 ft (12.2 m x 12.2 m) can be used as a starting
Alternatively, intelligibility could be provided near exits and guide, then adjusted for the locations of machines and other
within specific areas (elevator lobby of a parking level) where obstructions and for loudspeaker appliance locations. See D.2.4
occupants can obtain clear instructions after being alerted. This for additional discussion on measuring points and the averaging
is done, in part, by the proper planning and designation of ADSs. of results in an ADS.
D.3.6.2 Factors that influence the decision to measure or not 1).3.6.6 Of the ADSs that do require intelligible voice
measure speech intelligibility include those in D.3.G.2.1 through communications, some will require speech intelligibility testing
1).3.6.2.3. and others might only require audibility testing.
1).3.6.2.1 Possible reasons not to test speech intelligibility D.3.6.7 Testing of intelligibility might not be required in
include the following: buildings and areas of buildings that are not acoustically
challenging and that meet the audibility requirements of NFPA
(l ) Distance from the listener to loudspeaker is less than 30 ft
72. Spaces that are not considered to be acoustically challenging
(9.1 m) in the room (assuming proper audibility and low
include traditional office environments, hotel guest rooms,
reverberation)
spaces with carpeting and furnishings that reduce reverberation,
(2) Ambient sound level is less than 50 CIBA and the average
and other, smaller spaces where a loudspeaker appliance is
SPL of the voice message is 10—15 CIBA greater than the
installed in the space.
ambient sound level
(3) No appreciable hard surfaces (e.g., glass, marble, tile, 1).3.7 Measurement Points Within ADS.
metal)
1).3.7.1 Measurements should be taken at an elevation of 5 ft (l
(4) No appreciable high ceilings (i.e., ceiling height equals
.5 m) or at any other elevation deemed appropriate based on
loudspeaker spacing at a ratio of optimal or 1:2 max)
2022 Edition
ANNEX D 72-437
occupancy (e.g., elevated walkways, child-height, sitting height, the background ambient conditions are not the occupied ambient
work area height, etc.) or test instrument instructions. sound pressure level. It is also necessary to measure and save the
unoccupied ambient sound level at each measurement location.
D.3.7.2 The number and location of measurement points in each
Then, during occupied times, take and save ambient sound level
ADS should be planned and based on the area and volume of the
measurements. The three data sets are combined by software to
space and the loudspeaker appliance location within the space.
calculate the corrected STI for the area. See D.6,5.6,
The location of noise sources, egress paths, and the locations Of
personnel in the space should also be considered. DA Test Equipment Calibration for Testing Using STIPA Test
Signal.
1).3.7.3 Testing when the area is occupied and when the ambient
sound level is at or near its expected maximum is preferred D.4.1 General.
because it is easier. However, it does involve playing of a test
1).4.1.1 The calibration of the STI test instrument is done in
signal through the emergency communications system for the
accordance with this section using a talkbox or in accordance
duration of the test. When testing using the STIPA signal, the
with manufacturer's published instructions.
signal is a continuous noise signal. Other methods that measure
STI use a swept tone that should be repeated for each D.4.l.2 The Intelligibility Test System consists ofa talkbox and
measurement location. The alternate procedure is to test and save STIPA test meter (analyzer) all from one manufacturer. Units
the STI measurement data during unoccupied times, measure and from other manufacturers should not be interchanged unless said
save the unoccupied sound level, and then take and save sound units have been tested by a recognized testing laboratory for
level measurements during occupied times, The three data sets compatibility (see 1).23.5.2).
are combined by software to calculate the corrected STI for the 1).4.1.3 Prior to performing any intelligibility testing or
area. Testing usmg this method requires three measurements at intelligibility system calibration, verifý that the test meter's
each measurement location, but does not subject occupants to microphone, talkbox, and analyzer are within calibration date as
constant test signals. The choice of testing occupied versus
listed on the unit's calibration tag.
unoccupied for intelligibility is the same as for audi bility testing
of tone signaling systems and is based on convenience versus 1).4.1.4 All audio test equipment, including ANSI Type sound
disruption of normal use of the space. However, unlike audibility pressure level meters required by NFPA 72 for audibility testing,
testing, intelligibility testing is less likely to contribute to the Cry require regular calibration to known, traceable standards. The
Wolf Syndrome because the test signal is not the same as the portable meters used to measure STI using the STIPA test signal
evacuation tone, which would be sounded throughout testing of should meet or exceed ANSI Type 2 meter requiremenus. In
a tone signaling system, [Ref: Schifiliti, Robert P., "Fire Alarm addition, the STIPA test signal and the meter algorithm for
Testing Strategtes Can Improve Occupant Response and Reduce measuring the received signal and calculating the modulation
the "Cry Wolf' Syndrome," NEMA Supplement in Fire transfer function to arrive at the STI should be tested by a
Protection Engineering, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, certifýing laboratory for accuracy to the IEC standard for STI.
Bethesda, MD 20814, Fall 2003.1 and [Ref: Breznitz, S. , Cry D.4.2 Calibration Procedure.
Wolf: The Psyhologv o/' False Alarms, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, February 1984.] 1).4.2.1 The following procedures should be performed at the
commencement and conclusion of intelligibility testing. If the
1).3.7.4 If multiple measurement points are required within an following procedure differs from that recommended by the
ADS, they should be separated by about 40 ft ( 12.2 m). manufacturer of the test equipment, follow their calibration test
1).3.7.5 No more than one third of the measurement points within procedure.
an ADS should be on the axis of a loudspeaker. D.4.2.2 Perform calibration procedures in a quiet room (45 CIBA
1).3.7.6 See D.2.4 for the requirements for averaging the results or less) without any extraneous sounds or any talking, music, etc.
at different measurement points Mil thin an ADS, D.4.2.3 Start STIPA test tone as instructed by the manufacturer,
D.3.7.7 Measurement points should be shown on plans or 1).4.2.4 Apply power to the talkbox and then actuate the STIPA
otherwise described in a way that permits future testing at the test signal.
same locations,
D.4.2.5 Turn on the analyzer and set it to SPL A fast
D.3.8 Test Method — Occupied versus Unoccupied. measurement mode.
D.3.8.1 It is possible to conduct STI measurements when the area 1).4.2.6 Place the analyzer's microphone approximately I in., on
is occupied or when it is not occupied. In this document axis, from the talkbox. Do not place the analyzer microphone
"occupied" versus "unoccupied" is intended to be consistent with against any hard surface — this can lead to induced noise and
the definitions in D.2.3 for occupied ambient sound pressure affect the calibration.
level and for unoccupied ambient sound pressure level.
D.4.2.7 Adjust the talkbox volume so that the STI analyzer's
1).3.8.2 The preferred procedure is to conduct the STI/STIPA test reading is approximately 92 CIBA.
in the presence of the occupied ambient sound pressure level. See
D.O.4. 1).4.2.8 Keeping the analyzer in approximately the same
position, measure the STI. Note that some meters display STI
D.3.8.3 MAÄere the test method is measuring the STI using the measurements using the CIS scale while some can display results
STIPA test signal, the STIPA test signal can be played through in either STI or CIS units. See 1).2.4 for an explanation of the
the system and the STI can be measured and the data saved by CIS scale.
the test instrument when the area is either not occupied or when
2022 Edition
1).4.2.9 The equipment is working properly if the reading is 1).5.2.2 In theory, the two methods for setting up the talkbox
greater than 0.91 STI or 0.96 CIS, Up to three tests can be should result in the talkbox being set at approximately the same
performed, If the system does not pass after three tests, it should sound level. The ECS should be designed and configured so that
be returned to the manufacturer for repair or recalibration. input to the microphone results in the same output level that any
prerecorded announcements would produce.
D.5 TalkboxSet-up.
1).5.2.3 General.
D.5.1 Input Test
D.5.1.1 The input test signal should be configured to produce the 1).5.2.3.1 There are two methods for setting the level of the STI
proper level by utilizing either the microphone input method or or STIPA test signal at the input microphone.
the direct input injection method. 1).5.2.3.2 Method I sets the volume of the input test signal so that
D.5.1.2 Most emergency communications systems have the CIBA output in the area under test is the same as that for a
microphones for manual voice communication and should be prerecorded message.
tested using the microphone test method. Systems that do not D.5.2.3.3 Method 2 sets the volume of the input test signal to
have microphones and that only play prerecorded voice match that of speech level under normal conditions.
announcements can be tested using the direct input injection
1).5.2.3.4 The room where the talkbox and system under test
method,
microphone are located should be quiet.
D.5.1.3 By putting the STI or STIPA test signal into the system
D.5.2.3.5 An emergency command center or fire command
via the system microphone, the ECS system is being tested from
center will not be free of noise during an actual emergency.
end to end. If an ECS system has the test signal prerecorded in
However, for testing purposes, the room should be relatively free
its hardware, playback of that test signal would not be testing the
of extraneous noises that could affect the results. The purpose of
microphone and the part that feeds the microphone signal into the
the tests is to establish the baseline capability of the system and
system.
acoustic environment to support intelligible communications,
D.5.1.4 Direct Input Injection Method for Test Signals. Good design practice for an emergency command center is to
D.5.1.4.1 With this method the STI or STIPA test signals are isolate the space so that only emergency command personnel
prerecorded in the emergency communications system hardware have access. In addition, the location of the microphone for
in the same way as the prerecorded voice messages and at the manual input should be such that background discussions and
same input levels. Alternately, the test signal can input to the noise are minimized,
system via inputjacks or terminals. 1).5.2.3.6 Set up the talkbox in accordance with the
1).5.1.4.2 The input level of the test signal should be tested by manufacturer's published instructions.
the ECS listing agency as being the same as the prerecorded voice 1).5.2.4 Method 1 — Matching Recorded Message Level.
levels or should be calibrated using the ECS equipment 1).5.2.4.1 The intent of this method is to set the talkbox or audio
manufacturer's published instructions. source input level into the emergency communications system
1).5.1.4.3 For ECS systems that permit voice messages to be microphone so that the output at a location in the area under test
custom recorded, the equivalent sound level (see A-18.4,4, of is the same as the level of prerecorded messages played by the
the recorded voice over a period of 10 seconds or the length of system.
the voice message should be measured and should be within 3 dB 1).5.2.4.2 The sound pressure level produced by the talkbox
of the prerecorded STI or STIPA test signal to ensure that it is at while playing the STI or STIPA test signal should be matched
the correct level. with the sound pressure level of the prerecorded voice message.
1).5.1.4.4 Field measurements of the STI are made using the 1).5.2.4.3 Two people will be needed to perform the calibration
procedure in Section D.5. procedure, One person needs to be present at the talkbox while
1).5.1.5 Microphone Input Method for Test Signals. the other person needs to operate the analyzer at a typical
location in the facility.
1).5.1.5.1 With this method a recording of the STI or STIPA test
signals are played into the system microphone using a talkbox. 1).5.2.4.4 At a typical location in the facility, position the
analyzer it so its microphone is approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) above
1).5.1.5.2 The talkbox is set up and calibrated per D .52, and field the finished floor:
measurements of the STI are made using the procedure in Section
D.6. 1).5.2.4.5 Set the analyzer (meter) to measure sound pressure
level, ax-weighted, fast.
1).5.2 Calibrating the Input Test Signal for Microphone Input
Methods 1).5.2.4.6 Actuate the prerecorded voice message from the ECS.
1).5.2.1 Of the two methods for setting the test signal input to the D.5.2.4.7 The decibel reading at the analyzer will be somewhat
system microphone, the method that sets the level to match that erratic due to the nature of speech signals.
of a person speaking into the microphone is the one required by
1).5.2.4.8 Record the highest dB reading the system produces.
IEC 6026816, Sound system equiPment — Part 16: Objectwe
rating Q/' speech intelligibilit) b' speech transmission index, the 1).5.2.4.9 Do not move the analyzer from the test location.
standard that defines STI and STIPA. 1).5.2.4.10 Turn off the prerecorded voice message.
2022 Edition
ANNEX D 72-439
D.5.2.4.11 Place the microphone of the emergency 1).6.2 Power. The system under test should be tested on
communications system at a distance from the talkbox as secondary power fòr a minimum of 15 mmutes and then on
recommended by the microphone or ECS manufacturer. primary power for the remainder of the testing,
D.5.2.4.12 Start the talkboxST1 or STIPA test signal. D.6.3 System Operation. SThere two ADSs are ac!jacent to each
other and not separated by physically barriers that significantly
1).5.2.4.13 Adjust the talkbox sound level until the field
prevent noise penetration from one ADS to another, the
measurement of the test signal is +3 dB of' the level generated
notification appliances in both ADSs should be operating during
when the prerecorded voice message was played and measured.
the testing. It is acceptable for intelligibility testing to
This setting should not change for the remainder of the testing,
1).5.2.4.14 Begin field testing in accordance With Section D.6. Table 1).5.2.5.8 Audibility Equivalent to 65 dBAat 1-m
1).5.2.5 Method 2 — Matching Speech Level. Distance
1).5.2.5.1 The intent of this method is to set the talkbox or audio

