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Pay Drechsel • Manzoor Qadir • Dennis Wichelns
Editors

Wastewater
Economic Asset in an Urbanizing World

1  3
Editors
Pay Drechsel Dennis Wichelns
International Water Management Institute Agricultural Water Management
(IWMI) Bloomington
Colombo IN
Sri Lanka USA

Manzoor Qadir
United Nations University Institute
for Water, Environment and Health
Hamilton
Ontario
Canada

ISBN 978-94-017-9544-9       ISBN 978-94-017-9545-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9545-6
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015931115

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

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Contents

Part I Introduction and Background

1 Wastewater: Economic Asset in an Urbanizing World..........................   3

Dennis Wichelns, Pay Drechsel and Manzoor Qadir

2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use.........   15

Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Liqa Raschid-Sally and Anne Thebo

3 Health Risks and Cost-Effective Health Risk Management in

Wastewater Use Systems..........................................................................   39
Bernard Keraita, Kate Medlicott, Pay Drechsel
and Javier Mateo-Sagasta

4 Environmental Risks and Cost-Effective Risk Management

in Wastewater Use Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������    55
Manzoor Qadir, Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Blanca Jiménez,
Christina Siebe, Jan Siemens and Munir A. Hanjra

Part II Socio-economics of Wastewater Use

5 Social and Cultural Dimensions in Wastewater Use..............................   75

Pay Drechsel, Olfa Mahjoub and Bernard Keraita

6 Policy and Institutional Determinants of Wastewater

Use in Agriculture.....................................................................................   93
Dennis Wichelns and Manzoor Qadir

7 Assessing the Finance and Economics of Resource Recovery

and Reuse Solutions Across Scales........................................................... 113
Munir A. Hanjra, Pay Drechsel, Javier Mateo-Sagasta,
Miriam Otoo and Francesc Hernández-Sancho

vii
viii Contents

Part III Costs and Benefits

8 Wastewater Use in Agriculture:

Challenges in Assessing Costs and Benefits............................................ 139
Pay Drechsel, George Danso and Manzoor Qadir

9   Costs and Benefits of Using Wastewater for Aquifer Recharge......... 153
 Manzoor Qadir, Eline Boelee, Priyanie Amerasinghe
and George Danso

10 Economics of Water Reuse for Industrial,

Environmental, Recreational and Potable Purposes........................... 169
Miriam Otoo, Javier Mateo-Sagasta and Ganesha Madurangi

Part IV Thinking Business

11 Business Models and Economic Approaches

Supporting Water Reuse......................................................................... 195
Krishna Rao, Munir A. Hanjra, Pay Drechsel and George Danso

12 Business Models and Economic Approaches

for Recovering Energy from Wastewater and Fecal Sludge............... 217
 Solomie Gebrezgabher, Krishna Rao, Munir A. Hanjra
and Francesc Hernández-Sancho

13 Business Models and Economic Approaches

for Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater and Fecal Sludge................ 247
Miriam Otoo, Pay Drechsel and Munir A. Hanjra

Part V Outlook

14 Transforming Urban Wastewater into an Economic Asset:

Opportunities and Challenges............................................................... 271
 Munir A. Hanjra, Pay Drechsel, Dennis Wichelns
and Manzoor Qadir

  Chapter Reviewers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 279

  Index......................................................................................................... 281
Chapter 2
Global Wastewater and Sludge Production,
Treatment and Use

Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Liqa Raschid-Sally and Anne Thebo

Abstract Cities produce large amounts and very diverse types of waste including
wastewater. The quality of these wastes depends on their source, the way in which
they are collected and the treatment they receive. The final fate of these wastes is
also very diverse. To better understand these systems this chapter provides defini-
tions and reuse typologies and describes common reuse patterns and their driving
factors. The chapter also shows that, while the prospects for resource recovery from
wastewater and sludge are promising the potential is still largely untapped, except
in the informal sector. The resources embedded in the approximately 330 km3/year
of municipal wastewater that are globally generated would be theoretically enough
to irrigate and fertilize millions of hectares of crops and to produce biogas to supply
energy for millions of households. However, only a tiny proportion of these wastes
is currently treated, and the portion which is safely reused is significantly smaller
than the existing direct and especially indirect use of untreated wastewater, which
are posing significant potential health risks. The chapter ends with a call for stan-
dardized data collection and reporting efforts across the formal and informal reuse
sectors to provide more reliable and updated information on the wastewater and
sludge cycles, essential to develop proper diagnosis and effective policies for the
safe and productive use of these resources.

Keywords Global wastewater production · Treatment options · Sludge production ·

Water reuse patterns

J. Mateo-Sagasta ()
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O. Box 2075,
Colombo, Sri Lanka
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Raschid-Sally
c/o International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka
e-mail: [email protected]
Anne Thebo
University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
e-mail: thebo@)berkeley.edu
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015 15
P. Drechsel et al. (eds.), Wastewater, DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9545-6_2
16 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

2.1 Introduction

The worlds’ population is increasing and concentrating in urban centres. This trend
is particularly intense in developing countries, where an additional 2.1 billion peo-
ple are expected to be living in cities by 2030 (United Nations 2012). These cities
produce billions of tons of waste every year, including sludge and wastewater. The
fate of these wastes is very different depending on the local context: they can be
collected or not, treated or not and finally used directly, indirectly or end without
beneficial use. In literature, data on these waste streams is scarce and scattered
and comprehensive reviews and assessments at global level are missing, with only
few and partial exceptions. Nevertheless, recent efforts from global organizations
such as FAO/IWMI through AQUASTAT, UN-Habitat (2008) and the Global Wa-
ter Intelligence (GWI 2014) allow to renew these assessments and provide a more
updated review.
Municipal wastewater and sludge contain valuable resources such as water, or-
ganic matter, energy, and nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) which can be
recovered for many and very diverse economic, social and environmental purposes.
However, and as a consequence of the deficient global data on these waste flows,
the total amount of resources that is recovered for beneficial uses has not been well
quantified so far.
This chapter offers a systematic and synthesized review of urban wastewater
and sludge flows and provides definitions and key figures to better understand the
subsequent chapters of this book. The chapter also tries to look at the dimension
of valuable resources embedded in waste streams and the extent to which these
resources are so far being recovered for beneficial uses, making wastewater and fe-
cal sludge economic assets. Where data are weak or scarce, the causes of such data
gaps are discussed.

