International Journal of General Medicine Dovepress

open access to scientific and medical research

Open Access Full Text Article

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

The Prevalence and Associated Factors of

Occupational Stress in Healthcare Providers in
Saudi Arabia
Adel F Almutairi 1 , Nasser Ali Hamdan 2 , Saud Altheyabi 1 , Emtinan Abdulrahman Alsaeed 3 ,
Faisal S Alammari 4 , Ala’a BaniMustafa 1
1
King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Ministry of National Guard Health
Affairs, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; 2Dental Intern, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia; 3College of Dentistry, Majmaah University, Al Majma’ah, Saudi
Arabia; 4College of Dentistry, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Ministry
of National Guard Health Affairs, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Correspondence: Ala’a BaniMustafa, Tel +966596460219, Email [email protected]

Background: Occupational stress is a negative physical and emotional response to job requirements, which might be caused by
various factors that can harm the emotional and physical well-being of the employee. We aimed to investigate the factors and
conditions associated with occupational stress.
Study Design: The study was cross-sectional, conducted with the Perceived Stress Scale ten item version.
Results: The majority of the participants reported moderate stress 223 (71%) and a small proportion (n=38, 12.2%) a high stress level.
Several factors associated with higher risk of stress level for example being single were associated with higher risk of stress level in
135 (74.6%), moderate and high stress level was also reported in the group without enough income, 96 (75%) and 20 (15.6%),
respectively.
Conclusion: A group of sociodemographic factors were consistently associated with occupational stress, including gender, income,
comorbidity and marital status. However, some factors remained complex and multifaceted.
Recommendation: It is important to focus on reducing stress levels for all employees, regardless of their work experience or
income. To prevent losing control of the healthcare worker’s stress and to prevent an escalation to anxiety or depression, stress-
management programs are necessary, specifically for those who are experiencing high stress levels.
Keywords: occupational stress, healthcare provider, mental health, emotional response

Background
Mental health and well-being are as important as physical health, and one of the main reasons is that it has an impact on
people’s work life. This is matching with WHO definition of health: “a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”1 Occupational stress is a negative physical and emotional
response when the requirements of the job do not meet the responsibilities, resources, and the work demands.2 Stress is
a reaction to stimuli and can have either a positive or negative response.3,4
Nowadays, expectations of employees are more than ever, as they are expected to do more intense work, be more
successful, and deliver more, which can affect their quality of life. Occupational stress may be caused by various factors
that can harm the emotional and physical well-being by influencing their efficiency and impact negatively on their
performance.5 Though some can withstand the stress, other professions are inherently more stressful, specifically
professions that require rapid decision-making skills and serious consequences.6 A multi-country study concluded that
factors such as time pressure, poor working conditions, deadlines, heavy workload, prolonged working hours, and
different beliefs are among the top workplace stress factors.7 The sources of stress can actively accumulate leading to
behavioral, psychological, and biological reactions.7

International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17 809–816 809

Received: 5 November 2023 © 2024 Almutairi et al. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.
Accepted: 31 January 2024 php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the
work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For
Published: 5 March 2024 permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms (https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php).
 Almutairi et al Dovepress

