metals

Review
Fracture Behaviour of Aluminium Alloys under Coastal
Environmental Conditions: A Review
Ibrahim Alqahtani * , Andrew Starr and Muhammad Khan

Centre for Life-Cycle Engineering and Management, School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing,
Cranfield University, College Road, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Aluminium alloys have been integral to numerous engineering applications due to their
favourable strength, weight, and corrosion resistance combination. However, the performance of
these alloys in coastal environments is a critical concern, as the interplay between fracture toughness
and fatigue crack growth rate under such conditions remains relatively unexplored. This compre-
hensive review addresses this research gap by analysing the intricate relationship between fatigue
crack propagation, fracture toughness, and challenging coastal environmental conditions. In view
of the increasing utilisation of aluminium alloys in coastal infrastructure and maritime industries,
understanding their behaviour under the joint influences of cyclic loading and corrosive coastal
atmospheres is imperative. The primary objective of this review is to synthesise the existing knowl-
edge on the subject, identify research gaps, and propose directions for future investigations. The
methodology involves an in-depth examination of peer-reviewed literature and experimental studies.
The mechanisms driving fatigue crack initiation and propagation in aluminium alloys exposed to
saltwater, humidity, and temperature variations are elucidated. Additionally, this review critically
evaluates the impact of coastal conditions on fracture toughness, shedding light on the vulnerability
of aluminium alloys to sudden fractures in such environments. The variability of fatigue crack
growth rates and fracture toughness values across different aluminium alloy compositions and
environmental exposures was discussed. Corrosion–fatigue interactions emerge as a key contributor
to accelerated crack propagation, underscoring the need for comprehensive mitigation strategies.
Citation: Alqahtani, I.; Starr, A.; Khan, This review paper highlights the pressing need to understand the behaviour of aluminium alloys
M. Fracture Behaviour of Aluminium under coastal conditions comprehensively. By revealing the existing research gaps and presenting an
Alloys under Coastal Environmental integrated overview of the intricate mechanisms at play, this study aims to guide further research
Conditions: A Review. Metals 2024, 14,
and engineering efforts towards enhancing the durability and safety of aluminium alloy components
336. https://doi.org/10.3390/
in coastal environments.
met14030336

Academic Editors: Umberto Prisco, Keywords: fatigue crack growth; fracture toughness; aluminium alloys; coastal environments;
Tomasz Tański, Francesca Borgioli and temperature; humidity; corrosion
Denis Benasciutti

Received: 8 February 2024

Revised: 26 February 2024
Accepted: 13 March 2024 1. Introduction
Published: 15 March 2024 In the engineering world, the initiation and propagation of cracks in the material
components of aircraft structures are difficult challenges that demand attention. If failure
remains undetected in its early stages, it can result in severe consequences, ultimately
leading to catastrophic damage. The catastrophic damage to the structures will be more
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
expensive to replace. For this reason, researchers have performed extensive research to find
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
solutions and minimise crack growth.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
Engineering materials, particularly metals, are prone to developing cracks and frac-
conditions of the Creative Commons
tures during service. Numerous application structures, including those in automotive,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
aircraft, and power plants, operate under diverse loading conditions [1]. These structures,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ particularly those made of aluminium alloys, become increasingly susceptible to fatigue
4.0/). and failure under the combined influence of mechanical loads [2]. Aluminium alloys are

Metals 2024, 14, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14030336 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2024, 14, 336 2 of 36

essential in engineering because they provide a balance of strength and light weight [3–6].
Further technological advances enhanced the aluminium alloy, allowing it to be used in the
aerospace industry [7]. Aluminium alloys in aircraft structures are advantageous due to
their corrosion resistance, durability, and low maintenance requirements [8]. These prop-
erties collectively contribute to structures’ effectiveness and sustainability in challenging
corrosive conditions.
In corrosive conditions, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity
impact the fatigue growth and fracture behaviour of aluminium alloys [9]. Researchers can
evaluate a material’s ability to withstand cracks or other defects caused by the corrosive
environment or other loading conditions by analysing its fracture toughness [10]. High
fracture toughness values indicate that a material is less likely to experience sudden
failures [11], making it more reliable for corrosive environments. The combined influence
of the temperature and humidity creates unique challenges to the material properties.
These conditions can accelerate material degradation and cause structural failures [12].
Therefore, addressing the interaction of materials and structures with such harsh conditions
is essential.
This literature review presents the significant efforts of the past and reviews the exper-
imental and modelling challenges on fracture and fatigue crack growth under a corrosive
environment. Focusing on qualitative descriptions of fracture behaviour in aluminium
alloys is crucial due to their widespread use across industries. Qualitative analysis is instru-
mental in ensuring the safety and reliability of structures by identifying potential failure
modes such as fatigue cracks and stress corrosion cracking. By studying fracture surfaces,
researchers can detect manufacturing defects and impurities influencing the material’s frac-
ture behaviour. This analysis aids in understanding corrosion-related fracture behaviour,
facilitating the development of alloys with enhanced corrosion resistance for applications in
corrosive environments. Moreover, qualitative analysis allows tailoring alloys for specific
purposes by comprehending the impact of different compositions and heat treatments on
fracture behaviour. Overall, this approach contributes to a deeper understanding of the
relationships between microstructure, alloy composition, and fracture properties, providing
a foundation for further advancements in the field of aluminium alloys.
The literature review provides an overview of the research complexities in the coastal
environment. This review organises the previous research under four significant ap-
proaches: the fundamentals of fracture and fatigue crack growth behaviour, coastal envi-
ronmental conditions and their effects, fracture mechanisms in coastal environments, and
modelling and predictive methods. The conclusion highlights the need for comprehensive
efforts to address existing gaps in the current research field.

2. Fundamentals of Fracture and Fatigue Crack Growth Behaviour

In the context of materials engineering and science application, a crack refers to a
discontinuity in the structure of a material, which can be initiated by various factors such
as manufacturing defects, stress, fatigue, or corrosion. Crack formation in aluminium is
influenced by various manufacturing-related factors that must be carefully considered to
ensure the structural integrity of the material. Inclusions, impurities, and porosity arising
from incomplete refinement or casting processes can act as stress concentration points,
initiating cracks. Welding issues, such as incomplete fusion or a lack of penetration, can
create weak zones susceptible to cracking. Heat treatment effects, including improper pro-
cesses or quenching, may lead to variations in hardness and microstructural defects. Alloy
composition and exposure to hydrogen during manufacturing can also affect aluminium’s
susceptibility to cracking [13]. The appearance of a crack is influenced by the material’s
microstructure, loading conditions, and environmental factors. Within engineering appli-
cations, the frequent use of fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth values attends
to characterizing and evaluating the material’s performance and integrity [14]. Fracture
toughness represents a material’s resistance to crack propagation under stress, ensuring its
ability to withstand flaws and defects. On the other hand, the fatigue crack growth rate
Metals 2024, 14, 336 3 of 36

examines how cracks initiate and propagate over time under cyclic loading conditions,
offering essential insights into the fatigue behaviour of materials [15]. Researchers and engi-
neers rely on these fundamental principles to ensure the durability and safety of structures
in different applications.
Crack initiation is a complex process integral to understanding the failure of materials
and structures, particularly in the realm of fatigue and fracture mechanics. The initiation of
cracks often occurs under cyclic loading conditions, where repeated or fluctuating stress is
applied to a material. Microscopic defects, impurities, or inclusions within the material
act as stress concentration points, creating localised areas of increased stress. These stress
raisers promote the nucleation of cracks, marking the initiation phase. Moreover, material
flaws such as inhomogeneities, microstructural defects, or manufacturing imperfections
can serve as natural sites for crack initiation. Environmental factors, such as corrosion or
exposure to aggressive chemicals, further accelerate this process by degrading material
properties and promoting crack formation. Overloading, exceeding a material’s capacity,
can induce localized plastic deformation, creating conditions conducive to crack initiation,
particularly in brittle materials.
The stress intensity factor (K) plays a pivotal role in fracture mechanics, offering a
quantitative measure of stress concentration near the tip of a crack. It is expressed by the
Equation (1): √
K = σ πa (1)
where K is the stress intensity factor, σ is the applied stress, and a is the crack length. This
factor is essential for evaluating the severity of stress near the crack tip and understanding
crack growth behaviour. As the stress intensity factor increases, it approaches a critical value
known as fracture toughness (KIc ). This critical point signifies the threshold beyond which
crack propagation becomes unstable, leading to catastrophic failure. The stress intensity
factor aids in predicting under what conditions cracks will propagate, guiding engineers in
designing structures to avoid failure due to crack growth. In essence, it provides a critical
parameter for assessing the susceptibility of materials to fracture, ensuring the reliability
and safety of engineering components subjected to various loading conditions [16].
There will be yielding (σys ) and a plastic zone due to the postulated infinite elas-
tic stresses at the fracture tip. Irwin determined the size of the plastic zone (ry ) [17];
Equation (2):
1 K Ic 2
 
ry = (2)
2π σys
A more precise estimate of the size of the plastic zone (r p ) considers the redistribution
of stresses when the zone begins to yield; Equation (3):
 2
1 K Ic
r p = 2ry = (3)
π σys

Figure 1a illustrates this redistribution effect, r indicates the radial distance from the
crack tip, and σyy represents the stress in the radial direction. The plastic zone’s geometry
under plane stress and plane strain conditions is illustrated in Figure 1b.

2.1. Fracture Toughness

Fracture toughness measures a material’s capacity to resist the crack growth [18]. The
quantification and establishment of standardised fracture toughness are achieved through
the application of fracture mechanic theories such as linear elastic fracture mechanics
(LEFM) and elastic–plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) [19]. These theories find widespread
use in the evaluation of structural integrity, residual strength analysis, fitness-for-service
assessments, and the design of damage-tolerant structures [11]. Consequently, the assess-
ment and testing of fracture toughness have become crucial for advancing the practical
engineering applications of the fracture mechanics approach [16]. After recognising this
 Metals 2024, 14, 336 4 of 36

importance, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) stipulated standard-
2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW ised terminology and procedures for fracture toughness testing and4 assessment.
of 37 These
guidelines are outlined in fatigue and fracture testing E1820 [20] and linear–elastic plane
strain fracture toughness of metallic materials E399 [21].

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. (a): Crack tip plasticity.
Figure (b):tip
1. (a): Crack Crack tip plastic
plasticity. zone shapes
(b): Crack andzone
tip plastic the von Mises
shapes andyield criterion.
the von Mises yield criterion.

Figure 2 illustrates the three distinct modes of loading, Mode I, Mode II, and Mode
2.1. Fracture Toughness
III, that can be applied to a crack. Mode I involves forces pulling the crack surfaces apart,
Fracture toughness measures a material’s capacity to resist the crack growth [18]. The
often encountered in tensile scenarios. Mode II features sliding forces along the crack plane,
quantification and establishment of standardised fracture toughness are achieved through
essential for plane shear or sliding stress analysis. Mode III involves forces that make one
the application of fracture mechanic theories such as linear elastic fracture mechanics
side of the crack move out-of-plane shear, leading to tearing. Many standard geometries
(LEFM) and elastic–plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) [19]. These theories find wide-
of specimens in materials testing, such as compact tension (CT), disk-shaped compact
spread use in the evaluation of structural integrity, residual strength analysis, fitness-for-
specimen (DCT), arc-shape (AS) specimen, and single-edge notch bend (SENB) specimens,
service assessments, and the design of damage-tolerant structures [11]. Consequently, the
are designed for opening loading Mode I during testing, as shown in Figure 3A [16].
assessment and testing of fracture toughness have become crucial for advancing the prac-
These specimens are specifically engineered to apply controlled tensile forces to study
tical engineering applications of the fracture mechanics approach [16]. After recognising
various material properties, including fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth [16].
this importance, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) stipulated stand-
Doddamani et al. [15,22–24] studied how various geometric parameters affect fracture
ardised terminology and procedures for fracture toughness testing and assessment. These
toughness in Mode I. Also, they utilised different specimen types, including CT, SENB, and
guidelines are outlined in fatigue and fracture testing E1820 [20] and linear–elastic plane
strain fracture toughness of metallic materials E399 [21].
Figure 2 illustrates the three distinct modes of loading, Mode I, Mode II, and Mode
III, that can be applied to a crack. Mode I involves forces pulling the crack surfaces apart,
often encountered in tensile scenarios. Mode II features sliding forces along the crack
 geometries
geometries of of
specimens
specimens in in
materials testing,
materials testing,such as as
such compact
compact tension
tension(CT), disk-shaped
(CT), disk-shaped
compact
compact specimen
specimen (DCT),
(DCT), arc-shape
arc-shape(AS)
(AS)specimen,
specimen, andandsingle-edge
single-edge notch
notchbendbend(SENB)
(SENB)
specimens,
specimens, areare
designed
designed forfor
opening
opening loading
loading Mode
Mode I during
I duringtesting, as as
testing, shown
shown in in
Figure
Figure
3A3A [16]. These
[16]. These specimens
specimens areare
specifically
specificallyengineered
engineered to to
apply
applycontrolled
controlled tensile
tensileforces
forces to to
Metals 2024, 14, 336 study
studyvarious
various material properties,
material properties,including
including fracture
fracturetoughness
toughness and fatigue
and fatiguecrack growth
crack growth
5 of 36
[16]. Doddamani
[16]. Doddamani et et
al.al.
[15,22–24] studied
[15,22–24] studied howhow various
various geometric
geometric parameters
parameters affect
affect frac-
frac-
ture
turetoughness
toughness in in
Mode
Mode I. Also, they
I. Also, theyutilised
utiliseddifferent
different specimen
specimen types,
types,including
including CT,CT,
SENB,
SENB, and circumferential
circumferential
and circumferential notched
notched tensile notchedtensile
(CNT) (CNT)
specimens,
tensile (CNT) specimens,
and and
their findings
specimens, their
and findings
indicate
their thatindicate
findings all these
indicate
specimen
that allall
that thesetypes
these produced
specimen
specimen types consistent
produced
types results.
produced consistent
consistent results.
results.

