Energy Efficiency of Industrial

Systems: Part II
SEE705 – Energy Efficiency and Demand
Management

Lecture: Week 6

Unit Chair: Dr. Saman A. Gorji

Lecturer: Jack Connor

Energy Management Handbook- Chapter 10, 11, 13

Typical Energy Consumption Of HVAC Systems

Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

(HVAC) is responsible for a significant
proportion of a building's total energy
consumption.

A typical HVAC system can account for 40% of

a total buildings consumptions.

The Figure to the right, shows typical end use

breakdown of a HVAC system.
Energy Efficiency for HVAC Systems:
What to Look for?
When evaluating the energy efficiency of the building
HVAC systems:
Find out,
• What equipment and controls are available for
HVAC systems? E.g., boilers, chillers, cooling
towers, thermostats, valves.
• How the system operates, hours of operation,
automated or manual control?
When looking for improving the energy efficiency of the
building through implementation of Energy Conservation
Opportunity (ECO) projects:
• Investigate Potential causes of operational
changes, e.g. building modification, lapse in
maintenance, changes in operation hours.
Human Thermal Comfort

The most important objective of a HVAC system is to

keep the Human Thermal Comfort within a building.
• Air temperature, humidity, air motion and the
surface temperature of surroundings all have a
significant influence on the rate at which the human
body can dissipate heat.
• Need to establish a heat balance between the
occupant and his or her environment.
• When environmental conditions are cool the most
important determinant of human thermal comfort is
the radiant temperature of the surroundings.
• When conditions are warm, air velocity and
humidity are most important.
Central Heating and Ducted Systems

• Central heating usually uses more energy than space heating as more of the building
tends to be heated.

• Many central heaters have high energy losses from the heat distribution systems, usually
through ducts or hot water pipes. They should be as short as possible and well-insulated.

• When heating requirements are low, distribution losses can be the main contributor to
heating costs.

• In ducted systems, hot air is circulated through roof or underfloor ducts, supplying
convective heat. In ducted gas systems, a fan moves the air around the home, using
electricity as well as gas.

• The system needs to be designed in a way so that the extent of the area heated can be
controlled. Zoning needed to allow for shutting off heating to unoccupied areas.

• Ducts should be insulated to at least R1.5 and all joints should be well sealed.
Evaporative Cooling vs Refrigerated Cooling

Evaporative Cooling

• Evaporative coolers use evaporation of water as the cooling mechanism.

• Evaporative coolers work best in climates with low humidity. Operating costs can be low as only the
fan and a small water pump use energy.
• Problem: House heats up faster when not operating, because large volumes of air can be sucked out
of the house through the evaporative unit.

Refrigerated Cooling

• Air conditioning/refrigerated cooling can give a higher degree of comfort in any climate. However, it
consumes more energy, which means creation of more greenhouse gases than fans and efficient
evaporative cooling systems.
• For efficient air conditioning, the house or room should be sealed and highly insulated with bulk and
reflective insulation.
Energy Conservation Opportunities for HVAC
Systems

Improve maintenance.

Calibrate thermostats.

Dirt build-up should be periodically removed especially from heat transfer surfaces.

Heat Recovery to extract waste heat and humidity from exhaust air to preheat fresh cold outdoor
air.

Demand management.
Unnecessary Energy Consumption of HVAC
Systems
• Unnecessary operation tends to be caused by large systems which condition entire
buildings and a lack of control to turn off equipment when it is not needed.

• May require the operation of the entire system to condition a single space.

• Installation of a local packaged system serving a specialized area can prevent the
unnecessary operation of a larger system.

• Exhaust fans, dust collectors, and other small equipment which serve specific rooms are
often left running continuously due to the lack of local control to turn them off
(Occupancy sensors can prevent this problem).
Demand Management for HVAC Systems:
Operating Schedule
• Equipment loads can be deferred for a short interval with no appreciable impact on
operations.

• During extreme weather, outside air can be reduced for short periods in order to improve
heating or cooling efficiency.

• Computerized controls can be used to prevent large pieces of equipment from operating
simultaneously which increases peak demand.

