TAC C Other Mode of Comm.

: Mobile phones, internet, satellite phones etc provide other

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JUNGLE AND THEIR EFFECTS ON MILITARY means of comm in the jungle. The use of these modes of comm in the jungle cannot
OPERATIONS be under estimated though it is limited by network coverage.
TYPES OF JUNGLE
The primary jungle, The secondary jungle and Others eg swamps, plantations, EFFECTS OF THE JUNGLE ON RADIO COMM
grasslands. The jungle affects radio in a number of ways;
a) Damp, dense vegetation attenuates surface waves and sky waves, which have to
THE JUNGLE ENVIRONMENT pass through the canopy.
The climate, Animal life and The terrain. b) Dense vegetation restricts the deployment of wire antennae.
c) The high atmospheric noise and diurnal changes in the atmosphere found in the
THE CLIMATE tropics can degrade sky waves paths, especially in the night.
Constant high temperatures; extremes of heat and cold by day and night, High d) The scarcity of roads places a high reliance on man pack comm and makes
humidity, Heavy rainfall for most of the year and Strong winds. planning of battery re-supply of critical importance.
e) The humidity found in the jungle and the wetness caused by frequent river crossing
ANIMAL LIFE can cause equipment failures, particularly of ancillaries. It is essential that waterproof
Wild animals, lizards, snails, insects, frogs, bacteria etc. seals are maintained and as a further precaution, kit waterproofed prior to river
THE TERRAIN crossing.
Many fast flowing rivers, rugged hills with steep slopes etc. f) Battery life can be reduced by up to 30% by the heat.
EFFECTS OF THE JUNGLE ON MILITARY OPERATIONS
COMM SECURITY
Visibility, Mobility, Air mobility, Firepower, Health, Equipment/ communication,
In the past, jungle enemies have relied heavily on friendly radio messages as primary
Cover and concealment and Obstacles.
intelligence source. Comm security denies or delays unauthorized persons from
Visibility
gaining information from telecommunication.
Restricted visibility, Landmarks are difficult to identify and distances hard to
estimate, Abnormally high mental strain due to sudden contact.
Measures to enforce comm security. These include;
Mobility
a) Using authentication to ensure that the other communication station is a friendly
Natural obstacles to movement, Need to carry heavy loads, Use of limited tracks for
one.
Ambushes etc and Greater reliance on human transport.
b) Using only approved codes.
Air mobility
High cost of creating and maintaining ls, lz, dz and air-strips, High standard of trg req c) Designating period when all radio equipment are turned off (Radio Silence).
to allow for precision dropping/landing of tps/eqpt. d) Restricting the use of radio transmitters.
Firepower e) Enforcing radio discipline.
Long – range wpns loose effectiveness, Effect of he reduced and Req standards of f.) Selecting radio sites with a hill as a shield between them and the enemy.
marksmanship. g) Using directional antennae when possible.
Cover and concealment
Excellent means of deception for both combatants, Tps need to expend energy to dig-
in in order to be protected from fire and Tps are vulnerable to fire. KEY POINTS/VULNERABLE POINTS PROTECTION
Obstacles DEFINITION
Restricts movement, Saps energy of tps, Req high standards of trg and Delays the a) Key Point (KP). An installation, the product or services of which are of such
time of arrival of rft/re-sup. importance that total loss or severe damage would critically impair defence, security
Health or the functioning of government. Examples are: Communication Centres, Joint HQ –
Considerable threat to health, Problem of casevac, Humidity saps man’s energy and Normally loc at a Police Station, Public Utilities such as power stations, water
Hygiene issues critical. pumping stations and pipe lines, Essential Bridges (Eg. Adomi Bridge, VIP Houses
Eqpt/comms and Offices, Magazines – BAD at Tema, Air and Sea Ports).
Clothing and tentage – rot, Ammo, wpns, optical and telcom eqpt – dampen, Range b) Vulnerable Point (VP). Any point vulnerable to sabotage or connected with a KP
of radios reduced and Metallic parts of eqpt are susceptible to rust. whose destruction or serious damage would result in unacceptable interruption of the
KP’s services. They are vital to the functioning of a KP. Ex: Runway of Airfield,
TRAINING FOR JUNGLE OPS Control Tower of Airfield, Oil Storage Tanks of a Refinery.
First priorities. c) Ground Defence Area (GDA). The area around each KP, which is required to
Second priorities. defend it. This area or ground must be dominated and denied of any threat to the KP.