source input level to the emergency communications system r (in.) (dB) r (in.) r (m) (dB) r (in.) (dB)
microphone to match that of an average person speaking into the
microphone. 0.1 o 117 4 0.10 85 11 0.28 76
0.2 0.01 111 83 12 0.30 75
1).5.2.5.2 Set the analyzer (meter) to measure sound pressure 5 0.13
0.5 0.01 103 20 0.50 71
level, rx-weighted, fast. 6 0.15 81
1.0 0.03 97 24 0.61 69
1).5.2.5.3 start the STI or STIPA test signal and hold the meter at 1.5 7 0.18 80 1.00
0.04 93 39.37 65
a distance of 39.4 in. (1.0 m) on-axis from the talkbox or audio 2.0 0.05 8 0.90 79 78.8 2.00
source. 91 78 59
3.0 0.08 9 0.23
87 77
1).5.2.5.4 Set the talkbox volume (level) so that the meter 10 0.25
registers 65 CIBA at a distance of 39.4 in. (1.0 m). This setting
silence or disable other notification zones that would not
should not change for the remainder of the testing.
potentially interfere with each other. However, regular testing per
1).5.2.5.5 The distance from the microphone to the talkbox NIPA 72 would require that all circuits be operated
should be documented so that future tests can be set up simultaneously at one point to ensure proper operation and to
consistently. Most microphone manufacturers or ECS equipment verify power requirements.
manufacturers will state a recommended distance for a person to
1).6.4 Occupied Testing.
hold the microphone when talking. Some microphone use chin
guards or some physical means to help users know when they are 1).6.4.1 Testing should be done during a period of time when the
holding the microphone at the correct distance. If the area is occupied and is reasonably close to having maximum
manufacturer has not recommended a talking distance, 4 in. background noise.
100 mm) is recommended as a guide. 1).6.4.2 Set up the talkbox in accordance With Section 1).4 and
D.5.2.5.6 Place the microphone of the emergency communi- start the STI or STIPA test signal.
cations system at a distance from the talkbox as recommended by
At each measurement point in each ADS measure the STI.
the microphone or ECS manufacturer.
D.6.4.4 Document the results on plans or forms in a way that
D.5.2.5.7 A level of 60 CIBA at one meter is required by IEC
accurately describes the measurement point and that permits
60268-16, Sound system equi/nnent — Part 16: Objective rating
future testing at the same locations.
of speech intelligibility by speech transmission index, the
standard that defines STI and STIPA and is considered a normal D.6.5 Unoccupied Testing.
speech level, M•qmile 60 CIBA at I m is documented as "normal" D.6.5.1 General. Testing of speech intelligibility in the pres, ence
speech, in areas where there is background noise, the Lombard of the occupied ambient sound pressure level is the preferred
effect causes a person to talk at an elevated volume. For this method. However, for various reasons, including disruption of
document, the committee chose to use 65 CIBA as more normal work, it might be desirable to only do "silent" testing
representative of speech levels during emergency situations. It is during occupied periods and to do testing with the STI or STIPA
recommended that at least one field STI measurement be made at test signal during unoccupied or less occupied conditions.
both 60 (IBA and 70 CIBA at one meter talking level to test the
effects of elevated voice level. D.6.5.2 Number of Tests. This test method requires three
different measurements at each measurement point, typically
D.5.2.5.8 Sound pressure level increases 6 dB whenever the made during two site visits. The data for each measurement is
distance is halved. So, the test could be set up so that the talkbox saved in a format in accordance with the instrument
level achieves 65 + 6 71 CIBA at a distance of 19.7 in. (0.50 m). manufacturer's requirements. The three data files are then
Table D-5.2.5.8 shows different dB levels at distances that would postprocessed to arrive at the final corrected STI.
be equivalent to 65 CIBA at 39.4 in. (1.0 m). 1).5.2.5.9 Begin
field testing in accordancewith Section 1).6. D.6.5.3 Occupied Ambient Sound Pressure Level Measurement.
D.6 STI/STIPATestProcedure. 1).6.5.3.1 At each measurement point in each ADS measure the
1).6.1 General. This test procedure permits testing during either occupied ambient sound pressure level.
occupied conditions or during unoccupied conditions. SeeD.3.8.
2022 Edition
D.6.5.3.2 Save the measurement data in accordance with the
instrument manufacturer's requirements to permit postprocessing
of the data.
D.6.5.3.3 Document the results on plans or forms in a way that
filture testing at the same locations.
1).6.5.4 Unoccupied Ambient Sound Pressure Level
Measurement.
D.6.5.4.1 At each measurement point in each ADS measure the
unoccupied ambient sound pressure level.
1).6.5.4.2 Save the measurement data in accordance with the
instrument manufacturer's requirements to permit postprocessing
of the data.
1).6.5.4.3 Document the results on plans or forms in a way that
future testing at the same locations.
D.6.5.5 Unoccupied STI Measurement.
D.6.5.5.I Set up the talkbox in accordance with Section D.4 and
start the STI or STIPA test signal.
2022 Edition
ANNEX 72-441
E
1).6.5.5.2 At each measurement point in each ADS measure the 1).7.3.2 In addition to the requirements for test documentation
uncorrected STI. contained in NIPA 72, Chapter 10, the test results should
include:
1).6.5.5.3 Save the measurement data in accordance with the
instrument manufacturer's requirements to permit (1) Building location and related descriptive facility
postprocessing of the data. information
1).6.5.5.4 Document the results on plans or forms in a way that (2) Names, titles, and contact information for individuals
accurately describes the measurement point and that involved in test
permits future testing at the same locations. (3) Dates and times of tests
(4) A list of testing instruments, including manufacturer's
1).6.5.6 Post-Processing.
name, model, serial number, and date of most recent
1).6.5.6.1 The corrected STI is arrived at by post-processing of calibration
the occupied ambient sound pressure level measurement, the (5) Technical description of emergency communications
unoccupied ambient sound pressure level measurement, and system
the unoccupied STI measurement. In effect, the measured STI (G) Identification of ADSs
(uncorrected) is being corrected by adding in the effects of the (7) Locations of specific measurement points (in a list or on
actual expected (occupied) ambient sound pressure level. a set of drawings)
1).6.5.6.2 The post-processing procedure or software provided (8) Site definition of am bient sound pressure levels
by the instrument manufacturer should be used to calculate the (9) STI/STIPA measurements at each measurement point
final corrected STI {Or each measurement point.
(10) Final corrected STI/STIPA values where the
1).6.5.6.3 Document the results on plans or forms in a way that postprocessing procedure is used
accurately describes the measurement point and that permits (11) Indication of whether or not the test met the pass/fail
future testing at the same locations, criteria
1).6.5.6.4 Documentation of the final results for each point (12) Record of system restoration
should include the results of all three measurements and the (13) Any additional infOrmation to assist with fututxž
final corrected STI value. The manufacturer's software revision evaluation of system performance
should also be included in the results documentation.
1).7.3.3 If appropriate, the plans and specifications addressed
1).7 Post Test Procedures. in D.3.3 should be updated based on the results of the test.
1).7.1 Test Closure. Upon completion of all testing, the
emergency communications system should be returned to its Annex E Sample Ordinance Adopting NFPA 72
normal operating condition, This annex is not a part of the tequiremenls of this NEPA document
D.7.2 Results. but is included for informational purpases only.
1).7.2.1 It is also not the intent of this test protocol to describe E.I The following sample ordinance is provided to assist a
how to interpret results or how to correct systems or jurisdiction in the adoption of this Code and is not part of this
environments that contribute to poor speech intelligibility. Code.
However, depending on the instrument used, it might be ORDINANCE NO,
possible to have data retained by the instrument to determine
possible causes and their effects on STI results. Consult with
the instrument manufacturer to determine if the instrument has An ordinance of the [jurisdiction] adopting the 2022
the capability to display or save the intermediate STI edition of NIPA 72, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code,
modulation indices and octave band measurement results and and documents listed in Chapter 2 of that Code; prescribing
for instructions on how to interpret those data. regulations governing conditions hazardous to life and property
1).7.2.2 For each ADS, summarize the results in accordance from fire or explosion; providing for the issuance of permits
with the performance requirements of 1).2.4. and collection of fees; repealing Ordinance
No.of the [jurisdiction] and all other ordinances and parts of
1).7.2.3 For an ADS that had multiple measurement points or ordinances in conflict therewith; providing a penalty; providing
that had multiple measurements at only one measurement a severability clause; and providing for publication; and
point, calculate the average per D.2.4 and list the average and providing an effective date.
the minimum measurement per 1).2.4 in the results summary.
BE IT ORDAINED BY THE body] OF THE
D.7.3 Documentation. diction]:
1).7.3.1 The test results should be fully documented and SECTION 1 That the NIPA 72, National Alarm and SignaL
provided to the building owner, the emergency ing Code, and documents adopted by Chapter 2, three (3)
communications system contractor, the system designer, the copies of which are on file and are open to inspection by the
authority having jurisdiction, and any other individual or public in the office of the [jurisdiction's keeper of records] Of
organization deemed appropriate. the [jurisdiction], are hereby adopted and incorporated into this
2022 Edition
RE ALARM AND SIGNALING CODE@
ordinance as fully as if set out at length herein, and from the adopted hereby shall take effect and be in full force and effect
date on which this ordinance shall take effect, the provisions [time period] from and after the date of its final passage and
thereof shall be controlling within the limits of the adoption.
[jurisdiclion]. The same are hereby adopted as the Code of the
[jurisdiction] for the purpose of prescribing regulations Annex F Wiring Diagrams and Guide for Testing Fire Alarm
governing conditions hazardous to life and property from fire Circuits
or explosion and providing for issuance of permits and
collection of fees, This annex is a part of the requirements of this AT'PA document but
is included for informational purposes only.
SECTION 2 Any person who shall violate any provision of
this code or standard hereby adopted or fail to comply Annex F Provides guidance for testing of the various classes of
therewith; or who shall violate or fail to comply with any order circuits identified in Chapter 12 of this edition of NFPA 72 Earlier
made thereunder, or who shall build in violation of any detailed editions of NFPA 72 have used different designations for these
statement of specifications or plans submitted and approved circuits. Designations found in Previous editions (located in Annex C
thereunder; or fail to operate in accordance With any certificate of NIPA 72, 2007 edition or earlier) can be compared with these
or permit issued thereunder; and from which no appeal has corresponding diagrams-
been taken; or who shall fail to comply with such an order as El General. Circuit class designations in this edition of the
affirmed or modified by a court of competent jurisdiction, Code are Class A, B, C' D, E, NS and X. Definitions can be
within the time fixed herein, shall severally for each and every found in Chapter 12. Additionally, special circuits unique to
such violation and noncompliance, respectively, be guilty of a supervising stations are designated as Types 4, 5, 6, and 7, and
misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of not less than $ nor definitions can be found in Chapter 26.
more than $ or by imprisonment for not less than The Wiring diagrams depicted in Figure through Figure
days nor more than days or by both such fine and F.3.14(k) are representative of typical circuits encountered in
imprisonment. The imposition of one penalty for any violation the field and are not intended to be all-inclusive.
shall not excuse the Violation or permit it to continue; and all
such persons shall be required to correct or remedy such The noted symbols are as indicated in NFPA 170.
violations or defects within a reasonable time; and when not An individual point-identifýing (i.e., addressable) fire alarm
otherwise specified the application of the above penalty shall initiating device operates on a signaling line circuit and is
not be held to prevent the enforced removal of prohibited designated as a Class A, Class B, or Class X initiating device
conditions. Each day that prohibited conditions are maintained circuit. All fire alarm circuits must test free of grounds because
shall constitute a separate offense. metallic conductors will cause failure of the circuit when a
SECTION 3 Additions, insertions, and changes — that the second ground condition occurs on the same power source.
2022 edition of NIPA 72, National Fire and Sigwaling code, is Nonmetallic circuit paths, such as low-power radio and
amended and changed in the following respects: optical fiber cable, might still be designated as Class A, B, or
List Amendments X if they meet the other performance requirements of those
pathways.
SECTION 4 That ordinance No, of [jurisdiction]
entitled [Jill in the title of the ordinance or ordinances in effect The following initiating device circuits are illustrative of
at the Present time] and all other ordinances or parts of either alarm or supervisory signaling. Alarm-initiating devices
ordinances in conflict herewith are hereby repealed. and supervisory initiating devices are not permitted to have
SECTION 5 That if any section, subsection, sentence, identical annunciation at the fire alarm control unit.
clause, or phrase of this ordinance is, for any held to be invalid Directly connected system smoke detectors, commonly
or unconstitutional, such decision shall not affect the validity referred to as two-wire detectors, should be listed as being
or constitutionality of the remaining portions of this ordinance. electrically and functionally compatible with the fire alarm
The [governing bad'] hereby declares that it would have passed control unit and the specific subunit or module to which they
this ordinance, and each section, subsection, clause, or phrase are connected. If the detectors and the units or modules are not
hereof, irrespective of the fact that any one or more sections, compatible, it is possible that, during an alarm condition, the
subsections, sentences, clauses, and phrases be declared detector's visible indicator will illuminate, but no change of
unconstitutional. state to the alarm condition will occur at the fire alarm control
unit. Incompatibility can also prevent proper system operation
SECTION 6 That the [jurisdiction 's keeper of rpcrmLs] is at extremes of operating voltage, temperature, and other
hereby environmental conditions,
Where two or more two-wire detectors with integral relays
ordered and directed to cause this ordinance to be published.
are connected to a single initiating device circuit, and their
[NOTE: An additional -provision might be required to direct relay contacts are used to control essential building functions
the number of times the ordinance is to be published and to (e.g., fan shutdown, elevator recall), it should be clearly noted
specify that it is to be in a newspaper in general circulation. that the circuit might be capable of supplying only enough
Posting may also be required.] energy to support one detector/relay combination in an alarm
SECTION 7 That this ordinance and the rules, regulations, mode. If control of more than one building function is required,
provisions, requirements, orders, and matters established and each detector/ relay combination used to control separate
functions should be connected to separate initiating device
ANNEX F 72-443
circuits, or they should be connected to an initiating device last
circuit that provides adequate power to allow all the detectors device
connected to the circuit to be in the alarm mode simultaneously.
During acceptance and reacceptance testing, this feature should
always be tested and verified.
A loudspeaker is an alarm notification appliance, and, if used
as shown in the diagrams in Section F.2, the principle of
operation and supervision is the same as for other audible alarm
notification appliances (e.g., bells and horns). End-of-line device within the control unit
The testing of supervised remote relays is to be conducted in FIGURE F. 2.1.1 Nonpowered Alarm Initiating or
the same manner as for notification appliances. Supervisory Initiating Devices Connected to Hard-Wired
F.2 Wiring Diagrams and Testing. When testing circuits, the and Class B Initiating Device Circuits.
correct wiring size, insulation type, and conductor fill should
be verified in accordance with the requirements of 70.
E 2.1 Testing Nonpowered, Hard-Wired Class A, B, or C after
Initiating Device Circuits. Disconnect conductor at device or
control unit, then reconnect. Temporarily connect a ground to Fire
either leg of conductors, then remove ground. Both operations control
should indicate audible and visual trouble with subsequent
restoration at control unit.
F.2.l.1 Hard-Wired Alarm Initiating or Supervisory Initiating
Devices. Hard-wired alarm initiating devices (e.g., manual
End-of-line device within the control unit
station or valve supervisory switch), by their intended
functions initiate alarm upon a conductor-to-conductor short. FIGURE F.2.g Circuit-Powered (Two-Wire) Smoke Detectors
See Figure E.2.1.1. for Class A or B Initiating Device Circuits.
F. 2.2 Nonpowered Class A Circuits. Disconnect a conductor F.2.4 Circuit-Powered (Two-Wire) Smoke Detectors for Class
at a device at midpoint in the circuit. Operate a device on either A Initiating Device Circuits. Disconnect conductor at a smoke
side of the device with the disconnected conductor. Reset fire detector or remove where installed with a plug-in base at
alarm control unit and reconnect conductor. Repeat test with a midpoint in the circuit. Operate a device on either side of the
ground applied to either conductor in place of the disconnected device with the fault. Reset control unit and reconnect
conductor. Both operations should indicate audible and visual conductor or detector. Repeat test with a ground applied to
trouble, then alarm or supervisory indication With subsequen t either conductor in place of the disconnected conductor or
restoration. removed device. Both operations should indicate audible and
F. 2.3 Circuit-Powered (Two-Wire) Smoke Detectors for Class visual trouble, then alarm indication with subsequent
A or B Initiating Device Circuits. Remove smoke detector restoration. See Figure F.2.4.
where installed with plug-in base or disconnect conductor from F.2.5 Combination Alarm Initiating Device and Notification
fire alarm control unit beyond first device. Actuate smoke Appliance Circuits. Disconnect a conductor either at indicating
detector per manufacturer's published instructions between fire or initiating device. Actuate initiating device between the fault
alarm control unit and circuit break Restore detector or circuit, and the fire alarm control unit. Actuate additional smoke
or both. Fire alarm control unit should indicate trouble when detectors between the device first actuated and the fire alarm
fault occurs and alarm when detectors are actuated between the control unit. Restore circuit, initiating devices, and fire alarm
break and the fire alarm control unit. See Figure F.2.3. con trol unit. Confirm that all notification appliances on the
circuit operate from the fire alarm control unit up to the fault
and that all smoke detectors tested and their associated
ancillary functions, if any, operate. See Figure F.2.5.
F.2.6 Combination Alarm Initiating Device and Notification
Appliance Circuits Arranged for Operation with Single Open
or Ground Fault. Testing of the circuit is similar to that
Nonoperational
Fire described in F.2.5. Confirm that all notification appliances
control operate on either side of fault. See Figure F.2.6.
Operational
End-of- Operational
line
device at
F.2Yc).
F.2.10 Alarm Notification Appliances Connected to Class A