2.2 Typology of Reuse and Definitions

Wastewater use can range from the formal use of ultrapure recycled water for ad-
vanced industrial purposes to the informal use of untreated and raw wastewater
for vegetable production in a peri-urban area. The diversity of cases is as large as
the diversity of types of wastewater and sludge, types of reuse and types of users
(Box 2.1 and 2.2).
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 17

Box 2.1: Types of Wastewater Treatment

Before being treated, sewage usually goes through pre-treatment to remove

grit, grease and gross solids that could hinder subsequent treatment stages.
Later, primary treatment aims to settle and remove suspended solids, both
organic and inorganic. The most common primary treatments are primary set-
tlers, septic and imhoff tanks.
In secondary treatment soluble biodegradable organics are degraded and
removed by bacteria and protozoa through (aerobic or anaerobic) biological
processes. Typical secondary treatments include aerated lagoons, activated
sludge, trickling filters, oxidation ditches and other extensive processes such
as constructed wetlands.
Tertiary treatment aims at effluent polishing before being discharged or
reused and can consist the removal of nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phos-
phorous), toxic compounds, residual suspended matter, or microorganisms
(disinfection with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet radiation or others). Neverthe-
less this third stage/level is rarely employed in low-income countries. Tertiary
treatment process can include membrane filtration (micro-, nano-, ultra- and
reverse osmosis), infiltration/percolation, activated carbon, disinfection
(chlorination, ozone, UV).
Finally, water reclamation refers to the treatment of wastewater to make it
suitable for beneficial use with no or minimal risk.

2.2.1 Types of Wastewater, Treatment and Uses

Wastewater can be defined as ‘used water discharged from homes, businesses, in-
dustry, cities and agriculture’ (Asano et al 2007). According to this definition there
are as many types of wastewater as water uses (e.g. urban wastewater, industrial
wastewater, or agricultural wastewater). Where the wastewater is collected in a mu-
nicipal piped system (sewerage) it is also called sewage. The term ‘wastewater’ as
used in this book is basically synonymous with urban (or municipal) wastewater
which is usually a combination of one or more of the following:
• Domestic effluent consisting of blackwater (from toilets) and greywater (from
kitchens and bathing)
• Water from commercial establishments and institutions, including hospitals
• Industrial effluent where present
• Stormwater and other urban runoff
Wastewater can be collected or not, treated or not, and finally used directly or dis-
charged to a water body, and then, be either reused indirectly downstream or sup-
port environmental flow (Fig. 2.1).
18 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

Fig. 2.1   Municipal wastewater chain, from production to use. (Source: Adapted from Mateo-
Sagasta and Salian 2012)

Box 2.2: Types and Examples of (Treated or Untreated) Wastewater

Usages (GWI 2009):

Agricultural Irrigation: Crop Irrigation, Commercial Nurseries

Landscape Irrigation: Parks, School Yards, Freeway Medians, Golf
Course, Cemeteries, Greenbelts, Residential
Industrial Recycling and Reuse: Cooling Water, Boiler Feed, Process
Water, Heavy Construction
Groundwater Recharge: Groundwater Replenishment, Saltwater Intrusion
Control, Subsidence Control
Recreational/Environmental Uses: Lakes and Ponds, Marsh Enhancement,
Stream-Flow Augmentation, Fisheries, Snowmaking
Non-potable Urban Uses: Fire Protection, Air Conditioning, Toilet
Flushing
Potable reuse: Blending in Water Supply Reservoirs, Pipe-To-Pipe Water
Supply

The direct use of wastewater implies that treated or untreated wastewater is used
for different purposes (such as crop production, aquaculture, forestry, industry, gar-
dens, golf courses) with no or little prior dilution. When it is used indirectly, the
wastewater is first discharged into a water body where it undergoes dilution prior to
use downstream (Fig. 2.2).
Finally reuse can be planned or unplanned. Planned use of wastewater refers
to the deliberate and controlled use of raw or treated wastewater for example for
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 19

Fig. 2.2   Simplified example of direct and indirect reuse. (Source: Authors)

irrigation. Most indirect use, i.e. after dilution, occurs without planning. Aquifer
recharge might be an exception (see also Chap. 9).

2.2.2 Types of Sludge, Treatment and Uses

Excreta which gets collected in a toilet remain either on-site (e.g. in a pit latrine
or septic tank) or is transported off-site in sewer systems. When collected on-site,
excreta is commonly called fecal sludge which is usually pumped and transported
through trucks to fecal sludge treatment ponds or if there are no treatment facilities
discharged untreated. The combination of sludge, scum and liquid pumped from
septic tanks is called septage, although, many times the terms “septage” and “fecal
sludge” are interchangeably used. Sewage treatment plants also produce sludge,
called sewage sludge, when suspended solids are removed from the wastewater
and when soluble organic substances are converted to bacterial biomass which also
become part of the sludge (Fig. 2.3).
The characteristics of sludge depend on the origin and quantity of flushing water
(public toilet, private toilet), its collection type (on-site, off-site) and subsequent
treatment level, for example digestion (Table 2.1). Fresh and untreated sludge will
have many pathogens, a high proportion of water, high biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) and is normally putrid and odorous. Nevertheless, sludge also contains es-
sential nutrients for plants (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) and is potentially a very
beneficial fertilizer. The organic carbon in the sludge, once stabilized, has also po-
tential as a soil conditioner because it improves soil structure for plant roots, or can
be transformed into energy through bio-digestion or incineration. As sewage may
receive harmful pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, pharmaceuticals) from industries
and other activities which may accumulate in its sludge, the sludge collected from
20 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