• With adequate thermal storage both heat and cool can be stored in order to take
advantage of off-peak utility rates and to reduce instantaneous heating or cooling
requirements during peak periods.
Demand Management for HVAC Systems: Night
Set-back
Reduce the amount of conditioning provided at night by allowing the interior temperature
to drift naturally to a marginal temperature during the night and then to recondition it to
normal conditions in the morning.

𝐸= 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑈 + 𝑞𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ ℎ𝑟
Where:
𝐸 = Energy saved by night set-back
𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟 = surface area of perimeter envelope, ft2
𝑈 = effective U-value of thermal envelope, Btu/hr ft2 °F
𝑞𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ventilation load, Btu/hr°F
∆𝑇= night setback temperature difference, degrees F
ℎ𝑟 = heating season unoccupied hours

Note: If an air-conditioned building allowed to heat up during the night must be re-cooled at the day rate in the
morning, night set-back could end up costing more than cooling the building all night.

Note: Building “envelope” generally refers to those building components that enclose conditioned spaces and
through which thermal energy is transferred to or from the outdoor environment.
Demand Management for HVAC Systems: Other
Methods
• Re-condition a building after night set-back with the use of an optimum-time start
device.
o This microprocessor-based thermostat compares the outside and inside
temperatures along with the desired set point during the operating cycle.
o It determines how long it will take to re-condition the building to the set point based
on previous data and turns the system on at the appropriate time to reach the set
point temperature just in time.

• Another method is warm up-cool down cycle, the system recirculates building return air
until a temperature within one or two degrees of the set point is reached, saving the
energy which would be required to heat or cool outside ventilation air.
Improving Energy Efficiency of Electrical Power
Systems

1. Maintain Voltage Levels. 11. Choose Energy Efficient Motors.

2. Minimize Phase Imbalance. 12. Match Motor Operating Speeds.
3. Maintain Power Factor. 13. Size Motors for Efficiency.
4. Maintain Good Power Quality. 14. Choose Motors with suitable voltage
5. Select Efficient Transformers. ratings.
6. Identify and Fix Distribution System Losses. 15. Minimize Rewind Losses.
7. Minimize Distribution System Resistance. 16. Optimize Transmission Efficiency.
8. Use Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs) or 2- 17. Perform Periodic Checks.
Speed Motors Where Appropriate. 18. Control Temperatures.
9. Consider Load Shedding. 19. Lubricate Correctly.
10. Choose Replacement Before a Motor Fails. 20. Maintain Motor Records.
Effect of Unbalanced Voltage on Motor
Performance

When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not equal, unbalanced currents
in the stator windings result.

Causes temperature rise more than the balanced voltage case.

Operation of the motor with more than a 5-percent voltage unbalance is not recommended.

A derating factor is multiplied to the rated horsepower of polyphase squirrel-cage induction motors
to reduce the possibility of damage.

The overload device needs to respond to maximum current rather than the average current.
Power Factor

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑓 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

ACTIVE POWER = “real power” supplied by the

power system to actually turn the motor.

REACTIVE POWER = is used to develop a magnetic

field within the motor.

Power factor may be “leading” or “lagging”

depending on the direction of VAR flow.
Why Improve Power Factor ?

• Low (or “unsatisfactory”) power factor is caused by the

use of inductive (magnetic) devices and can indicate
possible low system electrical operating efficiency. (Low
power factor causes the increase of power loss in
transmission lines).

• Induction motors are generally the principal cause of low

power factor because there are so many in use, and they
are usually not fully loaded.

• Pf improvement improves plant capacity.

• Reduces power losses in feeders, transformers and

distribution equipment.

• It reduces power factor “penalty” charges for the electric

utility.
How to Improve Power Factor?

• Capacitors (connected in parallel to inductive loads) can be

used to improve the power factor of a circuit with a large
inductive load.

• Current through capacitor LEADS the applied voltage and

has the effect of “opposing” the inductive “LAGGING”
current.

• When capacitor is used for individual inductive load, better

voltage regulation is achieved (however, small capacitors
cost more per kVA than larger units).

• When capacitor is used with a group of equipment, it

reduces material costs relative to individual correction,
however, appropriate switching control is required.
Power Quality Requirements for Nonlinear Speed
Drives

TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES: When capacitors are energized, a large transient overvoltage may develop
causing the speed drive to trip.

VOLTAGE SAGS: Speed Drives are very sensitive to temporary reductions in nominal voltage.

