CEFR-B2.

UNIT 1. GRAMMAR 1
Neither, either, so
We use either when we mean ‘both’ or ‘one’

Either restaurant will have pureé. (both of them will have it)
Either of those work great with this jacket. (both choices are okay)

We use either … or (‘one or another’) in affirmative sentences to express a choice between two pos-

sibilities or a cause-effect relationship.

You can either take a coffee for €3 or a coffee and a lemon pound cake for €4.
Either you come home now or you won’t go on your school trip!

We use neither ... nor (‘not this one and not that one’) in negative sentences

I have neither the time nor the money to go to Cancun this year.
She liked neither the melody nor the lyrics to your song.

We also use either and neither when we mean mean ‘one or the other’, ‘whichever of the two’ / ‘not

this one and not the other one’, or ‘not one of the two’:

There are toilets on either side of the park. (you will find a toilet on each sides)
Neither of my daughters liked the film. (both of them disliked the film)
We can stay, or we can go. Either way, I’ll be happy. (it doesn’t matter what we choose to do, I will be
happy)

We use so + adjective (+that) to make the adjective stronger to show a result.

I was so late to the show (that) they were cleaning the floors.
Lily was so tired (that) she fell asleep on the bus and missed her stop.
UNIT 1. GRAMMAR 2
Neither, either, so answers
We use so (do) I to express that a positive statement is also true for us. The expression changes

according to the tense we are using.

- I love roast beef.

- So do I.
We use so with be / modal verb / auxiliary verbs to mean in the same way, as well and too. It avoids

repetition.

Lilly is a very good long-distance runner and so is Geoff.

He can stay for a week, so can you.
We use neither have I to express that a negative statement is also true for us. The expression chan-

ges according to the tense we are using.

- I haven’t planned anything for tonight.

- Neither have I. (I also haven’t been to Spain).

Present simple Mary runs every morning. So do I.

Use do, does Mary doesn’t run every morning. Neither do I.

Present simple with verb ‘to be’ - They are tired.

Use am, is, are - So am I.
- They aren’t tired.
- Neither am I.

Present continuous We can’t go. Zoe’s doing homework and so am I.

Use am, is, are Zoe isn’t busy and neither am I.
UNIT 1. GRAMMAR 2
Neither, either, so answers
- I want to visit Millie.
Past simple - So do I!
Use did - I don’t want to visit Millie.
- Neither do I.

Past simple with verb ‘to be’ - She was happy.

Use was, were - So was I.
- She wasn’t happy.
- Neither was I.

Present perfect - I have finished all my chores.

Use have, has - So have I.
- I haven’t finished yet.
- Neither have I.

Future simple She will travel alone and so will I.

Use will She won’t travel alone and neither will I.

Modal verbs They can speak Russsian and so can I.

Copy the modal used before They can’t speak Russian and neither can I.
UNIT 2. GRAMMAR 1
Reflexive pronouns

Personal
pronouns I you he she it we you they

Possessive
adjectives my your his her its our your their

Possessive
pronouns mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs

Object
pronouns me you him her it us you them

Reflective
pronouns myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves

When the subject and the object of a sentence are the same, we use reflexive pronouns.
He was in such a hurry he cut himself shaving that day.
They missed the train and only have themselves to blame.
I must get myself a new work shirt.
UNIT 2. GRAMMAR 1
Reflexive pronouns

Compare:

Lucy looked at herself in the mirror. -> The subject and object are the same.
Lucy looked at her in the mirror. -> The subject and object are different.
-> Lucy looked at someone else in the mirror.

Use reflexive pronouns for emphasis.

The manager came to us himself to take our order after the incident.
Cara always tells her twin sister exactly what she herself has heard.

Use reflexive pronouns for politeness. Never as a subject.

This charity helps people like yourself.

By + reflexive pronoun

Use by + reflexive pronoun to mean “alone” or “without help”.

I spent all weekend by myself.

She finished her assignment by herself.

Oneself, by + oneself

Oneself is the reflexive form for one. It is used to refer to the person who is speaking or to refer to

people in general. Use by + oneself to mean alone.

How does someone explore those feelings by oneself?

UNIT 3. GRAMMAR 1
Passive voice
Passive voice: subject + to be + past participle

It is made in China.

is being

was

to the storage
was being sent
room.

has been

is going to be

will be broken by her brother.

Notice how all passive sentences are formed in the same way, except for the verb to be that changes

to specify the tense.

