Current Status and Future Research Imperatives of Self Healing Metal Matrix Composites

Invited Feature Paper-Review
DOI:10.1557/s43578-024-01355-z
MRS FELLOWS FOCUS
Current status and future research imperatives

of self‑healing metal matrix composites
Pradeep Rohatgi1, Masum Bellah2,a) , Vaibhav Srivastava1
1
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Milwaukee, USA
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Milwaukee, USA
a)
Address all correspondence to this author. e-mail: [email protected]
Received: 17 November 2023; accepted: 24 April 2024
Self-healing Metal Matrix Composites (SHMMCs) have emerged as an important field of research in
materials engineering. This paper critically examines the current state of the art of SHMMCs, including
matrix alloys, reinforcements, crack orientation, and stress states under which self-healing has been
studied. The significance of characteristics of SMA reinforcement, including size, length, distribution,
and interface strength, is presented. Challenges in synthesizing SHMMCs, including achieving wetting,
bonding, and load transfer between the metal matrix and the reinforcement, overcoming the problem
due to oxidation, and irregularities of cracked surfaces, are discussed. Needs of future research directions
are outlined, including examining thermodynamics and kinetics of self-healing, design of microstructure
based on mechanics for targeted self-healing, and developing capabilities of autonomous and capacity
for multicycle healing in metals, especially in high temperatures metals and alloys. The need for
developing self-healing and shape-changing capabilities in man-made materials similar to biological
living materials is discussed.
Introduction coating, an epoxy polyamide matrix utilized as a self-seal coat

Self-healing is the ability of a material to self-repair the damage for corrosion protection, and the sealing of cracks in concrete
(such as a narrowing or complete closing of a crack or void) and using substances like A l2O3 and silicon oxide. Self-healing Metal
recovering its original shape [1]. Self-healing has the potential Matrix Composites (SHMMCs) which can mimic some of the
to increase the lifespan of components, improved safety and healing abilities found in living organisms, allowing them to
reliability of structures, reduce maintenance costs and need autonomously repair damage, recover the original shape and
for replacement of new components [2, 3]. Self-healing capa- prolong the life of materials need to be developed [1]. How-
bility has been introduced in ionomers (self-repair windows, ever, it is important to understand it is difficult to mimic all of
shooting targets), polymers [4–9], polymer composites [4, 5, the capabilities of biological and living materials in man-made
10–13], concrete [14], ceramics [15–23], and to a limited extent materials due to intrinsic differences between biological and
in metallic materials [2, 24–28]. Self-healing has so far been man-made systems. In self-healing man-made materials healing
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most successfully applied to polymers due to the presence of mechanics have been inspired by selected healing mechanisms
intermolecular bonds and high diffusivity [29]. Self-healing is in biological systems like incorporation of vascular systems, self-
significantly more challenging in metallic materials because healing of fractured bones as shown in Fig. 1 and self-healing of
of their strong metallic bonds, the small size of the atoms, the scratches and wounds.
Researchers have explored the idea of embedding a vascular
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reactive nature of metals, the need for external stimulus to heal

