Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105

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Cement and Concrete Research

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : h t t p : / / e e s . e l s e v i e r. c o m / C E M C O N / d e f a u l t . a s p

The influence of longitudinal cracks on the corrosion protection afforded reinforcing

steel in high performance concrete
Amir Poursaee a, Carolyn M. Hansson b,⁎
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: It is almost impossible to produce crack-free concrete and, therefore, codes of concrete structural design
Received 28 June 2007 (such as ACI 318 [ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, American Concrete Institute:
Accepted 25 March 2008 Farmington Hills, MI, USA]) take cracking into account and relate permissible crack widths to exposure
conditions. Chloride ingress is significantly enhanced by cracks because the ions can penetrate the concrete
Keywords:
cover from the walls of the crack as well as from the outer surface of the concrete [P. P. Win, M. Watanabe,
Corrosion (C)
High performance concrete (E)
and A. Machida, Penetration profile of chloride ion in cracked reinforced concrete. Cement and Concrete
Curing (A) Research, 2004. 34(7): p. 1073–1079]. Thus, while the chlorides reach the steel very rapidly directly through
Crack the crack, they also reach adjacent areas of steel more rapidly than in uncracked concrete.
The objective of the project was to ascertain whether high performance concrete (HPC) could provide
superior protection to Ordinary Portland Cement Concrete (OPCC) even when the structure was cracked
parallel to the reinforcing bars (longitudinal cracks) while being exposed to a de-icing salt environment. Two
HPCs, as specified by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) [MTO, SSP 904 S13 High Performance
Concrete, Amendment to OPSS 904 Construction Specification for Concrete Structures. 1995, Ontario
Provincial Standard Specification] were tested: both used blended silica fume cement (Canadian Type 10 E-
SF) and had 25% replacement of the cement by either fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag. A Class
C-2 ordinary Portland cement concrete was used as control.
In the case of cracks parallel to the rebar, HPC does not appear to have any beneficial influence on the
corrosion of bars, which is not surprising in view of the fact that the whole length of the bar is directly
exposed to the environment via the crack. In contrast, HPC has been found to provide better protection for
steel exposed to transverse cracks than does OPCC. However, the benefits of HPC are not as great as they are
for sound (uncracked) concrete. The reasons for the better protection are (i) the greater resistance of HPC to
chloride penetration from the walls of the crack, (ii) its greater tendency to crack healing and (ii) the different
crack path in HPC.
Crown Copyright © 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction incorporating these parameters, thereby, providing high strength and

low permeability.
Porosity and cracks are the main factors that affect concrete quality There are large numbers of studies of chloride penetration rates in
from the point of view of protecting reinforcing steel from corrosive HPC (e. g. [8–11]) and some research has been carried out on the rebar
species [1–4]. These factors can be controlled by three major corrosion process (e. g. [12–14]) in HPC. These studies show that steel
parameters: (i) a low water to binder ratio (w/b); (ii) the inclusion in well compacted and cured reinforced HPC exhibits significantly
of supplementary cementing materials, both of which reduce the longer corrosion initiation times [15,16] and lower corrosion rates [17]
porosity and (iii) adequate curing, which will minimise any cracking than those observed in conventional reinforced OPC concretes. This is
[5–7]. The term “high performance concrete” can generally be defined attributed to the very low level of interconnected porosity in HPC
as concrete which meets special performance and uniformity concretes.
requirements that cannot normally be achieved by using conventional While interconnected capillary porosity provides a tortuous path
materials and normal mixing, placing, and curing practices. However, for the ingress of chloride ions, oxygen and moisture into concrete,
as in the present study, it is often used to describe a concrete cracks render a more direct path. The sources of cracks in concrete
include shrinkage [18], chemical reactions (e.g. alkali aggregate
reaction, [16]), weathering processes (e.g. freezing and thawing
⁎ Corresponding author. [19]), reinforcement corrosion [20] and mechanical loading [21].
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.M. Hansson). Despite the prevalence of cracks in structural concrete, there have