Use the passive voice when the person or thing that is responsible for an action is:

- Obvious

The criminal was arrested yesterday. (Only police officers can arrest criminals)
- Unimportant

My computer is checked and updated every year. (It doesn’t matter by whom)
- Unknown

My phone was stolen last week. (You don’t know who stole it)

If necessary, you can add by + the person or thing responsible for the action

Jane Eyre was written by Charlotte Brönte.

My phone has been damaged by exposure to water.

You can also add with + the object that performed the action

I was hit in the head with a ball.

The game is played with a huge deck of cards.

Passive Voice is more common in written english than everyday English.

It is too formal and impersonal. It is often used in:

- Reports of crimes or legal procedures.

He was sentenced to 6 months of community service.

- Newspaper reports

45 people were injured in a train crash.

- Scientific writing

5 ounces of water are added to the mixture.

- Announcements

Flight B 573 to Norway is delayed until further notice.

- Notices

Employees are requested not to smoke in the premises.

Only verbs with an object can be used in passive voice. They are called transitive verbs.

The ones that don’t have an object are called intransitive.

subject + verb + object

Transitive I lost my favourite bag two days ago.
Intransitive I swim every morning.

There are verbs with two possible objects.

buy, five, lend, make something for someone, offer,

prepare something for someone, promise, sell, send, take something to someone
Give Liv gave Alan some help. Liv gave some help to Alan.
Take Sonia took John a big envelope. Sonia took a big envelope to John.

When a verb has two possible passives, one is always the more common form.

Alan was given some help by Liv. Sonia was taken a present by David.
Some help was given to Alan by Liv. A present was taken to Sonia by David.
UNIT 3. GRAMMAR 2
The causative form

Present simple The kids have their picture taken once a year.

Present continuous She’s at the doctor. She’s having her nose altered.

Past simple I had my hair cut last year.

Present perfect We have had our computer checked before.

Going to future They’re going to have their house decorated soon.

Use the causative HAVE

When you want to talk about a service that somebody does for you. Such as a haircut. an operation

or a painting.

I’m going to have my picture taken. (it’s not necessary to say by a photographer)
I paid someone to redecorate my bathroom = I had my bathroom redecorated.

For unfortunate events

Riley had her car crashed into last Sunday.

Somebody has stolen money from me = I’ve had my money stolen.
Note: We can also use get something done in everyday English.
Use the causative GET
When you persuade someone into doing something for you.

I finally got my kids to do the dishes. (They didn’t want to, They had to be convinced)
I can never get my dog to stop sleeping on the sofa.

Use the causative MAKE

When you force someone/something to do something

His boss makes him work so hard!

He made her cry.

Use the causative LET

When you allow someone to do something/allow something to happen

My mother let me go to the party, after all.

I’ll let them swim when it’s warmer outside.

Use the causative HELP

When you assist someone to do something. Often used without to.

White noise can help you study.

Drink this tea, it’ll help you fall asleep.
UNIT 4. GRAMMAR 1
Passive with NEED
When we are describing a problem and we want to express that we must solve it somehow, we can

use the passive structure need + gerund, which means that something needs to be done (need +

passive infinitive).

The walls are peeling:

I need to paint the walls (need + active to-infinitive)
The walls need to be painted (need + passive to-infinitive)
The walls need painting (need + gerund)

UNIT 4. GRAMMAR 2
Nouns and participle adjectives
A participle is a verb ending in –ing (present participle), –ed (regular past) or –en, –d, –t, –n (irregular

past), although there are other irregular forms that do not fit into any of these groups.

Present participles have an active meaning or imply an ongoing action, whereas past participles

usually have a passive meaning or imply a completed action.

Participles can be used as adjectives when they modify a noun, and they are called participle

adjectives.

noun verb participle / adjective

bend to bend bent
break to break broken
chip to chip chipped
crack to crack cracked
crumple to crumple crumpled
damage to damage damaged
dent to dent dented
leak to leak leaking*
scratch to scratch scratched
stain to strain strained
tear to tear torn
When describing problems, we can use different structures:

With nouns: have + noun

The t-shirt I bought yesterday has a stain.

With nouns: there be + noun

There is a stain on the t-shirt I bought yesterday.

With past participles: be + past participle
The t-shirt I bought yesterdays is stained.

*There is an exception with the noun leak: We use the present continuous form to describe this

problem: be + leaking
The pipe has a leak.
There is a leak on the pipe.
The pipe is leaking.