the cracked samples in most healing mechanisms, and the low network within the matrix of selected materials, to deliver heal-
Journal of Materials Research
diffusion rates of atoms at operating temperatures [2, 28]. Self- ing agents to damaged areas [31]. The human body’s circula-
healing of components is needed in aerospace, defense, automo- tory system, comprising arteries, veins, and capillaries, serves
bile, and electronics industries including solders. Examples of as a transportation network for delivering essential nutrients
self-healing materials include a hydrophobic scratch-resistant and healing agents to damaged sites in human bodies. When
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© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Materials Research Society 2024
Figure 1: Bone healing proceeds through stages: (a) First, a fibrin clot forms from internal bleeding, (b) Next, an unorganized fiber mesh develops, (c)
Which eventually calcifies into fibrocartilage, (d) This calcification then transforms into fibrous bone, (e) Which ultimately becomes lamellar bone [30].
injuries occur, immune cells, growth factors, and healing agents man-made materials including polymers, ceramics, and more
are transported through the blood vessels to initiate repair and recently in metals [33]. These channels act as “vessels” to carry
regeneration of damaged tissues [32]. Figure 2(a and b) show the healing agents, such as adhesives, resins, or healing molten met-
schematic diagram of microvascular network of blood veins and als or alloys to damaged areas as shown in [Fig. 2(c)]. When
capillaries in human body and scar on human skin which heals the material experiences damage, such as cracks or fractures,
out in a few days. To mimic this concept, researchers strategi- these tubes or micro-balloons imbedded in the matrix break
cally have embedded tiny channels or capillaries within selected and release the healing agents to the cracked or fractured region
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Figure 2: Self-healing materials with 3D microvascular networks (a) Schematic diagram of a capillary network in the dermis layer of skin with a cut
in the epidermis layer, (b) Schematic diagram of the healing of the scar on the human body, (c) Microvascular network mimicked in polymer-based
composites for self-healing, (d) Microencapsulate containing healing agents, including monomers along with catalyst often embedded in the matrix
to trigger healing using polymerization reaction [34].
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Materials Research Society 2024 2
as shown in [Fig. 2(d)]. The benefits of this approach include can enhance the effectiveness of nanocomposite coatings in
localized and targeted healing, ensuring that the healing agents repairing and strengthening damaged surfaces. Recently, Yang
are delivered only where needed, reducing waste, and optimiz- et al. [42] developed a self-healing method for thermoplastic
ing the healing process. Secondly, this approach facilitates rapid polymers that leverages defect-targeted heating and welding
healing, since the healing agents are readily available in the to repair multiscale damage. Superparamagnetic nanoparticles
vicinity of the damage. (γ-Fe2O3) are transported and assembled at the defect site, where
Leucocytes, also known as white blood cells, are essential they generate high heating power under an oscillating magnetic
components of the human immune system [31, 35, 36]. When field, locally fusing the matrix. These nanoparticles migrated to
tissues are damaged due to injury or inflammation, leucocytes the edge of the crack, allowing the polymer melt to progressively
migrate to the affected site to promote the healing process. Since fill the crack until the fractured portions were sealed. Remark-
man-made materials do not have the characteristics of biologi- ably, this self-healing cycle can be repeated up to 100 times
cal materials, they cannot have exact replicates of leucocytes. with a healing efficiency above 95%. The approach is versatile,
Researchers have considered using nanoparticles as equivalent capable of repairing diverse damage modes such as cracking
of leucocytes, capable of detecting and delivering healing agents and puncturing, and applicable to different polymeric matrices.
precisely to specific sites [31, 37]. Utilizing nanoparticles with Moreover, the method is easy to implement and compatible with
detection and mobility capabilities, may enable moving them commercial material processing techniques, although the heal-
to damaged sites where they can seal the cracks leading to healing efficiency is influenced by factors such as the size of the crack
ing in precisely the damaged area. Nanoparticles can be engi- and the heating time. The study conducted by Ganjei et al. [43]
neered with different properties to suit specific application in found that silica nanoparticles enhance the self-healing ability
self-healing materials. For example, they can be designed to of asphalt mixtures by promoting bitumen flow and accelerating
respond to specific triggers like temperature changes, pH levels, molecular movements. Meanwhile, Kumar’s [44] study revealed
or mechanical stresses, ensuring that the healing process is acti- that a 6% concentration of nano-silica significantly improves
vated only when and where it is needed. Polymeric microcap- the self-healing of bitumen mixtures and extends their lifespan.
sules are receiving attention for implantation into materials [31]. However, the use of nanoparticles for self-healing has not been
These capsules, containing nanoparticles, are designed to auton- studied in metal-based self-healing systems and needs to be
omously detect and repair damage. They adhere to the damage investigated. These types of approaches need to be extended to
site, release nanoparticles to repair cracks, and then continue healing of metallic materials.
to patrol for additional damage, embodying a “repair-and-go” Though biological systems exhibit sophisticated self-healing
mechanism [38]. The ongoing challenge is developing a system abilities, incorporating these mechanisms in man-made is not
where these capsules release their payload at damage sites. These always possible. While biomimicry can serve as a guiding princi-
innovations are leading to autonomous healing in selected mate- ple, implementing self-healing mechanisms in man-made mate-
rials, minimizing the need for human intervention. Lee et al. rials requires limitation of their intrinsic properties compared
[39] used computer simulations to demonstrate that adding to biological systems. The SHMMCs developed thus far can be
nanoparticles to polymers can create materials that self-repair described more as “bio-inspired” materials instead of direct imi-
nanoscale cracks. The nanoparticles migrate to the cracks, acting tations of the healing mechanisms found in living organisms,
as self-assembled “band-aids” for composite materials. Through which have DNA and cells which can multiply and replicate.
micromechanics simulations, they identified optimal condi- This paper critically reviews the current state of the art of
tions for the self-repair process. Their results indicated that the SHMMCs including how they have incorporated some of the fea-
mechanical properties of the repaired composites could poten- tures of self-healing in biological systems. The paper examines the
tially be restored to 75–100% of their original undamaged state. different types of stress state (tensile, bending, and fatigue) under
Tyagi et al. [40] used computer simulations to explore the effect which self-healing has been demonstrated in metal matrix com-
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of applying nanoparticle-filled polymer films to substrates with posites. This paper also lists the different metal matrices in which
nanoscale defects, finding that the particles are effectively driven self-healing has been demonstrated. Various challenges encoun-
into the defects, reducing stress concentrations and potentially tered in synthesis of cast SHMMCs including oxidation of the met-
creating defect-free surfaces with enhanced mechanical proper- als in the environment, poor wettability, contact, bonding, load
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ties. Smith et al. [41] utilized computational models to analyze transfer, thermal mismatch, chemical reaction between the matrix
how the aspect ratio of nanoparticle fillers in polymer coatings and reinforcement formation, casting defects, inadequate amount
influences the healing of nanoscale defects on substrates, finding of low melting phase in the metal matrix have been discussed. This
that rod like particles show a stronger attraction to the substrate paper also identifies knowledge gaps, future challenges, and future
and effectively reduce stress concentrations at defect sites. This research needed to successfully implement self-healing capabilities
research indicates that optimizing the aspect ratio of the particle in metal matrix composite structures. This paper presents a critical
and comprehensive review of self-healing metal matrix composites structures (Martensite to Austenite) and change its shape in
including parallelisms with self-healing mechanisms in biological response to changes in temperature or stress states. When any
systems. An extensive discussion on the synthesis of these compos- damage or fracture occurs due to the load on the surface of the
ites, the challenges associated with their production, strategies to matrix, the reinforced SMA fibers are stretched and experi-
overcome these obstacles, and potential opportunities and needs ences a tensile stress. To heal the fracture or crack, the matrix
for future research are incorporated. is heated to above the phase transition temperature or at heal-
ing temperature. The stretched SMA fibers try to revert to their
previous shape, generating a compressive stress in the matrix
Current status of self‑healing metal matrix near the surface of the crack which narrow or completely close
composites the macro-cracks by deformation of the matrix. At the same
In this section, the current status of research in the field of shape time, heating to a suitable healing temperature can trigger a par-
memory alloy (SMA) reinforced SHMMCs is discussed, followed tial liquefaction of the matrix, filling the crack with the liquid
by a discussion on the current status of encapsulated and in situ surfaces to further seal and bond the crack. Figure 3(a and b)
healing agent-based SHMMCs. Self-healing in metallic materials depicts the self-healing process of long SMA-reinforced SHM-
is broadly classified into two categories. The first one is self-healing MCs for tensile test and bend test samples. These mechanisms
in metals that employs healing mechanisms such as coating-based work together synergistically to efficiently heal the cracked
healing [45], electro-healing [46], eutectic-based self-healing [47], SMA-reinforced SHMMCs.
and solid state precipitation-based healing [27, 28, 48–52]. The Manuel [53, 58] at Northwestern University cast
second is healing in metal matrix composites which occur through SMA-reinforced SHMMCs using Sn–13at.%Bi and
healing mechanisms such as SMA clamp and melt-based self-heal- Mg–5.7at.%Zn–2.7at.%Al as base materials and incorporating 1
ing [53, 54], incorporation of healing agents in microtubes and vol.% of uniaxially oriented, continuous NiTi SMA wires for rein-
capsules incorporated in the matrix [29, 55–57], and incorporating forcement. To enhance the interfacial bonding between the matrix
nano-particles including nano-sized SMA particles or SMA fibers and the fibers, the SMA wires were etched and sputter-coated with
in the matrix of man-made materials [27]. a thin layer of gold measuring 5 nm. For Sn–13at.%Bi–NiTi, the
The self-healing mechanism in SMA-reinforced SHMMCs is matrix was cracked during tensile testing but the fibers remained
akin to healing processes in nature, where SMA fibers act as a intact because NiTi-based alloy has more tensile strength than
“skeletal” structure that responds to damage by changing shape, Sn–13at.%Bi alloy. During subsequent heating, the crack formed
thereby generating compressive stress that helps close the macro- in the Sn–13at.%Bi matrix during tensile testing was closed due
cracks in the matrix. This is somewhat analogous in certain cases to shrinkage of SMA wires (shape memory effect) and sealed
to the way an animal’s body responds to a wound, where the sur- due to partial liquefaction of the Sn–13at.%Bi alloy matrix on
rounding tissues contract and pull together to close the wound. crack surfaces and the healed specimen demonstrated a recov-
The heating process that causes partial liquefaction of the matrix ery of 94% of its original tensile strength as shown in Fig. 4. For
to fill and seal cracks resembles the clotting process in animals Mg–5.7at.%Zn–2.7at.%Al–NiTi, the composite showed only par-
or resin production in plants. The low melting point phase in the tial crack closure after healing. The compressive stress develop by
matrix can be compared to the microvascular or capsule systems the SMA wires on the crack interface was able to close the crack
in nature that transport healing substances. Encapsulating low in the Mg alloy matrix, but the irregular and rough surface of
melting point alloy-based SHMMCs and healing with low melt- the crack prevented the full crack closure. Moreover, the use
ing point alloy either present in a column or in situ low melting of low volume fraction of SMA reinforcement wires could not
phases in the matrix without encapsulation is also similar to heal- provide the sufficient compressive force to overcome the higher
ing mechanisms found in certain plants and animals. In plants like matrix strength of the Mg-based alloy.
Hevea brasiliensis, latex encapsulated in laticifers seals crack upon Misra [54, 59] cast SHMMCs using Sn–20wt.%Bi and
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damage, similar to the flow and solidification of low melting point Bi–10wt.%Sn as matrices with a 20% volume fraction of NiTi
alloys in SHMMCs that heal cracks. wires as reinforcement using pressure infiltration casting tech-
nique. Flexure-tested SHMMCs which had a crack were healed
at 145 °C; within an hour of healing, 92% of flexural strength
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Shape memory alloy fibers based self‑healing metal

for Sn–20wt.%Bi–NiTi SHMMC and 88% for Bi–10wt.%
matrix composites
Sn–NiTi SHMMC were recovered. At this healing tempera-
To cast SMA clamp and melt-based self-healing materials, con- ture of 145 °C, 15% and 23% volume percentages of eutectic
tinuous or short SMA fibers have been incorporated in metal healing liquid were present in the matrices respectively, to
matrices (Al, Mg, Zn, Sn, or Sn–Bi alloy) (Table 1). SMA is a help seal the crack. All bend-tested samples recovered their
smart material which has the ability to change their crystal original shape completely from flexural strain. The kinetics of
TABLE 1: Summary of work on synthesis of shape memory alloy reinforced self-healing metal matrix composites.
Results including recovery of