0008-8846/$ – see front matter. Crown Copyright © 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.03.018
 A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105 1099

Table 1
Concrete mixture proportions for making 1 m3 concrete

Component OPC HPC-slag HPC-fly ash

Type 10 Portland, kg 355 – –
Type 10SF Portland, kg – 337 337
Slag, kg – 113 –
Fly ash, kg – – 113
Sand, kg 770 718 718
Stone 20 mm, kg 1070 1065 1065
Water, l 153 158 158
Eucon MRC air 40 ml/100 kg 65 ml/100 kg 65 ml/100 kg
entrainment cementitious cementitious cementitious
Water reducer 250 ml/100 kg 250 ml/100 kg 250 ml/100 kg
cementitious cementitious cementitious
Superplasticizer – 2l + 1.51 31 + 0.51
W/CM ratio 0.43 0.35 0.35

been relatively few studies concerning the critical crack widths and
other aspects of the effect of cracking on corrosion of rebar in OPC
concretes [20–26], and even fewer on the influence of cracking on Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of a prism with longitudinal crack. Corrosion probes are
rebar corrosion in HPC [27–31]. Moreover, all this work has concerned embedded in three levels.
cracks formed transverse to the reinforcing bar.
While there has been some investigation of longitudinal cracks in “estimate” rather than “determine” is that it is impossible to non-
cover concrete formed as a result of corrosion [32–34], as far as the destructively determine the area of steel which is actually undergoing
present authors have been able to ascertain, there is nothing in the active corrosion without removing the concrete cover. There have been
literature about the effect of longitudinal structural cracks on the many attempts to design equipment which can limit the area being
corrosion of the embedded steel in concrete. Such cracks are observed polarised and, thus, limit the uncertainty in the measurements but these
in practice in the concrete structures such as continuously reinforced have not been entirely satisfactory [41]. An alternative approach is to
concrete pavements (CRCP) due to loading or thermal shock, steel limit the actual area of steel by measuring the corrosion on small
reinforced concrete pipes and parking garage slabs, [35–39]. sections of reinforcing steel (corrosion probes) rather than on the main
In this paper, the corrosion behaviour of steel bar in longitudinally rebar [42]. The advantage of the embedded probes is knowledge of the
cracked HPC and OPCC with crack widths b0.3 mm (the MTO's maximum area of steel, which could be corroding. The major
maximum allowable limit) is evaluated and the results are compared disadvantages are (i) the limited area for corrosion to initiate; and (ii)
with those obtained in sound (i.e. uncracked) concrete and transver- the limited area of steel available for the cathodic reduction of oxygen.
sely cracked (cracks perpendicular to the rebar) concretes. Three concrete prisms, 100 × 100 × 500 mm, were cast for each of
the three concretes. The individual probe elements (30 mm lengths of
2. Experimental procedure 10 M bar) were assembled as illustrated in Fig. 1 by attaching them to a
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) rod, together with a 30 mm length
This study involves three different concrete mixtures: one OPCC of 316 stainless steel bar as a “reference electrode”. All probe elements
and two HPCs designed to meet the specifications of the MTO, which and the stainless steel were electrically isolated from each other.
require the use of silica fume cement and permit up to 25% cement Probes assemblies were placed at three cover depths, 10 mm and
replacement by either blast furnace slag or class C fly ash [3]. The 15 mm, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 2. Casting was carried out
concretes were provided by Dufferin Concrete and their mixture indoors in February and the prisms were wet cured according to MTO
proportions are given in Table 1. specification (2 days for OPCC and 7 days for HPCs). After 25 days, the
Three sets of concrete prism samples with embedded plain carbon prisms were exposed to the outdoor environment for the remaining
steel rebar were prepared as follows: period of the project and were covered with a layer of rock salt and
kept wet by spraying salt water during the winter months. The
i) with cracks parallel to, and immediately above, the rebar and composition of the rock salt is given in Table 2.
referred to as “longitudinal cracks”; The outdoor temperature during the experiment was monitored and
ii) with cracks perpendicular to the rebar and referred to as is shown in Fig. 3. The temperature fluctuations and the difference
“transverse cracks”; between thermal expansion coefficient of the PMMA plastic bars
iii) without any macrocracks, referred to as “sound concrete”. (∼75× 10− 6 °C− 1) [43] and that of the cement paste, (∼15 ×10− 6 °C− 1)
caused cracking of the concrete parallel to the PMMA bars and, thus,
2.1. Prisms with longitudinal crack parallel to the rebar probes within the first month of exposure. The cracks
were approximately 0.1 mm wide at the surface, as shown in Fig. 4.
Since it is not practical to evaluate the corrosion behaviour of steel in The corrosion potential was measured after 128 weeks of exposure
concrete by gravimetric methods, the rates are usually estimated using and the corrosion rates were determined using the potentiostatic
electrochemical techniques [40]. The reason for using the term Linear Polarisation Resistance (LPR) technique after 35 weeks and
128 weeks exposure.