FIRST PRIORITY (PERSONAL SKILLS) THREAT

Physical fitness, Good marksmanship, First aid, Maint of wpns, Living in the jungle, a) Industrial/Civil Unrest. This covers public disorders and may or may not be
Health precautions in the jungle, Fd sanitation and personal hygiene, Boat drills and politically motivated. These could be in the form of industrial sabotage, the
use of jungle waterways, Tracking techniques, Supply and evacuation techniques, prevention of key personnel carrying out essential functions or vital goods prevented
Mines and booby traps, Search techniques, Helicopter familiarization and from entering or leaving the KP.
Leadership. b) Terrorist/Saboteurs. The modus operandi of terrorists is aimed at destroying or
damaging a VP or KP. This category of personnel poses the greatest threat to any KP.
SECOND PRIORITY (SUB-UNIT/UNIT SKILLS)
Patrolling, Navigation, Ambush and counter ambush drills, Immediate action drills, METHODS OF ATTACK
Perimeter def in the jungle and Raids/attack on enemy camp. a) Covert Attack. This is an attempt by the saboteur to penetrate the perimeter,
sabotage the vital part of the installation and wdr without being discovered or seen.
COMMUNICATION IN THE JUNGLE This type of attack is the most favoured by terrorists. The attack required great skill,
good recce both in peace and war, and accurate intelligence. The attacker may have
INTRODUCTION the co-operation of a member of the work force employed in the KP or may coerce
Rapid, reliable communication is essential in jungle operations. Command, control, people in helping him gain entry. The saboteur’s most likely tactics will be the use of
fire support, re-supply and evacuation are all dependent or effective communication. deception or stealth by ni to penetrate the KP.
The importance of establishing and maintaining reliable communication cannot be b) Overt Armed Attack. Elite or Special Forces are well trained in this form of attack.
overemphasized. For this reason, a commander must give comm. high priority in his They normally strike hard at any identified weak point in the defences. They may use
planning and execution. this form of attack as a deception for a cover operation elsewhere in the KP
c) Stand-Off Attack. The saboteur remains outside the KP and uses long-range wpns
TAC COMM MEANS such as rockets or mortars to destroy the VPs from a distance. This is easy to execute
The common means of comm avail in the jungle are; Visual, Sound, but the chance of total success are not all that high.
Messenger/Runner, Wire, Radio and Miscellaneous.
HOW TO COUNTER THE THREAT
Types of Radio Comm. Deterrence, Detection and Defeat.
(a) Very High Frequency (VHF). Although VHF radio is largely free from
atmospheric interference, it requires almost line of sight radio paths, which are very The size of force used to counter a threat or secure a KP/VP depends on :
rarely aval in the jungle. Its use can be classified into three (3) areas; The size of the installation to be guarded, The type of threat, Troops available and
(1) Low Level Comd. The PRC 349, 350 and 351 can be used at coy level but in Time taken for rft to arrive.
dense vegetation, ranges may be reduced. The whisper facility should be used, for
command and control in ambushes and patrols. DETERRENCE
(2) Rebroadcast Nets. Bn comm would require several rebroadcast stations to achieve The potential attacker may be deterred by visible signs of resolute intention to defeat
the range required. his attack. Some of these visible measures are:
(3) Ground to Air. Between aircrafts and ground troops. a) Well prepared physical obstacle such as protective boundary barriers – Wire
fences and walls.
b) Deployment of guard dogs. It should be noted that a determined saboteur will not
(b) High Frequency (HF). HF surface wave help overcome the range limitation of
be deterred solely by a guard dog.
VHF provided a frequency of greater than 20 MHz is selected by the RSO. Above 20
c) By the posture of a properly briefed, well dressed and disciplined guard with the
MHz rod antennae will be more efficient and being generally above the sky wave
right viewing eqpt like the binoculars.
window, interference should be less.
d) Overt ptls inside and outside the perimeter.
e) Provision of security lights with arrangements made for a stand-by generator.
The two factors that demand a high degree of radio training in the jungle;
DETECTION
a) The dispersion of forces and the lack of other means of comm due to terrain and
Ways of detection: Surveillance devices including close circuit TV, radars and trip
vegetation, means that there is a high degree of reliance on radio comm.
flares, Covert Ops and foot ptls, ID check on visitors and checking on KP employees,
detection will be improved by clearing the perimeter of covered approaches both for
b) The threat of Electronic Warfare (EW) is no longer confined to Europe. observation and to give good fields of fire.
Sophisticated electronic equipment is widely available and affordable. Consequently,
many armies throughout the world now have this capability.
DEFEAT know how they are to get there (whether by air, vehs or foot); what job they are to do,
This can be done in three ways, which is a direct opposite of what the terrorist does, and what equipment to carry. This should culminate in very detailed orders.
when attacking.
a) The Standoff Attack. Potential missiles and other long-range wpn firing positions PRINCIPLES
when loc by ptls or observed by static ops must be neutralized. The principles of the siting and layout of a fighting patrol harbour are the same as
b) Overt Attack. This attack is conducted by the sy gds controlling entry to the KP those for any defensive position, modified to suit the jungle environment.
and those maintaining the perimeter sy of the KP/VP. It entails all necessary means SITING:
to protect the KP/VPs from damage etc. 1) Ground of Tactical Importance. This can be simply translated as dominant ground
c) Covert Attack. which is temporarily defensible and is neither vulnerable to overwhelming or surprise
attack from any direction nor can be overlooked or suppressed from a potential enemy
PLANNING position nearby.
The planning sequence is as follows: 2) Concealment. The achievement of good concealment is crucial to the siting of a
a) Research the background to the KP, its function and the method by which it harbour. The requirement exceeds merely camouflaging the position from view
operates. beyond the sentry location – quite easy in the jungle – to ensuring that the chosen site
b) A trained counter sabotage team then carries out a detailed survey of the KP. This is neither obviously located near paths, tracks roads or habitation, nor is in any other
accurately describes the VPs and recommends the physical security measures such as way sign-posted by the patrol’s tracks or noise in the vicinity.
fences and lighting, which would enhance the protection of the KP. LAYOUT:
c) A security survey report is then submitted to DISEC or REGSEC or the planning 1) All Round Defence. All harbours must have all round defence.
HQ. These include scale plans, and ground photographs. 2) Mutual Support. This remains imperative but the emphasis when laying out the
d) Based on this a military recce is carried out. harbour, due to the limited visibility and reduced fields of fire, must be given to
e) As usual, this end up with an estimate of the ground surrounding the KP to be mutual support between individuals and pairs rather than between sections or flank
defended i.e. the Ground Defence Area (GDA). sub units, as may be more traditional.
f) Following the recce and estimate, a plan is made and KP guard orders are produced. 3) Depth. This is a much less flexible criteria than elsewhere due again to the limited
This is normally together with the necessary photographs and maps, which become visibility and reduced fields of fire. It must cater for the possibility of attack from any
the basis of a KP dossier. direction. An adequate element of depth can be achieved by spreading out the base in
g) Now, the plan itself should cover the following main points: all directions, so that there is a gap of several metres between each of the men around
Defend KP against known en. Close attention must be paid to VPs, Balance between the perimeter in their stand-to positions.
manpower available and tasks, Balance internal guards against external ptls,
Operations by day and night, Loc of sentries, Ops and Ambushes, Patrol routes, Loc TERMINOLOGY
of VCPs, Estb of Quick Reaction Force (QRF), Stand-to Loc and alarm schemes, a) Halts: A tactical pause by a patrol (irrespective of size) for a few minutes up to
Communications, Defence stores available, Requirement for trenches and survival about an hour to recce, check navigation, listen, make/cfm a plan, rest, eat or make
shelters, Sy lights, Illumination and surveillance devices, Air Threat, Def/Perimeter radio contact.
Fences and Cam and concealment of VPs. b) Harbour: A longer halt for rest, cooking and washing, clean wpns and eqpt,
h) It is essential that the detailed planning is carried out in concert with the civil preparation of DZ.
police. This will enhance smooth transition between the police and the military. c) Patrol Base: A clandestine area behind enemy lines or in heavily guerrilla infested
i) Orders. Both GD Comds and sentries require some important additional details that area, occupied by a patrol from which further jungle operations are carried out and
are usual for guard duties. These orders must be clear and explicit. controlled; e.g., raids, ambushes, attack on en camp, patrolling.

