Unit 5 SPM
Unit 5 SPM
Unit 5 SPM
Much of the work of Taylor was in factories and mines, working with manual
workers. The ‘instruction in best methods’ involved breaking down a manual task
into its component activities, identifying the best way of carrying out those
activities and then teaching the workers to copy the approved method. This can be
seen as treating the workers as little better than automatons – but it is also the way
the sporting coaches often work!
The individual workers were encouraged to maximize output by paying them piece-
rates
e.g. by the units processed.
One difficulty with this is that workers learn that increasing output can in fact lead
to the piece-rate being adjusted in a downward direction. Maximizing output can
also be physically and mentally exhausting. Groups of workers therefore tend to
converge on an agreed output rate which does not require a constant 100% effort.
Hawthorne effect
Theory X
◼ The average human has an innate dislike of work
◼ There is a need therefore for coercion, direction and control
◼ People tend to avoid responsibility
Theory Y
◼ Work is as natural as rest or play
◼ External control and coercion are not the only ways of bringing about effort
directed towards an organization’s end
◼ Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement
◼ The average human can learn to accept and further seek responsibility
◼ The capacity to exercise imagination and other creative qualities is widely
distributed.
4. Obtain applicants
a. Identify the media that potential job holders are likely to consult. Elicit
CVs
7. Other procedures.
a. e.g. taking up references, medicals etc
`
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Motivation
• Motivation and application can often make up for shortfalls in innate skills
• Taylor’s approach - financial incentives
• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
– motivations vary from individual to individual
– hierarchy of needs – as lower ones fulfilled, higher ones emerge
– Lowest level – food, shelter
– Highest level – self-actualization
1. Hygiene or maintenance factors – make you dissatisfied if they are not right e.g.
pay, working conditions
2. Motivators – make you feel the job is worthwhile e.g. a sense of achievement
Note: if any of the factors has a zero value, then motivation will be zero.
Example from the text book: expectancy – trying to use a compiler to compile
software code; the code has a bug which causes a compilation error regardless of what
you do. In this case motivation will collapse.
Instrumentality – you are working on removing a fault from a software tool used by a
client; you find that the client has given up using the tool and has acquired a different
one to do the job. Low perceived value of reward: a reward that everyone gets is less
highly regarded than one which only outstanding people get. Getting a first is more
valuable if only 5% of students get a first compared to where 90% get a first!
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Software developers will tend to be associated with their code – task identity; analyst
programmers will have a to use a wider range of skills than lower level programmers
– more skill variety. If you have direct contact with the end-users of your software you
are likely to be more aware of the results of your work – task significance, and more
likely to get feedback on it.
Introduction:
Θ Software based systems will be huge; also software tool contains five million
lines of code.
Θ So that the work is shared between individual software developers within teams
and between group of developers
Θ Team working will enhance the communication between individual developers
and within teams and across teams.
Θ Team - Group of people who are working together.
- Small group environment
Θ The term Project Team refers all the people working on a project.
Θ The people who are working in project team may sit in different workgroups at
some distance from each other.
Θ These groups can also change over time.
Θ Thus individual developers are transfer between teams during the period of
project start and finish.
Θ Team is created to do joint assignment
Θ To perform the work assignments which are allocated to the staff, the
organization needs one form of coordination between groups and individuals
within a project.
Θ Communication genres
- refers Method of Communication
- It is selected and developed to deal with particular need for project
coordination.
- The arrangements for communication between stakeholders are
documented in
communication plan
Θ This Team work has an influence on all stages of step wise project planning
framework.
1. Identify Project scope and objectives
2. Identify Project Infrastructure
3. Analyse project characteristics
4. Estimate effort for each activity
5. Identify activity risks
6. Allocate resources
7. Review/publicize plan
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Becoming a Team
➢ The organization first analyzes how the small work groups are formed.
Group Performance`
➢ In many projects, some solutions are needed about which tasks are carried out
collectively as a team and which are allotted to individuals.
➢ It is defined by “Some work yields better results if carried out as a team while
some things are slowed down if the work is not partitioned on an individual
basis”.