Compared with other occupations, healthcare workers are susceptible to significant psychological stress.8 Healthcare
providers are more likely to experience stress due to their work conditions with more intense and stressful situations in
caring for those in need. Some of the situations include human suffering and death, fears for personal safety, high
workload (particularly for those treating infected patients) and limited support may contribute to fatigue, burnout, and
stress.9 A study conducted in Riyadh with healthcare workers showed that 15.8% suffered from high-stress levels and
77.2% from moderate stress levels.10
The history of humanity has been marked by the impact of many fearsome pandemics of infectious diseases such as
SARS, MERS, and COVID-19, resulting in more stress in the HCW. Additionally, studies from previous epidemics
indicated that the sudden onset of an unknown disease with a high mortality rate affect the mental health of HCWs.11–15
HCW may also experience psychological effects because of the working environment. This includes lacking personal
protective equipment, reorganizing units and services with the addition of new teams, fear of contracting an infection or
spreading it to loved ones or patients and having to make morally challenging decisions, feeling helpless, longer working
hours and others.8,16–20
A cross-sectional study conducted in Egypt and Saudi Arabia with HCWs showed that 69% of the participants were
depressed (39.4% mild to moderate and 29.6% severe to very severe).21 A person with depression typically presents with
a depressed mood, decreased interest or pleasure, reduced energy, low self-worth, sleep deprivation or decreased appetite,
and lack of concentration.22 Depression can cause a significant and long-lasting deficit in a person’s ability to handle
daily tasks, and at its worst, it can even result in suicide. The WHO (2012) estimates that suicide claims over 1 million
lives each year, or 3000 people per day. The effects of depression on doctors’ health and wellbeing may extend to how it
affects their patients. Physicians who are depressed struggle to complete professional and personal obligations take more
sick days and are more likely to exhibit subpar performance at work.23–25 According to a study of pediatric residents,
depressive people are six times more likely to make prescription mistakes than those who are not depressed, which poses
a risk to patient safety.23
Research indicated that there was a bidirectional association between severe medical errors and self-perceived
exhaustion, depressive symptoms, and a decline in quality of life. The study aimed to investigate the prevalence of,
and factors associated with, occupational stress in Saudi healthcare providers. The significance of this study is based on
the fact that people have been affected by a number of pandemics and epidemics in the last two years, as well as the
associated precautionary measures, the burden of the situation, media exposure and complications with infected patients.
To our knowledge, limited literature is available related to the prevalence of occupational stress and the associating
factors in HCWs in Riyadh. The findings of this study are likely to reinforce the necessity for mental health programs
tailored to HCWs. Such initiatives will be especially beneficial in preventing and fighting work stress, which will result
in better healthcare.

Methodology
A cross-sectional study, using a self-administered questionnaire, was conducted with healthcare workers to investigate
the prevalence of, and factors associated with occupational stress in Saudi healthcare providers.

Study Population and Sampling Technique

A convenience sampling technique was used to recruit the participants in the study. Targeting Saudi healthcare workers,
a sample of 311 participants was achieved. The data was collected using a web-based electronic survey using Google
Forms. The questionnaire was developed after referring to a pre-validated questionnaire and distributed through social
media platforms such as Twitter, Telegram, and WhatsApp, though providing a link to the questioner, which was
accessible for three months, from July 2022 to September 2022. The English language was used in both the text messages
and the questionnaire. The participants were informed about the aim of the study, as well as the voluntary nature and
anonymity of participation in the questionnaire survey.
The sample size was determined using a sample size calculation formula and based on the following parameters: 16%
of healthcare practitioners suffer from high levels of stress (as reported in prior research in Saudi Arabia), a 95%

810 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S446410 International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17

DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

 Dovepress Almutairi et al

confidence interval, and a 5% margin of error. However, the research team added 50% more to compensate for
incomplete surveys or non-response, resulting in a required sample of 311.

Data Collection and Study Instrument

The data was collected using standardized validated tools, following an extensive literature review. The tool consisted of
two sections. The first focused on sociodemographic data (gender, age, occupation, marital status and having a child,
years of working, working with COVID-19 patients, being COVID-19 positive, any comorbidity, and the BMI index).
The second section contained the Perceived Stress Scale, which is a pre-validated self-report tool used to measure
perceived stress over the previous 4 weeks.26 We used the short version with a 10-item questionnaire (four positively
related and 6 negatively related). Each item has a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). The score
range is from 0 to 40. Higher scores indicate higher levels of perceived stress; all scores were categorized into three
levels: low, moderate and high. Scores of (0–13) was classified as low stress level, Scores of (14–26) classified as
moderate stress level and Scores of (27–40) classified as high stress level. In terms of job satisfaction, one independent
question was used to evaluate the participant satisfaction with their job using 5-point Likert scale then all values were
converted to yes and no answers. Additionally, demographic characteristics were all categorical variables except for age
of participants it was continuous variable.

Data Management and Analysis Plan

Data were analyzed using the SPSS version 29. The sample characteristics were analyzed using descriptive statistics,
including mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage. The mean variation in the outcome scores, depending on
the sample characteristics, was evaluated using bivariate analysis. To investigate the association between the demo­
graphic characteristics and potential relationships with stress levels, t-test was used to explore the relationship between
age and different categories of stress, and chi-square to explain the correlation and significant differences between the
categorical variables. The significant level is considered at p-value <0.05.