GUARD COMD. The orders for the Gd Comd incl: Description of the KP/VP, His tasks DRILLS FOR SETTING UP THE PATROL BASE
to include: Aim of the Drills. The aim of patrol base drills is to get a unit into position of all
Specific entrances etc to be guarded, Specific VPs within the e KP, which must be round defence with maximum security and the minimum of noise.
The drill is broken down into six stages; Reconnaissance, Occupation, Clearance
protected at all, costs, Action to be taken against unauthorized persons or a hostile
Patrols, Sentries, Work Routine and Stand-to.
crowd, Action to be taken if there is danger of damage, looting or arson, Instructions
on their powers to protect the KP bearing in mind the use of minimum force, STAGE 1 – RECONNAISSANCE
Guidance on replies to be given to any persons who ask the reason for the guard, The Pl Comd accompanied by his runner, one scout, the entire gun gp from the
Liaison with police including instr regarding searching of vehs and pers entering or leading section and the Pl HQ LMG grp carries out a recce of the area.
leaving the installation, List of employees and authorized visitors, together with The Pl Comd should select an area with the following qualities:
specimen passes and photographs for ident, Rft plan, Communications, and the times 1) Reasonably flat and dry ground.
at which reports must be made by radio and telephone, Action against people taking 2) Free of thick vegetation and standing dead wood.
photographs. 3) Within reach of water.
4) Ground considered to be of little tactical value to the enemy.
SENTRIES. The orders for the sentries incl: Dress and Eqpt, Scale of ammo to be 5) Good for radio communication – valley not ideal.
carried, charging of magazines, loading and posn of safety catch, Area and arc of 6) General area must be suitable for LP or DZ if required.
responsibility, Checking of passes, specimen of which should be issued, Challenge 7) It must be defensible from all directions, and permit rapid movement to an
procedures, Searching of persons and vehicles, Action when approached by un-auth alternative posn if discovered by the enemy.
persons or a hostile crowd, Action when there is danger of damage, looting or arson, 8) The position must be easy to conceal and off the beaten track.
The use of minimum force, Orders for opening fire, Methods for calling for assistance 9) The base should be close enough to the objective so that recce teams out can be
and Action against people taking photographs. supported.
Whiles the recce is going on, the rest of the platoon, which should have broken track
and maintaining all round observation, should be re-shuffled in the following manner:
RESERVE FORCE
a) The Pl WO moves to occupy the Pl Comd’s posn in the normal chain of comd to
a) As with all military operations it is vital to maintain a reserve. A guard cannot hold
take over comd of the pl.
out against determined interferences or attacks for very long without resort to
b) All sect comds move to take the lead in their respective sects ahead of the scouts
considerable force. Therefore there should be a mobile reserve within striking
The order of march within the various sects is reshuffled as follows:
distance, which can be called by means of radio, telephone or light signals.
Leading Section: Sect Comd, Scout and Rifle Gp.
b) Helicopters can be used to deploy a mobile reserve rapidly. In this case, provision
Second Section: Sect Comd, Gun Gp, Scout and Rifle Gp.
should be made for LP near the KP and guarded. However there are some
Rear Section: Sect Comd, Rifle Gp, Scout and Gun Gp
disadvantages, which must be borne in mind when using this option. They are
This is a drill that must be automatically adopted whiles the Pl Comd is out on his
vulnerable when landing or taking off and bad weather may prevent flying.
recce. It is meant to ensure a smooth occupation of the patrol base when the rest of
the platoon is finally called forward.
POSSIBLE SEQUENCE FOR THE OCCUPATION OF A KP
a) Wng O will be issued to the guard comd and later with the nec plan and orders.
STAGE II – OCCUPATION
b) Guard comd conducts recce if time permits. This should confirm or determine
Silence and stealth are the primary means of security in the jungle and must be
changes necessary to gd orders and tie in procedures with staff of KP.
employed when harbouring. In each section, the LMG group is on the right of the
c) Guards prepare and draw def stores.
sect, the scout group and RPG in the centre and the rifle group on the left.
d) Guards move to KP and take over from or augment police gd if any.
The drill is designed to dispose with verbal orders and the resultant noise and delay –
e) Initial sentries are posted and both internal and external comm. are checked.
especially when there is not enough light/time. Once the Pl Comd is satisfied that all
f) Until EMERGENCY POWERS are granted, the KP guard will carry out its task within
round defence and observation have been achieved and fixed lines allocated the next
the KP perimeter. The tasks includes: Ptls, Search of pers and vehs entering and stage may commence.
leaving the KP, Prep of def posn, Prep of survival loc, Further recce by comd to
determine likely rft commitment and improve Ops, Liaison with local police. STAGE III – CLEARANCE PATROLS
g) When EMERGENCY POWERS are granted the tasks of the guards incl: Ptl outside a) Clearance patrols are designed to ensure that there is no enemy presence within
perimeter, Domination of gd covering likely en approaches, Search likely en line up striking distance of the platoon. It also enables the pl comd to know his immediate
posn and standoff fire posns, Set up VCPs, Secure rft routes, Clear Fs of F, Clear from surroundings.
the GDA those individuals whose presence could inhibit the ops, Detain and search b) The clearance ptls consist of the Sect Comd and one escort. They move out from
individual suspects, Protect VPs outside the KP perimeter. their own LMG position and patrolling anti-clockwise re-enter the perimeter through
the next LMG position. This ensures that the patrols have covered the whole
SETTING UP A PATROL BASE perimeter, do not clash and that tracks into the position are covered by MGs.
c) The distance that patrols move from the perimeter will depend on the thickness of
PLANNING the surrounding vegetation; Sect Comds should maintain visual contact with the
In counter-insurgency operations especially in the jungle you may be required to set perimeter and will therefore be between the perimeter and the escort. Patrols should
up a patrol base of any size (battalion, company, platoon) near the objective, from navigate by compass moving out on forward bearing and returning on its back bearing
where further ops, e.g. patrol, raids, ambushes etc can be carried out. A suitable site and pacing as for any jungle move. During this period the remainder of the platoon
for patrol base is usually selected from a map (map recce), by air recce, or is remains at the alert manning the perimeter.
reconnoitered by troops before the patrol sets out, or on the spot, as your patrol d) On return, the Sect Comds report to the Pl Comd who should debrief them with