Figure 2. Three
Figure loading modes imposed on on
a crack. Adapted from ref.ref.
[16].
Figure 2.2.Three
Three loading
loading modes
modes imposed
imposed on a acrack.
crack. Adapted
Adapted from
from [16].
ref. [16].

(A)(A)

Figure 3. Cont.
etals 2024,Metals
14, x FOR
Metals PEER
2024,
2024,14, REVIEW
14,x336
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 37 6 of 37
6 of 36

(B) (B)
Figure 3. (A): Standardised
Figure
Figure 3.3.(A): test specimens:
(A):Standardised
Standardised test (a) CT, (b)(a)
testspecimens:
specimens: DCT, CT,(c)
(a)CT, (b)SENB,
(b)DCT, and
DCT,(c) (d) ASand
(c)SENB,
SENB, specimen
and (d)
(d)AS
ASspecimen
specimen adapted
adapted from ref.
adapted [16].
from (B): Geometry
ref. [16]. (B): of CT
Geometryspecimen.
of CT Adapted
specimen. from ref.
Adapted
from ref. [16]. (B): Geometry of CT specimen. Adapted from ref. [21]. [21].
from ref. [21].

Researchers [8,12,25–28]
Researchers
Researchers generallygenerally
[8,12,25–28]
[8,12,25–28] prefer CTprefer
generally specimens
preferCT for fracture
CTspecimens
specimens for
fortoughness
fracture testing testing
fracturetoughness
toughness testing
due to their
due standardised
duetototheir nature, widespread
theirstandardised
standardised nature, acceptance,
nature,widespread
widespread and the assurance
acceptance,
acceptance, and
andthe of consistent
theassurance
assurance ofofconsistent
consistent
and comparable
and outcomes.
andcomparable
comparable CT specimens
outcomes.
outcomes. CT are well-suited
CTspecimens
specimens are for Modefor
arewell-suited
well-suited Ifor
crack
Mode
Mode propagation,
I Icrack
crackpropagation,
propagation,
which is which
common in engineering
whichisis common
common applications,
engineering
in engineering and they
applications,
applications, andcreate
and they
they near-plane
create
create strain strain
near-plane
near-plane condi-
strain condi-
conditions,
tions, simplifying
tions, crackcrack
simplifying
simplifying growthcrack analysis.
growthgrowth Figure
analysis.
analysis. 3BFigure
Figure illustrates the geometry
3B illustrates
3B illustrates of theof
the geometry
the geometry CTthespec-
of the
CT CT spec-
specimen
imen employed
imen
employedin fracture
employed intoughness
in fracture fracture testing,
toughness
toughness astesting,
testing,per
as ASTM
perasASTM
perE399
ASTMstandard.
E399 E399 standard.
standard.
The fracture Thetoughness
The fracture testing machine
fracturetoughness
toughness testing records the
testing machine load the
records
records and the crack
theload
load andthe
and mouth
the crack
crack open-
mouthopening
mouth open-
ing displacement
ing data with
displacement
displacement data three
datawithdistinct
with three
three curves,
distinctas
distinct shown
curves,
curves, inshown
asas Figurein
shown 4.Figure
in The three
Figure different
4. The
The three
threedifferent
different
types aretypes
Type I,are
typesare II,Type
and III,
Type asand
I,I,II,
II, classified
and III,as
III, by ASTMby
asclassified
classified E399
by ASTM
ASTM[21].E399
E399[21].
[21].

Figure 4. Load vs.4.4.

Figure
Figure CMOD
Load curves.
Loadvs.
vs.CMOD
CMODAdapted
curves.from
curves. ref. [21].
Adapted
Adapted from
fromref.
ref.[21].
[21].

The ASTM The E399

The ASTMstandard
ASTM E399 introduced
E399standard a methodato
standard introduced defineto
method
method the
to conditional
define
define stress inten-
theconditional
the conditional stressintensity
stress inten-
sity factorsity
(KQfactor
factor ), which
(KQ(K Qdepends
), which
), which on theonvalue
depends
depends on the
the of conditional
value
value load load
of conditional
of conditional PQ and PQ maximum
load PQ and
and load loadload
maximum
maximum Pmax .
Pmax. Conditional
PConditional load load
max. Conditionalvalue PQ value
load
value isPdetermined
Q isP is
determined
Q by the
determined
by secant
by
the line
the
secant (OP
secant
line )
(OP
5 with
line5 )(OPa
withslope
5 ) with
a (P/V)
a
slope slope
(P/V)
5 (P/V)
5 equal
5

to
equal to 0.95
equal 0.95
times times the
thetimes
to 0.95 slope
slope theof theof the
tangent
slope tangent
of theOA OA between
between
tangent OA (PL) (PL) and
and (PU),
between (PL) and(PU),
denoted denoted
(PU), as as (P/V)o.
(P/V)o.as (P/V)o.
denoted In
Metals 2024, 14, 336 7 of 36

practical terms, when determining the secant line OP5 , the pivotal point for adjusting the
slope rotation should align with the intersection of the line OA and the displacement axis.
The force PQ is subsequently defined as follows: if the maximum force occurs after P5
(Types I and II), then P5 is designated as PQ . In cases where a preceding maximum force
before P5 surpasses it (Type III), this preceding maximum force is acknowledged as PQ [21].
Determining the critical load PQ at a 95% secant offset contributes to achieving the
valid plane strain fracture toughness value, KIc , which depends on calculating the Pmax /PQ
ratio. This ratio serves as validation criteria, ensuring the fracture toughness measurement
complies with the specified testing standards and maintains reliability [29]. The fracture
toughness of metallic material was determined using the Equation (4) [21].

PQ  a 
KQ = √ √ f (4)
BBN W W

where, for CT Specimens,

2 + Wa
 a 
  a   a 2  a 3  a 4 
f
W
=
3 0.886 + 4.64 W − 13.32 W + 14.72 W − 5.6 W
1− a 2
W

The condition for the plane strain fracture toughness is given in Equations (5) and (6)
below [30]:
KQ 2 KQ 2
   
B ≥ 2.5 and a ≥ 2.5 (5)
σy σy

KQ 2
 
W ≥ 5.0 (6)
σy
where BN is the thickness of the specimen at the notch, B is the thickness of the specimen, a
is the crack length, W is the specimen width, Pmax is the load-carrying capacity, σy is the
yield strength of the material.

2.2. Fatigue Crack Growth Rate (FCGR)

FCGR is a measure used to quantify the rate at which a crack in a material grows over
time under cyclic loading conditions. Consequently, ASTM E647 is a standard test method
that provides guidelines for measuring the FCGR in metallic materials. CT specimens are
frequently employed in FCGR testing due to their standardised geometry, which ensures
precise and replicable testing conditions. Also, it requires the least amount of test material
to evaluate crack growth behaviour. Their suitability for investigating crack propagation is
attributed to a simplified analysis of crack growth rate [31].
Figure 5 illustrates a comprehensive schematic fatigue crack growth curve, explaining
distinct regimes in the progression of cracks under cyclic loading conditions. In the ini-
tial regime, short/small fatigue cracks initiate at discontinuities, showcasing exponential
growth. This transitions into a second regime with non-inspectable slow fatigue crack
growth (FCG), marking a critical juncture. Short/small cracks evolve into 0.25–0.5 mm
long/large cracks in aluminium alloys, representing in-service inspectable FCG. Subse-
quently, increased fatigue loads expedite crack growth, ultimately leading to component
failure [32].
 x FOR PEER REVIEW
Metals 2024, 14, 336 88of 37
of 36

Figure 5. Schematic
Figure 5. Schematic fatigue
fatigue crack
crack growth
growthcurve
curveshowing
showingdifferent
differentregimes
regimesofofcrack
crackgrowth.
growth.Adapted
from ref. [32].
Adapted from ref. [32].

All
All the
the following
following authors
authors used usedthe theCT CTspecimens
specimensand andestablished
establishedthe thestandard
standardproce-
pro-
dure
cedure for fracture and fatigue testing of aluminium alloys and their composites. Lee [33]
for fracture and fatigue testing of aluminium alloys and their composites. Lee [33]
focused
focused on onassessing
assessingthethefatigue
fatigue crack
crackgrowth
growth performance
performance of aluminium
of aluminium metalmetal
matrix com-
matrix
posites
composites(MMCs). R. Yuan
(MMCs). et al. et
R. Yuan [34]al.performed
[34] performed tests to evaluate
tests fracture
to evaluate toughness
fracture and cyclic
toughness and
fatigue
cyclic fatigue properties of aluminium alloy and its composites. Abdul Budan etstudied
properties of aluminium alloy and its composites. Abdul Budan et al. [35] al. [35]
the fatigue
studied the and mechanical
fatigue characteristics
and mechanical of Al6061
characteristics aluminium
of Al6061 alloy and
aluminium composites.
alloy and compo- Y.
Uematsu et al. [36] conducted fatigue tests at elevated temperatures, employing smooth
sites. Y. Uematsu et al. [36] conducted fatigue tests at elevated temperatures, employing
specimens of aluminium alloy and its composites with diverse particle sizes while keeping
smooth specimens of aluminium alloy and its composites with diverse particle sizes while
a consistent weight percentage of silicon carbide (SiC) particles. D. P. Myriounis et al. [37]
keeping a consistent weight percentage of silicon carbide (SiC) particles. D. P. Myriounis
investigated the fatigue and fracture toughness characteristics of aluminium reinforced
et al. [37] investigated the fatigue and fracture toughness characteristics of aluminium re-
with SiC particles. J. Huang et al. [38] studied the impact of microstructural variability
inforced with SiC particles. J. Huang et al. [38] studied the impact of microstructural var-
on the very high-cycle fatigue behaviour of discontinuously reinforced aluminium metal
iability on the very high-cycle fatigue behaviour of discontinuously reinforced aluminium
matrix composites (MMCs). Sharma et al. [39] investigated the fatigue characteristics of the
metal matrix composites (MMCs). Sharma et al. [39] investigated the fatigue characteris-
aluminium alloy, and their experimental results showcased improvements in the fatigue
tics of the aluminium alloy, and their experimental results showcased improvements in
and fracture properties of the material. Bikash Joadder et al. [40] performed experimental
the fatigue and fracture properties of the material. Bikash Joadder et al. [40] performed
and finite element analyses to predict failure cycles. Shahani et al. [41] employed CT
experimental and finite element analyses to predict failure cycles. Shahani et al. [41] em-
specimens to estimate methods for fatigue life prediction. Furthermore, numerous other
ployed CT specimens
researchers to estimate
[42,43] conducted similarmethods for fatigue
experiments on CTlife prediction.
specimens Furthermore,
to predict fatigue nu-life.
merous other researchers [42,43] conducted similar experiments
A crack employed at the end of the notch, shown in Figure 3, can be introduced using on CT specimens to pre- a
dict fatigue life. testing machine [8]. The prepared CT specimen is securely mounted in the
servo-hydraulic
gripsAofcrack employed
the testing at theCrack
machine. end ofinitiation
the notch, is shown in Figure
then started 3, can becontrolled
by applying introduced using
loading
a servo-hydraulic testing machine [8]. The prepared CT specimen
conditions, such as load ratio, frequency, and strain rate [44]. Even though employing is securely mounted in
the grips
digital of the
image testing machine.
correlation (DIC) and/or Crack initiation
high-speed is camera
then started by applyingmonitoring
[45] techniques, controlled
loading conditions, such as load ratio, frequency, and strain
crack propagation carefully throughout the fatigue testing process is challenging. rate [44]. Even though em-
ploying digital image correlation (DIC) and/or high-speed camera
Fatigue in materials exposed to repetitive cyclic loading can be described as a devel- [45] techniques, moni-
toring process
oping crack propagation carefully
involving three throughout
stages: regime I, the fatigue
which testing
is crack processregime
initiation; is challenging.
II, which
Fatigue
is stable crack inpropagation
materials exposed
as perto repetitive
Paris law; and cyclic loading
regime can be described
III, unstable as a devel-
crack propagation
oping
or process
fracture involving
failure, shown three stages:6regime
in Figure [46]. The I, which
Paris islaw crack
is an initiation;
empirical regime
equationII, which
used
is stable
to modelcrack propagation
materials’ fatigueascrack
per Paris
growth law;rate.
and regime
Using aIII, unstable crack
power-law propagation
equation plotted or in
fracture failure, shown in Figure 6 [46]. The Paris law is an
logarithmic coordinates, Paris’ law (Equation (7)) establishes a connection between the empirical equation used to
model materials’ fatigue crack growth rate. Using a power-law equation plotted in
 Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 37
Metals 2024, 14, 336 9 of 36

logarithmic
stress intensitycoordinates,
factor rangeParis’ law the
(∆K) and (Equation (7)) establishes
crack growth a connection
rate (da/dN). between
The alterations the
made
stress intensity factor range (ΔK) and the crack growth rate (da/dN). The alterations
to Paris’ law for determining crack growth rates proved highly effective in enhancing the made
to Paris’ of
accuracy law for determining
fatigue crackingrowth
life predictions rates proved
engineering highly effective in enhancing the
design [47].
accuracy of fatigue life predictions in engineering design [47].