UNIT 5. GRAMMAR 1
Despite, in spite of
Despite and in spite of are prepositions that express a contrast between two things or show

unexpected results, and they are usually interchangeable. They can be followed by a noun, a pronoun

or a gerund. Despite, though, is considered to be a bit more formal than in spite of, and they are

more commonly used in writing than in speaking.

Despite and in spite of + a noun:

Despite their money, they were not happy.

They were not happy despite their money.
In spite of their money, they were not happy.
They were not happy in spite of their money.
Despite and in spite of + a pronoun:

They had a lot of money. Despite that, they were not happy.
They had a lot of money. They were not happy despite that.
They had a lot of money. In spite of that, they were not happy.
They had a lot of money. They were not happy in spite of that.

Despite and in spite of + a gerund:

Despite having a lot of money, they were not happy.

They were not happy despite having a lot of money.
In spite of having a lot of money, they were not happy.
They were not happy in spite of having a lot of money.

UNIT 5. GRAMMAR 2
Although and even though
Although and even though are subordinate conjunctions, thus they introduce subordinate clauses,

and both are used to say that something is unexpected or unusual in relation to another thing. They

are used in the same way, but even though is more emphatic and makes a slightly stronger contrast

than although. We can use though in the same way as although, especially in spoken English, except

when it expresses contrasting ideas with a similar meaning to however, in which case though is

placed at the end of the sentence.

When we want to contrast two ideas by using although/though or even though, the order of the

clauses in the sentence is interchangeable. However, we have to keep something in mind:

If the subordinate clause (the clause containing although/though or even though) comes before the

main clause, we separate them by putting a comma in between; if the subordinate clause comes

after the main clause, we do not need to use a comma.

Although/though/even though they have a lot of money, they are not happy.
They are not happy although/though/even though they have a lot of money.
They have a lot of money. They are not happy, though.

Although and even though have a similar meaning to despite and in spite of, but they are not used

in the same way.

On the one hand, although and even though are conjunctions, so they are followed by a clause

(subject + verb):

Although/even though they have a lot of money, they are not happy.

On the other hand, despite and in spite of are prepositions and they can be followed by a noun, a

pronoun or a gerund (–ing form of a verb that functions as a noun). They cannot be followed by a

clause, unless we use the expression the fact that + clause.

Despite the fact that they had a lot of money, they were not happy.
They were not happy despite the fact that they had a lot of money.
In spite of the fact that they had a lot of money, they were not happy.
They were not happy in spite of the fact that they had a lot of money.

UNIT 6. GRAMMAR 1
Gerunds and infinitives
WHEN DO YOU USE THE GERUND?

A gerund is a noun form of a verb. We create it by adding -ing to a verb. It is also called the present

participle. We use gerunds (verb + ing):

- As the subject or object of a sentence:

Swimming is good exercise

- As the complement of the verb ‘to be’:

One of his duties is attending meetings

- After prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after any preposition:

Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

She is good at painting
They’re interested in windsurfing
This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there’s no point in:

There’s no point in waiting.

In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.

After a number of ‘phrasal verbs’ which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb. Example: to

look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on:
When are you going to give up smoking?
She always puts off going to the dentist.
He kept on asking for money.

NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word ‘to’ as a preposition,

not as part of a to-infinitive: to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is

important to recognise that ‘to’ is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund:

We are looking forward to seeing you.

I am used to waiting for buses.

She didn’t really take to studying English.

It is possible to check if the word TO is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive: if you can put a noun or

the pronoun ‘it’ after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a gerund:

I am accustomed to it (the cold).

I am accustomed to being cold.
After the expressions: can’t help, can’t stand, it’s no use/good, and the adjective worth

The elephant couldn’t help falling in love with the mouse.

I can’t stand being stuck in traffic jams.

It’s no use/good trying to escape.
It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.

WHEN DO YOU USE THE INFINITIVE?

The infinitive is the most common form of the verb. To create it, we add ‘to’ before the verb.

We use the infinitive (to + verb):

To indicate the purpose or intention of an action, where the ‘to’ has the same meaning as ‘in order

to’ or ‘so as to’:

She’s gone to collect her pay cheque.
The three bears went into the forest to find firewood.
As the subject of the sentence:

To be or not to be, that is the question.

To know her is to love her.
NOTE: this is more common in written English than spoken.

With nouns or pronouns, to indicate what something can be used for, or what is to be done with it:

Would you like something to drink?