proceeds. Whichever way the location is chosen, it must be borne in mind that it will particular reference to any sign of the enemy, possible water points, alternative
have to be secured before being occupied. The location should be easily defensible harbour areas, any local habitation. Once all patrols have reported back the Pl Comd
and secrecy is vital. Before moving out to a patrol base, all within the group must will signal packs off then the next stage may commence.
STAGE IV – SENTRIES Rice Paddies (wet) 800m
a) Sentries are essential to give early warning to the platoon. Sect Comd take one Rice Paddies (Dry) 2000m
man as sentry forward through the LMG position to the limit of hearing from the Plantation 2000m
perimeter; accompanied by the Sect 2IC who will lay a communication cord from the Railway lines 1500m
sentry to the position. The sentry must be briefed on signal for enemy approaching, Well kept plantation 3000 – 4000m
locals and opening fire.
b) A sentry may give the alarm silently by use of the cord or, if necessary, by firing AIDS TO NAVIGATION
and returning to the perimeter. The element of navigation is keeping direction and knowing distances covered. The
c) The sentry position may be covered by a claymore mine if required and will be fol are the aids to Nav: Maps, Watch, Compass/GPS, Protractor, Air Photographs.
withdrawn to the LMG position at night. It should be noted that the LMGs are
manned through (24 hours a day). OTHER NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
Used Razor, Vegetation, Wind direction, Flow of Rivers, Mountain Ranges, Sun and
STAGE V – WORK ROUTINE
Stars. The Shadow Tip Method.
Work should be carried out according to priority. Whiles working, at least one man
of each group should be alert.
NAVIGATION BY TERRAIN FEATURES
PRIORITY OF WORK
a) Occasions may arise when long marches with the help of a compass would either
a)Clearing perimeter path and erecting perimeter line/vine to prevent individuals
be very difficult or impossible. This happens in hostile weather and difficult terrain.
wandering outside the perimeter at night.
Terrain navigation can be used by troops when confronted with such situations.
b) Clearing communication paths and laying communication cords between groups
Navigation by terrain features is usually used in Savannah woodland that has thin
and from sections to platoon headquarters.
vegetation and features can be seen.
c) Digging day/night latrines and refuse pits. The day latrines should be sited within
b) Terrain Navigation: It is the movement from one point on the ground to another
the arc of the LMG positions. Night toilets are sited inside the perimeter.
by the use of recognizable features on the ground that is well depicted on the map
d) Siting claymores bobby traps, trip flares, and other obstacles/defences and digging
without the aid of a compass. In this method the map is orientated in relation to the
shell scrapes if required.
features on the ground. Terrain features on the ground are good checkpoints during
e) Water party commanded by Pl WO, comprising carriers and escorts; locate water
navigation. C) For terrain feature navigation, the ptl leader should follow this
and washing points – the latter downstream.
sequence:
f) Cleaning of wpns; only one LMG and one wpn in each group at any one time.
Determine start point on the map, Mark the obj on the map, Compare and contrast the
Never clean all automatic wpns at the same time.
advantages and the disadvantages of the possible routes, Choose the best route and
g) Cooking – this is best done on group basis.
break it into short legs and bounds, Determine distances and move from one
h) Sect Comds check sentry roster and ensure all have changed their clothing.
checkpoint to the other, Always keep the map orientated while on the move, Check
i) Pl Comd selects/marks DFs and relay to MFC/FOO/base plate and sends SITREP to
correctness on reaching the objective area.
higher HQ indicating location of base and state of Pl. The comd may also practice
stand-to and the use of communication cords and issue orders as necessary for various
SELECTION OF ROUTES: Always select routes with the aid of terrain features on
ops e.g. patrols.
the ground, which are shown on the map. The following should be borne in mind:
j) Recce of alternative patrol base, and designated route to it.
Always avoid marshy areas, Avoid straight climbs, Do not go against the grain of the
k) Further development of shelters and trenches.
country, Select routes near terrain features, which could be used as check points and
Avoid skylines but walk along ridges or high grounds.
STAGE VI – STAND TO
a) Stand-to is a period of complete alertness throughout the Pl. It marks the change
NAVIGATION: Before moving, a navigator must prepare a Navigational chart.
from day to night and vice versa. Normally the period covered should be from about
The details should include: Start point to check point (from GR…To GR…), Bearing
15 minutes before last light to 15 after last light for evening stand-to, and 15 minutes
(CB & MB), Distances, Time in relation to ground.
before first light to 15 minutes after first light for morning stand-to.
b) At stand-to, the Pl should adopt its fire positions wearing equipment less packs,
PLANNING AND MOVING
having fed, washed, cleaned weapons and packed all surplus gear not required (during
a) Take the bearing from the map and set the compass as per night march.
the night). There should be no smoking, feeding, unnecessary noise, light or
b) Study the line in relationship to the ground from the map.
movement.
c) Divide into bounds not more than one (1) hour apart, make use of streams, ridges
and way or track junction as checkpoints.
TIMINGS d) Work out the time and the distance according to the ground.
The length of time taken to occupy a base will depend on several factors including: e) Select your route from the map and note the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Size of unit, Type of ground, Tactical requirement e.g. Halting to rest will require less f) Determine your start point.
time than looking for a patrol base to conduct further ops, State of training. g) Again determine your objective.
Under normal conditions a trained pl should set up a base within the following stated
timings: Navigation Drills. When moving the navigation must concentrate on the following:
a) Recce - 10 mins. a) Check the bearing at every 50m.
b) Occupation - 15 mins. b) Check the map against prominent landmarks for future guidance.
c) Clearance patrols- 20 mins. c) Stay strictly on bearing; there is the tendency of you taking the easiest route when
d) Sentry - 5 mins. moving but remember the enemy will lay ambushes on such routes for you.
e) Work routine- 40 mins d) Check direction of flow of rivers when spotted.
90 mins e) Estimate distance traveled by checking from the recorder or pacer.
A patrol base to be set up for a long period should have pre-planned fire support, f) Keep a going map out at the end of each day study the area covered, note correction
alternative patrol base and an evacuation plan. and make a sketch of navigated area.