Fig. 2.3   Sludge types. (Source: Authors)

Table 2.1   Typical properties of untreated and digested sewage sludge. (Source: Metcalf and Eddy
2003, modified)
Item Untreated primary sludge Digested primary sludge
(% dry weight) Range Typical Range Typical
Total dry solids 2–8 5 6–12 10
Volatile solids 60–80 65 30–60 40
N 1.5–4.0 2.5 1.6–6.0 3.0
P2O5 0.8–2.8 1.6 1.5–4.0 2.5
K2O 0–1 0.4 0–3 1
pH 5–8 6 6.5–7.5 7

on-site systems is normally considered safer in view of reuse unless households use
their toilets for general waste disposal.
The treatment required will be dependent on the initial characteristics of the
sludge and its final use. The main purposes of treatment are to reduce the water
content, BOD, pathogens and any bad odors. Options for sludge treatment include
thickening, dewatering/drying as well as stabilization/composting (Strauss et al
2003; Koné et al 2010).
Water content in raw sludge is as high as 98 % which makes it unsuitable for
composting and makes handling and transport difficult and costly. With sludge
thickening in a sedimentation pond water content can be lowered up to 90 %. De-
watering and drying reduce the water content further so that the solid part of the
sludge remains about 20 % (UNEP 2001). Dewatering is faster but requires energy
to press-filter or centrifuge while drying takes more time (even weeks) but does not
require energy as water is lost through evaporation and drainage.
Both aerobic and anaerobic processes can be used for sludge stabilization.
Aerobic stabilization is typically done through composting at higher temperatures
(55 °C) which imitates an accelerated natural process that takes place on a forest
floor where the organic material (leaf litter, animal wastes) is broken down, result-
ing in an overall reduction of volume, or converted to more stable organic materials.
In anaerobic stabilization, bacterial decomposition through anaerobic processes,
reduces BOD in organic wastes and produces a mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide gas (biogas).
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 21

Once properly treated, sewage sludge is called biosolids and if safe can be mar-
keted for beneficial uses e.g. in landscaping. The application of biosolids on land
can contribute to the generation of new soil, where there was virtually none, or
increase the physical and chemical fertility of existing soils, thus reducing the need
for other soil ameliorants (see Chap. 13).
Sludge can also be used for energy recovery, if sufficiently dry directly, through
incineration or, indirectly, through anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis or gasification,
which produce bio-fuels such as methane-rich biogas, bio-oil and syngas (Kalogo
and Monteith 2012). Anaerobic digestion is the cheapest option as there is no en-
ergy input needed and the residual ‘cake’ can still be used as soil ameliorant. How-
ever, when sludge has high concentrations of heavy metals or persistent pollutants,
anaerobic digestion would not be the best option as the resulting digested sludge
would not be suitable for agricultural application. In these circumstances incinera-
tion, pyrolysis or gasification may be more suitable. A thorough analysis of options
is provided in Chap. 12.

2.2.3 Reuse Types and Patterns

As outlined in Chap. 1, the increasing scarcity of water and fertilizers in many parts
of the world is one of the motivations of wastewater use, be it treated or not. The
physical, economic, social, regulatory and political environments greatly influence
the type of wastewater use that takes place, resulting in very heterogeneous situa-
tions (Scheierling et al 2011; Raschid-Sally 2013). Yet, common reuse patterns can
be identified for wastewater (Mateo-Sagasta and Burke 2010). Generally, in low
income countries, where wastewater collection and treatment has limited cover-
age, wastewater and sludge tend to be used mostly informally, with no prior treat-
ment, while in high income countries, with high health and environmental aware-
ness, wastewater and sludge are generally treated, and their use is regulated and
planned. While this does not look surprising, the magnitude of informal wastewater
use which is probably ten times higher than formal reuse (Scott et al 2010) appears
remarkable, as well as the limited data on the use of sludge.
Direct use of untreated wastewater occurs in low income settings where al-
ternative water sources are scarce, i.e. usually in drier climates but also in wetter
climates in the dry season. The reasons for such use can be lack or low quality of al-
ternative water sources (e.g. groundwater salinity), or the unaffordable costs of ac-
cessing freshwater (e.g. costs of pumping). Although officially disapproved in most
countries direct use of untreated wastewater takes place in many urban and peri-ur-
ban areas of the developing world (Raschid-Sally and Jayakody 2008; WHO 2006).
The most common reuse form is in agriculture. For example, untreated wastewater
is used on farms located downstream of many cities in Pakistan, because treated
wastewater and groundwater are too saline for irrigation (Ensink et al 2002). In the
semi-arid climate of the twin city of Hubli–Dharwad in Karnataka, India, farmers
irrigate with untreated wastewater from open sewers (locally known as sewage nal-
las) and underground sewer pipes (Bradford et al 2002) because it is cheaper than
22 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