➢ The group tasks are categorized into:
o Additive Tasks - Effects of each participant are added to get final
result
- People involved are interchangeable
o Compensatory Tasks - Solutions of individual group members are
pooled
- Errors of some are compensated by the inputs
from others
o Disjunctive Tasks - Means there is only one correct answer.
- It depends on someone coming up with one
right answer and others recognizing it as being
correct
o Conjunctive Tasks - Means joining the tasks
- Progress is governed by the rate of slowest
performer
- The overall task is not completed until all
participants have completed.
Decision Making
• Decision can be categorized as
– Structured
• Simple
• Routine
• Straightforward rules
– Unstructured
• More complex
• Requires degree of creativity
• Decisions made by the team as a whole are more likely to be accepted that
those that are imposed
• Complementary skills and expertise
• Communicate freely/get ideas
• Brainstorming techniques
• Aim is to have involvement of end users?
– Prototyping and participatory approaches
– JAD(Joint Application Development)
Delphi approach
To avoid dominant personalities intruding the following approach is
adopted
1. Enlist co-operation of experts
2. Moderator presents experts with problem
3. Experts send in their recommendations to the moderator
4. Recommendations are collated and circulated to all experts
5. Experts comment on ideas of others and modify their own recommendation if so
moved
6. If moderator detects a consensus, stop; else back to 4
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Team ‘heedfulness’
• Football Team.
• Where group members are aware of the activities of other members that
contribute to overall group success
• Impression of a ‘collective mind’
• Some attempts to promote this:
– Egoless programming
– Chief programmer teams
– XP
– Scrum
Egoless programming
• Fred Brooks was concerned about the need to maintain ‘design consistency’ in
large software systems
• Appointment of key programmers, Chief Programmers, with
responsibilities for defining requirements, designing, writing and test
software code
• Assisted by a support team: co-pilot – shared coding, editor who typed in
new or changed code, program clerk who write and maintain documentation
and tester
• Problem – finding staff capable of the chief programmer role
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Extreme programming
Scrum
• Named as an analogy to a rugby scrum – all pushing together
• Originally designed for new product development where ‘time-to-market’ is
important
• ‘Sprints’ increments of typically one to four weeks
• Daily ‘scrums’ – daily stand-up meetings of about 15 minutes
• Unlike XP, requirements are frozen during a sprint
• At the beginning of the sprint there is a sprint planning meeting where
requirements are prioritized
• At end of sprint, a review meeting where work is reviewed and requirements
may be changed or added to
Organizational Structures
Objectives
• Departments
– Criteria: Staff Specialization, Product Lines, Categories of Customers,
Geo. Location
– Banking, Embedded application, Telecom
– Verticals
• Projects and Teams
– Every department several projects
– Each project has a separate team of developers
Department Structure
• Functional Format
• Project Format
• Matrix Format
Functional Format
• Developers are divided into functional groups
• specialization and experience
• Database, Networking, Req. Analysis, Design, Testing.
• Different projects follow borrow developers from corresponding functional
group.
• Upon completion ,developers are returned to the respective functional groups
• Partially completed product passes from one team to another
• Functional team working does not physically meet other functional teams.
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• Documents
• Mandates production of good quality documentation
Project Organization
• Designed for realizing task-oriented teams.
• At the start of every project, a set of developers are assigned to it.
• Developers remain with the project until the completion of the project.
• Same team carries out all the project activities.
Matrix Format
• Extension of functional format
• Provide advantage of both functional and Project structures
• Pool of functional specialists is assigned to different projects as needed
• The member assigned to a project has to report to both the managers ( functional
and project)
• Weak or Strong
• Depending upon the relative authority of the functional managers and the project
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managers
• Strong – Functional Managers authority
• Weak – Project Managers authority
Disadvantages:
• Multiplicity of authority – Conflicts
• Denotes
– Reporting
– Responsibility
– Communication Structures (in Individual projects)
• Different project different styles
• Team Structures
– Chief Programmer
– Democratic
– Mixed Team Organization
Democratic Team
Coordination Dependencies
• Accessibility(‘right-place’) dependencies
- Availability of Ambulance
- In Information and communications technology(ICT) less obvious –
Delivery & Installation of ICT equipment.