NAVIGATION AND MOVEMENT IN THE JUNGLE PROCEDURE WHEN LOST

Do not panic when you lose your direction. If there are other navigators around,
INTRODUCTION consult them and compare notes on the following lines:
Navigation is a science, which enables a person to move on a definite course between a) Whether you drifted left or right of line.
two or more points on or above the earth’s surface. b) Whether the objective has been passed. Estimating the time and distances covered
so far does this.
ORG OF NAVIGATION PARTY/DUTIES c) Compare ground features and the mental picture of which facts were noted during
The navigation party is organized as follows: 1 Navigator, 2 Assistant Navigators, 1 your travel.
Pacer and 1 Recorder. d) Check whether there could be any map error but do not be too hasty to assume this.
e) What features can help you determine the patrol posn?
Duties of a Navigation Party f) What was the last known location, from where you may re-orientate yourself.
a) Navigator: He is the commander of the nav party and moves behind the assistant g) Send out a small team on a definite course to find out certain prominent features
navigators. He guides and corrects the asst navigators in maintaining direction and is that can help you get back on course.
responsible for navigating the entire ptl to the obj. The navigator always carries a h) Call on any Sp available especially Air Sp. You will have to signal to be seen
compass, a map and a protractor. when you hear the sound of the aircraft.
b) Assistant Navigators: Help the navigator in navigating and carry compasses. They
wear behind them night identification marks. In actual situations, one of them is used VEHICLE CHECK POINTS
as a scout who moves well ahead of the group charged with the responsibility of
observing to the front and give info to the rest of the ptl about any unusual THE PURPOSE OF VCPs
occurrences to the front. The two alternate at certain intervals. a) To prevent movement of Arms, Ammo, Explosives and Supplies.
c) Pacer: Moves behind the navigator. He counts all paces of distances covered and b) To maintain a continuous check on road movement.
signals the recorder to keep record after every hundred metres. c) To apprehend wanted persons, couriers and sympathizers.
d) Recorder: Keeps records of distances covered and informs the navigator. His d) Report the movement of vehs and persons for intelligence purpose.
position is next to the pacer. He also keeps record of any features of tactical e) As part of an outer cordon.
importance, which will be of importance to the navigator en route.
NB: VCPs may additionally be mounted as a means of demonstrating the presence
RATE OF MOVEMENT and effectiveness of the SF in order to increase public confidence. Also remember
Speed will vary with the physical condition of the troops, the load being carried, the that VCPs can provide an opportunity to talk to members of the civil population.
danger of enemy contact and the type of terrain. The normal error is to overestimate VCPs may be mounted by night or day in conjunction with Ptls, acting on
the distance travelled. Table 1 can be used as a rough guide to the maximum information, or as part of a plan for controlling a whole area.
distance covered in one (1) hour during daylight.
PRINCIPLES
Type of Terrain Max Dist (m/hr) a) Use of Intelligence. In Sitting, Targeting and Duration.
Tropical Rainforest 1000m b) Surprise. This can be achieved by concealment, speed in mounting and good
Secondary 500 – 800m planning.
Fern Jungle 200 – 500m c) Protection. All round protection is of paramount importance. Remember the
Tall grass 500 – 1000m danger of missiles, or the possibility of attack, from high rise buildings.
Swamps 100 – 200m
d) Alertness. Be alert to possible tgts in the VCP, also be alert to deter attackers, FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR SITING
defeat the terrorist and impress the local population. It should provide cover, It should permit effective engagement of the enemy, It should
e) Road Safety. Remember 99% of people you meet at VCPs will be innocent blend with the surroundings, It should have both external and underground escape
civilians who need your protection so think about lights at night and wet roads. route, Swamps and low areas should be avoided. They do not afford comfortable
f) Communication. Think not only of being in touch with your HQ, but ensure your fighting position and It should have all round protection against infiltration.
cut offs are in communication with you by voice, radio or line.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR CONSTRUCTION
TYPES OF VCP a) PROTECTION FROM DIRECT SMALL ARMS FIRE. A good trench provides
Permanent VCPs, Deliberate VCPs and Snap VCPs. protection from direct small arms fire and indirect fire fragmentation. Protection from
1) Permanent VCPs. Takes the form of a road block permanently sited. It may be small arms fire is provided by frontal cover, such as trees, rocks, logs which can stop
manned by anything from a sect to a Pl. such a VCP may be manned by members of bullet and allow good observation.
the Ghana Police force. Their aim is to control the flow on major routes. b) NATURAL COVER. Blends with the surrounding, therefore it is difficult for the
2) Deliberate VCPs. These are often part of a larger plan. They are usually mounted enemy to identify position.
by a sect operating in Pinzgauer or Land rovers. The patrol will probably be told c) BUILDING OF FRONTAL COVER. It may be necessary however, to use the sand
where and when and the number of vehs to be processed. It should not be in position from the hole to build frontal cover when natural frontal cover is not available. It must
longer than 15 – 20 minutes. be wide enough to stop enemy small arms fire. It must be high enough to cover the
3) Snap VCPs. A snap VCP should be instantaneous and may be mounted by as few heads of the soldiers firing from behind it. It must be far enough in front of the trench
as 4 men and one veh. Because of its vulnerability it should not stay in position for to provide room for elbow rest and sector stales.
more than 10 mins, as the position will soon be compromised. A variation of the snap d) CONCEALMENT. During construction consider: Natural Cover. To conceal the