I haven’t anything to wear.
After adjectives in these patterns:

- It is + adjective +to-infinitive

It is good to talk.
- It is + adjective + for someone + to-infinitive

It is hard for elephants to see mice

After an adjective + noun when a comment or judgement is being made.

It was a stupid place to park the car.

This is the right thing to do.

With too and enough in these patterns:

too much/many (+ noun) + to-infinitive: There’s too much sugar to put in this bowl.

too + adjective + to-infinitive: She was too tired to work.

enough (+ noun) + to-infinitive: I’ve had enough (food) to eat.

adjective + enough + to-infinitive: She’s old enough to make up her own mind.
not enough (+noun) + to-infinitive: There isn’t enough snow to ski on.

not + adjective + enough + to-infinitive: You’re not old enough to have grand-children!

After certain verbs: We decided to leave.

After many adjectives

It’s difficult to get up early

I came to London to study English

The bare infinitive is the verb without to. We use the bare infinitive:

After modal verbs:

I can meet you at six o’clock

After ‘let’, ‘make’ and (sometimes) ‘help’

The teacher let us leave early.

After some verbs of perception (see, watch, hear, notice, feel, sense)

I watched her walk away.

After expressions with ‘why’

Why go out the night before an exam?

UNIT 6. GRAMMAR 2
Gerunds and infinitives: Special cases
After some verbs either to-infinitive or gerund can be used but the meaning of the sentence changes.

Remember

Do you remember giving the documents to Frederick last week? = Referring to the past
Do you remember to give the documents to Frederick tomorrow? = Referring to the future
Stop

We stopped buying a drink at Mr William’s shop. = We no longer buy drinks there

We stopped to buy a drink at Mr William’s shop. = We stopped because we wanted to have a drink
Go on

The speaker went on talking about his favourite subject. = Continue with the same action
After the speech, Richard went on to talk informally to the guests. = Do something different
Need

Jack needs to buy a new computer = He has to buy a new one

This computer needs repairing. = It has to be repaired
Mean

Sorry, I did not mean to hurt your feelings. = Mean: to intend

Buying that company means making higher profits. = Mean: to entail, to have as a consequence
Regret

We regret to inform you that the Multi Ray is no longer available. = To be sorry to say something
I regret wasting so much time when I was a student. = To feel sorry about something
Try

Our Sales Manager is trying to find another job. = To attempt

When the computer jams, try closing an application with Control-Alt-Delete. = To do something to
solve a problem
UNIT 7. GRAMMAR 1
Noun Phrases for reason: because of, owing to, due to, on account of
There are different ways to express reason:

Because of: it is a preposition that means as a result of, and it must be followed by a noun (or a noun

phrase).

Because means for the reason that, and it is a conjunction so it must be followed by a clause (subject

+ verb).

The game was cancelled because of the rain.

The game was cancelled because it was raining.
Due to and owing to: they both mean because of, but they are more commonly used in formal style.

They are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Both must be followed by a

noun (or a noun phrase), and they cannot be followed by a clause unless we add to the fact.

The game was cancelled due to/owing to the rain.

The game was cancelled due to/owing to the fact that it was raining.
On account of: it means the same as because of, due to and owing to and it is also followed by a noun

or noun phrase.

The game was cancelled on account of the rain.

All of them can be used after the preparatory it:

It was because of/due to/owing to/on account of the rain that the game was cancelled.

UNIT 7. GRAMMAR 2
Clauses of result: so, thus, therefore, as a result, hence, consequently
There are different ways to express result:

So: it is a conjunction meaning and for that reason or and because of that. It is followed by a clause

(subject + verb).
They were not happy with the project, so they had to go back to the drawing board.
Hence and thus: They have the same basic meaning and they are often interchangeable. As adverbs
they mean consequently and they are rather formal and commonly used in written English. They are

usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

They were not happy with the project. Thus/Hence, they had to go back to the drawing board.
Therefore and consequently: they are also adverbs which mean for that reason, as a result or as a

logical consequence. They are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

They were not happy with the project. Consequently/Therefore, they had to go back to the drawing
board.
As a result (of): it means because of or consequently. If it is used as because of, then it is followed

by a noun (or noun phrase); if it is used as consequently, then it is separated from the rest of the

sentence by a comma.
The game was cancelled as a result of the rain. (=because of)
There was a heavy storm. As a result, the game was cancelled. (=consequently)

UNIT 8. GRAMMAR 1
‘The …, the’ Comparatives
We use ‘The…, the’ Comparatives to make comparisons and contrast.