• Usability(‘right thing’) dependencies
- Fitness for purpose
- Satisfaction-prototype
- Legislative changes
• Fit Requirements
- Integration testing
Tools
• PFD
• Microsoft Project
o Decision making; allocation of resources
o Within projects and across a portfolio of projects
o Producer consumer; task-subtask dependencies
• Use of Change Management and Configuration management
Dependencies
• Ian McChesney – Research Report
o A person can be go between for staff
o EMails
- Broadband
• Temporary Teams
- Contract Employees
- Short time
- Cost effective
- Graphic designer
• OffShore
Advantages
✓ Reduction in staff cost- salary lower
✓ Overheads reduction-accomodation,social security payments,training
✓ Flexible use of staff
✓ Productivity higher
✓ Specialized staff
✓ Different time zones-(code n test)
Challenges
➢ Work distributed to contractors- Careful
➢ Procedures-formally expressed
➢ Coordination- difficult
➢ Payment(fixed price/piece-rate)
➢ Lack of trust
➢ Quality Assesment
➢ Differenct time zones Communication and coordination
Communication plan
• Intermediate stages
• Implementation stages
Communications plans
• As we have seen choosing the right communication methods is crucial in a
project
• Therefore, a good idea to create a communication plan
• Stages of creating a communication plan
– Identify all the major stakeholders for the project
– Create a plan for the project
– Identify stakeholder and communication needs for each stage of the
project
– Document in a communication plan
Leadership
Types of authority/power
Position power
• Coercive power – able to threaten punishment
• Connection power – have access to those who do have power
• Legitimate power – based on a person’s title conferring a special status
• Reward power – able to reward those who comply
Personal power
• Expert power: holder can carry out specialist tasks that are in demand
• Information power: holder has access to needed information
• Referent power: based on personal attractiveness or charisma
Leadership styles
❖ Where there is uncertainty about the way job is to be done or staff are
inexperienced they welcome task oriented supervision
❖ Uncertainty is reduced – people orientation more important
❖ Risk that with reduction of uncertainty, managers have time on their hands and
become more task oriented (interfering)
Essentially staff want hands-on management when they need guidance. Once they
know the job they want to be left to get on with it!
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WHAT IS STRESS?
Stress is your mind and body’s response or reaction to a real or imagined threat, event
or change.
The threat, event or change are commonly called stressors. Stressors can be internal
(thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or external (loss, tragedy, change).
EUSTRESS
Eustress or positive stress occurs when your level of stress is high enough to
motivate you to move into action to get things accomplished.
DISTRESS
Distress or negative stress occurs when your level of stress is either too high or too
low and your body and/or mind begin to respond negatively to the stressors.
ALARM STAGE
As you begin to experience a stressful event or perceive something to be stressful
psychological changes occur in your body. This experience or perception disrupts
your body’s normal balance and immediately your body begins to respond to the
stressor(s) as effectively as possible.
EXAMPLES
Cardiac - increased heart rate
Respiratory - increased respiration
Skin - decreased temperature
Hormonal - increased stimulation of adrenal genes which produce an adrenal rush.
RESISTANCE STAGE
During this stage your body tries to cope or adapt to the stressors by beginning a
process of repairing any damage the stressor has caused. Your friends, family or co-
workers may notice changes in you before you do so it is important to examine their
feedback to make sure you do not reach overload.
EXAMPLES
Behavior indicators include: lack of enthusiasm for family, school, work or life in
general, withdrawal, change in eating habits, insomnia, hypersomnia, anger, fatigue.
EXHAUSTION STAGE
During this stage the stressor is not being managed effectively and the body and
mind are not able to repair the damage.
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Types of CopingStrategies
Problem-focused Emotion-focused
Problem Solving Praying
Assertiveness Relaxing
Seeking active social Exercising
support Seeking passive social support
Avoidant Appraisal-focused
Ignoring Cognitive restructuring
Escaping Knowledge/skills
→ Exercise
✓ Deep breathing
✓ Take mind off of problems
Biofeedback
✓ Utilizes machines that monitor physiological responses
✓ Useful for decreasing tension headaches, asthma attacks, hypertension and
phobias.
Meditation / Imagery
✓ Relies on deep breathing
✓ Facilitated by images of peace and relaxation.
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