using groundwater from boreholes, for which farmers have no capacity to pay. In
other cases, such as Cochabamba in Bolivia, or Accra and Tamale in Ghana, farmers
use wastewater from malfunctioning treatment plants or sewers, taking advantage
of the already collected resource (Huibers et al 2004; Abdul-Ghaniyu et al 2002).
In Haroonabad, Pakistan, and Hyderabad, India, wastewater is the only water flow-
ing in irrigation canals in the dry season and at the tail-ends of irrigation schemes
(Ensink 2006). In some extreme cases, farmers rupture or plug sewage lines to ac-
cess the wastewater. This practice has been reported in Nairobi in Kenya, Bhaktapur
in the Katmandu Valley in Nepal, and for example Dakar in Senegal (Hide et al
2001; Rutkowski et al 2007; Faruqui et al 2004). At Maili Saba in Kenya, as well as
Addis Ababa in Ethiopia, farmers have removed sewage line inspection covers to
block the sewer, causing raw sewage to rise up the manholes and flow out over the
farm land (Hide et al 2001; own observation).
Indirect use of untreated wastewater is by far the most extensive type of use
(Jimenez and Asano 2008; Keraita et al 2008; Scott et al 2010). It occurs in drier and
wetter climates, when untreated wastewater is discharged into freshwater streams
where it becomes diluted and is subsequently used—mostly unintentionally—by
downstream users (e.g. farmers, households or industries). Untreated wastewater
discharge occurs more frequently in low and middle income countries with little or
no capacity for collecting and treating wastewater effectively. Additionally, the op-
portunity to sell crops into urban food markets encourages farmers to seek irrigation
water in the city vicinity.
Several examples of indirect use of untreated wastewater have been reported in
sub-Saharan Africa, Nepal, India, and around many cities in Brazil, Argentina, and
Colombia, which lack adequate sanitation facilities (Keraita et al 2008; Jimenez 2008;
Raschid-Sally and Jayakody 2008). In West Africa, there is extensive irrigation of veg-
etables in city vicinity with highly polluted water. Up to 90 % of vegetables consumed
in the cities are grown within or near the same urban areas (Drechsel et al 2006).
Planned use of reclaimed water occurs more frequently in high income coun-
tries where the main motivation for water reclamation and reuse is water scarcity,
although in many countries with no scarcity problems but with high environmen-
tal awareness, wastewater is also being reclaimed and used to preserve freshwater
ecosystems. Reclaimed water can be used directly for many purposes such as ag-
ricultural irrigation, for city landscaping, golf courses, toilet flushing, washing of
vehicles, groundwater recharge, and also as a source of potable water supply, like
the case of Windhoek in Namibia testifies (Lahnsteiner et al 2013). Within indus-
tries wastewater may be purified to industrial standards and recycled within the
system. In all of these cases reclaimed water is seen as vital resource, essentially
for its “water” value (see also chap. 10). Planed use of reclaimed water is today a
common pattern in countries of the Middle East and North Africa, Australia, the
Mediterranean, and the United States of America (AQUASTAT 2014; Global Water
Intelligence 2010). In all these cases, highly effective sanitation and treatment tech-
nology supports water reclamation, while the main challenge for reuse is public
acceptability (see Chap. 5).
Informal use of untreated sludge. While sludge can be used on farm if safety
precautions are followed, the enforcement of regulations (if they exist) is weak in
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 23

many low-income countries. Although reuse is usually disapproved in such condi-

tions, it can be a thriving business. As any use of untreated sludge happens in a very
informal way, there are however only few data available. Many farmers consider
sludge, even untreated, to be a valuable nutrient source similar to farmyard ma-
nure and prefer that septic trucks discharge their content onto their farms to use
it after drying as fertilizer. This has been reported in West Africa and South Asia
(Kvarnström et al 2012; Cofie et al 2005). The delivery of sludge from on-site sani-
tation facilities via septic trucks to farmers who pay for it is an interesting model of
resource recovery if the on-farm treatment is able to reduce the obvious health risks
(Keraita et al 2014; see also Chap. 13).
There can also be indirect reuse of sludge, but probably not in a planned way.
Fact is that in many cities in developing countries, septage haulers empty waste
into sewers, vacant land, landfill sites or water bodies, simply due to the lack of
designated treatment facilities. When untreated sludge is discharged to water bodies
it becomes diluted and might find its way back into the food chain where the water
is used in farming.
Formal use of biosolids in agriculture is strictly regulated in developed coun-
tries but can be encouraged like in Michigan’s biosolid and septage programs. Re-
use is driven by the intention of closing nutrient loops to ensure that nutrients are
returned to agricultural land to improve soil fertility while reducing the pressure on
final deposal sites. Nevertheless, in many industrialized countries, there is a grow-
ing opposition to the use of biosolids in agriculture, due to concerns regarding the
potential content of persistent and toxic pollutants such as heavy metals. In these
countries energy recovery from sludge, mainly through bio-digestion and incinera-
tion, is gaining momentum.

2.3 Wastewater and Sludge Production and Treatment

2.3.1 Wastewater

Information describing current levels of wastewater generation and treatment is glob-

ally important for the post—2015 discussion as well as national policy makers, re-
searchers, practitioners, and public institutions, to develop national policy and action
plans aiming at wastewater treatment and productive use of wastewater (e.g. in agri-
culture, aquaculture, and agroforestry systems, or industry). Nevertheless this infor-
mation is frequently not systematically monitored or not reported in many countries
as stressed by Sato et al 2013, with a significant paucity of data on the rural sector.
In 2010, global annual domestic water withdrawals modeled by WaterGAP3 ac-
counted for 390 km3 (Flörke et al 2013) compared to 477 km3 estimated time back
by Shiklomanov 2000. The WaterGAP model further estimated a global produc-
tion of wastewater in the domestic and manufacturing sectors of 450 km3 in 2010,
approximately 70 % (315 km3) of which was accounted for by the domestic sector
(Flörke et al 2013).
24 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