Bonding and special distri- properties after cracking and
Year Author Matrix alloy Stress states Reinforcement Pre-strain (%) bution of SMA Aim healing
2007 Manuel et al. [53, 58] Mg–5.7at.%Zn– Tension SMA-NiTi wires Not specified Wires coated with 5 nm Healing macrocracks Ductility increased by 160%
2.7at.%Al and Sn– Vol.%-1 gold for improved wet- over alloy. Post-healing:
13at.%Bi Dimension-190.5 μm tability and bonding. partial crack closure for
diameter Wires held in custom Mg–5.7at.%Zn–2.7at.%
Other-continuous, clamps for tension dur- Al–NiTi; 95% ultimate
uniaxially orientated, ing casting tensile strength recovery
martensitic for Sn-13at.%Bi–NiTi. The
Mg-based SHMMC expe-
rienced partial crack clo-
sure, while the Sn-based
SHMMC experienced full
crack closure
2009 Ruzek et al. [47] Sn–20%Bi, Bi–10%Sn Bending NiTi SMA short fibers with a No pre-strain Poor wettability of Cu- Healing macrocracks Poor wettability of Cu-coated
diameter of 100 microns coated NiTi; NiTi fibers NiTi; ductility loss post-
were randomly oriented healing; crack closure is
not reported
2013 Misra et al. [54, 59] Sn–20%Bi, Bi–10%Sn Bending SMA-NiTi wires 4.5% pre-strain Post-etching/fluxing Healing macrocracks Full crack closure for Bi–
Vol.%-20 enhanced NiTi wire- 10%Sn–NiTi; all bent sam-
Dimension-100 μm and matrix bond. NiTi wires ples showed complete
500 μm of diameter uniaxially oriented flexural strain recovery.
Strength recovery
within an hour: 92% for
Sn–20%Bi–NiTi, 88% for
Bi–10%Sn–NiTi
2015 Ferguson et al. [62] Zn–0.8Al–0.015Cu Tension SMA-NiTi wires No pre-strain Post-etching/flux- Healing macrocracks Rod-type sample recovered
Vol.%-0.92, 1.54, and 2.01 ing enhanced NiTi 30.1% of original ultimate
Dimension-0.38 mm wire-matrix bond. tensile strength and
diameter 100 × 20 × 2 mm steel 31.6% of ductility. Sam-
bar and 5 mm threaded ples experienced partial
rod used for wire crack closure
training
2018 Poormir et al. [64] Sn–13wt.% Bi Tension SMA-NiTi strips Different pre-strains Post-etching/flux- Investigating the influence The optimal conditions for
Vol.%-0.78, 1.55, and 2.33 (0%, 2%, or 6%) of the ing enhanced NiTi of design factors of maximizing healing effi-
Dimen- wires strips-matrix bond. A SHMMCs ciency of ultimate tensile
sion-0.762 × 0.254 mm custom metallic mold, strength were a 2.33%
featuring internal SMA volume fraction, pre-
fixtures, was designed straining the strips by 6%,
and constructed to and a healing tempera-
maintain SMA strips in ture of 190 °C. Samples
the desired position and experienced both partial
orientation and full crack closure
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TABLE 1: (continued)
Results including recovery of
Bonding and special distri- properties after cracking and
Year Author Matrix alloy Stress states Reinforcement Pre-strain (%) bution of SMA Aim healing
2018 Fisher et al. [61] Al–3at.% Si Tension SMA-NiTi wires No pre-strain Custom BN-coated The mechanism of heal- Tensile healing efficiency at
Vol.%-2 graphite mold with ing under tensile and 91.6% average; SHMMCs
Dimension-0.87 mm pre-aligned NiTi wires fatigue conditions demonstrated potential
diameter holder; knots tied for of healing fatigue cracks
mechanical anchoring
to compensate low
reinforcement-matrix
bond
2020 Srivastava et al. [66] AA2014 matrix Bending SMA-NiTi wires No pre-strain The sample was externally Shape recovery, crack The duration of the healing
Vol.%-0.5%, and 1.3% filled longitudinally with closure and strength process is the most
Dimension-0.47 mm, and a solder alloy in the core recovery after healing. influential parameter for
0.96 mm of diameter Investigating the influence successful healing
of design parameters of
SHMMCs
2022 Srivastava et al. [69] AA2014 matrix Bending Nitinol strip & Sn–Pb-based No pre-strain The sample was externally Shape recovery, crack 100% Recovery in crack
Solder alloy filled longitudinally with closure and strength width, 87% recovery in
a solder alloy in the core recovery after healing. crack depth and 75%
Investigating the influence recovery in Flexural
of design parameters of strength. The duration
SHMMCs of the healing process
is the most influential
parameter for successful
healing
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Figure 3: (a) Self-healing process of long SMA-reinforced SHMMCs for tensile test samples, (b) Self-healing process of long SMA-reinforced SHMMCs for
bending test samples [53].
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Figure 4: A proof of concept shows the damaged Sn–13at.%Bi alloy before and after healing [53].
recovery in the bend shape of the cracked sample was meas- Bi–10wt.%Sn as matrices with NiTi wires as reinforcements
2024
ured by a decrease in the angle of bend with time. The angular results are shown in Fig. 5.
rate of recovery was measured to be approximately 1° per sec- Wright et al. [60] investigated self-healing of fatigue crack
ond. However, no analytical model was proposed to quantify in SHMMCs made with Al–Si, Al–Cu, and Al–Cu–Si alloy as
the rate of shape recovery during self-healing. The results of matrices reinforced with 2 vol.% SMA wires. The investigation
self-healing composite samples made with Sn–20wt.%Bi and showed that the local microstructure near the crack initiation
site affects the rate at which a fatigue crack grows, discontinuous tensile strength and ductility. A tensile plot for different load
eutectic is advantageous for a longer fatigue life. The behavior of transfer mechanism used for healing is shown in [Fig. 7(c)]. In
a crack as it grows shifts from an intergranular to a transgranular [Fig. 7(c)], the tensile strength of SMA-reinforced specimens
failure mechanism as shown in Fig. 6. However, when compared with varying numbers of wires is shown with solid lines. The
to Al–Si alloys, Al–Cu or Al–Cu–Si alloys showed virtually no recovery of strength after healing, achieved through two differ-
signs of healing. The researchers hypothesized that the lack of ent load transfer mechanisms (rod and loop type), is shown as
ductility in the Al–Cu and Al–Cu–Si matrix prevented the SMA spaced lines in the tensile plot. About 30% of the tensile strength
wire from undergoing phase transformation, preventing it from was recovered for self-healing specimen containing 44 nitinol
providing the necessary clamping force on the crack for healing. wires through rod type load transfer mechanism. Whereas
This is due to the fact that Al–Cu and Al–Cu–Si alloys fail before around 7% of tensile strength recovered for specimen contain-
reaching the stress level at which SMA wires start detwinning, ing 22 nitinol wires for loop type load transfer mechanism. This
mainly because of their lack of ductility. shows the rod type load transfer mechanism provides a higher
Fisher et al. [61] Synthesized a SHMMC by incorporating 2 clamping force at crack interface to narrow the crack and results
vol.% NiTi SMA wires reinforcement into Al–3at.% Si matrix. At in a better sealing of cracks at high temperatures. Low healing
the healing temperature of 592 °C, Al–3at.%Si can have 20% liq- efficiency of self-healing of the composite systems was attributed
uid phase and 80% solid phase combination, which is necessary to poor rebonding due to insufficient clamping force, and insuf-
to maintain the dimensional stability of the composite during ficient vol.% SMA wire in the matrix as reinforcement.
healing. Their research into the metal matrix composite sample Poormir et al. [63] investigated the flexural bending behav-
showed an average healing efficiency of 91.6% under tensile con- ior of Sn–13wt.%Bi alloy matrix, reinforced with NiTi SMA
ditions. The healing efficiency of a SHMMC is determined by strips. Specimens were designed with varying reinforcement
comparing the mechanical properties (MP) of the virgin com- volumes (0.78, 1.55, 2.33 vol.%) and pre-strains (0, 2, 6%), sub-
posite against mechanical properties (MP) after healing, as per jected to healing at three different temperatures (170 °C, 180 °C,
following relation: 190 °C). The damaged samples were heat treated at different
temperatures for self-healing. All the samples show recovery of
MPhealed
× 100% = %Healed (1) original straight shape from the bent shape which has formed
MPvirgin
due to flexural stress as shown in Fig. 8. Only the samples with
where MP implies the property of interest (i.e., Crack width, 2.33 and 1.55 vol. % SMA strip with 6% pre-strain show a flex-
Crack depth, Flexural strength, Tensile strength, and Fatigue ural strength recovery ranging from 35.31 to 51.83%.
strength). In a subsequent study, Poormir et al. [64] used the L-9
Researchers have also demonstrated self-healing mechanism standard Taguchi orthogonal array method to investigate the
of SHMMC under fatigue loading. The fatigue tested SHMMC influence of design factors (i.e., volume fraction of SMA strips,
samples healed, but the healing efficiency was not measured pre-strain of SMA NiTi strip, and healing temperature) on the
in this case. The SHMMC sample was heat-treated for 24 h at healing efficiency of NiTi SMA strip reinforced Sn–13wt.% Bi
592 °C and healed microstructure were observed and analyzed alloy SHMMCs. The authors studied the effect of different design
after heat treatment. factors on ultimate tensile strength and ductility. Taguchi analy-
Ferguson et al. [62] worked on Zinc-based SHMMC by sis predicts that 2.33% SMA volume fraction, 6% pre-strain in
incorporating NiTi SMA wires into Zinc ZA-8 die-casting alloy SMA strips, and a healing temperature of 190 °C were the best