HARMONIC DISTORTION: Speed Drives introduce harmonics into the power system due to nonlinear
characteristics of power electronics operation. if it is severe, it can cause motor, transformer and
conductor overheating, capacitor failures, mis-operation of relays and controls and reduce system
efficiencies.
Operating Loads of Motors

• Electric motors optimum efficiency is typically at 75 percent of the rated load.

• Motors are designed to operate at 50 to 100 percent of their rated load.

• Under-loaded motors, those loaded below 50 percent of rated load, operate inefficiently
and exhibit low power factor.
How to determine Operating Load:
Slip Measurement
1. Read and record the motors nameplate Full Load Speed (RPM).
2. Determine Synchronous speed, No Load Speed (RPM) (900, 1200, 1800, 3600).
3. Measure and record Operating Load Speed with tachometer (RPM).
4. Insert the recorded values in the following formula and solve.

𝑁𝐿𝑆 − 𝑂𝐿𝑆
%𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = ∗ 100
𝑁𝐿𝑆 − 𝐹𝐿𝑆
Where:
NLS = No load or synchronous speed.
OLS = Operating load speed.
FLS = Full load speed.

Example: Consider a 100 HP motor, with NLS = 1800 RPM, FLS = 1775 RPM, and OLS = 1786 RPM.
1800−1785
%𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = ∗ 100
1800−1775
%𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 56%

Approximate load on motor = 100 HP × 0.56 = 56 HP

How to Determine Operating Load from
Amperage Readings
1. Measure and record line amperage with load connected and running.
2. Disconnect motor from load. Measure and record the line amperage when the motor is running without load.
3. Read and record the motors nameplate amperage for the voltage being used.
4. Insert the recorded values in the following formula and solve.
2 ∗ 𝐿𝐿𝐴 − 𝑁𝐿𝐴
%𝐻𝑃 = ∗ 100
2 ∗ 𝑁𝑃𝐴 − 𝑁𝐿𝐴
Where:
LLA = Loaded Line Amps
NLA = No Load Line Amps (Motor disconnected from load)
NPA = Nameplate Amperage (For operating voltage)

Example: A 20 HP motor driving a pump is operating on 460 volts and has a loaded line amperage of 16.5. When the
coupling is disconnected, and the motor operated at no load the amperage is 9.3. The motor nameplate amperage
for 460 volts is 24.0.

Therefore, we have: LLA = 16.5, NLA = 9.3, and NPA = 24.0.

2∗16.5−9.3
%𝐻𝑃 = 2∗24.0−9.3 ∗ 100
%𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑃 = 61.2%

Approximate load on motor = 20 HP × 0.612 = 12.24 HP

Lighting Systems

• The amount of watts consumed represents the

electrical input to the lighting system.

• The output of a lamp is measured in lumens.

• The number of foot-candles shows how much

light is actually reaching the work plane.

• Foot lamberts is how much light is reflected

from the surface.
Recommended Light Levels for Visual Tasks
Types of Lamps: CFL
Miniature fluorescent with built in ballast.
Ideal for replacement of incandescent lamps.
Saves up to 75% on energy use.
Lasts 7-10 times longer than an incandescent.
Low thermal energy output.
Improved colour rendition.
Types of Lamps: LEDs
Energy Star bulbs rated at 25,000 hours.
Can use up to 50% less energy than a CFL.
Widespread use over the next 20 years could reduce
lighting energy demand by 33%.
Currently more expensive to purchase compared to
incandescent and CFLs.
Light Bulb Comparison
Light Bulb Comparison
How to Improve Lighting Efficiency

1. Identify necessary light quantity and quality to perform visual task.

• Suitable level of contrast is also important.

2. Light source efficiency increases if occupancy is frequent.

3. Replacing or modifying lamps, ballasts and/or fixtures increases efficiency.

4. Installing reflectors and more efficient lenses.

• With reduced lighting load, electrical demand savings are also usually obtained.

5. Optimize lighting controls if occupancy is infrequent.

• Sophisticated controls can turn systems OFF when they are not needed, allowing energy savings to accumulate
quickly.
• Lighting controls include switches, time clocks, occupancy sensors and other devices that regulate a lighting
system.
Thank You