Figure 6. The stress intensity factor curve for metallic materials typically exhibits three distinct re-
Figure 6. The stress intensity factor curve for metallic materials typically exhibits three distinct
gimes when it comes to fatigue crack growth rate. Reprinted from ref. [47].
regimes when it comes to fatigue crack growth rate. Reprinted from ref. [47].

2.3.Environmental
2.3. EnvironmentalFractureFracture
Figure66depicts
Figure depictsthe thecurve
curvecorrelating
correlatingthe thestress
stressintensity
intensityfactor
factorwith
withthe
thefatigue
fatiguecrackcrack
growth rate. Moreover, the figure visually represents the regimes
growth rate. Moreover, the figure visually represents the regimes of fatigue crack growth of fatigue crack growth
ratethat
rate thatare
arenotably
notablyimpacted
impactedby byenvironmental
environmentalfactors.factors.Environmental
Environmentalfactors factorssuchsuchasas
temperature,humidity,
temperature, humidity,and andexposure
exposuretotocorrosive
corrosiveagents
agentsare arecommonly
commonlyencountered
encounteredinin
coastalregions
coastal regions[48].
[48].InIn a corrosive
a corrosive medium,
medium, regime
regime I still
I still beginsbegins
withwith small
small crackcrack initia-
initiation,
tion,
but but it happens
it happens faster due faster due to corrosion
to corrosion weakeningweakening
the material theat material
potentialat potential
stress pointsstress
[49].
points [49]. This can lead to the formation of tiny corrosion-induced
This can lead to the formation of tiny corrosion-induced cracks, often detectable only under cracks, often detecta-
able only under
microscope. a microscope.
During regime II,During regime
when small II, when
cracks expand,small thecracks expand,
corrosive agents theattack
corrosive
the
crack
agents tips, promoting
attack the crack rapid
tips,material
promoting degradation and creating
rapid material degradationa favourable environment
and creating a favour-
for
ablecrack growth [50].
environment Cracks
for crack can spread
growth morecan
[50]. Cracks quickly
spreadand moredeeply
quicklycompared
and deeply to non-
com-
corrosive
pared to conditions,
non-corrosive posing a significant
conditions, posingthreat to material
a significant integrity
threat [51]. Inintegrity
to material regime III, theIn
[51].
corrosive
regime III, medium intensifies
the corrosive mediumrapidintensifies
crack advancement,
rapid crackpotentially
advancement, resulting in unstable
potentially result-
crack
ing in propagation.
unstable crack Cyclicpropagation.
loading, combinedCyclicwith corrosion-induced
loading, combined with weakening, leads to a
corrosion-induced
sudden
weakening,failure andtosevere
leads a sudden loss failure
of structural strength
and severe loss [52]. The cross-sectional
of structural strength [52].area Theofcross-
the
material
sectionalreduces
area offurther due toreduces
the material corrosion, thusdue
further increasing the risk
to corrosion, of unexpected
thus increasing the failure.
risk of
Several deterministic
unexpected failure. FCGR functions have been proposed and extensively used in the
determination of fatigue
Several deterministic FCGR crack development
functions haverate under corrosiveand
been proposed conditions [53]. used
extensively Thesein
functions include the Trantina–Johnson Equation (8), Walker
the determination of fatigue crack development rate under corrosive conditions [53]. Equation (9), and Forman
Equation (10). Although
These functions include adjustments were made
the Trantina–Johnson to account
Equation for varying
(8), Walker stress(9),
Equation ratios,
and the
For-
Paris model is only capable of explaining linear or stable
man Equation (10). Although adjustments were made to account for varying stressfracture growth rates at a given
ratios,
the Paris model is only capable of explaining linear or stable fracture growth rates at a
Metals 2024, 14, 336 10 of 36

stress ratio. Nonetheless, Equation (7) is still utilised to describe the behaviour of corrosion
fatigue crack development (FCG) [53].

da
= C (∆K )m (7)
dN
Trantina–Johnson Model:

da
= C (∆K − ∆Kth )m (8)
dN
Walker Model:
da
= C (∆K )m1 (1 − R)m2 (9)
dN
Forman model:
da (∆K )m
=C (10)
dN (1 − R)Kc − ∆K
where dN da
is the crack growth per stress cycle, ∆K is the stress intensity factor (SIF) range; R
is the stress ratio; Kc is the fracture toughness depending on the thickness of the specimen;
a is the crack length or size; C is the material-specific Paris constant; m, m1 , m2 are the
material constant; and ∆Kth is the threshold stress intensity factor.
One of the primary environmental factors affecting fatigue crack growth is corrosion.
Materials can be specifically engineered to resist corrosion by selecting corrosion-resistant
alloys or incorporating corrosion inhibitors. Applying protective coatings is a common
strategy to shield materials from environmental factors. These coatings act as barriers,
preventing direct contact between the material and corrosive agents or environmental
moisture [54]. Various coating materials, such as polymers, ceramics, or corrosion-resistant
paints, can be tailored to provide an additional layer of defence against environmental
degradation, thus slowing down fatigue crack initiation and growth [55].
The composition and microstructure of materials play a vital role in their response
to environmental factors. By carefully selecting alloying elements and controlling the
microstructural features, engineers can enhance the material’s resistance to fatigue crack
growth. Advances in material science and technology offer opportunities to develop
innovative materials with superior fatigue resistance. Nanotechnology, for instance, allows
for the creation of nanostructured materials with unique mechanical and environmental
resistance properties [56]. Designing materials for enhanced durability involves considering
the entire lifecycle of the material, from manufacturing to usage and eventual disposal.
Sustainable materials and manufacturing processes that minimize environmental impact
contribute to a more holistic approach to material design.

2.4. Threshold Stress Intensity Factor

The threshold stress intensity factor (∆Kth ) indicates the minimum stress intensity
required to initiate stable crack growth in a material [57]. The crack growth testing data
was utilised to determine ∆Kth values. The linear Paris curve was studied in the evaluation
process to extrapolate the values corresponding to extremely low crack growth rates, such
as 10−10 m/cycle or 10−6 mm/cycle [58]. This extrapolation aids in estimating the threshold
stress-intensity range, shown in Figure 6.
Perez N [59] studied the linear Paris growth–rate curve to estimate the threshold stress-
intensity range, making the critical limiting variable the threshold ∆Kth value. Equation (11)
states that small-crack fatigue thresholds can be calculated from the Paris law constants C
and m [58,59].
 −6  m1
10
∆Kth,smallcrack = (11)
C
Corrosion-induced small cracks in materials often have a lower ∆Kth than large cracks.
Environmental factors influence this phenomenon, emphasising the importance of assessing
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 37
Metals 2024, 14, 336 11 of 36

Corrosion-induced small cracks in materials often have a lower ΔKth than large
the threshold
cracks. stress intensity
Environmental factors range when
influence thisevaluating the structural
phenomenon, emphasisingintegrity of materials
the importance of
exposed to coastal conditions.
assessing the threshold stress intensity range when evaluating the structural integrity of
Tableexposed
materials 1 provides
to acoastal
comparative overview of the fatigue strength and fracture toughness
conditions.
of various aluminium alloys, presenting
Table 1 provides a comparative overviewkey mechanical
of theproperties essential and
fatigue strength for assessing
fracture
their performance in structural applications.
toughness of various aluminium alloys, presenting key mechanical properties essential
for assessing their performance in structural applications.
Table 1. Fatigue strength and fracture toughness of different aluminium alloys [45].
Table 1. Fatigue strength and fracture toughness of different aluminium alloys [45].
Elastic Fracture
Yield Strength Fatigue Strength
Al Alloy Modulus
Elastic Toughness
Fracture √ Reference
(MPa) (MPa)
(GPa) Yield Strength Fatigue Strength (MPa. m)
Al Alloy Modulus Toughness Reference
AA6061 68–74 (MPa)
193–290 (MPa)207 18.21 [60]
(GPa) (MPa.√m)
AA6082
AA6061 67.1
68–74 276
193–290 207 - 19–25
18.21 [60]
[60]
AA6082
AA7075 67.171 276 482 - - 19–2527.5 [60]
[61]
AA7075
AA7050 71
70–80 482 455 - 240 27.527.5 [61]
[62]
AA7050
AA2024 70–80
72–75.7 455
345–381 240 138 27.518.5 [62]
[63]
AA2024 72–75.7 345–381 138 18.5 [63]
AA5083 70–73.6 269–297 - 28.3 [64]
AA5083 70–73.6 269–297 - 28.3 [64]
AA8090 77 370 100 28 [65]
AA8090 77 370 100 28 [65]

3. Coastal
3. Coastal Environmental
Environmental Conditions
Conditions and
and Their
Their Effects
Effects
The coastal region experiences intense, dry summers and high humidity [66]. These
The coastal region experiences intense, dry summers and high humidity [66]. These
climatic particulars underscore the challenges of coastal region environmental conditions,
climatic particulars underscore the challenges of coastal region environmental conditions,
particularly for materials, infrastructure, and equipment exposed to these harsh coastal
particularly for materials, infrastructure, and equipment exposed to these harsh coastal
environments. The corrosive nature of the coastal environment, characterised by exposure
environments. The corrosive nature of the coastal environment, characterised by exposure
to saltwater, high humidity, and temperature, challenges the durability and integrity of
to saltwater, high humidity, and temperature, challenges the durability and integrity of
various engineering materials [67]. You Tang et al. [68] conducted a study investigating how
various engineering materials [67]. You Tang et al. [68] conducted a study investigating
the coastal environment and concentration of salt ions affect the materials and structures.
how the coastal environment and concentration of salt ions affect the materials and struc-
These conditions have a saltwater potential to advance material corrosion due to the
tures. These conditions have a saltwater potential to advance material corrosion due to the
corrosive nature of salt ions. Figure 7 illustrates the unique challenges and environmental
corrosive nature of salt ions. Figure 7 illustrates the unique challenges and environmental
factors that structures in coastal areas are exposed to, which can substantially impact their
factors that structures in coastal areas are exposed to, which can substantially impact their
integrity and durability.
integrity and durability.

Figure 7. Typical coastal environment conditions on nearby structures.

Figure 7. Typical coastal environment conditions on nearby structures.

Additionally, coastal areas

Additionally, coastal areas are
are marked
marked byby higher
higher humidity
humidity levels,
levels, mainly
mainly due
due to
to their
their
proximity to vast bodies of water. This higher humidity can induce moisture absorption
proximity to vast bodies of water. This higher humidity can induce moisture absorption
by
by materials,
materials, resulting in possible
resulting in possible corrosion.
corrosion. It was observed
It was observed that
that temperature variations
temperature variations
are
are common in coastal areas, leading to thermal damage that influences fatigue fatigue
common in coastal areas, leading to thermal damage that influences perfor-
Metals 2024, 14, 336 12 of 36

mance and long-term durability [69]. Furthermore, the occurrence of marine vaporisers in
coastal regions, comprised of airborne seawater droplets and particles, amplifies corrosion
processes by depositing corrosive salts on structural surfaces.

3.1. Simulation of Coastal Conditions

Simulation of coastal conditions involves creating controlled laboratory environments
that mimic the environmental factors found in coastal areas. This simulation is critical
for studying how materials, such as aluminium alloys, react to the unique challenges of
coastal environments.

3.1.1. Corrosion Simulation

Ramesh et al. [12] studied the fracture toughness of the aluminium alloy under a
corrosive environment using CT specimens. In this work, the corrosion simulation of alu-
minium alloys was accomplished by immersing prepared CT specimens in a 3.5% sodium
chloride (NaCl) solution for a specified number of days. Cavalcante et al. [70] and Y Zheng
et al. [71] chose a 3.5% NaCl solution for the immersion, as it closely replicates the salinity
of seawater. Similarly, Zakaria [72] also mentioned in his research that the specimens are
subjected to immersion in the 3.5% NaCl solution for a specified number of days, with the
duration based on the research objectives and the desired level of corrosion simulation.
Specimens can be immersed in actual seawater from a coastal area to simulate natural
conditions [73]. Alternatively, synthetic seawater solutions can be prepared to mimic the
composition of natural seawater. B J Little et al. [74] mentioned the composition of synthetic
seawater solutions, which often include salts like NaCl, MgCl2 , CaCl2 , and other ions found
in seawater. Researchers can control each component’s concentration for precise corrosion
studies in this approach.
Over time, the corrosion process on the surface of the aluminium alloy specimens is
initiated and accelerated by the NaCl solution, replicating the corrosion observed in coastal
regions due to salt ions in the atmosphere and water. After the specified immersion period,
the specimens are carefully removed from the NaCl solution, cleaned, and thoroughly
examined [75].