(Zn–0.8Al–0.015Cu) using permanent mold die casting process. overall conditions for maximizing the healing efficiency for
Direct load transfer via interfacial bonding of the metal matrix ultimate tensile strength. For cast with 0.78% SMA reinforce-
and SMA reinforcement and indirect load transfer via mechani- ment, 0% pre-strain, and 190 °C healing temperature were the
cal transfer to a bolt embedded in the matrix were combined best overall conditions for maximizing the healing efficiency
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to achieve a more effective method to transfer load from rein- for ultimate ductility. Recovery in the ductility property of the
forcement wires to the matrix as shown in [Fig. 7(a and b)]. samples before and after healing was determined by measuring
The studies found that increasing the volume fraction of SMA the toughness of the virgin and healed composite using Eq. (1).
reinforcement increases ultimate tensile strength of the com- Srivastava et al. [65] introduced a hybrid SHMMCs utilizing
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posites, but only mechanical load transfer samples with higher a combination of SMA wires and a column of low melting point
strain hardening demonstrated any significant regained strength alloy as healing agents in the matrix. They incorporated 1 vol.%
after healing. Since the SHMMC was heated above the solidus of SMA wires of diameter 0.48 mm and a column of 6 vol.%
temperature for self-healing, the samples were heat treated in the solder alloy (Sn60Pb40) along the length of AA2014 matrix for
sand containment for healing. Thermal treatment of the ZA-8/ healing purposes. Figure 9(a) shows a SEM micrograph of the
SMA SHMMC only recovered up to 30% of the original ultimate cross-sectional area of the cast sample containing NiTi wires
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Figure 5: (a) An optical image of the cross-sectional Sn-Bi matrix reinforced with NiTi wires, (b) Recovery in bent shape for the sample after thermal
healing, (c) Crack closure of the damaged sample after thermal treatment, (d) A comparative 3-point bend test plot comparing different cast samples
before and after healing [59].
Figure 6: (a) Microstructure of Al–Si composite shows good SMA wire contact and even eutectic phase dispersion, (b) A tensile plot shows a remarkable
90% retention of ultimate tensile strength after healing, (c) The optical micrograph displays an Al–Si SMASH sample at various stages: after initial
testing (C1), post-healing (C2), and subsequent re-testing after healing (C3), the healing process resulted in both closure of cracks and a modified path
of fatigue-induced cracking (C4), (d) An optical image indicates a shift in crack propagation pattern from intergranular propagation along the eutectic
phase to transgranular propagation through the matrix, as shown at point “A” [60].
along with the column of solder alloy as healing agents embed- demonstrates healing after thermal treatment. It was observed
ded in AA2014 alloy matrix. The samples were flexural tested to that the sample heat treated at 600 °C shows a maximum of
create a bend in the shape and produce the crack on the outer 80% recovery in the bent shape for partially damaged sample
surface of the bar. The composite samples were subjected to two and a 70% reduction in crack width for fully damaged ones as
types of damage—complete and partial. In the first case, the shown in [Fig. 9(d)]. Moreover, at 600 °C healing temperature
flexural load was continued until the specimen fractured beyond about 52% of the flexural strength was recovered after healing
the yield point in the plastic deformation range, resulting in of partially damaged sample.
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a displacement of up to 50% of the yield point. In the second In an another subsequent study [66], the researchers
case, the test was stopped at the yield point at the initiation of employed the Taguchi L8 (Mixed Level Design) orthogonal array
crack. Their primary focus was to identify the optimal healing method to explore design factors, such as the volume percent-
temperature to maximize the healing efficiency of the compos- age of SMA wires, specimen size, and wire diameter, that might
2024
ite. After subjecting both fully and partially damaged composite influence the self-healing response of hybrid SHMMC. By using
samples to thermal treatment at varying temperatures (i.e., at an AA2014 matrix with different vol.% NiTi wire, wire diam-
250 °C, 370 °C, 480 °C, 600 °C, and 615 °C), they found that eters and a solder alloy (Sn60Pb40) column, the study revealed
a healing temperature of 600 °C gives the best results to heal that the healing duration was the most influential parameter
the damage crack. Figure 9(b) shows a CT scan X Ray image to enhance the healing in aluminum alloys. The study found a
of a sample which underwent bent test to create a crack which recovery of healing properties (i.e., about 100% in crack width,
Figure 7: (a) Frames employed in the fabrication of ZA-8/SMA specimens include: (a) SMA training frame and loop-type preform, (b) Rod-type preform,
(c) Tensile stress–strain behavior of both rod and loop sample configurations, both before and after undergoing thermal healing treatment [62].
96.95% in crack depth, and 73.76% in flexural strength) was 81.01% of crack closure, 32.61% of recovery in ductile prop-
achieved. Figure 9(c) shows the crack on the surface created erty and 44.18% recovery in strength was achieved after heal-
during the bend test which subsequently healed by the solder ing. In another research, solution hardening and age hardening
alloy which flowed to the crack due to capillary forces and sealed of AA2014–NiTi wire-based self-healing structure was done to
the crack after heat treatment. Non-destructive testing (NDT), enhance the recovery of strength after healing. X-ray Diffrac-
specifically Eddy Current Test (ECT), was employed to estimate tion (XRD) studies were conducted to determine how residual
crack depths both before and after healing. The mathematical stress, impacts the healing properties after each heat treatment
model was developed by considering (voltage and phase angle) procedure [67]. Results indicated a healing recovery of approxi-
of electromagnetic signal at different frequencies to detect the mately 87.294% in crack depth, 13.148% in ductility, 84.30%
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crack depth quantitatively. The model was able to estimate the in crack width, and 18.936% in flexural strength after healing
crack depth before and after healing with an error of 8% com- heat treatment. With solution hardening, there was a recovery
pared to the actual damage conditions. of about 74.588% in crack depth, 9.687% in ductility, 77.130% in
In an another parametric analysis Srivastava et al. [68] crack width, and 14.883% in flexural strength. Whereas after age
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AA2014 was reinforced with Ni–Ti wires with different vol. % hardening there was a recovery of about 81.66% in crack depth,
(i.e., 0.5 and 1.30) and different wire diameters (i.e., 0.46 and 23.92% in ductility, 84.3% in crack width, and 27.8% in flexural
0.96 mm) were cast. Taguchi method L8 (4^1 2^3) was used strength. Figure 9(c) shows the reduction in width and closing
to analyze the healing assessments for different combination of of the crack of the deformed and bent sample, it also shows
experimental runs. The results obtained from destructive and repair of a damaged sample after thermal treatment. After solu-
NDT showed recovery in the properties after healing. About tion hardening, the XRD analysis showed a shift in peak toward
Figure 8: A pictorial representation of the (a) Sn–13wt.%Bi alloy matrix, reinforced with NiTi SMA strips, (b) After bend test deformation in shape and
crack produced on the surface, (c) After heat treatment at 180 °C, recovery in bent shape and crack healing is observed [63].
a higher 2θ angle, suggesting an overall tensile residual stress at which was squeezed into bed of randomly oriented nitinol wires
the crack interface, resulting in a lesser recovery in both crack using a press. After quenching, the samples were heated to a
depth and width. Subsequent to the aging process, a noticeable temperature below recrystallization to relieve internal stresses
recovery in residual strain was observed. The presence of an and improve the integration of NiTi reinforcements with the
overall residual compressive stress at the crack interface led matrix. As a result of semi solid processing of the matrix the
to improved healing properties, particularly for crack depth grains of primary alpha aluminum were globular instead of den-
and width, in comparison to the solution-hardened samples. drites. The prepared sample was subjected to controlled loading
In another study by Srivastava et al. [69], Self-healing compos- to induce the initial crack. The damaged sample was placed in
ites based on AA2014-Nitinol strip-solder alloy were cast using a muffle furnace and heated to 363.15 K for 5 min. Hence when
permanent mold casting. A Taguchi L8 mixed orthogonal array the activation transition temperature of SMA wire was reached,
was analyzed via ANOVA to identify influential parameters for partial crack closure in the sample was observed due to restoring
designing optimal self-healing structures. Post-healing showed force. A crack width recovery to about 44.277% was observed