VCP is the use of helicopters (such as an Alouette) in rural areas. This provides fighting posn, troops should take advantage of the jungle’s natural and depression in
tremendous flexibility and surprise. the ground, and work to improve upon the natural cover provided. Palm trees are too
soft to stop bullets. If forced to use soft wood in building cover, a 10-inch layer of
STORES AND EQUIPMENT sand or sand bags will have to be added to the protection provided by the wood.
Although snap VCPs may have to make use of whatever eqpt happens to be available, Camouflage. When positions are constructed all artificial cover must be camouflaged
deliberate VCPs should have the following basic eqpt: Indemnity forms, Wanted car to blend with the surrounding terrain so that it cannot be detected by the enemy.
list, photos if available, Wanted person list, photos if available, Torches, Red and Camouflage should be kept fresh. Dead or rotten vegetation will give away position.
White, Lamps, Red and White, Barriers (Optional), Road block signs, Bollard traffic Troops can transplant live plants; the moist soil will help these plants survive, but for
control, Caltrops (a spiked chain which punctures tyres if driven over), Metal detector short periods only.
(if available), Handouts (i.e. screwdriver, mirrors for looking under vehicles, etc),
Radio sets and Plastic handcuffs. e) GRENADE SUMPS. Dig two hand grenade sumps. One should be at each end of
the position. The trenches are dug as wide as an entrenching tool blade, at least as
VCP PROCEDURES deep as the entrenching tool, and as long as the position is wide. The slope of the floor
a) Veh should be waved into the box and stopped. should channel grenades thrown into the position into one of the sumps.
b) Politely inform the driver/occupants that they will be searched.
c) Check with the ops room by radio and ascertain if the car is wanted or not. TYPES AND MEASUREMENTS: I TRENCH, W TRENCH, L TRENCH and C
d) Check his documents and beware of too good a set, or inconsistent documents. TRENCH.
e) Ask him to switch off his engine; a stolen car with short circuited ignition will be
detected. RECOMMENDED TRENCH
f) Switch on the radio, it may be tuned to a SF frequency. The ‘C’ trench is recommended for the jungle environment. This is because troops
g) Beware of diversions in the VCP. Babies crying, etc. are expected to operate at least in pairs in the jungle. In the case of comds who might
have to be alone at times, the I or L trench is recommended.
The Car.
a) May be hijacked, stolen or borrowed. STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION AND TIMINGS
b) Attempts may have been made to disguise odour of explosives by: Heavy smoking, All trenches should start with I trench at the beginning and later developed into the
Aerosol spray, (fresh air type) and If a woman is in the car, heavy smell of perfume. required trench. The stages for construction a ‘C’ trench are:
c) Check number plates and licence disc for alterations.
d) Compare number plates with licence disc. STAGE I.
e) If the vehicle is to be searched, carry out the necessary procedures. 1) You measure and dig out 4 x 2 ‘I’ trench. The depth depends on………. it should
f) After the search has been completed, the driver should be asked to sign the be up to armpit level.
indemnity form and be allowed to drive on. Remember that drivers are not legally 2) You would use the sand from the hole to provide a cover from small arms fire from
required to sign but they should be encouraged to do so. the front, if there is no natural cover to the front. Make sure you leave enough room to
g) In the event of a veh not stopping in the box, cut off groups should be alerted and rest your elbow in front of the trench. The cover should be thick enough to stop the en
they should use caltrops to stop it. bullet. It should be about 46 cm or 18 inches thick of dirt.
h) If this fails give all relevant info to Ops Room/Neighbouring units by radio. 3) Clearing of field of fire is important to provide good obsn. This should be done
tactically. Only what is absolutely necessary should be cleared in order to retain as
COMPOSITION AND DEFENCE OF VCP much natural concealment as possible. In a properly constructed position, the soldier’s
a) The VCP Comd: Overall command of VCP, Checking cars against wanted list, eyes and weapon will be at ground level. If a small tree is in a soldier’s field of fire, it
Estb the identity of occupants, Ensuring the driver signs the indemnity form and should not be chopped down completely. Only the branches that deny observation
Control the Pers who are monitoring the traffic. should be cut. The cuttings on the trees should be darkened with mud.
b) Searcher: He is in the search area. Searches all occupants and Search of the 4) All these should be completed within six hours of occupation.
vehicles. (Females must be searched by a Police woman for the obvious reasons).
c) Searcher’s Cover Man: His duties are: Cover the searcher and He must keep a clear STAGE II.
line of sight between the driver and himself. 1) Improvement. At this stage we would have to improve on our ‘I’ trench in order to
d) Sentry: Covers VCP areas and veh occupants. come out with the required trench which is ‘C’ trench. We dig to both sides diagonal
e) Vehicle Drivers: Act as the traffic controller from each direction and They must trenches to the shape of ‘C’. The measurement of the extensions should be 3 ft and
give good clear hand signals to the motorists. 2½ ft. The depth is armpit level.
f) Dog Handler: A search dog is also useful for checking lorries and buses. 2) Protection. It should be provided with flank and rear protection against small arms
g) Cut Offs: 2 Men in each cut off group, They act as a cut off or backstop. Must be by using the removed sand. This should be completed within 12 hrs of occupation.
carefully sited by VCP Comd, 1 Man in each group to control the caltrops, Be in
comms with the VCP Comd, ideally by radio and In the event of a veh not stopping in STAGE III. We continue with our development by preparing grenade sump, drainage,
the box caltrops must be used to stop it. revetment and elevated floor.