3.1.2. Environmental Chamber

Sarah et al. [76] used the environmental chamber to simulate the induced crack on the
specimens. An environmental chamber replicates the typical conditions available in coastal
regions [77]. Sahand et al. [78] and Faridah et al. [79] mentioned the environmental chamber,
also called the climate chamber, that precisely controlled temperature and humidity levels.
Coastal environments are characterised by notable temperature fluctuations, ranging from
elevated daytime temperatures to cooler nighttime conditions [80]. Temperature cycling can
be implemented within the environmental chamber to replicate these daytime variations
accurately. Furthermore, maintaining high humidity levels is necessary for accurately
simulating coastal conditions. The climate chamber offers the capability to finely control
humidity levels, creating a humid atmosphere similar to that experienced in coastal regions.
This controlled setup is essential for scientific investigations aiming to replicate and study
the effects of temperature variations and high humidity available in coastal environments
on material behaviour.
The specimens are positioned within the environmental chamber for a predetermined
duration [76]. Since utilising the environmental chamber represents a novel technique,
standardising its procedural application becomes essential. This standardisation ensures
consistency and repeatability in the experimental process, enabling reliable and compa-
rable results. Once this exposure period is completed, the samples are retrieved from the
environmental chamber. Subsequently, they were immediately taken to the testing machine
through the desiccator [81] and fixed in the machine for mechanical testing. The desicca-
tor maintains the specified temperature and humidity conditions until the specimens are
ready to be taken to the mechanical testing machine [82]. This step is essential to prevent
 Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 37

Metals 2024, 14, 336 13 of 36

specimens are ready to be taken to the mechanical testing machine [82]. This step is essen-
tial to prevent
changes changes in condition
in the specimens’ the specimens’ condition between
and properties and properties between
the exposure the exposure
phase and the
phase and testing.
subsequent the subsequent testing.
This instant This instant
transition ensurestransition ensures that
that the specimens arethe specimens
assessed are
quickly
assessed
after quickly
exposure after
to the exposure
simulated to theconditions,
coastal simulated enabling
coastal conditions, enabling
the accurate the accurate
evaluation of their
evaluation
material of their and
properties material properties and performance.
performance.

3.2.
3.2.Effect
EffectofofCorrosive
CorrosiveSolution
Solution
Aluminium
Aluminiumalloys alloys are
are susceptible
susceptible toto corrosion
corrosionwhen whenthey theyareareexposed
exposedtoto a NaCl
a NaCl so-
solution. Corrosion can lead to pits and cracks on the material’s surface.
lution. Corrosion can lead to pits and cracks on the material’s surface. These defects can These defects can
act
actasasstress
stressconcentrators
concentratorsand andreduce
reducethethematerial’s
material’sfracture
fracturetoughness
toughness[12].
[12].The
Thecyclic
cyclic
loading
loading and exposure to a corrosive environment, such as a NaCl solution, couldresult
and exposure to a corrosive environment, such as a NaCl solution, could resultinin
corrosion
corrosionfatigue.
fatigue.This
Thisphenomenon
phenomenon occurs when
occurs when thethecyclic stresses
cyclic applied
stresses to the
applied material
to the mate-
work in conjunction with the corrosive environment to accelerate
rial work in conjunction with the corrosive environment to accelerate crack growth crack growth [83]. Ramesh[83].
etRamesh
al. [12] mentioned in their research that aluminium typically develops
et al. [12] mentioned in their research that aluminium typically develops a pro- a protective oxide
layer
tectiveonoxide
its surface in atmospheric
layer on conditions. However,
its surface in atmospheric conditions.the presencethe
However, of presence
corrosionofpits cor-
can significantly disrupt the uniformity of this oxide layer
rosion pits can significantly disrupt the uniformity of this oxide layer [84].[84]. This effect is particularly
This effect is
pronounced with a longer duration, resulting in a defective oxide layer.
particularly pronounced with a longer duration, resulting in a defective oxide layer.
Notably, the intermetallic compounds commonly found in Al6000 alloys, the Mg2 Si
Notably, the intermetallic compounds commonly found in Al6000 alloys, the Mg2Si
phase, and AlFeSi particles [85] are noteworthy. AlFeSi particles can cause localised corro-
phase, and AlFeSi particles [85] are noteworthy. AlFeSi particles can cause localised cor-
sion in the surrounding matrix because they function as cathodic phases [86]. Conversely,
rosion in the surrounding matrix because they function as cathodic phases [86]. Con-
the Mg2 Si phase is less noble than the adjacent Al matrix [87], creating a potential differ-
versely, the Mg2Si phase is less noble than the adjacent Al matrix [87], creating a potential
ence promoting localised corrosion at the interface. Additionally, corroded samples often
difference promoting localised corrosion at the interface. Additionally, corroded samples
accumulate corrosive ions on their surfaces, such as Cl− , which inevitably interact with the
often accumulate corrosive ions on their surfaces, such as Cl−, which inevitably interact
oxide film, compromising its corrosion resistance.
with the oxide film, compromising its corrosion resistance.
Figure 8 provides a schematic representation of the localised corrosion process ob-
Figure 8 provides a schematic representation of the localised corrosion process ob-
served in the Al6061 alloy. In the initial stages of corrosion, chloride ions (Cl− )− penetrate
served in the Al6061 alloy. In the initial stages of corrosion, chloride ions (Cl ) penetrate
the matrix through imperfections originating from either the AlFeSi or Mg2 Si particles.
the penetration
This matrix through leadsimperfections originating
to the dissolution from film
of the oxide eitherthatthe AlFeSi protects
typically or Mg2Sithe particles.
metal
surfaces, consequently initiating pitting corrosion, as mentioned by Can Peng et al. metal
This penetration leads to the dissolution of the oxide film that typically protects the [88].
Ansurfaces, consequently
oxide layer, initiating
in the context pitting corrosion,
of corrosion, refers toasa mentioned
protective filmby CanthatPeng
forms et on
al. [88].
the
An oxide
surface of alayer,
metalinexposed
the context of corrosion, refers
to environmental to a protective
conditions. This layerfilm that forms
consists of metalonox-the
surface of a metal exposed to environmental conditions. This layer consists
ides and can act as a barrier, preventing further corrosion by isolating the metal from the of metal oxides
and can act as
surrounding a barrier, preventing further corrosion by isolating the metal from the sur-
environment.
rounding environment.

Figure8.8.Diagrammatic
Figure Diagrammaticrepresentation
representationofofthe
theAl6061
Al6061alloy’s
alloy’scorrosion
corrosionprocess
processininaamarine
marineenviron-
environ-
ment.Reprinted
ment. Reprintedwith
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromref.
ref.[88] Copyright2022
[88] Copyright yearElsevier.
2022 Copyright owner Elsevier.

Pitsare
Pits aresmall,
small,localised
localisedcavities
cavitiesthat
thatform
formononthe
thesurface
surfaceofofaamaterial
materialdue
duetotoexposure
exposure
totoa aNaCl
NaClsolution
solution [89].
[89]. TheyTheyareare typically
typically deeper
deeper thanthan
theythey are wide
are wide and and can penetrate
can penetrate the
the material,
material, compromising
compromising its integrity.
its integrity. This This
leadsleads
to thetoformation
the formation of cracks
of cracks and corro-
and corrosion
sion products,
products, which decreases
which decreases corrosion corrosion resistance,
resistance, as shownasinshown
Figure in Figure 9. Corrosion
9. Corrosion products
are compounds or substances that result from the chemical reactions between a metal and
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 37
Metals 2024, 14, 336 14 of 36

products are compounds or substances that result from the chemical reactions between a
its environment
metal during theduring
and its environment corrosion
the process.
corrosionPeng et al.Peng
process. [88] mentioned that corrosion
et al. [88] mentioned that
corrosion products, such as metal oxides, hydroxides, and salts, often contributechanges
products, such as metal oxides, hydroxides, and salts, often contribute to the visible to the
in the appearance
visible of aappearance
changes in the corroded surface.
of a corroded surface.

Figure 9. Corroded samples showing (a) oxide layer, (b) corrosion products, cracks, and pits. Re-
Figure 9. Corroded samples showing (a) oxide layer, (b) corrosion products, cracks, and pits.
printed with permission from ref. [12] Copyright year 2023 Copyright owner Elsevier.
Reprinted with permission from ref. [12] Copyright 2023 Elsevier.
3.3.
3.3. Effect
Effect of
of Temperature
Temperature
The
The effect of
effect of temperature
temperature in in coastal
coastal regions
regions on on the
the fracture
fracture toughness
toughness and and FCGRFCGR of of
aluminium alloys is influenced by saltwater, humidity, and
aluminium alloys is influenced by saltwater, humidity, and exposure to marine atmospheres.exposure to marine atmos-
pheres.
Coastal Coastal
temperaturestemperatures
generallygenerally exhibit moderate
exhibit moderate effects dueeffects due to the
to the influence ofinfluence
large bodies of
large bodies
of water. Theofcombination
water. The combination
of temperature of temperature
variations and variations
humidity andcanhumidity
contribute cantocon-
the
tribute to theof
degradation degradation of material
material properties properties [90].
[90].
According
According to the theresearchers
researchers[91–93],
[91–93],environmental
environmental variables
variables werewere responsible
responsible for for
the
the failures of aircraft components made of aluminium alloys
failures of aircraft components made of aluminium alloys while in service. The corrosive while in service. The corro-
sive environment
environment significantly
significantly influenced
influenced the operation
the operation of the of the aircraft
aircraft componentscomponentsin coastal in
coastal
areas. areas. Temperatures
Temperatures exceeding 70 ◦ C
exceeding 70may
°C may result
result from
from thetheheat
heatgenerated
generated by by aircraft
aircraft
equipment
equipment duringduring its its operation,
operation, potentially impacting component performance [94].
Otieno
Otieno et et al.
al. [95]
[95] and
and Zheng
Zheng et et al. [71] worked on aluminium aluminium alloys alloys andand aa chloride
chloride
medium in
medium in marine
marine exposure
exposure environments.
environments. From From thethe outcomes,
outcomes, itit can can be
be reported
reported that that
temperature can increase the salinity of seawater, making it
temperature can increase the salinity of seawater, making it more aggressive [71]. more aggressive [71]. Structures
can be impacted
Structures can beby the evaporation
impacted of hazardousofairborne
by the evaporation hazardous chemicals
airborne such as chlorides
chemicals such[95].as
On the other
chlorides [95].hand,
On the faster and hand,
other deeperfasterchlorideandpenetration
deeper chloride causes penetration
the material causes to develop the
microscopic
material cracks microscopic
to develop and corrosion pits. and
cracks The corrosion
rate of chloride
pits. The penetration and itspenetration
rate of chloride depth into
the material
and its depthisintoinfluenced
the materialby factors like temperature
is influenced by factorsandlikethe diffusion coefficient.
temperature and the diffusion
Vargel et al. [96] collectively identified pitting corrosion in an aluminium alloy sub-
coefficient.
jected to corrosion
Vargel et al. [96] within 20 to 80 ◦identified
collectively C. However, aluminium
pitting corrosion is susceptible
in an aluminium to pittingalloy cor-
rosion at room temperature and in a higher pH range (8.1
subjected to corrosion within 20 to 80 °C. However, aluminium is susceptible to pitting for seawater) [94]. In marine
environments, thetemperature
oxide layers,and FeO,inAl O3 , CuO, ◦ C [90].
corrosion at room a 2higher pH and ZnO,
range (8.1were formed at[94].
for seawater) 30–60 In marine
The tendency for ◦
environments, thepitting corrosion
oxide layers, FeO,gradually
Al2O3, CuO, reduces at temperatures
and ZnO, were formed of at
7030–60C and °Cup to
[90].
150 ◦ C when an aluminium oxide layer forms [96].
The tendency for pitting corrosion gradually reduces at temperatures of 70 °C and up to
150 °C Cao
when et al.
an[90] conducted
aluminium oxidea thorough
layer forms investigation
[96]. to enhance the comprehension
of the corrosion characteristics exhibited by the
Cao et al. [90] conducted a thorough investigation to enhance the2A02 aluminium alloy. They subjected
comprehension of
samples of the 2A02 alloy to 200 h of corrosion exposure at 30 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and 80 ◦ C. As the
the corrosion characteristics exhibited by the 2A02 aluminium alloy. They
◦ C to 60 ◦ C and further to 80 ◦ C, it became evident that the
subjected sam-
temperature
ples of the 2A02increased
alloy from
to 20030h of corrosion exposure at 30 °C, 60 °C, and 80 °C. As the
temperature increased from 30 °C to 60as
number of pits decreased accordingly, °Cshown in Figure
and further to 8010a.°C, it became evident that the
number of pits decreased accordingly, as shown in Figure 10a.
Metals
Metals2024,
2024,14,
14,x336
FOR PEER REVIEW 1515ofof37
36

Figure 10. Effect of temperature and corrosion on aluminium alloy: (a) corrosion depth and (b) dif-
Figure 10. Effect of temperature and corrosion on aluminium alloy: (a) corrosion depth and
fusion coefficient relationship trend chart [90].
(b) diffusion coefficient relationship trend chart [90].
Figure 10b, illustrating the correlation between temperature and the diffusion coeffi-
Figure 10b, illustrating the correlation between temperature and the diffusion coeffi-
cient, offers valuable insights into how particle or molecule diffusion varies with temper-
cient, offers valuable insights into how particle or molecule diffusion varies with tempera-
ature. The diffusion
ture. The diffusion coefficient
coefficient isis linked
linked to
to the
the rate
rate at
at which
which reactants
reactants or
or ions
ions can
can migrate
migrate
through
through the material or the oxide layer. Generally, temperature increases the diffusion
the material or the oxide layer. Generally, temperature increases the diffusion
coefficient
coefficient[80],
[80],facilitating
facilitatingthe
themore
morerapid
rapiddiffusion
diffusion ofofreactants, such
reactants, as as
such oxygen
oxygenor or
water
wa-
molecules [90]. This accelerated diffusion can enhance reactions at the metal–oxide
ter molecules [90]. This accelerated diffusion can enhance reactions at the metal–oxide inter-
face, potentially
interface, fostering
potentially the growth
fostering of protective
the growth oxideoxide
of protective layers.
layers.