significant improvements: 100% recovery in crack width, 87.85% after heat treatment of the damaged sample.
in crack depth, and 75.40% in flexural strength. A predictive Zhu et al. [72, 73] investigated the effect of SMA reinforce-
Fuzzy model was developed using S/N ratio, resulting in a minor ment, softening property of the matrix, and pre-strain of SMA
error of 6.33% for overall healing assessment. In a separate study on healing of SHMMCs using finite element simulations. The
by Srivastava et al. [70], fuzzy logic modeling outperformed lin- analysis found that pre-straining of SMA reinforcement and sof-
ear regression for predicting self-healing in NiTi wire and strip tening of matrix material at healing temperature is beneficial for
solder alloys. The average prediction error was approximately crack closure and self-healing.
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6.33% for Case Study I and 4.94% for Case Study II, highlighting Manuel [74] has proposed the incorporation of particles of
the effectiveness and accuracy of fuzzy logic. negative CTE materials to achieve self-healing in Metal Matrix
Sharma et al. [71] developed an SHMMC by integrating Composite structures [75–79]. The negative CTE particles
equiatomic NiTi SMA wires (0.5 mm diameter and 2.5 cm contract upon heating can exert the required compressive
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length) into an A356 alloy matrix using the semi-solid metal force near the crack interface to close the crack and heal the
casting processing technique known as rapid slurry formation matrix. The possible negative CTE material could serve as
(RSF). NiTi wires were etched using 5% HF–10%HNO3 aqueous an alternative to currently used NiTi-based SMA reinforce-
solution for 2.5 min and then the wires were pickled in H 3PO4 ments. Some examples of negative CTE materials that could
to improve their incorporation into the metal matrix. A rod of be used as reinforcement to produce SHMMCs include cubic
A356 was stirred in the melt of A356 to form a semi solid slurry zirconium tungstate ( ZrW2O8), members of the A M2O8 family
Figure 9: (a) SEM micrograph of the cross-sectional view AA2014 matrix containing NiTi wires along with the solder alloy [66], (b) A CT scanned X-Ray
image of the sample, i.e., Virgin sample, Bend tested and Healed at 600 °C healing temperature [65], (c) An image shows the surface crack filled with
Solder alloy after heat treatment [66], (d) Reduction in width and closing of the crack of the deformed and bent sample after thermal treatment [67],
(e) Recovery in shape after healing for damaged samples; the bent bars straighten upon heating [65].
of materials (where A = Zr or Hf, M = Mo or W) and Z rV2O7, mechanical properties, and premature failure due to residual
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and A2(MO4)3. However self-healing in metals reinforced with stresses should be taken into consideration.
negative CTE reinforced has not been experimentally dem- Rohatgi [80–82] has proposed the concept of incorporat-
onstrated so far. The mechanisms and extent of crack closure, ing SMAs particles and fibers at macro, micro, and nano-scales
and healing of Negative CTE materials reinforced SHMMCs to achieve self-healing at different length scales. At the transi-
need to be studied. It is important to account for potential tion temperature, the phase transformation of SMAs (i.e., from
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mismatch in thermal properties between the reinforcement Martensite to Austenite) leads to a shape change by generating
and matrix material, as it may lead to the development of compressive stress within the matrix. This results in the closure of
residual stresses that could negatively impact the overall cracks at nano, micro, and macro-scales, thereby facilitating heal-
performance and reliability of the self-healing composite. ing. He has proposed using electromagnetic induction, microwave,
Additionally, the possibility of interface debonding, reduced ultrasonic, ballistic, and laser energy as external stimuli to activate
localized self-healing. Solidification processing techniques, includ- matrices which incorporated the healing liquids in microbal-
ing stir mixing, squeeze casting, pressure and pressureless infil- loons/capsules and microtubes. In polymers the healing liquids
tration, powder metallurgy, and hybrid techniques involving stir was often a monomer which upon breaking of the microbal-
mixing, wetting agents, ultrasonic mixing, and squeeze casting, loons/capsules or tubes flowed to the crack and becomes solid by
have been proposed by Rohatgi [80–82] as possible methods for reacting with the catalyst often embedded in the matrix or with
synthesizing SHMMCs. air. In metals the process involves encapsulating a solder or low
Recently, Tasan [27] has proposed that incorporating SMA melting alloy material within ceramic capsules or tubes, which
nanoparticles into selected metal matrices can induce autonomous are embedded in a higher melting matrix material in which the
self-healing capability. The proposed microstructure will consist crack is to be healed. To cast tubes/capsules-based self-healing
of a host matrix with SMA nanoparticles dispersed/embedded materials, the hollow tubes and porous capsules have been filled
in the matrix in their austenite phase. When damage occurs, the with solder alloy or low melting alloy (Sn, In, Zn, Sn–Bi, Sn–Pb)
nanoparticles are activated due to stress field ahead of the cracks and incorporated in metal matrices (Al, Al206, Sn, or Sn–Cu
and a phase transformation is triggered in nanoparticles from aus- alloy). Figure 10(a) shows the Al206 matrix containing quartz
tenite to martensite phase. This leads to a change in the shape of hollow tube filled with brazing alloy as a healing agent. If a crack
the particles, inducing strain fields in the host matrix which leads develops in the matrix it can lead to the rupture of the micro-
to closure of the crack in the matrix. This concept of SHMMCs balloons, capsules, or tubes embedded within the higher melting
is inspired by the theory proposed by Xu and Demkowicz [83], metal matrix upon heating the low melting healing liquid flows
which suggests that nanocracks can self-heal through stress-driven out of microtubes or microcapsules and flows into the crack
grain boundary migration. Barr et al. [84] demonstrated spon- due to capillary force if the conditions are suitable. In certain
taneous healing in pure platinum and copper through a process instances, columns or spheres of low melting healing alloys are
called crack flank cold welding, driven by local stress and grain incorporated in the matrices without use of tubes or capsules,
boundary migration. Demkowicz also contributed to this study and they melt and flow to crack to seal them. By increasing the
by using updated computer models to support his previous theory temperature above the melting point of the healing agents (i.e.,
on nanoscale self-healing behavior of metals. In the case of SMA solder or any low melting point alloy) incorporated in the cap-
nanoparticles reinforced SHMMCs, the traditional moving grain sules or tubes or columns the healing liquid, flows into the crack,
boundary is replaced by the dynamic interface between the host due to capillary action and surface tension forces, and fills the
matrix and the nanoparticle during its phase transformation. How- crack followed by solidification. Figure 10(b) shows the view of
ever, this autonomous healing through incorporation of nanosized the crack filled with solder alloy after healing treatment. Fig-
particles of SMA has not been demonstrated experimentally. In ure 10(c) shows a cast sample of matrix Sn0.7Cu incorporating a
addition, there are concerns that SMA particles may not retain column of solder-based healing agent. A hole was pierced on the
shape memory properties when they are nanosized. surface of the matrix, after heating at 150 °C healing temperature
the solder flows in the hole and seals the hole. The example in
Summary of shape memory fiber reinforced self‑healing Fig. 10 shows relatively large microtubes and columns of heal-
composites ing material for illustration. In practice, the sizes of microtubes,
microballoons and columns of low melting healing materials
• Casting has been the most commonly used process for synthe- will have to be much smaller to have less deleterious effect on
sizing SHMMCs. properties.
• Low melting point alloys, when used as matrix materials, Rohatgi et al. [29, 55, 56, 85–88] at the University of Wis-
exhibit greater recovery in strength compared to matrix mate- consin-Milwaukee have developed the encapsulated healing
rials made of high melting point alloys. agent-based self-healing composites using pressure infiltration
• Incorporating insufficient volume % nitinol fiber does not gen- process. Their research includes incorporating porous alumina
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erate sufficient compressive force to narrow or completely close microballoons filled with 42Sn58Bi low melting temperature
the crack. solder in high melting temperature 99.3Sn0.7Cu solder matrix
• Restoring the bond between cracked surfaces is crucial for using pressure infiltration process as shown in [Fig. 11(a and
maintaining the structural integrity of SHMMCs. b)]. Lucci [89] and his coworkers performed a simulation-
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based study on a 3-Dimensional model using Ansys fluent to