It expresses proportionate increase or decrease.

The longer he talks to me, the sleepier I get!

the + comparative adjective + clause the + comparative adjective + clause

If this increases, then this increases

The more I see them, the less I like them.

the + comparative adjective + clause the + comparative adjective + clause

If this increases, then this decreases

The less he studies, the less he understands.

the + comparative adjective + clause the + comparative adjective + clause

If this decreases, then this decreases

We use a short form of the structure in the expressions ‘the more the merrier’ and ‘the … the better’.

- How do you like your coffee?

- The stronger the better.
- When should I start?
- The earlier the better.

UNIT 8. GRAMMAR 2
Intensifiers
We use intensifiers to make comparative and superlative adjectives stronger.

Some common intensifiers are:

much better: strong improvement, better quality

I feel much better than yesterday.
any better: when there is no more room for improvement, excellent

I feel great, couldn’t be any better.

better and better: continually improving

Lately, life’s getting better and better.

by far: by a great amount

This is the worst year of my life by far.

This is, by far, the worst year of my life.
a great deal: a large amount

They made a lot of progress but they still need a great deal more money to finish.
UNIT 9. GRAMMAR 1
As vs like
As and like are often confused because both of them can be used to express similarity.

However, there are some differences when using them.

Making comparisons:

When we use like as a preposition to say that two things are similar or to compare appearances and

behaviours, it is followed by a noun or a pronoun. It is also commonly used after verbs of senses.

He’s a huge fan of this series like me.

I wish I could play the guitar like Peter.
You look exactly like your dad.

In modern English, we can use like as a conjunction as well, so it can be followed by a clause (subject

+ verb) too.

I wish I could play the guitar like Peter does.

When we want to express similarity, as is followed by a clause or a prepositional phrase. We never

use as followed by a noun or a pronoun when talking about similarity.

I wish I could play the guitar as Peter does. NOT: I wish I could play the guitar as Peter.

Giving examples:

Like followed by nouns or pronouns:

I prefer team sports, like football or handball.

If we want to give examples using as, we need to use the expression such as:

I prefer team sports, such as football or handball.

As a conjunction, as can also be used to connect two clauses:

- Meaning because:

As I was hungry, I made myself a sandwich.

- Meaning while or during the same time that:

He arrived home as we were making breakfast.

- Meaning in the (same) way that:

Things didn’t happen as I expected.

As a preposition, as is used to refer to someone’s role (job or function) or to describe what we are

using something for. In these cases, as is followed by a noun.

She works as a doctor. (always use an indefinite article before occupations)

He used his ring as a bottle opener.
See the difference in these two sentences:

He works as the manager of the company. (he is the manager of the company)
He works like the manager of the company. (he works in a similar way to the manager, but he is not
he manager)
To compare two things or to say if two things have the same amount of a quality, we can use

expressions like as + adjective + as or as much as. They can be followed by a clause, a noun or a

pronoun.

Your car isn’t as fast as mine.

He isn’t as tall as my brother.
They don’t eat as much as I do.
Another expression with as that we can use to express similarity is the same as.

Your shirt is the same size as mine.

UNIT 9. GRAMMAR 2
As if and As though
As if and as though are conjunctions which have similar meanings. Both of them are used to describe

a real situation or an imaginary, and are followed by a clause (subject + verb).

We use them to describe how someone or something looks, feels, sounds, etc. or to say how someone

does something (real situations); but we can also use them to talk about people, things, situations

or events that look, sound, behave, etc. in a certain way, but they are not actually that way (unreal or

imaginary situations).

When the comparison is unreal, we need to use the subjunctive mood (past tense to indicate a

distance from reality):

Past subjunctive is used to talk about an unreal situation in the present, whereas past perfect

subjunctive is used to talk about an unreal situation in the past.

If we use the present tense, we are describing a real or possible situation, someone’s behaviour or

the way someone is actually acting. We use present simple (or continuous) for a real situation in the

present, and present perfect for a real situation in the past.

She speaks as if/as though she knows about this topic (she –probably– knows)
She speaks as if/as though she knew about this topic (it seems that she knows, but she doesn’t or
we don’t know whether she knows or not)
She looks as if/as though she hasn’t slept for days (she –probably– hasn’t slept)
She looks as if/as though she hadn’t slept for days (it seems that she hasn’t slept, but she has or we
don’t know whether she has or not)
When the main clause (the verb before as if or as though) is in the past tense, we do not use past

perfect to show that a comparison is unreal; we use the past tense in both clauses.