Table 2
Relative proportions of ions in rock salt

Cation % by weight Anion % by weight

Ca2+ 18.7 × 10− 4 Cl− 58.83
K+ 2.4 × 10− 4 NO32− 1.5 × 10− 4
Mg2+ 1.5 × 10− 4 SO2−
4 38.9 × 10− 4
Fig. 1. Corrosion probes showing three black steel elements and one stainless steel
Na+ 40.5
element.
1100 A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105

Fig. 3. Outdoor temperature variations during the experiment on the samples with longitudinal cracks.

Fig. 4. 0.1 mm longitudinal crack, caused by thermal expansion coefficient difference between PMMA and concrete.

2.2. Prisms with transverse crack

As reported in detail elsewhere [44], prisms of dimension

100×100×500 mm with rebar probes were cast from each of the three
concretes. The cover to the probes was 45 mm. The corrosion probes,
similar to those in the prisms with longitudinal cracks but with five black
steel segments and one stainless steel segment, were used and were
attached to a black steel rebar (instead of PMMA) with a slight overlap to

Fig. 6. ASTM G-109 specimen.

Fig. 5. Schematic plan of the a prism with 0.1 mm induced transverse crack. Fig. 7. Schematic plan of the LPR measurement setup on G109 specimens.
 A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105 1101

Fig. 8. Corrosion current density of the probes in prisms with 0.1 mm longitudinal crack, 35 and 128 weeks after exposure to de-icing salt.

Fig. 9. Corrosion potential of the probes in prisms with 0.1 mm longitudinal crack, 128 weeks after exposure to de-icing salt.

ensure an induced crack intersected one of the probe elements. All probe 2.3. Sound concrete specimens
elements and the stainless steel were electrically isolated from the main
bar and from each other. After casting, the OPCC and HPC prisms were wet A standard ASTM G109 specimen design [45] was used for
cured for 2 and 7 days, respectively. Then, the prisms were loaded in 4- determining the relative corrosion protection provided by the different
point bending until a crack was formed. A stainless steel shim was inserted concretes (without macrocracks) using both macrocell and microcell
into the groove to retain the crack opening to 0.1 mm. Fig. 5 shows a corrosion measurements. A comparison of the two measurements has
schematic drawing of the prism. The prisms were covered with rock salt been published [46]. The microcell data are used for comparison here.
solution and kept wet and the corrosion activity of the steel probes was The specimen is illustrated schematically in Fig. 6 and the concretes
monitored using LPR measurements for over a 124 week period. were cast and cured as described above. The ponding well was filled
with a 3 wt.% NaCl solution for two of every 4 weeks. Microcell
corrosion was measured by using the LPR technique. For this purpose,
the top bars were disconnected from the bottom bars for a period of
48 h to allow the system to stabilise. A saturated calomel electrode
reference electrode and a stainless steel counter electrode were
immersed in the ponding well as illustrated schematically in Fig. 7.