Empirical records compiled from a variety of sources for example by AQUA-

STAT and Sato et al 2013 suggest that globally more than 330 km3 year-1 of (most-
ly) municipal wastewater are produced. The countries in Table 2.2 alone, which
account for more than 80 % of the global urban population, produce an estimated
volume of 261 km3 of wastewater annually, and this is a conservative figure, as
some of the national data appear outdated. Together, China, India, United States,
Indonesia, Brazil, Japan and Russia produce more than 167 km3 of wastewater,
which represents half of global municipal wastewater production.
Globally, on average, and according to the data available from AQUASTAT,
60 % of the produced municipal wastewater is treated. Nevertheless, this figure
needs to be taken with caution. First, actual treatment figures are likely to be lower,
as many wastewater treatment plants, particularly in middle and low income coun-
tries are functioning below expectation if at all (Oliviera and von Sperling 2008;
Murray and Drechsel 2011) which means that actual treatment capacities are below
the installed and usually reported capacity. Secondly, data from some low-income
countries with large urban populations, such as Nigeria, are not available and there-
fore not reported in AQUASTAT. And thirdly, while most countries report only sec-
ondary and tertiary treated wastewater as “treated wastewater” some countries also
include primary treated wastewater, thus making country data aggregation and com-
parisons difficult. Relatively well documented is the small global tertiary treatment
and advanced reuse capacity, which has been estimated for 2014 as about 24 km3/
year globally (GWI 2009). On the other hand and for obvious reasons, treatment
capacity is strongly correlated with the countries’ income: in lower-middle-income
countries on average 28 % of the generated wastewater is reported to be treated, and
in low-income countries, only 8 % is treated, while in high income countries the
ratio is closer to 70 % (Sato et al 2013).
The cross-city comparison reported by Raschid-Sally and Jayakody (2008) high-
lighted the contrast between cities in developed and developing countries. In the
latter, the capacity for collection and treatment is notably limited, as is the degree of
treatment. Figure 2.4 provides a snapshot of the situation which is representative of
much of the developing world and flags in particular that collection does not mean
treatment. In fact, many sewers end in natural water bodies, not to speak about dys-
functional treatment plants.

2.3.2 Sludge

With wastewater treatment increasing, many countries are solving one problem, but
creating a new challenge: managing or disposing sewage sludge. While, thanks to
wastewater treatment, cleaner water is discharged to seas, rivers and lakes, large
amounts of sewage sludge are produced in the process (Table 2.3) especially in high
and middle income countries with high treatment coverage. This sludge has the
added drawback that it tends to accumulate heavy metals and other persistent toxic
compounds coming from industrial discharges, traffic related pollution and other
commercial activities which is limiting its reuse potential.
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 25

Table 2.2   Municipal wastewater production, collection and treatment in countries with the largest
urban populations. (Sources: Data from AQUASTAT 2014; GWI 2014)
Country Municipal wastewater (km3)
Produced (Year) Treated (Year)
United States 60.40 2008 40.89 2008
China 37.98 2010 26.61 2009
Japan 16.93 2011 11.56 2011
India 15.44 2011 4.42 2011
Indonesia 14.28 2012 NA –
Russian Federation 12.32 2011 NA –
Brazil 9.73 2009 2.51 2009
Korea, Rep. 7.84 2011 6.58 2011
Mexico 7.46 2011 3.08 2011
Egypt, Arab Rep. 7.08 2012 3.71 2012
Canada 6.61 2009 3.55 2009
Germany 5.30 2007 5.18 2007
Thailand 5.11 2012 1.17 2012
Malaysia 4.22 2009 2.60 2009
United Kingdom 4.09 2011 4.05 2011
Italy 3.93 2007 3.9 2007
France 3.79 2008 3.77 2008
Turkey 3.58 2010 2.72 2010
Iran, Islamic Rep. 3.55 2010 0.89 2012
South Africa 3.54 2009 1.92 2009
Spain 3.18 2004 3.16 2004
Pakistan 3.06 2011 0.55 2011
Venezuela, RB 2.90 1996 NA –
Argentina 2.46 2010 0.29 2000
Colombia 2.40 2010 0.60 2010
Poland 2.27 2011 1.36 2011
Vietnam 1.97 2012 0.20 2012
Netherlands 1.93 2010 1.88 2010
Australia 1.83 2007 2.00 2013
Saudi Arabia 1.55 2010 1.06 2010
Philippines 1.26 2011 NA –
Peru 1.00 2011 0.28 2012
Algeria 0.82 2012 0.32 2012
Bangladesh 0.73 2000 NA –
Iraq 0.58 2012 0.10 2012
 26 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.


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Fig. 2.4   Proportion of waste water collected and proportion of the collected wastewater that is
treated. (Source: Raschid-Sally and Jayakody 2008)

Table 2.3   Estimated sewage Country Sewage sludge (thou- Year

sludge production in selected sands of dry metric
countries tons)
EU-27b 8909 2010
USA a
6514 2004
Chinaa 2966 2006
Japana 2000 2006
Korea Repc 1900 –
Iran a
650 2008
Jordana 300 2008
Turkeya 580 2004
Canadaa 550 2008
Brazil a
372 2005
Australia and New 360 2008
Zeelanda
Norwaya 87 2008
a
UN-Habitat 2008
b
EUROSTAT 2014
c
Asian Development Bank 2012

In low income countries, wastewater and sludge treatment systems, if they ex-
ist, are minimal, and therefore sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants is
not a pressing issue. In these countries, the accumulation of fecal sludge in house-
hold based onsite systems is the larger challenge as both, collection services and
designated treatment sites are seldom developed (USAID 2010; WSP 2014). It is
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 27