simulate the flow of low melting-based alloys to fill the crack
Encapsulating low melting point alloy based

for healing during heating for self-healing. They formulated
self‑healing metal matrix composites
the healing factor (Eq. 2) which is the ratio of viscous and
The concept of encapsulated self-healing agent-based healing in
surface force to the inertial force of the healing agent incor-
metal matrix composites is inspired from the work in polymers
porating kinetic viscosity, contact angle between liquid metal
Figure 10: (a) An image of Al206 composite reinforced with quartz hollow tubes incorporated with brazing alloy Al802 as healing agent, (b) Self-healing
phenomenon using bleeding and clotting approach shows how the healing agent releases and react with the matrix for healing, (c) An image shows
Sn0.7Cu matrix containing Sn38Bi healing agent and the hole is sealed with solder alloy after heat treatment [1].
and solid, surface tension, density of the healing agents, instan- width of crack which will be filled by the flow of healing liq-
taneous average velocity and CTE of the matrix and healing uid from microballoon into the crack. They predicted selected
agents, to predict the probably of healing agent to flow into the orientation and width of the crack which will be filled, and in
crack and heal the crack. An Ansys simulation was performed some cases these predictions were experimentally confirmed
on various combination of matrices and the healing agents as [82]. Figure 12(a) shows the notation of crack orientation con-
shown in Table 2. Figure 11(c) demonstrates the simulation sidered during the CFD analysis. They also studied an Al-Zn-
results obtained for Sn0.7Cu matrix containing Sn–Bi eutectic based SHMMC with pure aluminum as the matrix and zinc as
low melting healing agent. At high healing factors the healing the healing agent. Figure 12(b) shows that for 180° orientation,
agent remains in the encapsulated microballoons and does not no filling of the crack is likely to occur for crack diameter of
flow to the crack for healing. 1 mm. Similarly, with Al-Sn SHMMC, partial crack filling was
observed if the crack diameter is reduced from 1 to 0.25 mm
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γ ν(1 − cos θ)
Hf = (2) against gravity as shown in [Fig. 12(c)]. Further decreasing
ρVd 3 (�CTE) · TH [g(2 + cos α)]
the crack diameter to 0.10 mm resulted in complete filling of
Hf = Healing factor, γ = Surface tension, ν = Kinematic viscocity, crack with the healing agent against the gravity as shown in
θ = Angle of contact, ρ = Density of healing agent, V = Instanta- [Fig. 12(d)]. In Sn-In SHMMC, when the crack diameter was
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neous velocity, TH = Healing temperature, α = Crack orientation. 20% of the container diameter, a complete healing was observed
Rohatgi and his coworkers did Computational Fluid for cracks orientated at 0° and 90° samples but not for crack
Dynamics (CFD) simulations to predict the orientation and oriented at 180°.
Figure 11: (a) SEM image of an alumina microballoons filled with Sn–Bi eutectic [47], (b) SEM microscopy of crack though Sn0.7Cu matrix casting
showing alumina microballoons containing Sn–Bi eutectic upon heating the low melting solder alloy flows out from the capsule into the crack and
solidifies upon cooling [47], (c) The results from simulation obtained for Sn0.7Cu matrix containing Sn–Bi eutectic [89].
• Encapsulated low melting healing liquid flows out of micro-