Study Result
Participant Demographic Information
The sample was realized as 311, 52.9% male. The mean ±SD of age was 31.5 ± 8.93 years. The majority (n=181, 58.0%)
were single. The participants had different occupations, the majority were physicians (n=87, 27.9%), 63 were residents
(20.2%), and 46 (14.7%) were dentists. Most of participants (n=194, 62.2%) had 5 years of experience, and 31 (9.9%)
had 10 to 20 years of working experience. The majority (n=234, 75.0%) worked with COVID-19 patients, and 191
(61.2%) were previously COVID-19 positive. A small proportion (n=40, 12.8%) had comorbidities, and 16 (5.2%) were
obese and the same proportion, underweight according to the BMI index. Just more than half were satisfied with their
work (n=165, 52.9%). The participants who reported enough income and the group who was able to save were 131
(42.0%) and 53 (17.0%), respectively. Table 1 provides more details of the participants’ profile.

Stress Levels
This study outlined the variables affecting the stress level and how it can vary from participant to participant. The
majority of participants (n=223, 71%) reported moderate stress, and 38 (12.2%) had a high level of stress. The mean age
of the group who reported moderate and high stress was 30.6 ± 7.3 and 31.6 ± 9.0 years respectively, which was
significantly different (p-value = 0.001). The majority of the males (n=113, 68.5%) and females (n=110, 74.8%) reported
moderate stress. For the female group 23 (15.6%) reported high stress, comparing to the males (n=15, 9.1%), a significant
difference (p-value = 0.004).
This study highlighted that severe stress levels can vary within the financial category. In the group without enough income,
96 (75%) and 20 (15.6%) had moderate and high stress level respectively, compared to 31 (58.5%) and 8 (15.1%) in the group
with enough income and the ability to save, a significant difference (p-value = 0.011). In addition, the group with comorbidities
had high stress levels (n=10, 25%), compared to the group with none, a significant difference (p-value = 0.029). Being single

International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S446410

811
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

 Almutairi et al Dovepress

Table 1 Participant Profile

Variable Category No(%)

Age Mean (SD) 31.5 ± 8.93

Gender
Male 165 (52.9)
Female 147 (47.1)

Marital Status
Single 181 (58)
Married 131 (42.0)

Nationality
Saudi 297 (95.2)
Non-Saudi 15 (4.8)

Comorbidity
Yes 40 (12.8)
No 272 (87.2)

BMI index
Normal 176 (57.3)
Obese 16 (5.2)
Overweight 99 (32.2)
Underweight 16 (5.2)

Being Covid-19 positive previously

Yes 191 (61.2)
No 121 (38.8)

Income
Enough 131 (42.0)
Enough and safe 53 (17.0)
Not enough 128 (41.0)

Job satisfaction
Satisfied 165 (52.9)
Unsatisfied 147 (47.1)

Occupation
Dentist 46 (14.7)
Nurse 57 (18.3)
Others 59 (18.9)
Physician 87 (27.9)
Resident 63 (20.2)

Working with COVID-19 patients

Yes 234 (75.0)
No 78 (25.0)

Years of Working
5–10 55 (17.6)
0–4 194 (62.2)
11–20 31 (9.9)
>20 32 (10.3)

812 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S446410 International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17

DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

 Dovepress Almutairi et al

Table 2 Factors Associated with Stress Level

Variable Low Moderate High p-value
51 (16.3) 223 (71.5) 38 (12.2)

Age 35.6 ± 13.4 30.6 ± 7.3 31.6 ± 9.0

Mean (SD) 0.001*

Income
Enough 25 (19.1) 96 (73.3) 10 (7.6) 0.011*
Enough and safe 14 (26.4) 31 (58.5) 8 (15.1)
Not enough 12 (9.4) 96 (75) 20 (15.6)

Any Comorbidity
No 45 (16.5) 199 (73.2) 28 (10.3) 0.029 *
Yes 6 (15) 24 (60) 10 (25)

Being Covid-19 positive previously

No 22 (18.2) 83 (68.6) 16 (13.2) 0.688
Yes 29 (15.2) 140 (73.3) 11 (11.5)