Table 2.4   Septage collection and treatment in selected countries of South and Southeast Asia.
(Source: USAID 2010)
Country Known population connected to septic Known % of septage treated
tanks (in %)
Indonesia 62 (urban) 4 (national)
Malaysia 27 (national) 100 (national)
Philippines 40 (national) 85 (Metro Manila) 5 (Metro Manila)
Thailand All except for highly urbanized areas 30 (national)
Vietnam 77 (urban) < 4 (national)
India 29 (urban) < 1 (national)
Sri Lanka 89 (national) < 1 (national)

estimated that billions of residents in urban and peri-urban areas of Africa, Asia,
and Latin America are served by onsite sanitation systems (e.g. various types of
latrines and septic tanks) while related septage treatment capacity is in many coun-
tries nearly inexistent. Table 2.4 provides some examples of septage collection and
treatment coverage for South and Southeast Asia.
Until recently, the management of fecal sludge from onsite systems has been
largely neglected, partly because they have been viewed as temporary solutions
until sewer-based systems will be implemented. Thus many countries lack legisla-
tion addressing fecal sludge management and septage haulers have been emptying
raw septage into water bodies, vacant land, drains, and landfills. These have become
major sources of groundwater and surface water pollution, with significant environ-
mental, public health, and economic impacts (Narain 2012).
However, the perception on the need for onsite or decentralized sanitation tech-
nologies for urban areas is gradually changing, and they are increasingly being con-
sidered as a long-term, sustainable option in urban areas, especially in low–and
middle-income countries that lack sewer infrastructure (WSP 2014). The guidance
note on septage management developed by the Indian Government has been an
important recent milestone.
Despite the increasing recognition of on-site sanitation, data availability remains
a key challenge. There is a lack of data on the location and condition of onsite
systems, on the amounts of waste those systems accumulate, and what is most im-
portant, about the fate of these wastes after collection, particularly in developing
countries.

2.4 Potential for Resource Recovery and Reuse

Both wastewater and sludge contain valuable resources, mainly water, nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.), organic carbon and related energy, which
can be recovered for many uses. Water is the most important and abundant asset in
wastewater and can be used as a substitute for freshwater if appropriately treated.
28 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

Table 2.5   Typical nutrient production (in kg/cap/year) in human excreta (after Drangert 1998)
Nutrient In urine (500 l/year) In feces (50 l/year) Total
Nitrogen (as N) 4.0 0.5 4.5
Phosphorus (as P) 0.4 0.2 0.6
Carbon (as C)a 2.9 8.8 11.7
a
Indicative of the potential for soil conditioning or energy generation

Table 2.6   Typical composition of raw municipal wastewater of different strengths. (Source: Met-
calf and Eddy 2003)
Contaminants/resources Unit Concentration
Weak Medium Strong
Nitrogen (total as N) mg L−1 20 40 85
Phosphorus (total as P) mg L−1 4 8 15
Total organic carbon (TOC) mg L−1 80 160 290

Table 2.7   Resources potentially embedded in the globally produced municipal wastewater for
different strengths of wastewater. (Source: IWMI)
Strength of wastewater N (Tg/yr) P (Tg/yr) C (Tg/yr)
Weak 6.6 1.3 26.4
Medium 13.2 2.6 52.8
Strong 28.1 5.0 95.7
Note: Tg Teragram = 109 kg

Nutrients are valuable in agriculture and aquaculture; and organic carbon can be
used as a soil conditioner or to generate energy.
Water in municipal wastewater comes from households, from the rainwater that
drains our cities and, in less proportion, from industries and commercial activities.
Most of the nutrients in wastewater come from human excreta. The excretion of
nutrients per capita is highly dependent on diets (e.g. protein consumption) which
differ with countries, wealth status and cultures. Table 2.5 provides average values,
showing that most nutrients are in urine. In wastewater, phosphorus does not come
only from human excreta but also from detergents used in laundry and dish wash-
ing, although this share decreased with the introduction of P-free washing powder
in countries, like the USA. As a result of these material flows, municipal wastewater
concentrates valuable resources (Table 2.6). The concentration of these resources
depends very much on the sanitation system, household water use and rainfall enter-
ing sewage systems (dilution).
Based on a typical composition of a weak, medium and strong wastewater
(Table 2.6) it is possible to estimate ranges of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic
carbon potentially contained in municipal wastewater globally. This would be the
maximum theoretical amount of resources that could be recovered from wastewater
(Table 2.7) disregarding technical and economic limitations. Unlike wastewater,
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 29

sludge concentrates nutrients and organic matter, which results in a higher efficiency
for nutrient and energy extraction (see Chaps. 12 and 13). However, the global re-
source recovery potential from sludge is hard to assess due to severe data limita-
tions, particularly with respect to fecal sludge production and collection.
The potential energy value from carbon in wastewater could be estimated assum-
ing an anaerobic conversion factor for organic carbon to methane of 0.14 m3 CH4
per m3 of wastewater, at 20°C, (Frinjs et al 2013; Verstraete et al 2009) considering
that the caloric value of methane is 35.9 MJ/m3 CH4. Therefore, the 330 km3 of mu-
nicipal wastewater estimated to be produced globally, assuming a medium strength
wastewater, could potentially produce 46.2 km3CH4 with a global caloric value of
1660 · 109 MJ, which, if fully recovered, would be enough to provide electricity for
about 130 million households, considering an average electricity consumption of
3500 kWh/household (World Energy Council 2013).
The 330 km3 of municipal wastewater could theoretically irrigate more than
40 million hectares, even if we assume a relatively high application rate of 8000 m3/
ha/yr (FAO 2012). The related ‘free’ fertilizer application would be in the order of
322 kg N/ha/yr and 64 kg P/ha/yr assuming a medium strength wastewater. While
such figures might help to raise awareness of wastewater as an asset, they are far
from reality for various reasons like the assumption of 100 % system efficiency. On
the other hand, these prospective figures only capture the generation of resources in
municipal settings, not rural areas.
With increasing population growth, also the global demand for fertilizer is in-
creasing and has reached in 2008/2009 more than 130 million t of N and almost
38 million t of P2O5 (16 million t of P) (FAO 2008). Nutrient recovery from waste-
water, sludge and other wastes (such as food waste) can regionally and locally help
to meet this demand and is particularly interesting in and around cities, close to
where these wastes are produced, and where intensive agriculture is expanding in
an attempt to feed the increasingly hungry cities. Moreover, for an essential nutrient
like phosphorous, its recovery from waste is decreasingly an option but a necessity
as it is a non-renewable resource obtained from mining of finite deposits in a few
countries (Mihelcic et al 2011).