REMEMBER: Be careful, Be alert, Cover each other - Team work is essential, Be 1) Grenade Sump. You dig two hand grenade sumps. One at each end of the extension
suspicious and Be courteous and polite. You want people to be your friends and not made. These trenches are dug as wide as an entrenching tool blade, at least as deep as
those of terrorist. the entrenching tool, as long as the position is wide. The slope of the floor should
channel grenades thrown into the position into one of the sumps.
FIELD TRENCHES, FIGHTING POSITIONS AND STRONG POINTS 2) Drainage. All positions should provide for drainage during tropical rainstorms. The
floor of the position should slope from the center towards the grenade sumps. This is
DEFINITIONS important during the rainy season to avoid stagnant water in the trench.
a) FIELD TRENCH. A trench is any dug out below the surface of the ground from 3) Elevated Floor. If time permits, an elevated floor stand of saplings can be built so
which soldiers fight. It provides relative protection to the soldier against small arms that soldiers do not have to stand in mud or water. Grenade sumps must remain clear.
fire, depending upon the degree of development. 4) Revetment. Jungle soils are soft and erode quickly during the rainy season.
b) FIGHTING POSITION. A piece of ground that allows the defender to fight a Revetments will prevent the walls of a position from caving in. Stakes should be
successful battle within his area of responsibility. This can be manned by one, two or driven all the way into the ground all along the walls. Then some pegs would be
more men depending on the situation. It can be termed as: HASTY, TEMPORARY pegged outside the trench to provide anchor lines which are attached to the stakes.
or PERMANENT. Then the anchor stakes should be driven into the ground. These should be ready
1) Hasty. A hasty fighting posn is an unprepared posn occupied by advancing troops within 24 hrs of occupation.
who have been fired upon, in order to return fire. Natural covers in the area (trees, ant
hills, bushes) should be made use of. The fighting posn adopted during re-org after STAGE IV.
running over an en posn is also a Hasty fighting posn. 1) Protection from Indirect Fire Fragmentation. This is gained by building overhead
How to take cover: a) If one is a right hand firer, take cover at the right side of a tree cover. The logs cut to build overhead cover must be strong. Soft wood will collapse
or a natural cover and b) If a left hand firer take cover at the left side of the cover. when struck by shell fragments.
(Instrs to demo) 2) Building Overhead Cover. Frontal, flank, rear cover and the trench gives some
2) Temporary. A fighting posn with trenches that is occupied for up to 24 hrs at a protection from shell fragment, but overhead cover should be built to protect from
temporary base. It should be developed to include obstacles. airbursts. A good position has overhead cover that lets men fire from beneath it.
3) Permanent. A fighting posn with trenches that is occupied at a base expected to be 3) Support for Overhead Cover. It is built by placing logs 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inch) on
used for over 24 hrs. It should be improved and reinforced with obstacles. top of each other along the entire length of the frontal and rear cover.
c) STRONG POINT. This is a permanent position that has been well developed and 4) The Front support. Fire supports are high enough so that men can fire from beneath
reinforced with all kinds of obstacles, tunnels, comms trenches, etc, to stand against the overhead cover when it is completed.
all odds and to be used for long periods. 5) The base of the Overhead Cover. It is made of logs 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches)
placed side by side across the supports.
6) Water Repellent Layer. Layer such as waterproof parking materials\ or poncho, etc which must have enough weight on the end to penetrate the canopy and reach the
is then laid over the logs. About 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches) of dirt is added and ground through undergrowth.
moulded to blend with the slope of the terrain. Finally, the overhead cover is b) Low Hover. On soft, uneven or incompletely cleared areas, helicopters can often
camouflaged. When it is completed, the man in the position will have protection from hover low enough to load casualties without landing.
shell fragments and still be able to fire. It should be ready by 36 hrs after occupation. c) From a LS. The loading of casualties is easier and can be accomplished quickly.
Casualty pick up points below canopy can be marked by a marker balloon or smoke.
STAGE V. Marker panels or light can also be used to mark LS’s and hover sites.
Comm Trenches. You have to dig comms trenches from: Sect 2IC to Sect Comds,
Sect Comd to Pl Comd and Group to group. Other means of Evacuation. Once casualties have been carried to a road, track,
landing strip or water point by troops, helicopters etc, and further evacuation can take
TACTICAL CASUALTY EVACUATION place by other means. These may include local vehicles, carts, rafts, boats, hovercraft
and aircraft. In all cases patients need to be well secured to prevent unnecessary
INTRODUCTION movement aggravating their condition.

Apart from the humane consideration of saving life and alleviating suffering, the CASUALTY EVACUATION DRILL
immediate military aim of casualty evacuation during jungle operations is to free the a) Preparations. The following equipment is required: 1 x Stretcher top, 2 x Long
fighting troops from the encumbrance of casualties. Prompt skilled medical attention poles, 2 short poles, 3 x 50 Lengths nylon rope or jungle rope and Toggle ropes/loop-
will also ensure that the sick and wounded are left out of battle for as short a time as lines.
possible. A further factor is the importance to morale of the knowledge that troops b) A 3 Section Organisation (Pl). The patrol is split into four groups: Recce/Forward
will be well cared for if they become casualties. Cover Group, Route Clearing Party/Pl HQ, Stretcher Party and Rear Cover Group.