(Four-Wire) Circuits. Testing of the notification appliances
Fire alarm control unit connected as Class A is similar to that described in F.2.4. See
Figure
FIGURE F.2.4 (Two-Wire) Smoke Detectors
F.2.11 System with Supervised Audible Notification
for Class A Initiating Device Circuits.
Appliance Circuit and Unsupervised Visual Notification
Appliance
Circuit. Testing of the notification appliances connected to
Class B is similar to that described in F.2.4. See Figure F.2.I I
F.2.12 System with Supervised Audible and Visual
End-of-line Notification Appliance Circuits. Testing of the notification
appliances connected to Class B is similar to that described in
last device F.2.4, See Figure F.2.12,
FIGURE F. 2.5 Combination Alarm Initiating Device and F.2.13 Series Notification Appliance Circuit That No Longer
Notification Appliance Circuits. Meets Requirements of NFPA 72. An open fault in the circuit
Wiring should cause a trouble condition. See Figure F.2.13.
F.2.14 Supervised Series Supervisory Initiating Circuit with
Sprinkler Supervisory Valve Switches Connected That No
Longer Meets Requirements of NFPA 72. An open fault in the
circuit wiring or operation of the valve switch (or any
supervisory signal device) should cause a trouble condition.
The classification of this circuit is now designated as Class D
Fire alarm control unit
because the intended operation is performed. When the circuit
fails, the indication at the fire control unit is the same as if the
FIGURE F.2.6 Combination Alarm Initiating Device and supervisory switch were to open. Fire alarm initiating devices,
Notification Appliance Circuits Arranged for Operation -including supervisory inputs, are no longer allowed to
with Single Open or Ground Fault. annunciate as trouble conditions. See Figure F.2.14.
F.2.7 Class A or B Circuits with Four-Wire Smoke Detectors and