2.5 Actual Use of Wastewater and Sludge

Despite the apparent opportunities for resource recovery from wastewater and
sludge the potential is still untapped and only a small proportion of these wastes
is treated and reused in a planned and sustainable manner. The most promising
cases and models of safe resource recovery and reuse which achieve cost recovery
or even profits are discussed in Chaps. 11–13, while informal agricultural reuse
of wastewater (and to smaller extent of sludge) remain popular in many low and
middle income countries.
30 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

2.5.1 Wastewater

Describing the present use of wastewater, particularly in developing countries, is

challenging, due to the lack of reliable and sufficient information. In addition, much
of the available information does not use uniform terms and units when describing
wastewater use, making it difficult to compare data or establish global inventories.
The lack of data is due partly to the informal character of the majority of waste-
water irrigation or even, in some cases, to the intention not to disclose data. This
may be done because farmers fear difficulties when trading their produce or when
governments do not want to acknowledge what could be perceived as a malpractice
(Jimenez et al 2010).
Assuming an average farm size of 0.1 ha, an estimated 200 million farmers irri-
gate with treated and untreated wastewater, on an estimated 20 million ha (Hussain
et al 2001; Scott et al 2004; Raschid-Sally and Jayakody 2008). Although these
figures have been reported in several publications and scientific presentations, there
is no comprehensive study that reveals the basis or verifies the number of farmers
using wastewater, the area under wastewater irrigation, or the volumes of waste-
water used at the global scale. Based on empirical information from research and
country reports, at least 6 million ha are irrigated with wastewater or polluted water
(Jimenez et al 2010) with China ranking highest (Scott et al 2010).
AQUASTAT is currently making an attempt to collect, analyze and validate data
on direct use of wastewater for irrigation per country. Nevertheless, as illustrat-
ed by the data gaps in Table 2.8, which describes countries with the largest urban

Table 2.8   Direct use of wastewater in countries with the largest urban populations (data from the
last 15 years). (Source: AQUASTAT 2014; GWI 2014; van der Hoek 2004)
Country Direct use of treated municipal wastewater Direct use of
untreated wastewater
All uses (year) Use in irrigation Use in irrigation Use in irrigation
(year) (year) (year)
km3 km3 1000 ha 1000 ha
China 3.37 (2010) 0.48 (2008) NA NA
India NA NA NA NA
USA 2.77 (2008) 0.33 (2004) 15 (2004) N.A
Brazil 0.009 (2008) 0.008 (2008) NA NA
Indonesia NA NA NA NA
Japan 0.19 (2006) 0.012 (2009) NA NA
Russian NA NA NA NA
Federation
Mexico 0.68 (2010) 0.40 (2010) 70 (2008) 220 (2000)
Nigeria NA NA NA NA
Pakistan NA NA NA 33 (2005)
NA not available
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 31

Fig. 2.5   Global water reuse after advanced (usually tertiary) treatment: Market share by applica-
tion. (Adapted and modified from GWI 2009)

populations, there is still an important lack of information, even of direct use of

treated wastewater, which is normally a planned practice and should thus be well
documented.
It is interesting to note that agricultural reuse also ranks highest if we compare
different reuse options of advanced treated wastewater (Global Water Intelligence
2009) while groundwater recharge and indirect potable reuse are still relatively
small uses (Fig. 2.5)
The unplanned use of untreated wastewater is much more extensive than the
planned use of treated wastewater (Scott et al 2004; Jimenez et al 2010; Raschid-
Sally and Jayakody 2008). Where wastewater treatment does not exist, the direct
and indirect use of untreated wastewater for irrigation are common place. Most of
the use of untreated wastewater occurs in an informal to semi-formal manner, with
little government intervention. Thus, data describing this practice consists primar-
ily of case studies rather than official statistics (Ensink et al 2002; Raschid-Sally
and Jayakody 2008; van der Hoek 2004). Given the extent of the direct and indi-
rect use of untreated wastewater, alternative assessment approaches of wastewater
generation (e.g. via population densities) and water quality are being explored, us-
ing ‘earth observations, novel data collection and data integration’ (UNEP, WHO,
UN-Habitat 2014). An example is an ongoing study in partnership between IWMI
and University of California, Berkeley, which is implementing a Remote Sensing
and GIS supported spatial model to obtain estimates on the use of polluted water in
farming at a global scale. The spatial model identifies areas equipped for irrigation
within a certain distance downstream of an urban center in regions with low levels
of wastewater treatment. Early results show globally 24 Mha of irrigated croplands
located within urban agglomerations and 130 Mha of irrigated croplands within 20
km of urban areas (Thebo et al. 2014).
Refinements of this model will include consideration of irrigation water source,
the size of upstream populations, and consideration of differential downstream
32 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

distances. The results will provide a reasonable upper bound of areas where there
is a high probability of the indirect use of wastewater for irrigation. Given the
combination of high population densities and large areas equipped for irrigation,
India and Eastern China are dominating the global extent of probable areas of in-
direct use of untreated wastewater both in total area and as a proportion of total
irrigated area which corresponds well with empirical data on the use of diluted
wastewater or highly polluted water (Thebo et al. 2014).