Gender
Male 37 (22.4) 113 (68.5) 15 (9.1) 0.004 *
Female 14 (9.5) 110 (74.8) 23 (15.6)

Marital Status
Married 30 (22.9) 88 (67.2) 13 (9.9) 0.023 *
Single 21 (11.6) 135 (74.6) 25 (13.8)

Worked with Covid-19 patients previously

No 16 (20.5) 58 (74.4) 4 (5.1) 0.062
Yes 35 (67.9) 165 (69.2) 34 (81.9)

Length of employment
5 28 (14.4) 141 (72.7) 25 (12.9) 0.058
6–10 6 (10.9) 45 (81.8) 4 (7.3)
11–20 6 (19.4) 20 (64.5) 5 (16.1)
>20 11 (34.4) 17 (53.1) 4 (12.5)

Job satisfaction
Satisfied 42 (25.5) 118 (71.5) 5 (3) <0.001*
Unsatisfied 9 (6.1) 105 (71.4) 33 (22.4)
Notes: *Significant value.

was associated with an increased risk of a moderate or high stress level in 135 (74.6%), and 25 (13.8%), and in married
individuals, 88 (67.2%) and 13 (9.9%), respectively, a significant difference of (p-value = 0.023). Additionally, among those
who were satisfied with their job, high stress level reported the less 5 (3%) comparing to those who were unsatisfied 33(22.4%)
with significant difference of p <0.001. Table 2 displays the different factors associated with different stress levels.

Discussion
Literature reports that the prevalence of work-related stress in HCWs was estimated at 70% and of this group, 30%
reported a high level of stress.27–29 Our study reported a slightly higher stress level (73.7%) and 38 (12.2%) with high
stress level which could be explained by the presence of expatriate HCWs who might have additional stress due to
language barriers and being home-sick. Our study reveals that being single was associated with a higher chance of
moderate and high stress levels. This result was compatible with previous studies reporting that marital status was
significantly associated with stress.30 In addition, more females reported higher moderate to high levels of stress than
males; these findings are parallel with many previous studies reporting the same outcomes.31,32 It could be explained by

International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S446410

813
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

 Almutairi et al Dovepress

the biological difference between the genders, for example, releasing hormones such as cortisol has an impact on the
response to stress. Another sociodemographic factor associated with stress was income, the group with enough income
reported less high levels of stress, but the group with enough income and the ability to save, and the counterpart, reported
almost the same stress level; this similarity is interesting. It may be that there is a threshold income level above which
additional income does not lead to a significant reduction in stress levels. It is also possible that other factors, such as job
security and work-life balance, are more important than income in determining stress levels. It could be justified also by
the small sample size, which represent less variation and included only the participants who are physicians with the same
socioeconomic status. More research is required to better understand the relationship between income and occupational
stress. The current study suggests that income is a significant factor and that individuals with lower incomes are more
likely to experience high levels of stress. This finding is important because it highlights the need for employers to focus
on reducing stress levels for all employees, regardless of their income level. There are a number of strategies that
employers can implement to reduce stress levels, such as providing employees with more control over their work,
offering flexible work arrangements, and providing access to employee assistance programs.
Stress was associated with the comorbidity variable. In the current study, we found that the group with comorbidities
were less stressed in terms of moderate stress but reported a higher percentage of high stress levels, both interesting and
complex. It is possible that individuals with comorbidities are more likely to experience high levels of stress due to the
physical and emotional challenges of their condition(s). On the other hand, it is also possible that individuals with
comorbidities are more likely to be aware of their stress levels and to seek help when required. It is also important to
consider the type of stress that was measured in the study. It is possible that individuals with comorbidities were more
likely to experience high levels of stress related to their health, but less likely to experience high levels of stress related to
their work or relationships. Thus, the finding that the group with comorbidities were less stressed in terms of moderate
stress but reported a higher percentage of high stress levels suggests that the relationship between stress and comorbidity
is complex and multifaceted. More research is required to fully understand this relationship.
Our finding regarding to the relationship between working experience and occupational stress was not significant,
which is not consistent with previous research reporting that employees with more years of experience reported lower
levels of occupational stress.33 It is possible that the study did not have enough participants to detect a statistically
significant difference between the two groups. Despite the limitations of our study, our findings are important because it
highlights the need for employers to focus on reducing stress levels for all employees, regardless of their work experience
or income.