End-of-Line Power Supervision Relay. Testing of the
circuit is similar to that described in F.2.3 and F.2.4. F.2.15 Initiating Device Circuit with Parallel Waterflow Alarm
Disconnect a leg of the power supply circuit beyond the first Switches and Series Supervisory Valve Switch That No Longer
device on the circuit, Actuate initiating device between the Meets Requirements of NFPA 72 An open fault in the circuit
fault and the fire alarm control unit. Restore circuits, initiating wiring or operation of the valve switch should cause a trouble
devices, and fire alarm control unit. Audible and visual trouble signal, See Figure F.2.15.
should indicate at the fire alarm control unit where either the
Fire alarm control unit End-of-line device
initiating or power circuit is faulted. All initiating devices
between the circuit fault and the fire alarm control unit should relay
actuate. In addition, removal of a smoke detector from a plug-
in-type base can also break the power supply circuit. 1,There
circuits contain ¼vrious powered and nonpowered devices on
the same initiating circuit, verify that the nonpowered devices
beyond the power circuit fault can still initiate an alarm. A
return loop should be brought back to the last powered device FIGURE F.2.7 Class B Circuits with Four-Wire Smoke
and the power supervisory relay to incorporate into the end-of- Detectors and End-of-Line Power Supervision Relay.
line device. See Figure F.2.7.
F.2.8 B Initiating Device Circuits with Four-Wire Smoke
Detectors That Include Integral Individual Supervision Relays.
Testing of the circuit is similar to that described in F.2.3 with operational Nonoperational
the addition of a power circuit. See Figure F.2.8. End-
F.2.9 Alarm Notification Appliances Connected Class B of-line
device
(TwoWire) Circuits. Testing of the notification appliances
connected ms Class B is similar to that described in F.2.3. See
Figure Fire alarm control unit
ANNEX F 72-445
FIGURE F.2.8 Class B Initiating Device Circuits with
FourWire Smoke Detectors That Include Integral Individual
Supervision Relays. End-of-
devic
line
at last
devic
End-of-
line
Fire alarm control unit at last
device
End-of-line
FIGURE F.2.12 Supervised Audible and Visual Notification
deviceat Appliance Circuits.
Operational
alarm control unit last device
HGURE F.2.9 Alarm Notification Appliances Connected to