TABLE 2: Combination of matrix tubes or microcapsules and flows into the crack due to capil-
Matrix Healing agent
and healing agents used for the
simulation study using healing
lary force and surface tension to seal the crack.
Tin–Copper alloy Tin–Bismuth
factor [89]. • Crack orientation and width play an important role in the
Tin Indium
ability of healing agents to fill the crack.
Aluminum Zinc
Aluminum Tin
Aluminum Bismuth
Healing with low melting point alloy either present
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in a column or in situ low melting phases in the matrix

without encapsulation
Summary of self‑healing metal matrix composites In 2015, Alaneme et al. [90] conducted an experimental study
incorporating micro‑capsules or micro‑tubes containing low to demonstrate the self-healing potential of Al–Mg–Si alloy by
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melting metals in the matrix incorporating a column of low-melting metallic alloy, namely
the 60Sn–40Pb alloy in the center of the sample. Their study
• In metals the process involves encapsulating a solder or revealed that when the 60Sn–40Pb alloy was used as column in
low melting alloy material within ceramic capsules or the matrix of Al–Mg–Si alloy, it resulted in a healing efficiency of
tubes, which are embedded in a higher melting matrix 91% after pre-cracking and heating for healing. The continuous
material in which the crack is to be healed. contact and possibly bonding between the 60Sn–40Pb alloy and
Figure 12: (a) Simulation of crack orientations at 180°, 90°, and 0° with respect to gravity is conducted to predict the self-healing capability [89], (b) For
1 mm crack diameter, the crack is oriented against gravity, no liquid flowed out from the reservoir to the crack. when the crack was oriented toward
gravity, the liquid healing agent completely filled the crack, indicating that 100% of the healing agent flowed into the crack from the reservoir, (c) For
0.25 mm crack diameter, partial filling of crack was observed against gravity, (d) For 0.10 mm diameter crack, complete filling and healing of crack was
observed against gravity [87].
the Al–Mg–Si alloy matrix was a significant factor contributing the separate solidification of Al–Cu–Si-rich L1 and Sn–Bi-
to this high healing efficiency. rich L2 phases at different temperatures, yielding a trimodal
Oladijo et al. [57] conducted a study on hybrid composites, eutectic structure in the cast alloys. Due to this separation,
which were made from the Al–Mg–Si alloy and combined with Sn and Bi elements demonstrated high mobilities, diffus-
different proportions of silica sand (SS) and bamboo leaf ash ing toward regions with higher strain during heat treatment
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(BLA). The specimens incorporated a column of 60Sn–40Pb- as depicted in [Fig. 13(a)]. Notably, in the bimodal eutectic
based solder alloy, introduced through a hole drilled longitudi- structure based on Al–Cu–Si, these mobile Sn and Bi elements
nally in each specimen. To create a damage, the samples were effectively filled cracks during warm rolling at 149.85 °C as
subjected to Charpy test. After heat treatment at 250 °C, the shown in Fig. 13(b). These findings indicate that this alloy
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specimens that contained a mix ratio of 1:3 (BLA: SS) showed system exhibits dual self-healing characteristics, originating
an impact energy recovery of around 61% after healing. from both precipitated Sn–Bi-rich particles and a low melt-
Recently, Jeong et al. [91] studied the evolution of ing agent. The alloy design, based on liquid phase separation,
microstructure and crack-filling behavior in composites of presents a novel approach to creating self-crack filling metal-
(Al81Cu13Si6)100−x(Sn57Bi43)x, with varying concentrations of lic materials. However, healing in terms of strength recovery
Sn and Bi (x = 0, 1, and 3at.%). The composition resulted in needs to be investigated.
Summary of self‑healing materials containing low melting A significant challenge in producing SMA-reinforced
alloys without encapsulation SHMMCs is the inadequate wettability and bonding between
the metal matrix and the SMA reinforcement [53]. A weak
• The multimodal composite consisting of interfacial bonding negatively impacts the healing efficiency of
(Al81Cu13Si6)100−x(Sn57Bi43)x exhibited dual self-healing SHMMCs during the healing process. Manuel [53, 58] addressed
properties through the formation of precipitates and segre- problem of poor wettability by electrochemically etching the
gation in high-stress locations, and by triggering low-melt- SMA reinforcement and then sputter-coating it with Gold (Au).
ing-temperature metallic healing agents to melt and flow Electroless coating with Copper (Cu) [92] or removal of the
into cracks during warm rolling, enabling low-temperature oxide with an etchant or a flux [93–95] improved the wettabil-
healing. ity of the metal matrix with NiTi SMA. Ruzek [47] investigated
electroless copper coating on SMA wires to enhance the wet-
tability of the NiTi surface prior to pressure infiltration to form
Challenges to synthesize and design the composite. Good bonding between the matrix and SMA
of self‑healing metal matrix composites reinforcement was achieved by Misra[54, 59], Poormir et al. [63,
Reinforcement and healing agents contribute to the self-healing 64], Ferguson et al. [62] who used an etchant (4.8%HF–10.5%
properties of composites. The reinforcing agent should possess a HNO3) to remove the oxide layer from SMA reinforcement.
yield strength that is significantly higher than that of the matrix. After etching the SMA Misra, and Ferguson et al. also used a
This ensures that during loading conditions, even if the matrix phosphoric acid-based flux (Indalloy Flux # 2, Indium Corpo-
sustains damage, the reinforcing fibers remain undamaged. Fur- ration of America) to remove residual surface oxides. It was
thermore, the melting temperature of the healing agent should observed that a good bonding between matrix and reinforce-
fall within the range of the final healing temperature. Effective ment was effectively achieved while using both etchant and flux
bonding of the reinforcement with the original matrix is impor- agents. The good contact between NiTi wires and the matrix was
tant and the healing agents should exhibit wetting and bonding confirmed by conducting SEM and EDS elemental analysis at the
with the matrix and ability to flow into the crack. Healing agents interface between matrix and SMA wires.
should not oxidize or react with the environment. Reinforcing Restoring the bond between cracked surfaces is crucial for
agents should be responsive to external stimuli, such as heat maintaining the structural integrity of SHMMCs. Oxide lay-
or light, to change their shape and size to initiate the healing ers on the surfaces of the crack which form as a result of reac-
process. tion with air form can obstruct the healing. Fisher et al. [96]
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Figure 13: (a) SEM images of hardness indents and subsurface deformation under the indents for both as-deformed and heat-treated (149.85 °C)
specimens shows Sn–Bi precipitates around high stress regions, (b) SEM images after subjecting the material to warm rolling at 149.85 °C with a 10%
reduction ratio indicating crack filling with insitu low melting healing agents [91].
suggested alloying the matrix with elements which reduce the metal matrix composites, filling is comparatively easier;
tendency of oxide formation of the matrix help rejoining of the however, it introduces an anisotropy similar to SMA wires.
surfaces of the crack. Another complication arises from the fact that for effec-
Design of microstructure of SMA-reinforced SHMMCs tive healing to occur, the crack must rupture the capsules/
has primarily been based on empirical approaches. Manuel balloons/tubes, enabling the healing material to flow out of
[53] introduced an analytical model to calculate the minimum the microcontainers to initiate the healing process. In encap-
necessary volume fraction of SMA wires to exert a clamping sulated healing agent-based healing when the healing agent
force at the crack interface during a healing cycle. In the case leaves the container and flows into the crack, it leaves a void
of a Sn-based composite, Manuel’s model estimated that a 1% in the container and this could dexterously effects selected
volume fraction of Ti–49.4at.% Ni SMA wires is required for mechanical properties. It is crucial to have proper bonding
the complete healing of the damage. In a magnesium matrix, and compatibility between the healing materials and the
however the experiments showed that much higher volume frac- matrix to achieve optimal healing performance.
tions of SMA wires were required for closure of cracks. Fisher The synthesis of hybrid SHMMCs, which incorporate both
[97] has calculated that 55 volume percentage of SMA wires will SMA and healing solder alloy, presents several challenges.
be required to heal the crack in Al–4.1Cu–2.0Si (at.%) alloy. For Infiltrating a low melting point solder alloy into the compos-
an Al–3at.%Si composite, the required SMA wires volume for ite structure during casting is a challenge and it can lead to
healing is calculated to be 25%. In both cases, the very high esti- degradation of mechanical properties of the material.
mated volume percentage of SMA wires will present problems
in processing these SHMMCs and concerns about the high costs
associated with it. Fisher observed healing in Al–Si composites
with less than 2.5 vol.% SMA wires, which is much lower that Future research imperatives of self‑healing
the volume percentages predicted by Manuel. This discrepancy metal matrix composites
between the model’s calculated value and the experimental result Casting has been the most commonly used process for syn-
may be attributed to the assumptions in the model including thesizing SHMMCs for both SMA-reinforced and those
uniform strain and no plasticity in the SHMMC. An increased incorporating hollow tubes and capsules filled with healing
toughness of SHMMC could also reduce the necessary mini- agents. The microstructure of SHMMCs should be designed
mum volume fraction of SMA wires for effective healing. Hence, in such a way that after the crack is filled by healing phase,
the development of more precise analytical models is needed, the strength recovery is maximized. To date self-healing
which could reduce the gap between the calculated and experi- has been demonstrated in low melting alloys like tin-based
mental values for required SMA wire volume fractions, thereby alloys/solders, aluminum, magnesium, and zinc-based alloys
optimizing the self-healing efficacy of SHMMCs. Till date, no which have been reinforced with SMA fibers. It is necessary to
comprehensive analytical models have been developed to accu- develop new SHMMCs for higher-temperature alloys includ-
rately design the microstructure of SHMMCs with NiTi and ing steels and super alloys. The multimodal composite con-
other SMA fibers to achieve targeted self-healing. More ana- sisting of ( Al81Cu13Si6)100−x(Sn57Bi43)x exhibited self-healing
lytical models are needed to successfully predict the optimum properties by forming precipitates in high stress location and
volume fraction of SMA fiber, diameter of SMA wire and its enabling healing through melting of low melting phase [91].
required distribution to cause the matrix to yield and deform, Incorporating long SMA fibers into the multimodal compos-
leading to self-healing. Furthermore, these models should be ite could be studied to observe the changes the self-healing
able to quantify the pre-strain of SMA fibers and predict the characteristics of the composite. Suitable alloying elements
optimum orientation and distribution of SMA fibers in the metal such as magnesium for aluminum alloy as a matrix should be
matrix for effective healing in SMA-reinforced SHMMCs. The incorporated into the metal matrix of SMA-reinforced SHM-
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importance of bonding, load transfer between SMA fibers and MCs to reduce formation of continuous oxides film at the
the matrix, the effect of pre-strain, the rate of crack propagation surfaces of the crack. These alloying elements can play spe-
and closure, and the shape recovery of SMA-reinforced SHM- cific roles in forming discontinuous oxide layers, improving
MCs also needs to be quantified in these models. mechanical properties, and enhancing overall performance
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The concept of encapsulated healing agent-based (micro- at elevated temperatures. The choice of alloying elements will
balloons/capsules/tubes) healing presents several challenges depend on the specific requirements and intended applica-
that need to be addressed. Primarily, the ceramic capsules or tions of the metal. The added element should oxidize more
balloons require the presence of holes or porosity to allow for readily than any other element in the base alloy, and it should
the filling of solder alloy or low melting point alloys that will help form lower volume of discontinuous surface oxides at