3.4.
3.4.Effect
EffectofofHumidity
Humidity
The
Thecorrosion
corrosionbehaviour
behaviourand andmechanical
mechanicalperformance
performanceof of7085
7085aluminium
aluminiumalloy alloyininaa
hot,
hot, humid
humid marine
marine environment
environmentare are studied
studied by by Tao
Tao JJ et
et al.
al. [97]. Humid
Humid conditions
conditions can can
significantly influence the
significantly influence thematerial
materialproperties
properties ofof aluminium
aluminium alloys,
alloys, often
often increasing
increasing the
the chal-
challenges
lenges posed posed
by the bymarine
the marine atmosphere.
atmosphere. Daming Daming et studied
et al. [98] al. [98] thestudied the corrosion
corrosion resistance
resistance
of aluminium of aluminium
alloy underalloy highunder
humidityhighconditions.
humidity conditions.
High humidity Highlevels
humidity
prevalentlevelsin
prevalent in coastal
coastal areas enhance areas enhance
moisture moisture
absorption byabsorption
aluminiumby aluminium
alloys. alloys. This
This moisture mois-
accelerates
the corrosion
ture acceleratesprocess when combined
the corrosion process when with combined
the corrosive withnature of salt-laden
the corrosive nature coastal air.
of salt-
The chloride
laden ionsThe
coastal air. in the air canions
chloride penetrate
in the air thecan
alloy’s surface,
penetrate theinitiating and accelerating
alloy’s surface, initiating
corrosion,
and leadingcorrosion,
accelerating to surfaceleading
degradation, pitting,
to surface and the formation
degradation, of corrosion
pitting, and products,
the formation of
as mentioned
corrosion by Ramesh
products, et al. [12].
as mentioned by Ramesh et al. [12].
Sarah Dorman
Sarah Dormanet et al.
al. [99]
[99] worked
worked on on corrosion
corrosion fatigue
fatigue under
under moist
moist air
air atmospheric
atmospheric
conditions in samples with surface salt deposits. The result concludes
conditions in samples with surface salt deposits. The result concludes that the structure that the structure
and component
and component are are often
oftensubjected
subjectedtotocycliccyclicloading
loading under
under moisture
moisture conditions,
conditions, which can
which
leadlead
can to fatigue
to fatigue failure.
failure.InInhumid
humidconditions,
conditions,combining
combiningmoisture
moisture and and salt particles can
salt particles can
furtherreduce
further reducethe thefatigue
fatiguelife
lifeof
ofaluminium
aluminiumalloys alloysbybypromoting
promotingfaster fastercrack
crackgrowth
growthrates.rates.
This effect is particularly detrimental, as it can compromise
This effect is particularly detrimental, as it can compromise the long-term durability ofthe long-term durability of
structures. Intergranular and pitting corrosion are common
structures. Intergranular and pitting corrosion are common localised types of corrosionlocalised types of corrosion
observedin
observed inhumid
humidcoastal
coastalenvironments,
environments,as asmentioned
mentionedby byYingchang
Yingchanget et al.
al. [100].
[100]. These
These
types of corrosion can develop cracks, voids, and localised material
types of corrosion can develop cracks, voids, and localised material degradation, affecting degradation, affecting
thematerial’s
the material’sstructural
structuralintegrity.
integrity. Bray
Bray et et al.
al. [101]
[101] work
work on onmoist
moistair airand
andstate
statethat
thathumid
humid
conditionscan
conditions canalter
alterthe
themechanical
mechanicalproperties
properties of of aluminium
aluminium alloys.
alloys. ThisThis
maymay include
include re-
reductions in tensile strength, flexibility, and toughness. These
ductions in tensile strength, flexibility, and toughness. These changes can affect the load- changes can affect the
load-bearing capacity and overall structural performance
bearing capacity and overall structural performance of components and structures.of components and structures.
Ahmad [102]
Ahmad [102] and
and Bradshaw
Bradshaw et et al.
al. [103]
[103] worked
worked on on gaseous
gaseous environments
environments and and the
the
corrosion of aluminium alloys. When the relative humidity in the gaseous environment
corrosion of aluminium alloys. When the relative humidity in the gaseous environment
exceeds the equilibrium relative humidity over any saturated solution on the metal’s
exceeds the equilibrium relative humidity over any saturated solution on the metal’s
surface, atmospheric corrosion occurs. This is particularly important for aluminium alloys,
surface, atmospheric corrosion occurs. This is particularly important for aluminium
highlighting that the ambient air acts as a corrosive medium, causing chemical reactions on
alloys, highlighting that the ambient air acts as a corrosive medium, causing chemical
fracture surfaces through atmospheric moisture [103].
reactions on fracture surfaces through atmospheric moisture [103].
Metals 2024, 14, 336 16 of 36

Davidson et al. [104] studied the effect of water vapour and ambient air on fatigue crack
tip mechanics in Al7075 alloy. When aluminium is subjected to cyclic loading in ambient
air, its fracture growth rates rise, and its threshold stress intensities drop in comparison to
vacuum circumstances. Moisture causes a fracture tip’s ability to tolerate cyclic plastic strain
to decrease, which leads to this phenomenon. According to Holper et al. [105], diffusion
carries water vapour from the ambient air to the tip of the crack, where it initiates chemical
interactions with exposed fracture surfaces to produce hydroxide, hydrated oxides, and
hydrogen absorption.
Young et al. [106] and Mahdieh Safyari et al. [107] worked on the hydrogen embrittle-
ment mechanisms and mentioned that cracking in humid air is more accurately described
as hydrogen-environment-assisted cracking. According to Equation (12) provided below,
the reaction of water vapour at the alloy surface can result in hydrogen atoms that have the
potential to be absorbed into the alloy and then recombine to generate H2 gas [106]:

2Al(s) + (3 + X) H2 O(g) → 3H2 (g) + Al2 O3 · X (H2 O) (s) (12)

where X is the degree of hydration, g is gas (vapour), and s is solid.

These detailed studies regarding coastal environments help cultivate an understanding
of the combined effect of various factors in corrosive conditions. The combined effects
of these conditions also need to be understood by the multiple mechanisms explained in
further sections.

4. Fracture Mechanisms in Coastal Environments

Fracture and fatigue crack growth involve the initiation, expansion, and eventual
instability of cracks within materials. In coastal conditions, factors like corrosion, tem-
perature fluctuations, and humidity play critical roles in these processes, as mentioned
by Sarah et al. [99,108]. In the fracture process, small cracks usually originate at stress
concentration points or material flaws and slowly develop under cyclic loading. In the
case of fatigue crack growth, Khodor et al. [109] mentioned the microscopic defects within
the material, which can evolve into small cracks due to repeated cyclic stresses. González
et al. [110] thought that, in humid environments, corrosive agents can speed up crack
initiation. As these cracks initiate, they may gradually propagate through the material,
with the rate of growth influenced by factors like material properties, stress levels, and
environmental conditions.
The mechanisms associated with fracture and fatigue crack growth in metals involve
various elements and occurrences essential for understanding the initiation and propagation
of cracks and their interactions with the corrosive environment. The following are the
fracture mechanisms identified to occur in corrosive environmental conditions.

4.1. Oxide Layer

Studying the effect of the oxide layer in crack initiation and propagation is essential,
particularly in coastal regions where the presence of salt and moisture is common. Un-
derstanding the beginning and spread of cracks, especially in corrosion conditions like
those seen in coastal locations, depends on an oxide layer on the surface of materials like
aluminium alloys [111].
Oxide layers frequently and naturally occur on metals exposed to air conditions [112].
As seen in Figure 11, these layers serve as protective barriers that prevent the metal surface
from touching corrosive substances like moisture and salts available in corrosive areas. This
protection is vital because it helps delay or prevent crack initiation [113]. The oxide layer
can enhance the material’s corrosion resistance by reducing the rate at which the underlying
metal corrodes [114]. This is essential in coastal regions where the corrosive nature of salt
ions, NaCl, in the atmosphere can accelerate material degradation. By impeding corro-
sion, the oxide layer plays a key role in preserving the material’s integrity and structural
strength [115]. However, the oxide layer is not always uniformly perfect [116] and can have
defects or imperfections, which can become potential sites for crack initiation [117].
2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 37

and structural strength [115]. However, the oxide layer is not always uniformly perfect
Metals 2024, 14, 336 17 of 36
[116] and can have defects or imperfections, which can become potential sites for crack
initiation [117].

Figure 11. Oxide layers formed on aluminium alloys. Reprinted with permission from ref. [12]
Figure
Copyright Year 2023 11. OxideOwner
Copyright layers Elsevier,
formed on aluminium
[118], alloys.
reprinted withReprinted
permissionwith
frompermission
ref. [119] from ref. [12] Copy-
Copyright Ownerright 2023&Elsevier,
Taylor Francis [118], reprinted
Copyright Year with
2013.permission from ref. [119] Copyright 2013 Taylor & Francis.

The presence of The presence

oxide of oxide
layers on layers onparticularly
metal surfaces, metal surfaces, particularly
in coastal regions,in coastal regions, is
is cru-
crucial
cial for preventing for preventing
corrosive corrosive
substances substances
like moisture likesalts
and moisture and salts from
from initiating initiating cracks.
cracks.
While these layers enhance corrosion resistance, defects in the oxide layer can become
While these layers enhance corrosion resistance, defects in the oxide layer can become
potential sites for crack initiation, highlighting the importance of studying their effects on
potential sites for crack initiation, highlighting the importance of studying their effects on
material integrity.
material integrity.
4.2. Crack Closure
4.2. Crack Closure
At the fracture tip, the phenomenon of crack closure acts as a mechanism to lessen
At the fracture tip, the
the crack’s phenomenon
driving of crack
force [120]. Yamada closure acts as
et al. [121] a mechanism
highlighted, to lessen
in their research, that crack
the crack’s driving
closureforce [120].
plays Yamada et role
a significant al. [121] highlighted,
in governing crack in their
growthresearch, that crack
behaviour. Pokorny et al. [120]
closure plays amentioned
significant theroleresidual
in governing crack
plastic growth behaviour.
deformations, Pokorny
the roughness onetthe
al. crack
[120] surfaces, and
mentioned the debris
residual plastic deformations, the roughness on the crack surfaces,
formation along these surfaces partially drive the crack closure phenomenon. and de-
bris formation along these surfaces partially drive the crack closure phenomenon.
As illustrated in Figure 12, several elements, such as an oxide layer, phase particles,
As illustrated in Figure
and plastic 12, severalinelements,
deformation front of the such as an
crack tip,oxide
impact layer,
crackphase particles,
closure. This can temporarily
and plastic deformation
reduce theineffective
front of stress
the crack tip, impact
intensity factorcrack
(Keff ),closure. This can
which drives temporar-
crack propagation, helping
ily reduce the effective
to extendstress intensity
the life factor (Kstructures
of aluminium eff), which drives
exposed crack propagation,
to corrosive help- Cracks can
conditions.
ing to extend the life of aluminium structures exposed to corrosive conditions.
initiate and propagate due to the corrosive attack on the material’s surface Cracks canin the presence
initiate and propagate due to the corrosive attack on the
of corrosion, which is common in coastal environments. material’s surface in the presence
of corrosion, which is common in coastal environments.
Metals
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14, x336
FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 37
18 of 36

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Crack
Crack closure
closure mechanisms.
mechanisms. Reprinted
Reprinted from
from ref.
ref. [120].
[120].