Limitation
The design of this study was a cross-sectional, which might support the assessment of stress levels, but not causality. In
addition, our results cannot be generalized to all healthcare communities due to the small sample size.

Conclusion
Our analysis indicated that a quarter of the participants reported high levels of stress and that approximately two-thirds
had moderate levels. To be able to investigate the causes of high levels of stress and determine the contributing elements,
particularly the connection to the workplace, a sizable nationwide research of healthcare professionals is required. To
prevent losing control of the healthcare worker’s stress and the possible escalation to anxiety and/or depression, stress-
management programs are necessary, specifically for the group with high stress levels.

Ethical Consideration
Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of King Abdullah International Medical Research
Center (RSSR/22R/008/07) prior to data collection. The study protocol was approved ensuring compliance with the
Declaration of Helsinki. Patient confidentiality was maintained, as no Personal Identifiable Information (PII) was
included.

814 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S446410 International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17

DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

 Dovepress Almutairi et al

The purpose of the study was briefly explained in the data collection form, and participants are notified that their
participation is entirely voluntary. Those who agreed can proceed with the electronic questionnaire as no formal consent
was requested.

Disclosure
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

References
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Healthcare workers: work stress and mental health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016.
Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/healthcare/workstress.html0. Accessed July 26, 2022.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Exposure to stress: occupational hazards in hospitals. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;
2014. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2008-136/default.html. Accessed July 26, 2022.
3. Ismail A, Yao A, Yeo E, et al. Occupational stress features, emotional intelligence and job satisfaction an empirical study in private institutions of
higher learning. Rev Cient Electrón Ciencias Gerenciales. 2010;16:5–33.
4. Shinde M, Patel S. Co-relation between problematic internet use and mental health in professional education students. Int J Sci Res. 2014;3
(2):194–202.
5. Koinis A, Giannou V, Drantaki V, Angelaina S, Stratou E, Saridi M. The impact of healthcare workers job environment on their mental-emotional
health. coping strategies: the case of a local General Hospital:. Health Psychol Res. 2015;3(1):1.
6. Cooper C, Cooper R, Eaker LH. Living with stress. Harmonsworth: Pengium; 1988. Available from: http://www.sciepub.com/reference/351961.
Accessed July 26, 2022.
7. Cooper CL, Rachel D. Living with stress (Penguin health library); n.d. Available from: https://www.amazon.com/Living-Stress-Penguin-Health-
Library/dp/0140098666. Accessed July 26, 2022.
8. Pfefferbaum B, North CS. Mental health and the Covid-19 pandemic. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(6):510–512. doi:10.1056/NEJMp2008017
9. Giannis D, Geropoulos G, Matenoglou E, Moris D. Impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on healthcare workers: beyond the risk of exposure.
Postgrad Med J. 2021;97(1147):326. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-137988
10. Alwaqdani N, Amer HA, Alwaqdani R, et al. Psychological impact of covid-19 pandemic on healthcare workers in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: perceived
stress scale measures. J Epidemiol Glob Health. 2021;11(4):377–388. doi:10.1007/s44197-021-00014-4
11. Liu X, Kakade M, Fuller CJ, et al. Depression after exposure to stressful events: lessons learned from the severe acute respiratory syndrome
epidemic. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2012;53(1):15–23.
12. Lung F-W, Lu Y-C, Chang -Y-Y, Shu B-C. Mental symptoms in different health professionals during the SARS attack: a follow-up study. Psychiatr
Q. 2009;80:107–116.
13. Maunder R, Hunter J, Vincent L. The immediate psychological and occupational impact of the 2003 SARS outbreak in a teaching hospital. CMAJ.
2003;168(10):1245–1251.
14. Wu P, Fang Y, Guan Z, et al. The psychological impact of the SARS epidemic on hospital employees in China: exposure, risk perception, and
altruistic acceptance of risk. Can J Psychiatry. 2009;54(5):302–311.
15. Marvaldi M, Mallet J, Dubertret C, Moro MR, Guessoum SB. Anxiety, depression, trauma-related, and sleep disorders among healthcare workers
during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021;126:252–264.
16. Sun Y, Song H, Liu H, et al. Occupational stress, mental health, and self-efficacy among community mental health workers: a cross-sectional study
during COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2021;67(6):737–746.
17. Thomaier L, Teoh D, Jewett P, et al. Emotional health concerns of oncology physicians in the United States: fallout during the COVID-19
pandemic. PLoS One. 2020;15(11):e0242767.
18. Khusid JA, Weinstein CS, Becerra AZ, et al. Well-being and education of urology residents during the covid-19 pandemic: results of an American
National Survey. Int J Clin Pract. 2020;74(9):e13559.
19. Shaukat N, Ali DM, Razzak J. Physical and mental health impacts of covid-19 on Healthcare Workers: a scoping review. Int J Emerg Med.
2020;13:1–8.
20. Mokhtari R, Moayedi S, Golitaleb M. Covid-19 pandemic and health anxiety among nurses of intensive care units. Int J Ment Health Nurs. 2020;29
(6):1275.
21. Arafa A, Mohammed Z, Mahmoud M, et al. Depressed, anxious, and stressed: what have healthcare workers on the frontlines in Egypt and Saudi
Arabia experienced during the covid-19 pandemic? J Affective Disorders. 2021;278:365–371.
22. World Health Organization. Depression. World Health Organization. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression.
Accessed July 26, 2022.
23. Fahrenkopf AM, Sectish TC, Barger LK, et al. Rates of medication errors among depressed and burnt out residents: prospective cohort study. BMJ.
2008;336(7642):488–491.
24. Druss BG, Rosenheck RA, Sledge WH. Health and disability costs of depressive illness in a major U.S. corporation. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157
(8):1274–1278.
25. Baldisseri MR. Impaired healthcare professional. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(2):S106–S116.
26. Linzer M, Stillman M, Brown R, et al. American medical association–Hennepin healthcare system coping with COVID investigators. Preliminary
report: US physician stress during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes. 2021;5(1):127–136. PMID:
33718790; PMCID: PMC7930845. doi:10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2021.01.005
27. Rink LC, Oyesanya TO, Adair KC, Humphreys JC, Silva SG, Sexton JB. Stressors among healthcare workers: a summative content analysis. Glob
Qual Nurs Res. 2023;10:23333936231161127. doi:10.1177/23333936231161127
28. American Nurses Foundation. COVID-19 Impact Assessment survey—The Second Year. American Nurses Association Enterprise; 2022.