DEFINITION TASKS
The word TACTICS means; the employment of men and weapons to the ground. The a) Recce/Forward Cover Group. The task of this group is to recce and guard the
word CASUALTY means dead or wounded. EVACUATION means; Carry away, route for the stretcher party. It is likely to move some distance ahead of the remainder
remove, or take away (ultimately to a safe area for further treatment). TACTICAL of the platoon. The recce/forward Cover Group consists of the Scout Group and the
CASUALTY EVACUATION thus means how to carry away the wounded from the Gun Group (Less 1 man detached to the Route Clearing Party) of the leading section.
face of the battle or the front line to rear, into safety. Evacuation may be conducted b) Route Clearing Party/Pl HQ. Consists of the Tactical PL HQ and the Rifle Group
under the following circumstances: of the leading section. Pl HQ controls the speed and direction of movement. The
a) The battalion stretcher party may be tasked to go to the front line and evacuate a riflemen clear the route by cutting vines and flattening vegetation to ensure the easy
casualty to a safer point in the rear. passage of the stretcher. This must be the full width of the two carriers plus stretcher.
b) A platoon during operation may have a casualty, and on completing the task, may The tactical situation may not always permit this to be done. This Gp consist of the Pl
be required to organize a casevac enroute to base. Comd and his runner, 3 rfl men and 1 member of the gun gp (ideally a No.2 from one
c) Evacuation in these instances implies casualties who without assistance will be of the guns) of a Sect and the RPG from Pl HQ.
helpless (and not walking wounded or those who can be carried on human back). c) Stretcher Party. This consists of the second section and medical orderly if
available. Under the Comd of Pl WO. The Gun Gp moves ahead to cover the
TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS stretcher and The Rifle Gp does the carrying, trailing behind the Gun Gp.
The circumstances will dictate the degree of priority to be given to casualty d) Rear Cover. This consists of the third section intact. Their task is to protect the
evacuation and factors which need to be taken into account are: rear of the gp. This gp will probably move some distance behind the stretcher party.
a) In the case of deep patrols the possibility of jeopardizing the mission.
b) The risk of further casualties resulting from revealing positions. ORGANISATION OF TWO-SECTION PLATOON
c) The risk to helicopters and their crew. Everything stands the same, only the number of men is less. So the leading section
d) The liability of a wounded man to the operation. would act as the Recce/Forward Cover Gp as well as the Route Clearing Party. The
second section would be the Stretcher Party. The section would be organized in this
NB: When evacuation is tactically unacceptable there are three other alternatives; way; The Scout Group which would lead followed by Rifle Group who would do the
1) To bring skilled medical attention to the casualty. Although this is often easier than carrying, then last comes the Sp Gp to take care of the rear.
evacuating a patient, it does not preclude the possibility of having to evacuate him
later. It is also an uneconomical way of using skilled manpower, which is also
exposed to unnecessary risks.
2) To give the casualty as much treatment as possible and leave him in hiding with
sufficient food, medicine and water, with or without medical attention or an escort.
3) In extreme cases, to treat casualties and then leave them where they will be found
by the enemy or local inhabitants.

EVACUATION PRIORITIES
a) Urgent cases which require immediate evacuation: Major Hemorrhages, Extensive
burns, Serious wounds of the chest or abdomen, Severe multiple wounds, Major
fractures, Severe head injuries and Heat strokes.
b) Less urgent cases which require early evacuation: Spinal, eye and facial injuries
and Flash wounds requiring cleansing.
c) Cases which should be evacuated when possible: Lesser fractures and dislocations
and Medical cases which have not responded to treatment.

CASEVAC FROM PL POSITION

a) In a conventional setting, a casualty from a pl position would be evacuated to a
CAP. The method of evacuation would usually be through the Regimental Stretcher
bearers for both stretcher cases and walking wounded.
b) From the Coy Aid Post, a casualty who needs further medical attention because of
the seriousness of their cases would be evacuated to the RAP by the Regimental
Medical Orderly (RMO). The RAP is located at Battalion HQ and the casualty would
be conveyed there by Regimental Stretcher Bearers on an ambulance.
c) If further evacuation is necessary the casualty would be conveyed to a casualty
collection point (CCP) and further to an Advance Dressing Station (ADS). The
methods of evacuation here is either through the use of an ambulance car or a
helicopter.
d) Further evacuation could be necessary. If so the sick and wounded would be
evacuated to the field dressing station (FDS), which is located in the Corps or
Division areas. In independent sub-unit operations, commanders have the direct
responsibility of arranging casevac and may do so by helicopter request or by carrying
the casualty to a pre-arranged pick up point or Field Surgical Team Centre (FTC).

RECOVERING BATTLE CASUALTIES

The three main methods of carrying casualties in the jungle are:
a) Jungle Titter. An improvised stretcher made of finger thick saplings or bamboo
bound together with cord or creepers and slung under a long pole. This can be carried
on men’s shoulders.
b) Improvised Stretcher. Made from a stretcher or shelter sheet or air marker panel
and two long jungle poles. As far as his injuries allow, the patient must be firmly
secured to any type of stretcher at the shoulders, hips and calves to prevent him
sliding or falling off.
c) Pick-a-Back. The casualty can be carried on a soldier or porter’s back supported
by a flat band of fabric, bark or creeper under his buttocks and over the forehead of
the carrier. Depending on his state of consciousness and the going, the patient may
also need to be secured by a second band under his legs, in front of the carrier and
over his own shoulders. In difficult country this may be the only feasible way of
carrying a casualty as it leaves the carrier’s hands free to negotiate obstacles.

HELICOPTER EVACUATION
The three most usual methods of evacuation by helicopter are:
a) By Winch. When the helicopter lands or hovers low enough to take the casualty on
board, the patient can be firmly secured in a litter and winched or lifted on the end of
a rope. In primary jungle the helicopter may need to lower up to 100 metres of rope,