She looked as if/as though she didn’t sleep (it seemed that she didn’t sleep, but she did or we didn’t
know whether she did or not)
UNIT 10. GRAMMAR 1
Countable and uncountable nouns
Countable nouns

SINGULAR

Refers to one person or thing. Must carry a determiner.

the bus-driver
that magazine
my eyelash
an employee

PLURAL

Refers to more than one person or thing.

When we refer to people or things in general, plural countable nouns do not carry a determiner.

Taxes are very expensive.

But they do carry a determiner if we refer to specific things or people.

The company’s foreign branches are closing down.

Also, we can modify noun phrases by using quantifiers or a numerals.

Some theories make no sense at all.

Two hundred employees were fired last week.
Spelling rules:

- add –s to make a plural noun: chairs, wallets

- add –es to nouns ending in –s, -ch, -sh, -ss, -x and –o: buses, branches, brushes, glasses, taxes,

heroes
- consonant + –y, turn it into –i+es: activities, babies, theories

- vowel + -y, just add an –s: delays, surveys, ways

Irregular plurals

person – people

foot – feet

leaf – leaves

crisis – crises

Uncountable nouns

Usually refer to substances such as food or water, feelings like anger and happiness, activities such

as travel or work, concepts like beauty and life.

Cannot be made plural or be used with a/an:

They tried a lot of different food (not foods)
That’s important information (not an important information)
Quantifiers can come before uncountable nouns:

The guide gave us some advice on places to visit downtown.

Some uncountable nouns finish in an –s, such as: mathematics, gymnastics, cards, measles, rabies.

Countable and uncountable nouns

If we want to turn uncountable nouns into countable nouns, we can use expressions such as:

a piece of… / a bit of… / an item of… / pieces of … / bits of… / items of…

Let me give you a piece of advice.

They carried ten items of luggage in total.
However, accommodation, money and traffic cannot be made plural in this way:

She has lived in three different apartments so far (not bits of accommodation).
I’ve received two large sums of money this month.
We got delayed by two traffic jams on the way home.
Nouns which can be both countable and uncountable

I love coffee in the mornings/ I’d like a coffee, please (meaning a cup of coffee)
They offer a lot of coffees (that is, different kinds of coffee)
There’s a danger of floods in the north.
She actually enjoys danger.
I need a glass of water.
The panels are made of glass.
Our house has four rooms.
Is there enough room for the fridge in the kitchen?

UNIT 10. GRAMMAR 2

Determiners for countable and uncountable nouns
Much or Many

We use much if the noun is uncountable and many if the noun is countable.

I don’t have much money.

They own many houses.

Little or a little

Little is used with uncountable nouns, like liquids, feelings and abstract ideas.

However, when we say a little we mean it’s a small amount, but it is enough.

Susan had a little money, so she bought a pizza.

So, Susan had a small amount a money and it was enough to buy the pizza.

When we say little it was a small amount and it was insufficient.

I had little time this afternoon, I wasn’t able to finish my homework.

So, I didn’t finish my homework because the time I had to do it was not enough.
Few or a few

The same logic applies to a few and few. The only difference is that this quantifier is used with

countable nouns.

Mark had dinner with a few friends last night. - Not many people, but enough for Mark.
Antony threw a party last Saturday, but few people showed up. - Antony’s party had less people than
expected.

Other determiners

We can only use several and a couple of before countable nouns.

There are a couple of students waiting for you.
I’ve been to several countries this year.

A great / good / small / large number of are used before plural countable nouns, too.

Despite the instructions, a large number of people didn’t know what to do.
I don’t know if there will be a great number of changes
Only a small number of employees attended the ER training.

A great / good deal of and a large / small amount of are generally used with uncountable nouns.

I have spent a great deal of time thinking of the design.

You have got rid of a large amount of old clothing.
They couldn’t have succeeded without a good deal of luck.

A lot of, lots of, plenty of and hardly any can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

We have lots of coffee/apples.

She eats hardly any fruit/vegetables.
UNIT 11. GRAMMAR 1
Collocations
A pair or group of words that are often used together. It sounds natural to native speakers but

students of English have to make a special effort to learn them as they are difficult to guess.

Some collocations are fixed, meaning that they have only one word, for example: take a photo.