Moreover, regions often

Moreover, coastal regions often experience
experiencetemperature
temperaturevariations
variationsand andhigh
highhumidity
humid-
ity levels
levels [95].
[95]. TheThe wide
wide temperaturerange
temperature rangeinincoastal
coastalregions
regionsresults
results in in the expansion and and
contraction of
contraction of materials,
materials, including
including aluminium
aluminium structures.
structures. ThisThis thermal
thermal expansion
expansion and and
contraction can
contraction can cause
cause thermal
thermal fatigue
fatigue [80],
[80],which
whichleads
leadstotothe
thenarrowing
narrowingof ofexisting
existingcracks,
cracks,
aa form
form ofof crack
crack closure
closure [122].
[122]. The
The elevated
elevated humidity
humidity levels
levels inin coastal
coastal areas
areas can
can introduce
introduce
moisture to
moisture to the
the cracks
cracks in aluminium
aluminium structures.
structures. This
This moisture
moisture can can initiate
initiate corrosion
corrosion or or
oxidation processes, potentially causing the formation of corrosion products
oxidation processes, potentially causing the formation of corrosion products on the crack on the crack
surfaces [12]. The
surfaces The formation
formationofofcorrosion
corrosionproducts
products causes
causesthethe
surface’s
surface’sroughness,
roughness,partially
par-
closing the crack, and contributes to the crack closure mechanism
tially closing the crack, and contributes to the crack closure mechanism [123]. [123].
Crack closure
Crack closureat atthe
thefracture
fracturetip,tip,influenced
influencedby byfactors
factorslike
likeanan oxide
oxide layer
layer andand plas-
plastic
tic deformations,
deformations, temporarily
temporarily reduces
reduces the effective
the effective stressstress intensity
intensity factor,
factor, extending
extending the
the life
life of aluminium structures in corrosive coastal conditions. Temperature
of aluminium structures in corrosive coastal conditions. Temperature variations and high variations and
high humidity
humidity in coastal
in coastal regionsregions
lead to lead to thermal
thermal fatigue
fatigue and and moisture-induced
moisture-induced corrosion,corro-
con-
sion, contributing to crack closure mechanisms and influencing
tributing to crack closure mechanisms and influencing crack propagation in aluminium crack propagation in
aluminium
structures. structures.

4.3. Phase Particles

4.3. Phase Particles
The formation of phase particles in aluminium alloys exposed to coastal environmental
The formation of phase particles in aluminium alloys exposed to coastal environmen-
conditions, including corrosion, temperatures up to 50 ◦ C, and humidity levels reaching
tal conditions, including corrosion, temperatures up to 50 °C, and humidity levels reach-
95%, is a multifaceted process influenced by various interacting factors. Alloy composition
ing 95%, is a multifaceted process influenced by various interacting factors. Alloy compo-
is pivotal, as elements like magnesium, silicon, and manganese can precipitate out of the
sition is pivotal, as elements like magnesium, silicon, and manganese can precipitate out
aluminium matrix under specific conditions, as mentioned by Culliton et al. [124].
of the aluminium matrix under specific conditions, as mentioned by Culliton et al. [124].
Figure 13a depicts the formation of intermetallic phase particles in a corrosion medium.
Figure 13a depicts the formation of intermetallic phase particles in a corrosion me-
It also illustrates different types of phase particles formed on various aluminium alloys,
dium.
as seenItinalso illustrates
Figure different
13b,c. Dessi types
et al. [125]ofand
phase particles et
Shrivastava formed onstudied
al. [126] variousthe
aluminium
chloride-
alloys, as seen in Figure 13b,c. Dessi et al. [125] and Shrivastava et al. [126]
induced corrosion on aluminium alloys. They concluded that corrosion, driven by chloride studied the
chloride-induced corrosion on aluminium alloys. They concluded that corrosion,
ions from saltwater, can alter the microstructure and contribute to phase particle formation. driven
by chloride ions from saltwater, can alter the microstructure and contribute to phase par-
ticle formation.
Metals2024,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 36
19 of 37

Figure 13.
Figure 13. (a)
(a) Formation
Formation of
of intermetallic
intermetallic particles
particles in
in corrosion
corrosion medium.
medium. Reprinted
Reprinted from
from ref.
ref. [127];
[127];
(b,c) different phase particles formed on other aluminium alloys. Reprinted from ref. [128,129].
(b,c) different phase particles formed on other aluminium alloys. Reprinted from ref. [128,129].

BlauPPJJ[130]
Blau [130] studied
studied the
the mobility
mobilityof of alloying
alloyingelements
elementsat atelevated
elevated temperatures
temperaturesand and
concluded that temperature enhances alloying elements’ mobility,
concluded that temperature enhances alloying elements’ mobility, promoting their interac- promoting their
interaction
tion and subsequent
and subsequent particle formation.
particle formation. Gain et al.Gain
[131]etand
al. Arrabal
[131] and Arrabal
et al. et al. [132]
[132] worked on
worked
the Sn–Ag–Cu on the Sn–Ag–Cu
and Mg/Al alloys,and Mg/Al in
respectively, alloys, respectively,
high-humidity in high-humidity
environments, and they
environments,
concluded and they
that high concluded
humidity levels that high humidity
accelerate corrosion,levels accelerate
further influencingcorrosion, further
the material’s
influencing theCavalcante
microstructure. material’set microstructure. Cavalcante
al. [70] studied different et al. aluminium
aeronautic [70] studied different
alloys in air
aeronautic
and aluminium alloys
saline environments, in air and
emphasising saline consideration
the critical environments,ofemphasising the critical
exposure duration. The
consideration
cumulative of exposure
effects duration.
of corrosion The cumulative
and humidity gradually effects
lead toofmicrostructural
corrosion and humidity
changes,
gradually the
including leaddevelopment
to microstructural
of phase changes, including
particles. the development
Thus, particles can formofthrough
phase particles.
various
precipitation
Thus, particles mechanisms depending
can form through on alloy
various composition,
precipitation environmental
mechanisms variables,
depending and
on alloy
other factors. environmental variables, and other factors.
composition,
In
In coastal
coastal environments,
environments, alloy alloy composition,
composition, chloride-induced
chloride-induced corrosion,
corrosion, andand high
high
humidity
humidity contribute to complex processes leading to the formation of phase particles in
contribute to complex processes leading to the formation of phase particles in
aluminium
aluminiumalloys. Elevated
alloys. temperatures
Elevated enhance
temperatures alloying alloying
enhance elements’ mobility,
elements’influencing
mobility,
particle
influencingformation
particleand emphasizing
formation the cumulative
and emphasizing effects of corrosion
the cumulative effects ofand humidity
corrosion and
over time. over time.
humidity

4.4.
4.4. Striations
Striations Spaces
Spaces
Fatigue
Fatigue striations refer
striations refer to
to fine,
fine, repetitive
repetitive patterns
patterns or
or lines
lines observed
observed on
on the
the fracture
fracture
surface
surface of a material placed to fatigue loading [133]. Monitoring and analysing fatigue
of a material placed to fatigue loading [133]. Monitoring and analysing fatigue
striations are essential in understanding the mechanisms and behaviour of materials sub-
striations are essential in understanding the mechanisms and behaviour of materials sub-
jected to cyclic loading conditions, particularly in fatigue failure [134]. It was observed
jected to cyclic loading conditions, particularly in fatigue failure [134]. It was observed
that a striation mechanism of failure in materials becomes prominent within the power law
that a striation mechanism of failure in materials becomes prominent within the power
region or Paris law regime [135]. These striations indicate a characteristic pattern of crack
law region or Paris law regime [135]. These striations indicate a characteristic pattern of
growth within this regime. They occur as the crack tip repeatedly advances and changes
crack growth within this regime. They occur as the crack tip repeatedly advances and
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 37

Metals 2024, 14, 336 20 of 36

changes during each loading cycle. The spacing between fatigue striations is equivalent to
the crack
during eachpropagation
loading cycle.rateThe
in one cycle,
spacing particularly
between fatigueduring stage
striations is II, stable fatigue
equivalent to the crack
growth [136].rate
propagation However, in some
in one cycle, instances,
particularly the distance
during stage II,between fatigue
stable fatigue striations
crack growthis[136].
sig-
nificantly wider
However, in some than the ratethe
instances, at which thebetween
distance fatigue crack propagates
fatigue striations in a single cycle.wider
is significantly This
suggests
than thatatthe
the rate striations
which develop
the fatigue over
crack multiple cycles
propagates of cyclic
in a single cycle.damage accumulation.
This suggests that the
It is important
striations developto note
overthat environmental
multiple factors
cycles of cyclic can also
damage influence theItformation
accumulation. is importantof fa-
to
tiguethat
note striations [133].
environmental factors can also influence the formation of fatigue striations [133].
featuresofoffatigue
The features fatiguestriations
striations at the
at the stablestable
crackcrack growth
growth are depicted
are depicted in Figure
in Figure 14a–d.
As seenAs
14a–d. in Figure
seen in14d, some
Figure second-phase
14d, particles are
some second-phase chopped,
particles are and secondary
chopped, cracks are
and secondary
frequently obstructedobstructed
cracks are frequently when theywhen comethey
into come
contact with
into the secondary-phase
contact particles.
with the secondary-phase
Additionally, the dislocation
particles. Additionally, will accumulate
the dislocation around thearound
will accumulate second-phase particles due
the second-phase to the
particles
dislocation reciprocating
due to the dislocation through them,
reciprocating which
through leads
them, to stress
which leadsconcentration and cracksand
to stress concentration on
both sides of the particles [137].
cracks on both sides of the particles [137].

Figure 14. Striation spaces observed in aluminium alloys due to fatigue loading: (a) Reprinted with
Figure 14. Striation spaces observed in aluminium alloys due to fatigue loading: (a) Reprinted
permission from ref. [138] Copyright Year 2019 Copyright Owner Elsevier, (b) [139], (c) Reprinted
with permission from ref. [138] Copyright 2019 Elsevier, (b) [139], (c) Reprinted from ref. [140],
from ref. [140], (d) Reprinted from ref. [137].
(d) Reprinted from ref. [137].
Due to the combined effects of fatigue and surface concentration, plastic deformation
Due to the combined effects of fatigue and surface concentration, plastic deformation
becomes confined to specific grains with favourable orientations, minimizing constraints
becomes confined to specific grains with favourable orientations, minimizing constraints
from neighbouring grains. As the number of cycles increases, the damage progresses, giv-
from neighbouring grains. As the number of cycles increases, the damage progresses,
ing rise to persistent slip bands (PSB) induced by shear stresses, resulting in intrusions
giving rise to persistent slip bands (PSB) induced by shear stresses, resulting in intrusions
and extrusions
and extrusions (stage
(stage 1).
1). The
The localized
localized damage
damage areas give rise
areas give rise to
to microcracks,
microcracks, reaching
reaching
sizes similar
sizes similar toto the
the microstructure (e.g., Figure
microstructure (e.g., Figure 15,
15, mode
mode IIII crack
crack arrested
arrested atat aa grain
grain bound-
bound-
ary, stage 2). The early propagation of microcracks ultimately leads
ary, stage 2). The early propagation of microcracks ultimately leads to the formation ofto the formation of
macrocracks (stage 3), and subsequent engineering crack propagation
macrocracks (stage 3), and subsequent engineering crack propagation leads to the final leads to the final
failure or
failure orfracture
fracture(stages
(stages 4 and
4 and 5). Sharma
5). Sharma et al.et[141]
al. [141] investigated
investigated the fatigue
the fatigue crack
crack growth
growth striation and threshold behaviour of the Al2219 alloy. Their work
striation and threshold behaviour of the Al2219 alloy. Their work utilised the micrograph utilised the mi-
crograph technique,
mapping mapping technique,
explicitly explicitly
mapping the mapping the striations
striations observed observed
at regimesatI,regimes
II, and IIII, II,
of
and III of the fatigue crack growth
the fatigue crack growth rate curve. rate curve.
 Metals
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336x FOR PEER REVIEW 21ofof3637
21

Figure
Figure 15.15.Stages
Stagesofoffatigue
fatigue damage
damage inin metals.Reprinted
metals. Reprinted from
from ref.
ref. [142].
[142].