Class B (Two-Wire) Circuits.
FIGURE F.2.13 Series Notification Appliance Circuit.
vs vs vs
End-of-
line
device
within Fire alarm control unit
the control unit
FIGURE F.2.14 Supervised Series Supervisory Initiating
Circuit with Sprinkler Supervisory Valve Switches Connected.
FIGURE F.2.10 Alarm Notification Appliances Connected to
Class A (Four-Wire) Circuits.
vs
WF
End-of-
line End-of-line device at
device at last device
last Fire alarm control unit
device
FIGURE F.2.15 Initiating Device Circuit Parallel
Fire alarm control unit Waterflow Alarm Switches and Series Supervisory Valve
Switch.
FIGURE F.2.11 Supervised Audible Notification Appliance
Circuit and Unsupervised Visual Notification Appliance
Circuit.
F.2.16 System Connected to Municipal Fire Alarm Master Box MB MB MB
Circuit. Disconnect a leg of municipal circuit at master box.
Verify alarm sent to public communications center. Disconnect
leg of auxiliary circuit. Verify trouble condition on control unit.
Restore circuits. Actuate control unit and send alarm signal to Fire alarm control unit
communications center. Verify control unit in trouble condition
until master box reset. See Figure F.2.16. FIGURE F.2.16 System Connected to Municipal Fire Alarm
a shunt trip master box, an open fault in the auxiliaty circuit
F.2.17 Auxiliary Circuit Connected to Municipal Fire Alarm
should cause an alarm on the municipal ystem. See Figure
Master Box. For operation with a master box, an open or
F.2.17.
ground fault (where ground detection is provided) on the circuit
should result in a trouble condition at the fire alarm control F.3 Circuit Classes. Some testing laboratories and authorities
unit. A trouble signal at the fire alarm control unit should having jurisdiction permitted systems to be classified as Class
persist until the master box is reset. For operation with X by the application of two circuits operating in tandem. An
example of this is to take two series circuits, Class B, and
operate them in tandem. The logic was that if a condition interface device, and the circuit and hardware will still have
occurs on one of the circuits, the other series circuit remained alarm operability.
operative.
If a conductor break or an internal fault occurs in the
To understand the principles of the circuit, alarm receipt pathway of the circuit conductors, the entire circuit becomes
capability should be performed on a single circuit, and the inoperative.
Class type, based on the performance, should be indicated on
To verify alarm receipt capability and the resulting trouble
the record of completion.
signal, place an earth ground on one of the conductors or at the
F.3.1 Style 0.5. This signaling circuit operates as a series circuit point where the signaling circuit attaches to the multiplex
in performance. This is identical to the historical series audible interface device. One of the transmitters or an initiating device
signaling circuits. Any type of break or ground in one of the should then be placed into alarm.
conductors, or the internal of the multiple interface device, and
E 3.6 Typical McCulloh Loop. This is the central station
the total circuit is rendered inoperative.
McCulloh redundant-type circuit and has alarm receipt
To test and verify this type of circuit, either a conductor capabilityon either side of a single break See Figure F.3.6.
should be lifted or an earth ground should be placed on a
F.3.6.1 To test, lift one of the conductors and operate a
conductor or a terminal point where the signaling circuit
transmitter or initiating device on each side of the break. This
attaches to the multiplex interface device,
activity should be repeated for each conductor.
F.3.2 Style 0.5(a) (Class B) Series That No Longer Meets
F.3.6.2 Place an earth ground on a conductor and operate a
Requirements of NFPA 72. Style 0.5 (a) [Unctions so that,
single transmitter or initiating device to verify alarm receipt
when a box is operated, the supervisory contacts open, making
capability and trouble condition for each conductor,
the succeeding devices nonoperative while the operating box
sends a coded signal, Any alarms occurring in any successive F.3.6.3 Repeat the instructions of F.3.6.l and F.3.6.2 at the
devices will not be received at the receiving station during this same time, verify alarm receipt capability, and verify that a
period. See Figure F.3.2, trouble condition results.
F.3.3 Style 0.5(b) Shuni That No Longer Meets Requirements F.3.7 Class B (Formerly Style 3.0). This is a parallel circuit in
of NFPA 72 The contact closures when the device is operated which multiplex interface devices transmit signal and operating
(and remains closed) to shunt out the remainder of the system power over the same conductors. (See Figm 1 7.3.7.) The
until the code is complete. See Figure F.3.3. multiplex interface devices might be operable up to the point
of a single break. Verify by lifting a conductor and causing an
F.3.4 Style 0.5(c) Positive Supervised Successive That No alarm condition on one of the units between the central alarm
Longer Meets Requirements of NFPA 72 An open or ground unit and the break. Either lift a conductor to verify the trouble
fault on the circuit should cause a trouble condition at the condition or place an earth ground on the conductors. Test for
control unit. See Figure F.3.4. all the valuations shown on the signaling table.
FIGURE F. 2.17 Auxiliary Circuit Connected to Municipal fire