International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S446410

815
DovePress

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

 Almutairi et al Dovepress

29. Ta VP, Gesselman AN, Perry BL, Fisher HE, Garcia JR. Stress of singlehood: marital status, domain-specific stress, and anxiety in a national US
sample. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2017;36(6):461–485. doi:10.1521/jscp.2017.36.6.461
30. Calvarese M. The effect of gender on stress factors: an exploratory study among university students. Soc Sci. 2015;4(4):1177–1184. doi:10.3390/
socsci4041177
31. Matud MP. Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Pers Individ Dif. 2004;37(7):1401–1415. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.010
32. Mahmood A, Zamir S, Zahoor F. Impact of age and level of experience on occupational stress of academic managers at higher educational level.
Mediterr J Soc Sci. 2013;4(1):535–541.
33. Ali AM, Hendawy AO, Ahmad O, Al SH, Smail L;Kunugi H. The Arabic version of the Cohen Perceived Stress Scale: factorial validity and
measurement invariance. Brain Sci. 2021;11(4):419.

International Journal of General Medicine Dovepress

Publish your work in this journal
The International Journal of General Medicine is an international, peer-reviewed open-access journal that focuses on general and internal
medicine, pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, monitoring and treatment protocols. The journal is characterized by the rapid reporting of
reviews, original research and clinical studies across all disease areas. The manuscript management system is completely online and includes a
very quick and fair peer-review system, which is all easy to use. Visit http://www.dovepress.com/testimonials.php to read real quotes from
published authors.
Submit your manuscript here: https://www.dovepress.com/international-journal-of-general-medicine-journal

816 DovePress International Journal of General Medicine 2024:17

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)