3. Results and discussion

The corrosion current densities of the top probes (10 mm cover) in

specimens with 0.1 mm longitudinal crack, after 35 weeks of exposure
to de-icing salt, are shown in Fig. 8. These data are the average of
triplicate specimens and since the “percentage error”1 (in this case, a
measure of the variability) for all corrosion probes in the specimens
for each type of concrete is less than 10%, presenting the average value
is considered reasonable. In all cases, the steel is clearly in the passive

Fig. 10. Fracture surface of one of the prisms with 0.1 mm longitudinal crack, 128 weeks

1
after exposure to de-icing salt. Percentage error ¼ standard deviation
mean value  100.
1102 A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105

Fig. 11. Top steel probes recovered from three of the prisms with longitudinal crack after 128 weeks of exposure to de-icing salt: (a) before removing the corrosion products, (b) after
removing the corrosion products.

state, with corrosion rates of ∼ 4 × 10− 4 A/m2 or ∼ 0.45 μm/year and average corrosion rates of the top probe elements are between 1.3× 10− 2
there is no distinction between those embedded in OPCC and those in and 2.5 × 10− 2 A/m2 or 15–30 μm/year and their corrosion potentials all
the HPCs. After 128 weeks exposure to salt, however, all the probe lie between −400 and −450 mV CSE. The probe elements with the
elements exhibited active corrosion. Corrosion current densities and 15 mm cover depth and, presumably, a lower chloride content, exhibit
corrosion potentials of the top probes (10 mm cover) and the lower corrosion rates between 8 × 10− 3 and 1.1 × 10− 2 A/m2 or 9–13 μm/year,
probes (15 mm cover) are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. The with corrosion potentials between −280 and −300 mV SCE.

Fig. 12. Comparison between the corrosion current densities, calculated based on nominal and actual corroded surface areas.
 A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105 1103

Fig. 13. Concrete resistance at different levels; prisms with 0.1 mm longitudinal crack; 128 weeks after exposure to de-icing salt.

Two observations can be made from these data: first that there is period during which the corroded area increased but the corrosion
no significant difference between the corrosion rates and potentials of rate in the actively corroding locations is unchanged.
the steel in OPCC and those in HPC-slag (HPC/S) concretes. Second, the The resistances of the concretes, measured over a 70 mm diameter
steel in top probes of the HPC-fly ash (HPC/F) concrete is corroding at a area encompassing the crack, after 128 weeks exposure, using
marginally lower rate but the steel with the greater cover depth galvanostatic pulse technique, are shown in Fig. 13. It is obvious that
exhibits the same rates as those in the other two concretes. the resistances of both HPCs are significantly higher than that of OPCC,
To confirm the results obtained by electrochemical measurements, even at the crack. Therefore, considering the concrete resistance as an
prisms were broken and the steel probes and adjacent concrete were indicator for comparable corrosion activity, in HPC and OPCC may result
visually inspected. Visual observation of crack paths showed that they in an under-estimation of the corrosion resistance provided by the HPC.
included the interface between the concrete and the steel rebars The corrosion rates of each probe in the prisms with the 0.1 mm
(Fig. 10). The bonding between concrete and the steel segments was transverse cracks after 124 weeks of exposure to salt solution are
also checked and showed that the segments were completely em- given in Fig. 14. It had been assumed that the crack would intersect
bedded in concrete (Fig. 11a) and the concrete compaction was good. one of the probe elements giving a higher corrosion rate for that
Results from visual observations are in agreement with corrosion probe element than for the other four. However, this was not the case:
measurements and verify that there is no apparent difference the highest corrosion rate occurred on different probe elements
between the corrosion activities in OPCC and both HPCs. Continuous at different times. This could be attributed to a number of factors: (i)
areas of the steel were covered with corrosion products as indicated in the crack intersecting two probes at their overlap point; (ii) crack
Fig. 11a. After removing the corrosion products, using an inhibited acid branching and more than one crack at the level of the probes as has
solution [47], the surface was clearly pitted as shown in Fig. 11b. been observed in concurrent research [48]; (iii) and/or (iv) the effect of
However, the pits were distributed over an area of the surface, not chloride diffusion from the crack surfaces. Consequently, the data in
specifically along the intersection with the crack because, as Fig. 13 are the average corrosion rates of the two probes with the
mentioned above, the crack continued around the surface of the highest corrosion rates in each of three replicate prisms.
steel. The actual corroded surface areas of the steel segments were In contrast to the corrosion behaviour of steel in the longitudinally
estimated and the corrosion current densities were re-calculated cracked prisms, the corrosion current densities of steel in these HPCs are
based on these corroded areas and are given in Fig. 12 together with distinctly lower than those in the OPCC. Even after almost 2.5 years
those based on the nominal areas. Although, the nominal corrosion exposure in the laboratory to saturated salt solution, the corrosion
current densities are higher at the top levels than the lower level, the current densities of both HPCs are in the passive range (10− 3–10− 4 A/m2
actual corrosion rates at both levels are very close. It is concluded the [40]) whereas steel in the OPCC has a similar corrosion rate to that of the
chlorides reached the top bars first and initiated corrosion before steel in the longitudinally cracked HPC-slag with a 15 mm cover depth,
reaching the lower bars. Thus, the top bars were corroding for a longer i.e. ∼0.007 A/m2. Previous work [49,50] has shown that the corrosion of