2.5.2 Sludge

The global extent of sludge use refers mostly to sewage sludge and biosolids, and is
only documented in developed countries (UN-Habitat 2008). Many of these coun-
tries experienced difficulties in disposing their sewage sludge from treatment plants
realizing that the traditional sewage sludge disposal in open waters or landfills is not
sustainable. Policies and guidelines were developed which are supporting sludge
valorization e.g. by the EU and USEPA (see also Chap. 13). As a result increasing
shares of sewage sludge are being processed and used for beneficial purposes, such
as land application and energy recovery. Extensive research has examined the pos-
sible biochemical impacts of such sludge use for soil amelioration and guidelines
on regulating acceptable amounts. Emerging economies are starting to be aware of
these challenge as also here policies and regulations are changing (Harper 2013)
although so far most of the sewage sludge is still disposed of in landfills. Figure 2.6
illustrates these differences using the cases of Europe, United States and China.
The beneficial uses of sludge vary between countries. In countries where there
is a deficit of soil organic matter, agricultural use is most common. For example
in Spain almost 100 % of biosolids are valorized in agriculture. In those industrial
economies where heavy metals are of concern and soil organic matter content is
high, energy generation is the preferred option. For example in the Netherlands
almost 100 % of sewage sludge is incinerated (Fig. 2.7).
Globally, the use of treated sewage sludge is still low. In countries such as
Brazil, Jordan, Mexico and Turkey the use of biosolids in agriculture is so far mod-
est (< 5 %) but growing, while in Japan, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria and

Fig. 2.6   Sewage sludge use and landfill disposal in EU-27, USA and China. (Source: Authors
based on Eurostat 2014, UN-Habitat 2008 and Asian Development Bank 2012)
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 33

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DŝůůŝŽŶ<ŐƉĞƌLJĞĂƌ

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ϯ͕ϬϬϬ

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ŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůƵƐĞ /ŶĐŝŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ ŽͲĐŽŵƉŽƐƟŶŐ >ĂŶĚĮůů KƚŚĞƌƐ

Fig. 2.7   Annual sewage sludge use/disposal in the United States and Europe (selected countries).
(Source: Authors based on UN-Habitat 2008; Eurostat 2014)

Germany their use in agriculture is decreasing due to environmental concerns re-

lated to pollutants (UN Habitat 2008).
In contrast, in low income countries, where more septage than sewage sludge is
produced, disposal remains a priority while formal resource recovery, like through
co-composting, is only emerging. Cases of agricultural reuse of biosolids (e.g.
Senegal, Uganda) or raw fecal sludge from septic trucks (e.g. Ghana, India) occur in
the informal sector with limited information on extent and location of these types of
reuse which limits the implementation of required safety measures (see Chap. 13).
Traditional areas of excreta use in rural settings include backyards and home
gardens. In Vietnam, fecal sludge after some stabilization, has been applied to fields
regularly for centuries. Today an estimated 30,000–40,000 t of well composted hu-
man feces are applied annually to vegetable crops (Khoa et al 2005). Cash crop
and aquaculture production systems in and around cities also are popular for their
ability to utilize significant quantities of fecal sludge and other waste, as reported
from Vietnam, the Philippines, China, Nepal, India, Mexico and Peru (Strauss 2000;
Midmore and Jansen 2003).

2.6 Conclusions

Although cities produce large amounts of wastewater and sludge the global extent
of the production, collection, treatment, use and disposal of these wastes is not well
known. Even less known is the proportion of the valuable resources (i.e. water,
organic matter, energy, nitrogen and phosphorus) embedded in these waste streams
that is recovered and safely reused for beneficial uses, including agriculture.
34 J. Mateo-Sagasta et al.

Few global organizations such FAO/IWMI (AQUASTAT: from wastewater

generation to use), UN-Habitat (Sludge management atlas), UNEP (Global water
quality assessment), the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) of the World Bank
(IBNET: Water and sanitation utility performance), and Global Water Intelligence
(Wastewater treatment and reuse market reports), are trying to systematically col-
lect, select and harmonize the best available data around water quality, wastewater
and sludge production, treatment, and/or use. But the task is challenging as much of
the available information from the countries does not use uniform terms when de-
scribing for example wastewater and its use, thus making it difficult to compare data
or establish homogenous global inventories. Furthermore, particularly in develop-
ing countries, the systems for data collection along the water—wastewater cycle
are not in place and data is not generated. With fecal sludge the situation is worse
as septage management is only now gaining attention while data are still scarce and
unreliable, and there is no global monitoring system so far.
Data on the use (e.g. in agriculture) of wastewater and sludge are particularly
deficient, which makes it difficult to analyze and support the trajectory from unsafe
informal to a more safe and formal reuse. In fact, without reliable data the diagnosis
of the health and environmental risks associated to the disposal or use of wastewa-
ter and sludge, and the potential for resource recovery from these wastes cannot be
adequately quantified, nor can the opportunties be modeled across regions, and their
possible impact assessed. Therefore, it is advisable to invest in increasing the coun-
tries’ capacities to generate comparable data on the wastewater and sludge cycles
supported by standard definitions and methodologies for data generation. This will
help public authorities to design well targeted policies while improving interna-
tional comparability and global monitoring efforts, which will be crucial to assess
progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The rough estimates presented in this chapter suggest that wastewater has a sig-
nificant potential to support those in need of water, nutrients and energy. These
resources can be regionally very important, particularly in periurban areas, close to
where these wastes are produced, and where food and energy are massively con-
sumed. Despite the opportunities for resource recovery from wastewater and sludge
the existing potential of resource recovery and reuse is largely untapped and only a
small portion of these wastes is so far used in a planned and safe manner.

Take Home Messages

• Standardized data collection and reporting efforts are needed at national
and global level, to provide reliable and updated information on the waste-
water and sludge cycles, vital to develop proper diagnosis and monitoring
mechanism for effective policies supporting the safe and productive use of
these resources.
• The available information suggests that the role of wastewater and sludge
as a source of water, energy and nutrients can be regionally and locally
2 Global Wastewater and Sludge Production, Treatment and Use 35

important, particularly near cities, where wastewater and sludge are pro-
duced, and where demand for resources is growing.
• The potential for resource recovery from wastewater and sludge is largely
untapped and in developing countries only a small portion of these wastes
is used in a planned and safe manner, while the majority remains untreated
or partially treated, and is more commonly used in the informal (unregu-
lated) than formal irrigation sector.

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