serve as healing agent. In the case of tube-based self-healing the crack interface.
Enhancing heating methods for uniform healing not evaluate all possible combinations of variables, making it
To achieve uniform heating during the healing process of unsuitable for investigating relationships between all the vari-
SMA-reinforced SHMMCs, alternate sources of heat including ables. It is necessary to apply more sophisticated statistical meth-
induction heating systems, radiant heating systems, microwaves, ods to capture the complex interactions between design factors
lasers, and heated fluids or gases, need to be explored. There including Central Composite Design (CCD) or Box-Behnken
is a need to explore incorporating suitable thermite chemicals methods, which allow for a more comprehensive evaluation of
for encapsulating healing agents. These thermite chemicals relationships and interaction between variables. These methods
will react with air with highly exothermic reactions when the are likely to provide a more accurate assessment of the impact
container is broken by the crack to melt the low-melting heal- of design factors on performance characteristics and facilitate
ing agent incorporated in micro/nano-tubes or capsules. This the development of more robust NiTi-reinforced SHMMCs. The
reaction can also generate sufficient heat, to melt parts of the fuzzy logic model developed by Srivastava et al. [69, 70] with
surrounding metal to help seal the crack. The incorporation of the formulated Signal to Noise ratio has led to more accurate
nanotubes filled with a low-melting alloy has the potential for predictions of self-healing with a smaller number of experimen-
enhancing the properties of the matrix as well as the properties tal runs. The predictive fuzzy model result needs to be further
of the material after healing. The nanosized container of heal- improved by incorporating additional experimental data. It is
ing liquid can also heal the cracks at the nanoscale before they necessary to develop mechanics models which can help design
become large. Previous studies have demonstrated the feasibility the microstructure of self-healing metal matrix composites and
of incorporating nanotubes into metals [98], it is necessary to predict the recovered strength and post-healing performance
develop techniques to fill the nanotubes with low-melting heal- of composites after healing. A comprehensive understanding of
ing alloys before incorporating them in matrices. healing kinetics would enable optimization of healing param-
eters, such as temperature, time, and external stimuli, leading
to improved healing efficiency and effectiveness.
Crack orientation and fiber alignment study
Most of the SMA-reinforced SHMMCs, studies have investigated Involving structural health monitoring and advanced
healing of cracks which were perpendicular to long fibers which characterization
were aligned in one direction. It is necessary to investigate the Structural health monitoring needs to be incorporated into
healing efficiency of SMA-reinforced SHMMCs in which cracks SHMMCs and components to monitor the propagation and
are present in multiple directions relative to the alignment of healing of cracks. Characterization of damaged samples and
SMA fibers. It is also necessary to investigate self-healing in healing of micro-voids and cracks, and strains using strain imag-
SMA-reinforced metal composites where long and short fibers ing, non-destructive tests such as X-ray, CT scan, and structural
of SMA are oriented in different directions and cracks of differ- health monitoring using electromechanical impedance method,
ent orientations are healed. piezoelectric sensors, ultrasonic sensors need to be conducted.
It is necessary to investigate the effectiveness of randomly ori-
ented SMA fibers on healing of crack of different sizes and shape
Developing autonomous and multicycle healing
oriented in different directions. It is essential to develop a more
It is necessary to develop autonomous and multicycle healing precise model for the stress and strain fields generated during
in SHMMCs since most of the techniques developed to date self-healing taking into account the shape memory effect of the
require external fields, including thermal heat or electric current SMA and deformation of the matrix, since they play a vital role
and have demonstrated only single cycle healing. Systems need in the healing process. By incorporating the shape memory
to be developed where autonomous welding of crack surfaces effect into the model, a more comprehensive understanding of
www.mrs.org/jmr
occurs when they are brought closer and together. the healing mechanism can be obtained.
Design parameters optimization and exploring Quantifying healing liquid flow and solidification
predictive model using CFD
2024
Taguchi method has been used to design experimental pro- The flow of healing liquids from broken tubes, capsules, or low
cedures for assessing the impact of design factors on NiTi- melting eutectic pockets to fill cracks and the solidification of
reinforced SHMMCs in a limited way. Its main disadvantage the healing liquid within the cracks need to be quantitively ana-
is that the results do not accurately identify the parameter with lyzed through computational fluid dynamics for various types of
the highest impact on the healing and orthogonal arrays do cracks. There is need to take into account the effects of surface
tension, capillary and gravity forces, and geometry of the crack magnesium vapor effectively healed a total fracture through a
on the flow of healing liquid into cracks, and solidification of mechanism called transient liquid phase bonding (TLPB). This
healing liquid within the cracks. The effect of incorporating of design approach can be expanded and incorporated in other
different healing agents including low melting alloy and solders metallic materials. In a recent research by Zhu et al. [105] SPS
or even polymers within the cracks on the mechanical properties has been used to mend directional cracks in [001] textured
of the materials and their effect on further propagation of cracks Laser Powder bed fusion (L-PBF) NiTi shape memory alloy. The
needs to be investigated. formation of Ti2NiOx through diffusion bonding and oxygen
utilization is effective for healing the cracks. This provides an
alternative solution for repairing cracks in L-PBF parts, improv-
Other promising techniques ing their functional and mechanical attributes. SPS overcomes
One of the challenges is to be able to heal the damage in metals hot cracking limitations, broadening the application scope of
or metal matrix composites autonomously at room tempera- L-PBF NiTi parts and facilitating the sustainable reuse of dam-
ture. Healing of damaged materials and structure at higher tem- aged materials.
perature and high energy input can lead to formation of oxide Tasan [27] has proposed that incorporation of SMA nano-
on the surface cracks of certain matrix materials preventing particles into the metal matrix can induce autonomous self-
their closure under compressive loading. In addition, heating healing, however this needs to be demonstrated experimentally.
of entire components for healing may not be feasible for large It is necessary to conduct research to determine the size limit
components. of SMA particles or short fibers below which self-healing can
be triggered autonomously without the use of external stimuli,
• Electro-pulsing: Recently investigators have used electro- including heating. This will also require development of pro-
pulsing methods to heal the damage site. The micro-crack cessing techniques which will lead of uniform dispersion of
and voids within the TC4 titanium alloy sheet, SUS304 stain- nanosized SMA alloy particles in the matrices which need to
less steel, Aluminum alloy and nickel were healed by electro- be self-healed.
pulsing (i.e., by passing the external current leading to joule
heating) for short spans of time of the order of microseconds
[46, 99–101]. Conclusion
• Electro-deposition: Another method which has been Self-healing has been demonstrated in Al, Mg, Zn, and Sn-
employed to seal the crack with its own parent metal is elec- based alloy matrices by incorporating short or long SMA fib-
trodeposition of the matrix material, including the work by ers. For short SMA-reinforced SHMMC, in several cases the
Jiang and his coworkers by electrodepositing Aluminum (Al) samples demonstrated complete recovery of flexural strength
on aluminum substrate. By varying the current density a and partial recovery of tensile strength and original shape. Self-
high deposition rate can be achieved over the damage area healing has been demonstrated under tensile, bending, and
that could lead to the closure and bonding of crack [102]. fatigue stress states in SMA-reinforced SHMMCs. A maximum
Recently Zakaria et al. [103] have shown room temperature of 95% of composite ultimate tensile strength was recovered for
healing of the damaged cellular nickel by electro depositing Sn–13at.%Bi–NiTi, a maximum 92% of flexural strength was
nickel itself, to recover around 100% tensile strength after recovered for Sn–20wt.%Bi–NiTi. The lower healing efficiency
healing. for other SHMMCs could be attributed to the sub optimal frac-
tion of SMA reinforcement wires that could not provide suf-
Additive manufacturing, like 3D printing needs to be ficient force to overcome the matrix strength, the poor bond-
explored to deposit multi material components including ing between the reinforcement and matrices, oxidation at the
matrix material self-healing metals and composite since it has cracked surfaces, and the absence of suitable and sufficient heal-
www.mrs.org/jmr
the capability to deposit healing agents or capsule containing liquid. Low melting point alloys, when used as matrix mate-
ing healing agents or shape memory alloy in the matrix. The rials, exhibit greater recovery in strength compared to matrix
recent research conducted by Svetlizky et al. [104] discusses 3D materials made of high melting point alloys. The reactive and
printing and Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) for creating a self- high melting point alloys are more susceptible to the forma-
2024
healing aluminum-based MMC. The composite consists of an tion of an oxide layer at the crack interface; this can hinder the
Al 5083 matrix embedded with Zn–8Al low melting point par- re-bonding of the cracked surfaces under compression forces
ticles (LMPPs) (encapsulated in a CoP shell) that act as healing exerted by shape memory alloy fibers. Capability for self-healing
agent. The composite demonstrated full healing of a large crack. need to be developed for high-melting-point alloys like steels
Subsequent heat treatment under extrinsic compression force and superalloys. Research should primarily focus on specific
(as an alternative to intrinsic shape memory alloys) and under areas like self-healing under various loading conditions (impact,
mixed mode), investigating nano-SMA for autonomous healing, 8. L. Zhai, A. Narkar, K. Ahn, Self-healing polymers with nanoma-
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its effect on material performance, health monitoring for crack polymers for applications in spacecraft and construction of
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Framework and conceptualization, P.R., and M.B.; outline, 12. R.S. Trask, H.R. Williams, I.P. Bond, Self-healing polymer com-
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Funding Rashid, H. Abdelgader, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Self-healing concrete

as a prospective construction material: a review. Materials
This research received no external funding.
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Data availability
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author states that there is no conflict of interest. induced crack repair. Adv. Eng. Mater. 22(9), 1901121 (2020)
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Current Status and Future Research Imperatives of Self Healing Metal Matrix Composites

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Invited Feature Paper-Review

MRS FELLOWS FOCUS

Current status and future research imperatives

Introduction coating, an epoxy polyamide matrix utilized as a self-seal coat

reactive nature of metals, the need for external stimulus to heal

Shape memory alloy fibers based self‑healing metal

Results including recovery of

based study on a 3-Dimensional model using Ansys fluent to

Encapsulating low melting point alloy based

Dynamics (CFD) simulations to predict the orientation and oriented at 180°.

• Encapsulated low melting healing liquid flows out of micro-

in a column or in situ low melting phases in the matrix

Funding Rashid, H. Abdelgader, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Self-healing concrete

4. Y. Wang, D. Jiang, L. Zhang, B. Li, C. Sun, H. Yan, Z. Wu, H.

349–357 (2007) ite (Northwestern University, Evanston, 2007)

9160–9168 (2004) ment and computational analysis of self-healing in an alu-

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