InInstable
stablecrack
crackgrowth,
growth,the
thespacing
spacingbetween
betweenstriations
striationsreflects
reflectsthe
thecrack
crackpropagation
propagation
rate,
rate, influenced by environmental factors. The progression from persistent slipbands
influenced by environmental factors. The progression from persistent slip bandstoto
macrocracks delineates stages of fatigue damage leading to final failure, as investigated
macrocracks delineates stages of fatigue damage leading to final failure, as investigated in
studies on aluminium alloy.
in studies on aluminium alloy.
4.5. Crack Propagation Path
4.5. Crack Propagation Path
Capturing the crack propagation path is critical to understanding material behaviour
Capturing the crack propagation path is critical to understanding material behaviour
and structural integrity. Researchers primarily rely on valuable techniques such as digital
and structural integrity. Researchers primarily rely on valuable techniques such as digital
image correlation (DIC) [143] and optical microscopy for this purpose [144]. Fatigue loading
image correlation (DIC) [143] and optical microscopy for this purpose [144]. Fatigue load-
repeatedly stresses the material, leading tiny cracks or imperfections on the surface to grow
ing repeatedly stresses the material, leading tiny cracks or imperfections on the surface to
into small cracks over time [145]. These cracks can be challenging to detect with the
grow into small cracks over time [145]. These cracks can be challenging to detect with the
naked eye. Therefore, researchers utilise digital image correlation (DIC) to monitor crack
naked eye. Therefore, researchers utilise digital image correlation (DIC) to monitor crack
propagation and growth speed [146]. DIC can generate detailed crack maps illustrating the
propagation and growth speed [146]. DIC can generate detailed crack maps illustrating
propagation path [147]. These maps can be analysed to understand how environmental
the propagation path [147]. These maps can be analysed to understand how environmen-
conditions impact the direction and rate of fatigue crack growth in aluminium alloys.
tal conditions impact the direction and rate of fatigue crack growth in aluminium alloys.
Anna et al. [148] utilised a high-resolution camera positioned in the front of their ex-
perimentAnna et al. [148] utilised
to continuously monitora crack
high-resolution
propagationcamera positionedThey
in the specimen. in the front
also of their
measured
experiment to continuously monitor crack propagation in the specimen.
crack lengths on the surface of the CT specimens using this camera to validate data from They also meas-
ured crack lengths on the surface of
the compliance method, as depicted in Figure 16. the CT specimens using this camera to validate data
from themorphological
The compliance method, as depicted
characteristics in Figure
of fatigue 16.
fracture of the alloy under different
The morphological characteristics of fatigue
conditions are shown in the optical micrographs in Figure 17. fracture of the alloy17a
Figure under
showsdifferent
the mostcon-
ditions are shown in the optical micrographs in Figure 17.
complex expansion path with a “Z” pattern in this example. In contrast, the sample inFigure 17a shows the most
complex
Figure expansion
17b exhibits path with
a relatively a “Z” fatigue
straight patternfracture
in this propagation
example. In path contrast,
with the
onlysample
a slightin
curvature in the early stages. The fatigue fracture of the sample is shown in Figureonly
Figure 17b exhibits a relatively straight fatigue fracture propagation path with 17c, a
slight curvature
starting graduallyinand thedeveloping
early stages.into
Thea fatigue
curvedfracture
path as of the sample
it expands. is shown
Based in Figure
on previous
17c, starting
studies, complex gradually
fatigue and
crackdeveloping
growth paths intoindicate
a curvedslower
path as it expands.
crack growthBased
rates, on previous
supported
studies, complex fatigue crack growth
by experimental fatigue crack growth data [136]. paths indicate slower crack growth rates, sup-
ported by experimental fatigue crack growth data [136].
Understanding crack propagation paths is crucial for assessing material behaviour and
Understanding
structural crack propagation
integrity. Techniques like digitalpaths
imageiscorrelation
crucial for(DIC)assessing material
and optical behaviour
microscopy
andmonitor
help structural
andintegrity. Techniques
analyze fatigue crack like
growth digital image correlation
in aluminium (DIC) andutilize
alloys. Researchers optical
microscopy help
high-resolution monitor
cameras and DICandto analyze
capture and fatigue
validatecrack growth
crack in aluminium
propagation alloys.
data, revealing
Researchers
diverse patterns utilize high-resolution
in fatigue cameras
fracture paths, withand DIC paths
complex to capture and validate
indicating slower crackcrack
propagation
growth rates. data, revealing diverse patterns in fatigue fracture paths, with complex paths
indicating slower crack growth rates.
Metals 2024,14,
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Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 37

Figure 16.Experimentation
Experimentation setupwith
with high-speedcamera.
camera. Reprintedfrom
from ref.[148].
[148].
Figure 16. Experimentation setup
Figure 16. setup with high-speed
high-speed camera. Reprinted
Reprinted from ref.
ref. [148].

Figure 17. (a–c) Crack propagation paths showing different patterns. Reprinted with permission
Figure 17. (a–c) Crack propagation paths showing different patterns. Reprinted with permission
Figure (a–c)Copyright
17.[136]
from ref. Crack propagation
Year 2022 paths showing
Copyright different
Owner patterns. Reprinted with permission
Elsevier.
from ref. [136] Copyright Year 2022 Copyright Owner Elsevier.
from ref. [136] Copyright 2022 Elsevier.
Metals 2024, 14, 336 23 of 36

4.6. Corrosion–Fatigue Interaction

Corrosion fatigue, which is viewed as a combination of two mechanical behaviours in
components, is one of the most significant factors in fatigue analysis [149]. Understanding
the fatigue and corrosion behaviour of these materials is crucial in specialised industries
like submarines [150,151], aeroplanes [152,153], aviation engine combustion systems [154],
and other applications [155,156] because of the development of new manufacturing systems
in the modern world.
When a material is subjected to cyclic mechanical loading in a corrosive environment, it
can degrade and experience corrosion fatigue. It is a particularly challenging and damaging
form of degradation because it combines the effects of mechanical stress and chemical
corrosion, leading to a more rapid deterioration of materials [157].
Corrosion fatigue often begins with microscopic defects or stress concentrators in
the material [158]. In a corrosive environment, the material surface may be attacked by
chemical agents, forming corrosion pits or localised corrosion [159]. When the material
is subjected to cyclic mechanical loading, it introduces alternating stress on the material,
which leads to the initiation and propagation of cracks from the stress concentrators or
corrosion pits [160]. The cracks tend to grow incrementally during fatigue loading. The
corrosive environment can accelerate crack propagation by facilitating the nucleation and
growth of corrosion-assisted fatigue cracks, leading to the localised weakening of the
material around the cracks [52]. Corrosion fatigue increases crack growth rate compared to
purely mechanical fatigue or corrosion alone [161].
Corrosion fatigue, a significant factor in fatigue analysis, combines mechanical stress
and chemical corrosion in materials subjected to cyclic loading in corrosive environments.
This damaging degradation accelerates crack initiation and propagation, leading to local-
ized material weakening and a faster deterioration rate compared to purely mechanical
fatigue or corrosion alone. Understanding corrosion fatigue is crucial in specialized indus-
tries such as submarines, aeroplanes, and aviation engine combustion systems.

4.7. Moisture-Assisted Crack Propagation

Moisture-assisted crack growth occurs when materials are exposed to higher humidity.
This causes moisture to be absorbed and diffused into the material and promotes the
formation of a thin electrolyte layer (TEL), a thin water layer on the material’s surface [162].
In the presence of chloride ions, this microenvironment creates localised areas conducive to
corrosion, accelerating localised corrosion processes and causing material degradation near
the crack tip. Moisture promotes localised corrosion and accelerates crack growth with
corrosion products (oxides, hydroxides, or chlorides) [163,164]. Moisture distribution in
materials plays a crucial role in the movement of chloride ions at different depths, which
was supported by Huague et al. [165].
Chloride ions are known for their corrosive nature, and their presence near the crack
tip can initiate and accelerate corrosion processes. The synergy between moisture and these
corrosion products significantly amplifies the localised corrosion process. As a result, the
material’s integrity becomes compromised and more susceptible to crack propagation [166].
This combined effect of moisture and chloride ions weakens the material’s resistance to
crack growth. Consequently, cracks can advance rapidly, potentially reducing the material’s
fatigue life [161].
Moisture-assisted crack growth in higher humidity creates a thin electrolyte layer,
promoting localized corrosion and accelerating cracks with chloride ions, compromising
material integrity and potentially reducing fatigue life.

4.8. Hydrogen Embrittlement

The phenomenon known as “hydrogen embrittlement” occurs when hydrogen atoms
seep into a material’s structure, impairing its mechanical qualities and increasing its brit-
tleness and susceptibility to failure and cracking [167]. This process can occur in various
materials, including aluminium alloys. The schematic diagram of the hydrogen-enhanced
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 37
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materials, including aluminium alloys. The schematic diagram of the hydrogen-enhanced

localised
materials, plasticity
including(HELP) mechanism
aluminium alloys.isisshown
The in Figure
schematic 18. Inofthe
diagram theHELP region, hydro-
hydrogen-enhanced
localised plasticity (HELP) mechanism shown in Figure 18. In the HELP region, hydro-
gen is trapped
localised inside
plasticity the
(HELP) aluminium
mechanism alloy through
is shown the weak
in Figure areas
18. In (in
the (inthe
HELP absencehydro-
of an
gen is trapped inside the aluminium alloy through the weak areas the region,
absence of an
oxide layer).
gen islayer). The
trapped plastic zone without hydrogen characterises localised deformation, crack
oxide Theinside the
plastic aluminium
zone alloy through
without hydrogen the weaklocalised
characterises areas (indeformation,
the absence crack
of an
blunting,
oxide micro-void
layer). The coalescence,
plastic zone and deep
without hydrogendimples [168].
characterises localised deformation, crack
blunting, micro-void coalescence, and deep dimples [168].
blunting, micro-void coalescence, and deep dimples [168].

Figure 18. Schematic diagram of the HELP mechanism. Adapted from ref. [168].
Figure 18.Schematic
Figure18. Schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
theHELP
HELPmechanism.
mechanism.Adapted
Adaptedfrom
fromref.
ref.[168].
[168].
Whenaluminium
When aluminiumalloysalloysare
areexposed
exposedto tocorrosive
corrosive environments[169,170],
[169,170],they
theyreact
react
with When
water aluminium
vapour and alloys
cause are exposed
hydrogen to corrosiveenvironments
embrittlement environments
(HE) [171], as [169,170],
shown in they react
Figure 19.
with water vapour and cause hydrogen embrittlement (HE) [171], as shown in Figure 19.
with wateratoms
Hydrogen vapour canand
be cause hydrogen
introduced into embrittlement
aluminium (HE)
alloys [171], as
through shownsources,
various in Figure 19.
such
Hydrogen atoms can be introduced into aluminium alloys through various sources, such as
Hydrogen
as exposure atoms can beor
to moisture introduced
corrosive into aluminium
environments alloys
[107]. through
Inside variousalloys,
aluminium sources, such
hydro-
exposure to moisture or corrosive environments [107]. Inside aluminium alloys, hydrogen
as exposure
gen atoms to moisture
accumulate or corrosive
at defects, environments
grain boundaries, [107]. Inside
dislocations, aluminium alloys,
andimperfections. hydro-
other imperfections.
atoms accumulate at defects, grain boundaries, dislocations, and other These
gen atoms accumulate at defects, grain boundaries, dislocations, and atoms
other imperfections.
regions act as trapping sites for the accumulation of hydrogen atoms [172]. [172].
These regions act as trapping sites for the accumulation of hydrogen
These regions act as trapping sites for the accumulation of hydrogen atoms [172].

Figure 19. Hydrogen absorption mechanism in aluminium under humid conditions [10].
Figure19.
Figure 19.Hydrogen
Hydrogenabsorption
absorptionmechanism
mechanismininaluminium
aluminiumunder
underhumid
humidconditions
conditions[10].
[10].
The presence of hydrogen in these trapping sites can cause various detrimental ef-
The
fects.The
It canpresence
presence of hydrogen
createofinternal
hydrogen in in these
these
pressure trapping
trapping
within thesitessites
can can
material, causecause
which various
various
leads detrimental
detrimental
to cracking. ef-
effects.
Thus,
fects. It can
Ithydrogen
can create create
internal internal
pressure pressure
within within
the the
material, material,
which which
leads to leads
cracking.to cracking.
Thus,
can also weaken the atomic bonds within the material’s crystal lattice, reducing Thus,
hydrogen
hydrogen
can
its mechanicalcan also
also weaken the weaken
atomic
strength the
andbonds atomic
within
ductility bonds
theThe
[173]. within
material’s the
weakening material’s
crystal crystal
oflattice, lattice,
reducing
the material’s reducing
its mechan-
structure can
its
ical
make mechanical
strength
it moreand strength and
ductility
brittle ductility
[173]. The to
and susceptible [173]. The
weakening weakening
cracking, of theunder
even of the
material’s material’s
structure
relatively structure
can make
low-stress can
it
condi-
make
more it more
brittle andbrittle and
susceptible susceptible
to cracking,to cracking,
even under even under
relatively relatively
low-stress
tions. This embrittlement phenomenon can initiate and propagate cracks within the alu- low-stress
conditions. condi-
This
tions. This
embrittlement
minium embrittlement
alloy, phenomenon phenomenon
reducing fatigue can initiate can
strengthand initiate
andpropagate and
life [174]. propagate
cracks withincracks within the
the aluminium alu-
alloy,
minium
reducing alloy,
fatigue reducing
strength fatigue
and lifestrength
[174]. and life [174].
The identified mechanisms highlight material responses in coastal environments, in-
cludingTheoxide
The identified
identified
layers, mechanisms
mechanisms highlight
highlight
crack closure, material
phasematerial responses
particle responses
edge incoastal
in
spaces, coastalpropagation
crack environments,
environments, in-
in-
paths,
cluding
corrosion oxide
cluding oxide layers,
layers,
fatigue crack closure,
crack closure,
interactions, phase particle edge
phase particle edge
moisture-assisted spaces,
crackspaces, crack propagation
crack propagation
propagation, paths,
and hydrogenpaths,
corrosion fatigue interactions, moisture-assisted crack propagation, and hydrogen
Metals 2024, 14, 336 25 of 36

corrosion fatigue interactions, moisture-assisted crack propagation, and hydrogen em-

brittlement. These mechanisms serve as key parameters and fill a gap in the existing
knowledge on the influences of temperature and humidity on aluminium structures under
coastal conditions. A systematic study of these failure mechanisms can provide a scientific
understanding of the complex interactions between temperature and humidity and their
impact on the structural integrity of aluminium materials under coastal conditions.
Hydrogen embrittlement occurs when hydrogen atoms seep into a material, increasing
brittleness and susceptibility to failure. In aluminium alloys exposed to corrosive environ-
ments, hydrogen can accumulate at defects, weakening atomic bonds, reducing mechanical
strength, and initiating cracks, ultimately diminishing fatigue strength and life.