Fig. 14. Corrosion current density of the probes in prisms with 0.1 mm transverse crack, 124 weeks after exposure to de-icing salt.
1104 A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 1098–1105

Fig. 15. Microcell corrosion current density of steel in sound concrete, 132 and 180 weeks after exposure to de-icing salt.

steel in HPCs is usually over a small area, probably confined to the tip of are very similar. This indicates that increasing the chloride concentra-
the crack, whereas the corrosion extends along the bar on either side of a tion, increases the corroded area but the local corrosion rate remains
crack in OPCC. However, in the current prisms, probably due to approximately constant.
branching of the crack, this is not the case. For the longitudinally cracked concretes, the concrete resistances
It should be mentioned that in the prisms with transverse cracks, the of both HPCs are higher than of OPCC while the corrosion current
measured corrosion current density is lower than those of prisms with densities of steel in all concretes are very similar. Therefore, using
longitudinal crack. The reason is that the nominal surface area of the bars, concrete resistance as an indicator of corrosion in HPC is not recom-
not the actual corroding area, was used for the calculations. The corrosion mended particularly at the locations of longitudinal cracks.
at the tip of the crack in those samples was observed to be more localised.
The average values of microcell data from the steel in the sound Acknowledgments
concrete after 132 week of exposure are given in Fig. 15. As can be seen,
there is no significant difference in corrosion rate of steel in the OPCC This research is part of a larger project on High Performance
and both HPCs and the values all indicate passivity. Therefore, for Concrete funded by the Cement Association of Canada (CAC), the
comparative purposes, corrosion rates of these specimens after 180 days Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada and Materials and
are also shown in Fig. 14. It is clear that, after this period, there is a very Manufacturing Ontario. The authors appreciate the support of Mr. Rico
significant effect of concrete on the corrosion rates. The corrosion rates Fung of the CAC and gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Samuel
of the steel in the HPCs (∼10− 3 A/m2) is at the upper end of the passive Okulaja, Alain Laurent, Richard Morrison and Doug Hirst.
range, suggesting that there may be some active corrosion over a small
area of the steel. On the other hand, the corrosion rate of steel in the References
OPCC was ∼1.6× 10− 2 A/m2 and is clearly corroding.

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