No other word is possible there to express a similar meaning, however, some others are more open

and many different words can be used to give a similar meaning as in: keep to the rules or stick to

the rules.

Collocations can be found:

adjective + noun
The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
adverb + adjective

Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?

adverb + verb

I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.

verbs and expressions with prepositions

At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
noun + noun

Let’s give Mr Jones a round of applause.

nouns and verbs

The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.

INTENSIFYING ADVERBS

In English we can used very or very much in different ways using words like highly, utterly, bitterly,

deeply.

All this words collocate with other specific words and other combinations sound unnatural.
Highly + : likely, unlikely, unusual, successful, competitive, profitable, effective, controversial,

recommended. (It’s used with some probability words –likely, unusual-. With the exception of highly

controversial, it usually combines with very positive words. Extremely can also be used with all the

opposite adjectives except recommended)

Absolutely / Utterly + : ridiculous, stupid, impossible, wrong, alone appalled, convinced, devastated,

miserable. (Absolutely and utterly – slightly formal - combine with adjectives with very extreme

meanings where we can’t used very. We say absolutely or utterly exhausted but not very exhausted,

whereas we say very tired but not absolutely or utterly tired. Often, but not always there words have

negative connotations)

Bitterly + : disappointing/disappointed, resent, criticize, regret, complain, cry, weep (carries a feeling

of deep sadness, used slightly more in writing than in conversation)

Deeply + : ashamed, concerned, shocked, committed, moved, affected, hurt (feelings), regret, care,

religious, unhappy. (collocates mainly with words associated to feelings, used slightly more in writing

than in conversation)

Ridiculously + : cheap, expensive, easy, low, high, long, short, small, large, early. (suggests something

extreme, which seems unbelievable or unreasonable).

Strongly + : oppose, influence, believe, deny, recommend, support, condemn, suggest, feel, argue,

object (collocates with verbs particularly those that relate to having an opinion).
UNIT 11. GRAMMAR 2
Dependent Preposition
In English, there are certain combinations of words and prepositions. They can be combinations of

verbs with prepositions, adjectives with prepositions or nouns with prepositions. The preposition

appropriate for each combination will be used every time we use the word.

Example: I’m afraid of the dark. The adjective afraid is always followed by the preposition of. We

can’t use a different preposition to express this idea.

Unfortunately, the dependent preposition does not follow a rule. So, in order to know which preposition

should be used, English speakers must memorize the combinations.

Here is a list of the most common dependent prepositions:

VERB + DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS

• accuse s/o of • comment on • long for • talk to s/o about s/th

• add to • compare with • mistake s/o for • thank s/o for
• agree with • complain about • object to • think of/about
• aim at /for • concentrate on • pay for • volunteer to
• allow for • congratulate on • praise s/o for • wait for
• apologise for • consent to • prepare for • warn s/o about
• apply for • consist of • present s/o with • worry about
• approve of • deal with • prevent s/o from
• argue with/about • decide on • protest about
• arrest s/o for • excuse s/o for • provide s/o with
• ask for • face up to • punish s/o for
• attend to • forgive s/o for • refer to
• believe in • hear of/about • rely on
• belong to • hope for • run for
• blame s/o for • insist on • save s/o from
• boast about • interfere with/in • sentence s/o to
• borrow s/th from s/o • joke about • smile at
• call for • laugh at • succeed in
• care for • lend s/th to s/o • suffer from
• choose between • listen to • stand for
ADJECTIVES + DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS

• according to • different from • goof at • serious about

• accustomed to • dissatisfied with • guilty of • sick of
• afraid of • doubtful about • incapable of • similar to
• annoyed with/about/at • enthusiastic about • opposed to • sorry for/about
• anxious about • envious of • pleased with • suspicious of
• ashamed of • excited about • popular with • sympathetic to/towards
• astonished at • famous for • proud of • tired of
• attached to • fed up with • puzzled by/about • typical of
• aware of • fond of • safe from • unaware of
• crazy about • frightened of • satisfied with • used to
• delighted at/about • friendly with • sensitive to/towards

NOUN + DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS

• (take) advantage of • difficulty in/with • (take) pleasure in • solution to

• under age • disadvantage of • in power • at stake
• in agreement • in doubt • in practice • on strike
• all in all • under guarantee • preference for • on suspicion of
• attack on • in (no/a) hurry • protection from • under suspicion
• attitude towards • increase in • reaction to • in theory
• on average • information about • reason for • in trouble
• on behalf of • (have no) intention of • reduction in • trouble with
• comparison between • knowledge of • report on • use of
• on condition • (keep) in mind • result of • on the whole
• connection between • need for • rise in • difference between/of
• cruelty towards • (take no) notice of • at risk • under (no) circumstances
• decrease in • under (no) obligation • room for
• delay in • in order • on second thoughts

UNIT 12. GRAMMAR 1

Narrative tenses
When we want to tell a story or we want to describe an event or a situation from the past, we use

narrative tenses.