5. Modelling and Predictive Approaches

Modelling and prediction methods for estimating fracture toughness and fatigue crack
growth of aluminium alloy typically often use a variety of techniques, including empirical
modelling [175] and simulations by using finite element analysis (FEA) [176,177]. These
methods are needed to characterise the fracture behaviour of aluminium alloys and ensure
their safe and effective use in various applications [178,179]. It is difficult to predict how
materials would fracture when exposed to various coastal environmental conditions like
temperature, humidity, and corrosion. Conventional modelling tools do not help much
with this process.
However, under stable crack growth, the Paris equation can become a valuable tool for
predicting fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) even in corrosive environments [53,180,181].
The relationship between temperature humidity and its effect on fracture toughness, FCGR,
and fatigue life estimation has yet to be fully understood. Empirical modelling will be one
method to build models for predicting fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth parameters,
and fatigue life cycles of materials in coastal environments.
Curve fitting is used in material fracture behaviour analysis to predict fracture tough-
ness and fatigue life. The effect of curve fitting on the failure probability, crack size, and
fracture toughness of a failed component depends strongly on the type of distribution
assumed and the quality of the fit [182]. In this method, the parameters of the curve are
adjusted until they substantially match the experimental data. Once a suitable curve is
created, it can predict material behaviour under various conditions. Curve fitting is often
used when a simplified mathematical representation of a complex relationship is required.
The empirical modelling approach through curve fitting involves conducting experi-
ments under controlled conditions. During these experiments, data were collected on frac-
ture toughness, fatigue crack growth parameters, and fatigue life cycle. These experimental
data are then analysed to develop empirical models describing the relationships between
material properties, specific factors, and their levels [176]. Many authors [23,24,183] de-
veloped equations for predicting fracture behaviour using regression methods, a type of
empirical modelling technique that involves fitting mathematical models to the experimen-
tal data to describe the relationships between corrosive environment variables.
Hassan et al. [184] used optimized neural networks to predict the fatigue crack growth
rate (FCG) guided by the mutation-guided algorithm (MLA). Daniel Kovalov et al. [185]
studied the corrosion fatigue of aluminium alloy 2024-T351 and found the effects of elec-
trochemical potential, NaCl concentration, loading frequency, and temperature. Zhang
T et al. [186] developed a model considering the corrosion and fatigue cycle effects of
aluminium alloy 2024-T4. They used curve fitting techniques to relate the corrosion time
and depth of aluminium alloys. The result of the relationship between the corrosion depth
of the fatigue crack tip (d, mm) and the obtained corrosion time (t, h) is an exponential fit
given by Equation (13), with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.949.

d = 0.00981t0.39159 (13)
Metals 2024, 14, 336 26 of 36

Yichen et al. [136] used the curve fitting technique to correlate the stress range (s, Mpa)
and life cycles (N), mentioned in Equation (14), and the linear fitting was obtained with
R2 = 0.797.
s = 233.4906 − 12.7622log( N ) (14)
Bergner et al. [187] used the curve fitting technique to correlate Paris constants C
and m and obtained the linear fit with R2 = 0.96. Alqahtani et al. [188] utilised the curve
fitting method to find the Paris constants C and m from the Paris equation for different
temperature and humidity conditions. The regression equations obtained by curve fitting
were linear for fatigue life cycles and C.
Mohammad Khan et al. [189] proposed the Khan–He model, which is more suitable for
experimental crack depth and frequency data at different temperatures than the established
Ostachowicz model. Yang Yali et al. [190] used a curve-fitting method to predict fatigue life
from surface roughness. The results demonstrated a correlation between surface roughness
and fatigue life (Ni ) and found that a cubic polynomial equation provided the best fit shown
in Equations (15) and (16).
a  a 2 a  a 2  a 3
Kt = 0.93 + 0.37b − 0.04b2 − 0.07b + 0.02 + 0.002b3 + 0.004b2 + 0.006b − 0.003
(15)
b b b b b
where a and b are single micro-notch parameters, and Kt is the stress concentration factor.
h i −2
Ni = 3.53 × 1013 (207.25Kt )1.84 − 1271.84 (16)

The calculated fatigue life values were compared to experimental results, revealing a
maximum error of 15.65%. This suggests that the formulated equation obtained from curve
fitting is reasonable and effective in predicting fatigue life.
These findings show the flexibility and efficiency of curve fitting techniques in de-
veloping the relationship between various parameters, aiding in understanding materials’
behaviour under any conditions.
Although various models [185,186,191] are used to analyse the obtained data and
predict the life cycle in non-corrosive and corrosive conditions, the current understanding
still needs to consider the specific effects of temperature and humidity. Investigating how
temperature and humidity interact to affect fracture toughness and FCGR behaviour is
critical to ensure aluminium alloy components’ reliable and safe performance in coastal
environments. The effects of humidity [192,193] and temperature [48,194–196] on the
fatigue properties of materials [197–200] were independently studied in earlier research.
For the purpose of forecasting fatigue life and creating empirical equations for predicting
and associating FCGR with fracture toughness, a thorough understanding of the combined
effects of these components is essential.
Simulation techniques involve using computer-based models to replicate the behaviour
of materials under various coastal environmental scenarios [201]. Finite element simu-
lations are a standard tool used for this purpose [202,203]. In FEA, the material and
environmental conditions are mathematically modelled and the simulation predicts how
the material will behave. By altering the input parameters, such as temperature and humid-
ity levels, researchers can assess their impact on fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth,
and fatigue life.
Figure 20a depicts an FE simulation model of the CT specimen used in fracture
toughness tests. In the contour plot, Figure 20b, the distribution of Von Mises stress in the
deformed CT specimen can be observed as simulated by the FEM analysis [204]. Along
with the stress distribution, fracture toughness, and fatigue life cycles, FCGR can also be
predicted using commercially available simulation software.
Metals 2024,14,
Metals2024, 14,336
x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of
of 36
37

Figure20.
Figure 20.(a)
(a)Simulation
Simulationmodel
modelofof
thethe
CTCT specimen
specimen forfor fracture
fracture toughness
toughness tests.
tests. (b) Stress
(b) Stress distribu-
distribution
tion Adapted from ref.
Adapted from ref. [204]. [204].

Table 22 provides
Table provides an overview
overview of ofthe
thevarious
variousmodels
modelsusedusedto to
predict thethe
predict fracture be-
fracture
haviour ofof
behaviour aluminium
aluminium alloys, along
alloys, alongwith their
with respective
their respectivemethods,
methods,applications, andand
applications, lim-
itations. However,
limitations. However, some models
some focus
models on predicting
focus fracture
on predicting behaviour
fracture underunder
behaviour conditions
con-
including
ditions only corrosion,
including temperature,
only corrosion, or humidity.
temperature, Still, the combined
or humidity. effects of temper-
Still, the combined effects
ature
of and humidity
temperature in coastalin
and humidity environments remain unexplored.
coastal environments StructuresStructures
remain unexplored. in coastal inar-
eas areareas
coastal frequently exposed exposed
are frequently to temperature, humidity,
to temperature, and corrosion.
humidity, and corrosion.

Table2.2.Models
Table Modelsused
usedtotopredict
predictthe
thefracture
fracturebehaviour
behaviourofofthe
thealuminium
aluminiumalloys.
alloys.

Author Author
Model Used Model Used
Methodology MethodologyApplicationApplication Limitation
Limitation
Paris model and
Zhiying et al. Paris model and Does not
Zhiying et al. Corrosion–fatigue Trantina–Johnson Accurate results
Corrosion–fatigue
(2016) [205] Trantina–Johnson Does notconsider
consider the
the
(2016) [205] Accurate results in
model model in corrosion temperature and
corrosion conditions temperature and
C.Q. Wang et conditions humidity
C.Q. Wang et al. Trantina–JohnsonTrantina–Johnson humidity
Corrosion–fatigue Corrosion–fatigue
(2023) [53] al. (2023) [53] model model
It focuses Pre-corrosion;
on Pre-corrosion;
does not
Equivalent crack
Equivalent crack size
Huang et al. Huang et al. Pre-corrosion It focuses on single and and consider
single does notthe
consider
Pre-corrosion fatigue (ECS) models andsize (ECS) modelsinitiations
(2016) [206] (2016) [206] fatigue multi-crack multi-crack temperature and
the temperature
experiment
and experiment humidity
initiations and humidity
Fatigue damage was
Fatigue damageDoes not consider
Does not the
Ping et al. Theoretical model and
Theoretical modelmodel
Pitting corrosion evaluated for the temperature and
(2016) [207] numerical simulation
Ping et al. Pitting model
corrosion was evaluated humidity
consider the
and numerical of pit growth
(2016) [207] model for the model of temperature and
simulation
Hydrogen Does not consider the
Safyari et al. (2021) Hydrogen sensitivity
pit growth temperature
humidity
Humidity model embrittlement and
[107] and (2023) [208] index
Safyari et al. mechanism Does not
corrosion
Hydrogen
Delshad et al. (2021) [107] Hydrogen Does notconsider
consider the
the
Temperature model Humidity model embrittlement
Ductility and Yielding Mechanical properties
(2020) [209] and (2023) sensitivity index temperature
humidity and
and corrosion
mechanism
Mouritz et al. [208] corrosion
Does not consider the
Temperature model Fracture toughness Aerospace materials
(2012) [210] Delshad et al. Ductility and Mechanical Does
humidity and not
corrosion
Temperature model
(2020) [209] Yielding properties consider the
Metals 2024, 14, 336 28 of 36

Table 2. Cont.

Author Model Used Methodology Application Limitation

Kimberly et al. Temperature and Mg2 Si intermetallic Does not consider the
Pitting corrosion
(2020) [108] corrosion model formation humidity conditions
Does not consider the
Frequency and salinity, Atmospheric corrosion
Sarah et al. (2023) [99] Atmospheric corrosion Temperature and
atmospheric conditions FCGR
humidity

6. Conclusions
Coastal areas present unique challenges for materials and structures. A comprehensive
understanding of the material’s fracture behaviour under such conditions is essential. This
literature study investigates various fracture mechanisms under corrosive conditions and
the interaction between corrosion, temperature, humidity, and material characteristics.
Temperature and humidity influence the fatigue and fracture behaviour of materials and
structures, a significant concern in engineering applications. The exposure of structures
to high temperature and humidity conditions can change material properties and affect
crack propagation.
Coastal environments face unique challenges due to saltwater exposure, humidity,
temperature fluctuations, and corrosive agents. Saltwater accelerates material corrosion,
while humidity can cause moisture absorption and deterioration. Temperature and humid-
ity variations can affect the corrosion process. Many elements and processes can contribute
to fracture mechanisms, such as corrosion fatigue, hydrogen embrittlement, and moisture-
assisted crack propagation. These factors play an important role in material degradation in
corrosive environments.
The existing literature has not yet provided sufficient explanations about the fatigue
and fracture behaviour of the materials under temperature and humidity conditions across
the structure. The following conclusions were drawn from the existing literature:
• Aluminium alloys, especially the Al6000 series, are prone to corrosion in NaCl so-
lutions, leading to reduced fracture toughness and corrosion fatigue under cyclic
loading. Elevated temperatures exceeding 70 ◦ C impact aircraft component perfor-
mance, causing microscopic cracks and corrosion pits. Pitting corrosion is observed
between 20 to 80 ◦ C, decreasing above 70 ◦ C with the formation of an aluminium
oxide layer. Research on the aluminium alloy shows a reduction in corrosion pits
with rising temperatures, emphasizing the correlation between temperature and the
diffusion coefficient for protective oxide layer growth.
• Humidity significantly accelerates corrosion and affects mechanical properties in
coastal areas, causing surface degradation and fatigue failure. Common corrosion
types include intergranular and pitting corrosion. Cyclic loading in humid air increases
fracture growth rates, and hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms involve water vapor
reactions leading to hydrogen absorption.
Understanding the combined effects of temperature, humidity, and corrosive marine
atmospheres is crucial for addressing challenges to aluminium alloy performance in coastal
environments. Addressing coastal challenges for aluminium alloys requires a deeper un-
derstanding of corrosion mechanisms, comprehensive field studies, and accurate predictive
models. Exploring emerging materials and coatings tailored to coastal conditions holds
promise for effective mitigation in the future.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, information collection,

modifications, validation, resources, I.A.; review, modifications, supervision, A.S.; conceptualization,
methodology, review, supervision, M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Metals 2024, 14, 336 29 of 36

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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