Alarm Master Box.
End-of- Supervisory contacts

line Supervisory device at
contacts last device FIGURE E.3.3 style 0.5(b) Shunt.
Coding Supervision by internal
contacts
electromechanical
Fire alarm control unit device
FIGURE F.3.2 style 0.5(a) Series.
Master Box
Circuit.
F.3.5 Style 1.0 That No Longer Meets Requirements of NFPA
72. This is a series circuit identical to the diagram for Style 0.5,
except that the fire alarm system hardware has enhanced
performance. [See Figure F.3.5(a) and Figure F.3.5(b).] A
single earth ground can be placed on a conductor or multiplex Fire alarm control unit
ANNEX F 72-447
FIGURE F.3.4 Style 0.5(c) Positive Supervised Successive. End-of-line
Transponderdevice at
On ground-fault testing, verify alarm receipt capability by
actuating a multiplex interface initiating device or a
transmitter. Fire alarm control unit last device
F.3.8 Style 3.5 That No Longer Meets Requirements of NFPA FIGURE F.3.s style 3.5.
72. Follow the instructions for Class B (formerly Style 3.0) and
verify the trouble conditions by either lifting a conductor or F.3.9 Class B (Formerly Style 4.0). Follow the instructions for Class
placing a ground on the conductor. See Figure F.3.8. B (fOrmerly Style 3.0) and include a loss of carrier where the signal
IS being used. See Figure F.3.9„
E.g. 10 Style 4.5 That No Longer Meets Requirements of
NFPA 72. Follow the instructions for Style 3.5. Verity alarm
receipt capability while lifting a conductor by actuating a
multiple interface device or transmitter on each side of the
break. See Figure F,3.10.
Fire alarm control unit E.g. 11 Class A (Formerly Style 5.0). Verify the alarm receipt
Central computer
capability and trouble annunciation by lifting a conductor and
FIGURE F.3.5(a) style 1.0 (Class B). actuating a multiplex interfacing device or a transmitter on
each side of the break.
17.3.11.1 Ground Test on Class A (Formerly Style 5.0) Circuit.
For the earth ground verification, place an earth ground and
certify alarm receipt capability and trouble annunciation by
actuating a single multiplex interfacing device or a transmitter,
See Figure F.3.11.1
FIGURE F.3.5(b) Typical Transmitter Layout.
Operational Nonoperational
End-of-line
Transponder device
at
Fire alarm control unit last device

End-of-line
FIGURE F.3.9 (Formerly style 4.0).
device within
the control unit
FIGURE F.3.6 'Typical McCulloh Loop,
Transponder
operationai Nonoperational Fire alarm control unit
End-of-line
Transponderdevice at
Coded wheel
Fire alarm control unit last device Coded
wheel
MC-URE F.3.7 Class B (Formerly style 3.0). End-of-line Shunt
noninterfering device within the control
unit
Operational Fire alarm control unit
FIGURE F.3.10 style 4.5 (Class B).

FIGURE F.3.14(a) ClassX (Formerly style 7.0).
Transponder
FIGURE F.3.11.1 ClassA (Formerly Style 5.0).

F.3.12 Class A (Formerly Style 6.0). Follow the instructions
from F.3 I l, Verify the trouble annunciation for the various
combinations. See Figure F.3.12.
F.3.1g Class A with Circuit Isolators. For the portions of the
CU Wireless control unit
circuits electrically located between the monitoring points of
(with power supply and standby power) R
circuit isolators, follow the instructions for a Class X circuit. It
Wireless repeater
should be clearly noted that the alarm receipt capability for
(with power supply and standby power)
remaining portions of the circuit protection isolators is not the
D Wireless initiating, indicating, and control device
capability of the entire circuit but is permitted with enhanced
(either primary battery or primary standby battery)
system capabilities. See Figure F.3.13.
F.3.14 Class X (Formerly Style 7.0). Follow the instructions FIGURE F.3.14(b) Low-Power Radio (Wireless) fire Alarm System.
for testing of Class A (formerly Style 6.0) for alarm receipt
capability and trouble annunciation. See Figure F.3.14(a)
through Figure F.3.14(k).
Type 4
NOTE: Some manufacturers of this type of equipment have
isolators as part of the base assembly. TherefOre, in the field,
this component might not be readily observable without the
assistance of the manufacturer's representative.
Type 5
Protected premises Supervising

station RFT/A
Radio frequency transmitter/receiver
FIGURE F.3.14(c) Two-WayRF Multiplex Systems.
Optional unlimited
Transponder
FIGURE F.3.12 style 6.0 (Class A). RASSR
RARSR
Protected premises
Circuit isolators
RARSR RARSR
Physically separated
RAT — Radio alarm transmitter
FIGURE F.3.13 Awith Circuit Isolators. RARSR = Radio alarm repeater station receiver
BASSR Radio alarm supervising station receiver
FIGURE F.3.14(d) One-Way Radio Alarm System.
Type
RASSR
Transponder
RASSR
ANNEX F 72-449
Type
7
RARSR RARSR RASSR
RAT — RARSR RARSR RASSR

Radio alarm
Break
transmitter or
RARSR — Radio alarm repeater station receiver open
RASSR — Radio alarm supervising station receiver
FIGURE F.3.14(e) One-W@Y Radio Alarm System (Type 6
and Type 7). Style 4 fiber network where the control unit has a two-way
path communications capability. A double break isolates the
control units and the control center in this case. There is one
LAN and one isolated control unit operating on its own.
Control center is isolated completely with no communications
with the network.
Style 4 fiber network CC — Control center
where the control unit FACU Fire alarm control unit
has a two-way path
communications FIGURE F.g.14(h) style 4 Fiber Network (Double Break).
capability. Multimode
fiber is used for short
distances, and single
mode fiber is used for
long distancesRepeaters
are used to increase
distances as needed.
cc — Control center
FACU Fire alarm control unit
FIGURE style 4 Fiber Network. Break or

open
Break or
open
Style 7 fiber network where the control unit has a two-way path
communications capability with the two breaks now breaking into
two LANs, both functioning as independent networks with the
same Style 7 capabilities.
Style 4 fiber network where the control unit has a two-way path CC = Control center
communications capability. A single break separates the system
FACU = -Fire alarm control unit
into two LANs, both with Style 4 capabilities.
FIGURE F.3.14(i) style 7 Fiber Network (Two LANs).
CC Control center
FACU = Fire alarm control unit
FIGURE F.3.14(g) style 4 Fiber Network (Single Break).