We use past verb tenses to do so, such as past simple, past continuous, past perfect simple and past

perfect continuous.
PAST SIMPLE

The past simple is used to describe the main events of the story, as it refers to the moment on which

we want to focus. The past simple describes completed or finished actions.

In one sentence, we can include multiple past simple verbs to talk about a sequence of actions (one

action that happened after another one).

I woke up in the middle of the night and I decided to get up and get something to eat.

PAST CONTINUOUS

The past continuous describes actions which are in progress at a past time, and it usually sets the

scene of the story. We can use more than one verb in the past continuous in one sentence to describe

long actions that happened at the same time.

We can also combine the past continuous with the past simple to say that one action (the one in the

past continuous) was interrupted by another one (the one in the past simple). We can use conjunctions

such as while, when or whilst to join two clauses. While and whilst, when used as conjunctions, have

the same meaning, although whilst is more formal.

They both mean during the same time, which is why they are used to introduce a clause in the past

continuous. When can mean the same as while, but when can also be used to refer to a point in time,

in which case it introduces a clause in past simple.

I was tossing and turning when I decided to get up and get something to eat.
We were swimming in the river while/whilst our parents were making some sandwiches for us.
I heard a noise in the house while/when I was washing the car.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE and CONTINUOUS

The past perfect simple is used to talk about an action that occurred before another action in the

past. It is usually used to add information to a story from a moment further in the past. As for the

past perfect continuous, it is used to talk about an action in progress up to another action in the past.
I came back home because I had forgotten my wallet. (1st I forgot my wallet, 2nd I came back home)
I had a terrible headache because I had been studying all day. (1st I had been studying, 2nd I had a
headache)

UNIT 12. GRAMMAR 2

Inversions: negative adverbials
To make an inversion, we need to put the verb before the subject of the sentence. These types

of sentences are used to make questions, but they can also be used to sound more emphatic or

dramatic. Inversions are usually used in formal English, especially in writing. We only use inversions

when the adverb modifies the whole phrase, not just the noun. We usually place a negative adverb or

adverb phrase at the beginning of the sentence followed by an inversion:

adverb / adverbial phrase + auxiliary verb + subject + verb

Normal sentence: I have never met such a smart kid.

Inversion: Never have I met such a smart kid.

Some of the negative adverbs and adverbial phrases that we usually use with inversions are the

following:

Never (before) + inversion = normally with present perfect or past perfect (experiences).

Normal sentence: I have never seen anything like that.

Inversion: Never have I seen anything like that.

Rarely + inversion

Normal sentence: He rarely speaks so much with strangers.

Inversion: Rarely does he speak so much with strangers.

No sooner + inversion… than = normally with past perfect in the inversion.

Normal sentence: He had no sooner arrived home than the phone rang.

Inversion: No sooner had he arrived home than the phone rang.

Little + inversion

Normal sentence: They knew little about what had happened.

Inversion: Little did they know about what had happened.

Not since + subordinate clause + inversion (main verb)

Normal sentence: I haven’t eaten such a delicious meal since I left my hometown.

Inversion: Not since I left my hometown have I eaten such a delicious meal.

Not until + subordinate clause + inversion (main verb)

Normal sentence: I didn’t want to leave the house until my son called me and said that he was fine.

Inversion: Not until my son called me and said that he was fine did I want to leave the house.
Not only + inversion… but subject + also + verb

Normal sentence: He wasn’t only the smartest kid in class, but he was also the kindest.

Inversion: Not only was he the smartest kid in class, but he was also the kindest.

Not once + inversion

Normal sentence: She cried in front of me zero times.

Inversion: Not once did she cry in front of me.

Not + any element + inversion

Normal sentence: I won’t go back to that restaurant in a million years.

Inversion: Not in a million years will I go back to that restaurant.

Under no circumstances

Children are not allowed to get in here.

Under no circumstances are children allowed to get in here.