This document first presents guidance on how to create and
Break disseminate emergency information in the face of rapid-onset
open disasters l — providing guidance on the dissemination of alert
signals, the creation of the warning message, the formatting of
messages for both visual and audible means, and the
dissemination of the warning message. This document then
provides examples of emergency messages (i.e., message
templates) for five different types of emergency scenarios.
These message templates can be altered to fit the needs of your
occupants, as well as the type of emergency that has occurred
and type of technology used to disseminate the alerts/messages.
G.2 Guidance on Emergency Communication Strategies. This
Style7fiber network where the control unit has a two-way path
communications capability, with one break. System remains as one LAN section provides guidance for managers, emergency personnel,
and meets Style 7. alarm system manufacturers, codes/standards committees, or
cc = Control center others responsible for emergency communication on the ways
FACU Fire alarm control unit in which alerts and warning messages should be created,
formatted, and disseminated. The guidance is divided into two
FIGURE F.3.14(j) style 7 fiber Network (One LAN). main parts: guidance on alerts and guidance on warning
messages. Although these two parts often get confused, it is
important to distinguish between the purpose of an alert and a
warning message.
An alert is meant to grab peoples' attention, notifying them that
an emergency is taking place and that there is important
information, which will be provided to them. The purpose of a
warnmg message is to give that important information to
occupants.
Guidance on the construction and dissemination of both alerts
and warnings is provided here,
G.2.1 Alerts. It is imperative to disseminate an alert to let
occupants know that a warning message will follow.
Style 7 fiber network where the control unit has a two-way path Regardless of whether the warning message is provided
communications capability. audibly, visually, or via tactile means, an alert is necessary to
gain people's attention and should be provided separately from
CC Control center the warning message. An effective alert should include the
FACU Fire alarm control unit following characteristics;
FIGURE E3.14(k) style 7 Fiber Network. (1) Alerts should be significantly different from ambient
Annex G Guidelines for Emergency Communication sounds,
Strategies for Buildings and Campuses This annex is not (2) Buildings should reduce background noise when
part of the requirements of this NFPA document but is includedfor initiating audible alerts.
i"formational purposes only. (3) Flashing, rather than static lights, preferably one standard
color for all buildings, can be used to gain attention to
G.I The material in this annex is based on the National Institute
visual warning messages.
of Standards and Technology (MST) and Fire Protection
Research Foundation research Guidance Document: (4) There are additional methods to alert occupants to an
Emergent)' Communication Strategiesfor Buildings, by Erica emergency. disruption of routine activities, tactile
Kuligowski, Ph.D. and H. Omori, 2014, as adapted by the method.s, social networks, and face-to-face.
NFPAECS TC. (5) An alert signal should be accompanied by a clear,
The purpose of' this annex is to provide guidance to system consistent, concise, and candid warning message,
designers, building managers, and/or building emergency (6) If selected, an alert should be tested for its success in
personnel responsible for emergency communication on how getting occupants' attention in the -event of an
to create and disseminate messages using basic communication emergency and used as part of building- or campus-wide
modes (audible and/or visual technology). The guidance training.
provided here is taken directly from a report published by the G.2.2 Warnings. Warning messages should provide
National Institute of Standards and Technology, which was information to the occupants on the state of the emergency and
based on a review Of 162 literature sources from a variety of what they are supposed to do in response to this emergency:
social science and engineering disciplines (Kuligowski et al. The warning message should come after an alert signal is given
2012) and the prioritization of the specific findings extracted and can be provided via visual or audible means. However,
from each literature source. before such guidance on message format for visual and audible
ANNEX F 72-451
messages can be provided, it is vital to provide guidance on the
content of the warning message itself.
G.2.2.1 The Message. Regardless of the method used to
disseminate the warning message, there are certain
characteristics that are required of an effective warning
message. These are included here:
(1) Message Content.
(a) A warning message should contain five important
topics to ensure that occupants have sufficient
information to respond,
i. Who is providing the message? (i.e., the source
of the message) ii. What should people do? (i.e.,
what actions occupants should take in response to
the emergency and, if necessary, how to take these
actions) iii. When do peoþle need to act? (In rapid-
onset events, the "when" is likely to be
"immediately.")
Where is the emergency taking place? (i.e., who
needs to act and who does not) Why do people
need to act? (including a description of the hazard
and its dangers/ consequences)
(b) The source of the message should be someone who
is perceived as credible by the occupants
(c) Building managers, campus managers, and emer-
gency personnel should understand the affected
population and, from this understanding, develop a
database of possible trusted sources (as well as
backup sources),
(2) Message Structure.
(a) Message order for short messages (e.g., 90-
characters) should be the following:
Source ii, Guidance on what people
should do iii. Hazard (why) iv: Location
(where)
v. Time.
(b) Message order for longer messages should be the
following:
1. Source ii.
Hamrd iii.
Loca on
Guidance
Time
G
(c) Numbered lists can help to chronologically organ- m ges, computer pop-ups, email, Internet
e websites, news (TV broadcast), or streaming
ize multiple steps in a process s broadcast over the web. Depending upon the
(d) For limited message length, message writers could s technology chosen to display visual warning
draft the message in a bulleted form; each of the a messages, guidance is provided here on
five topics in the warning should be separated as g message displays to enable occupants to see or
its own bullet point e notice the displayed
Distinct audiences should be addressed separately in (G) s
,
the message (or in multiple messages)
(3) Message Language (or Wording), w
(a) Messages should be written using short, simple h
words, omitting unnecessary words or phrases. i
(b) Messages should be written using active voice, c
present tense, avoiding hidden verbs. h
(c) Messages should be written using short, simple, c
and clear sentences, avoiding double negatives and a
exceptions to exceptions; main ideas should be n
placed before exceptions and conditions. i
n
(d) Emergency messages should be written at a sixth
c
grade reading level or lower, An emergency
l
message can be evaluated for its reading level
u
using computer software and/or a simple
d
calculation. Emergency messages should be
e
written without the use ofjargon and false
t
cognates.
e
(f) Emergency messages should be provided in the x
language of the predominant affected populace. If there is a t
possibility of isolated groups that do not speak the u
predominant language, multilingual messages should be a
provided. It is expected that small groups of transients l
unfamiliar with the predominant language will be picked up v
in the traffic flow in the event of an emergency and are not i
likely to be in an isolated situation. Multiple Messages. s
(a) Building managers, campus managers, and (7) u
emergency personnel should anticipate the need to a
write more than one emergency message l
throughout a disaster; including feedback d
messages or updates. i
(b) In update messages, occupants should be told why s
the information has changed, to ensure that the p
new message is viewed as credible, l
(c) Provide feedback messages after a "non-event" to a
inform occupants that the alert signal and warning y
system operated and worked as planned and the s
reasons why the event did not occur. ,
S
(d) Building managers, campus managers, and
M
emergency personnel should test emergency
S
messages With the affected population.
t
(5) Visual Warnings. e
(a) Messages that are displayed visually will have x
different capabilities and limitations than those t
disseminated audibly. Message creators should m
consider different factors and make different types e
of decisions based upon the dissemination method. s
The first consideration is the type of visual s
technology that will be used to disseminate the a
2022 Edition
ANNEX 72-453
(8) warning, understand the warning, perceive warning s or pictorials used in visual warnings; a minimum
credibility and risk, and respond appropriately, Noticing and (a) P number of words should be used to accompany
Reading the Warning. r graphics,
i
(b) Diagrams that display a series of sequential steps
(a) Place the emergency sign in a location where people n are more successful for comprehension of a process
will notice it and be able to read it from their original t
(pre-emergency) location. than one single graphic.
e A color-contrasted word or statement should be
(c)
(b) Signs will be reliably conspicuous within 15 degrees of d used for text that should be read first and/or be
the direct line of sight. t
(c) Text is easier to read when written with a mixture of perceived as more urgent than the rest, unless color
e is used for other reasons (e.g. bilingual text).
upper and lower case letters rather than the use of all x
capitals. (d)
t A warning message can increase in perceived
(d) The recommended relationship for older adults with s credibility and risk if occupants are shown that
lower visual acuity is D 100 * h, providing a more h others are also responding.
conservative result, and ensuring that a larger o Simultaneously displayed text (discrete messages) is
population will be able to read the emergency message. u preferred rather than a sequentially displayed
l message.
(e) A stroke-t(HMidth ratio of the letters is suggested as
(generally), with a ratio of suggested for lighter letters (f)
d Simultaneously displayed text can also be used for
on a darker background. a bilingual messages, especially if care is taken to
(f) Building managers, campus managers, or emer gency c differentiate the text of one language from the text
personnel should consult the ADA Standards for c of the other language.
Accessible Design (U.S. Department of Justice 2010) (g)
o Limit the use of flashing words on visual message
for additional requirements on signage. m displays.
(g) Contrast between the text and the baCkground should p
Audible Warnings.
be at least 30 percent, although recommended values a
n (a) There are specific warning technologies that
could be as high as 60 percent. only (or primarily) affect the aural sense,
(h) The use of pictorials (in lieu of or in addition to text) y
s including public address systems (voice
can also bring attention to the sign. notification systems) , automated voice dialing,
y
(i) Message providers should ensure that emergency m satellite/AM/FM radio broadcasts, satellite/ off-
information is not blocked by other signs or b air television broadcasts, and tone alert radios.
information. o Whereas visual technologies
Comprehending, Believing; and Personalizing the Warning, l
can limit message length, audible warnings are often speak with a rate of approximately 175 words per
limited only by the attention capabilities of' the minute.
audience. In other words, an audible message can play (c) Audible warnings can be delivered using a live voice,
for long periods of time with these technology types, dynamic voice (generated by text-to-speech
and the message creator and source must be careful to software), or using prerecorded voice.
provide all important informaLion in an appropriate (d) The live voice and dynamic voice methods provide
length of time. the benefit of messages that can be updated with new
(b) In this section, guidance will be given for methods to information while also conveying an
increase the likelihood that an individual will perceive, appropriate level of urgency, if necessary.
or hear, the message. Following this, guidance will be Dynamic and prerecorded voice methods provide the
provided that can increase comprehension of the benefits of easily repeating the played messages for
message for audible messages, as well as the ways in longer periods of time and not relying on the voice
which to increase credibility and risk assessment of the announcer training or stress level while delivering the
event when the warning is presented audibly. message.
(9) Perception. (f) For the voice itself, best results will vary, depending
(a) Other; non-alert/warning voices in the background on the specific location — for example, in outdoor
should be reduced or eliminated. applications, it has been shown that a male voice Will
(b) Any voice announcements should also be proude better intelligibility, as the naturally lower
accompanied by simultaneous visual text. frequency of the male voice travels better, Inversely,
(10) Comprehending, Believing; and Personalizing the in an interior application, where the background
Warning. ambient noise is typically in the same lower
frequencies, a female voice tends to penetrate better,
(a) Letters are more difficult to identify in speech than as it is more distinct from the ambient.
numbers, which are more difficult than colors. (g) Urgency measures should be used selectively to
(b) People making announcements (or other message emphasize the more dangerous, immediate,
sources) should not be heavily accented and should
LARM AND SIGNALING CODE@
lifethreatening situations (since overuse can lead to (1) Building-wide announcement to Floors 9, 10, and Il •
non-response in future disasters). "Attention [floors 9, 10, and Il]. This is your [Building
(11) Dissemination of the Warning Message. Safety Officer, Joe Smith]. A fire has been reported on the
(a) Use multiple channels to disseminate the warning [10th floor] of the building. Everyone on the 19th, 10th, and
message, including visual, audible, and tactile means. 11th floorsl should move to the [8th floor] to be protected
from heat and smoke, since heat and smoke can creep into
(b) A warning message should be repeated at least once,
nearby floors during a fire. Use the stairs immediately. Do
with some research advocatil)g for message repetition
not use the elevators. Those who need help getting to the 8th
of at least three times.
floor, please wait inside the stairwell lor go to the freight
(c) Messages should be stated in full, and then repeated elevator lobby]."
in full, rather than repeating statements within the
(2) Building-wide announcement to all other floors: "Attennon.
same message.
This is your [Building Safety Officer, Joe Smith]. A fire has
G
(d) Warning messages should be repeated at intervals, been reported on the [10th floor] of the building. Please wait
rather than consecutively. on your floor. At this time, you are safer remaining on your
Warning messages should be disseminated as early as floor than leaving the building, because this building is
possible. designed to confine the fire [e.g., locally or to the 10th floor
(f) Face-to-face communication should accompany only], Do not use the elevators for any reason. We will give
other audible or visual technologies. you further instructions, if the situation changes.'
(g) Messages should be disseminated using a G.3.2 Scenario 2 — Fire in a building, full evacuation strategy,
combination of both push and pull technologies. building-wide public address announcement, and cell phone text
(h) Push communication2 is most important to use for message. Scenario 2 IS a fire located on the second floor of a 20-
alert signals well as initial warning messages. story building in which smoke is traveling up the building's air-
G.3 Emergency Message Templates. Rapid-onset emergencies conditioning/venting system, causing the need for a full-building
often come with little warning and can have a major impact on evacuation. Individuals are unable to use elevators in this
communities. In order to provide clear, effective instntctions for scenario, except for those who are unable to negotiate the stairs,
a threatened population, it is important to create message in which case building staff or fire fighters will assist them using
templates ahead of time for a variety of different emergencies. the freight elevator(s).
This section provides examples of message templates for five Protective actions: Occupants on all floors are requested to
types of emergency, using various forms of emergency evacuate the building, known as a full-building evacuation.
communication technology. All bracketed text can be altered and Technologies used to disseminate the message: The building-
replaced with text that better suits the needs of the occupants, wide public address system, which is capable of providing
emergency scenario, emergency response strategies, and the different messages to different floors (using a live voice or a
technology being used. Please see Kuligowski and Omori (2014) dynamic voice). Also, a 90-character text message alert to cell
for more information on the process associated with the phone users in the building.
development of these templates. Each template follows the
guidance presented in this document. G.3.2.J Message Templates for Scenario 2:
(l) Building-wide public address system: "Attention. This is
G.3.1 Scenario 1 — Fire in a building, partial evacuation strategy, [Chief Smith from the Springfield Fire Department], A fire
building-wide public address announcements. Scenario I is a fire has been reported on the [second floorl of the building.
located on the 10th floor of a 20-story building. Individuals are Everyone must leave the building now to avoid contact with
unable to use elevators in this scenario, except for those who are the fire's heat and smoke. Go NOW to your closest stair and
unable to negotiate the stairs, in which case building staff' or fire leave the building. People who cannot use the stairs should
fighters will assist them using the freight elevator(s). go to the freight elevator lobby for help.
Protective actions: Occupants on floors 9, 10, and Il are told to (2) Cell phone text message (90 characters): "Evacuate building
evacuate to the 8th floor (two floors below the fire floor). All now. It is on fire. Go to freight elevator if you need help."
other occupants are provided with a message to remain on their Note: A description the hazard (a more detailed "why" statement) is
floor. Therefore, in this scenario, two different types of messages not included in this message due to character limits. Also, the source is
are required to be provided simultaneously to occupants, not listed. It is passible that the source will already be identified in the
depending upon the floor on which they are located: one message "From" or "FIRM" line of the text message. If message contents are
will be disseminated to floors 9, 10, and I l, while a different limiled, there is always the option to send a follow-up text message that
message will be disseminated simultaneously to all other floors. provides more information or that continues the previous message. Also
Technologo used to disseminate the message: The building- remember that some Phones (i.e., non-smart Phones) could display
wide public address system, which is capable of providing longer text messages in rwerse chronological order,
different messages to different floors (using a live voice or a
G.3.3 Scenario 3 — Tornado imminent on a college campus,
dynamic voice).
campus-wide audible messaging system, and Twitter message.
G.3.1.1 Message Templates for Scenario 1: Scenario 3 is a tornado immment on a college campus.

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ANNEX B 72-397

Note that the variables are identified in Section B.7.

B.3.3.3.8 Ifãå is measured at a given reference velocity (uo), T

Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet 128]

Define the characteristics of the detectors. -c + 273 K RTI=

7. If > continue to step 8. If' not, try a new detector

9. Calculate the ratio — ATusing the relationship

10. Use the relationship for AT in equation B.3.3.4,2c to 2

13, Fixed Temperature HD — Use the relationship for

15. If: Repeat Procedure Using

B.3.3.7.2 To begin calculations, it will be necessary to make a

Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet 128]

5. Calculate the factor A defined by the relationship for A cpTap

13. Fixed Temperatupv HD — Use the relationship for

15. If: Repeat Procedure Using

Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet 128]

5. Calculate the factor A defined by the relationship for

12. Use the relationships for Y and D in equations

calculate the resulting temperature of the detector

Heat Release Rate/

m sec ft/' sec½

Fire Detection Design and Analysis Worksheet 128]

15 1000/146 949/ 146 Rate

Table B.3.3.8.5(e) Ambient Temperature Versus Heat Release

Heat Release Rate

T =25Q +20 (for Slums)

zm 5,54Ql (for SI units)

[B.4.6.3.2b] Note that the variables are identified in Section B. 7.

Wood crib 0.016 0.049 0.005 0.015 Light

Variati on 200: 1 12.5:1

Table B.4.7.5.1 Ratio of Optical Density to Temperature Rise

Representative Representative Maximum:

Wood (sugar pine, 5% moist) 1.20E-03 8.9E-4-3.2E-3 2.00E4)4 1.5E-5.5E4 3.7:1

PVC (wire insulation) 3.OE-2/5.9E-2 5.9E-3-5.9E-2 3.OOE-03 I.OE-3-1.OE-2 10:1

Average 2.1 OE-02 3.0E-4-7.7E-2 3.60E-03 5.OE-05-1.3E-2 260:1

Note that the results of this calculation are highly dependent

FIGURE B.4.9.1(b) CeilingJet Flow in Opposition to

FIGURE B.4.9.2 Velocity Profile for Ceiling-Mounted

B.5.1.5 Effects of Ambient. The choice of radiant energy—

where: Theft:fore, use the following equation to determine the

(44) Nam S., Thermal Response Coefficient TRC of Heat

time to detector response

critical heat release rate (kW or Btu/sec) velocity On/sec or ft/sec)

threshold heat release rate at response (kW or velocity ofsmoke at detector

radial distance from fire plume axis (m or ft) defined in equation B. 27

RTI response time index (m a secÁ or ft Sec ) wavelength (microns)

is reached (seconds) emissivity, a material property expressed as a

C. 2.2.2.4 Evacuation/Relocation. Consider system

FIGURE D.2.3.1.7 Illustration Demonstrating Effect of Ceiling Height. (Some: R. P. Schifiliti

1).5.2.5.1 The intent of this method is to set the talkbox or audio

F.2.10 Alarm Notification Appliances Connected to Class A

F.2.7 Class A or B Circuits with Four-Wire Smoke Detectors and

alarm control unit last device

HGURE F.2.9 Alarm Notification Appliances Connected to

FIGURE F. 2.17 Auxiliary Circuit Connected to Municipal fire

End-of- Supervisory contacts

FIGURE F.3.2 style 0.5(a) Series.

FIGURE F.3.5(b) Typical Transmitter Layout.

Fire alarm control unit last device