MODULE 3

Descriptors/Topics
● Frequencies

● Descriptives

● Explore

● Crosstabs

● Charts

FREQUENCIES
The Frequencies procedure is useful for exploring the distribution of values in your dataset, identifying outliers,
understanding the spread of categorical variables, and preparing data for further analysis.
In SPSS, the "Frequencies" procedure is used to generate frequency distributions for one or more variables in
your dataset. Here's how you can use it:
1. Select Variables: Before running the Frequencies procedure, select the variables for which you want to
generate frequency distributions. You can select variables from the variable list in the Data View or
Variable View.
2. Run Frequencies Procedure: Go to "Analyze" > "Descriptive Statistics" > "Frequencies". This will open
the Frequencies dialog box.
3. Select Variables: In the Frequencies dialog box, move the variables you want to analyze from the left-hand
box to the right-hand box. You can do this by selecting variables and clicking the arrow buttons in the
middle or by dragging and dropping variables.
4. Options: You can customize the analysis using various options in the Frequencies dialog box. Some
common options include:
 Statistics: Choose which statistics to compute (e.g., counts, percentages, mean, median).
 Charts: Generate bar charts or histograms to visualize the frequency distributions.
 Display frequency tables: Choose whether to display the frequency tables in the output.
5. Run: After selecting variables and customizing options, click the "OK" button to run the Frequencies
procedure.
6. Output: SPSS will generate output tables containing frequency distributions for the selected variables.
These tables include counts, percentages, and optionally, summary statistics like mean and median.
7. Interpretation: Interpret the output to understand the distribution of values for each variable. Frequency
tables show the number of cases (frequency) for each value or category of the variable.
DESCRIPTIVES
The Descriptives procedure is useful for summarizing the characteristics of variables in your dataset and
gaining insights into their distributional properties. In SPSS, the "Descriptives" procedure is used to compute
basic descriptive statistics for one or more variables in your dataset.
Here's how to use it:
1. Select Variables: Before running the Descriptives procedure, select the variables for which you want to
compute descriptive statistics. You can select variables from the variable list in the Data View or Variable
View.
2. Run Descriptives Procedure: Go to "Analyze" > "Descriptive Statistics" > "Descriptives". This will open
the Descriptives dialog box.
3. Select Variables: In the Descriptives dialog box, move the variables you want to analyze from the left-hand
box to the right-hand box. You can do this by selecting variables and clicking the arrow buttons in the
middle or by dragging and dropping variables.
4. Options: You can customize the analysis using various options in the Descriptives dialog box. Some
common options include:
 Central Tendency: Choose which measures of central tendency to compute (e.g., mean, median, mode).
  Dispersion: Choose which measures of dispersion to compute (e.g., standard deviation, variance,
range).
 Percentiles: Specify which percentiles to compute.
 Save standardized values: Save standardized (z-score) values for each variable.
5. Run: After selecting variables and customizing options, click the "OK" button to run the Descriptives
procedure.
6. Output: SPSS will generate output tables containing descriptive statistics for the selected variables. These
tables include measures of central tendency, dispersion, and other summary statistics like percentiles.
7. Interpretation: Interpret the output to understand the distribution and variability of values for each
variable. Descriptive statistics provide insights into the typical value, spread, and shape of the data
distribution.
EXPLORE
The Explore procedure is a comprehensive tool for exploring the characteristics of variables in your dataset and
gaining insights into their distributional properties, relationships, and potential outliers.
In SPSS, the "Explore" procedure is a powerful tool for conducting exploratory data analysis (EDA) by
generating a variety of descriptive statistics and graphical representations for one or more variables in your
dataset.
Here's how you can use it:
1. Select Variables: Before running the Explore procedure, select the variables you want to explore. You can
select variables from the variable list in the Data View or Variable View.
2. Run Explore Procedure: Go to "Analyze" > "Descriptive Statistics" > "Explore". This will open the Explore
dialog box.
3. Select Variables: In the Explore dialog box, move the variables you want to analyze from the left-hand box
to the right-hand box. You can do this by selecting variables and clicking the arrow buttons in the middle or
by dragging and dropping variables.
4. Options: You can customize the analysis using various options in the Explore dialog box. Some common
options include:
 Statistics: Choose which descriptive statistics to compute (e.g., mean, median, mode, standard
deviation, skewness, kurtosis).
 Plots: Generate various graphical representations such as histograms, boxplots, stem-and-leaf plots, and
Q-Q plots.
 Compare groups: If your dataset includes group variables, you can specify them here to compare
statistics and plots between groups.
5. Options for Outliers and Missing Values: You can choose how to handle outliers and missing values in the
analysis.
6. Run: After selecting variables and customizing options, click the "OK" button to run the Explore procedure.
7. Output: SPSS will generate output tables containing descriptive statistics, including means, standard
deviations, skewness, kurtosis, as well as graphical representations for the selected variables.
8. Interpretation: Interpret the output to gain insights into the distribution, central tendency, variability, and
shape of the data distribution for each variable. The graphical representations help visualize the data
distribution and identify potential outliers or patterns.
CROSSTABS
The Crosstabs procedure is useful for exploring relationships between categorical variables in your dataset and
identifying potential associations or dependencies.
In SPSS, the "CROSSTABS" procedure is used to generate contingency tables and conduct chi-square tests of
association between two or more categorical variables in your dataset. Here's how you can use it:
1. Select Variables: Before running the Crosstabs procedure, select the categorical variables you want to
analyze. These variables should be categorical or ordinal in nature.
2. Run Crosstabs Procedure: Go to "Analyze" > "Descriptive Statistics" > "Crosstabs". This will open the
Crosstabs dialog box.
3. Select Variables: In the Crosstabs dialog box, move the variables you want to cross-tabulate from the left-
hand box to the row and column boxes. You can do this by selecting variables and clicking the arrow
buttons in the middle or by dragging and dropping variables.
4. Options: You can customize the analysis using various options in the Crosstabs dialog box. Some common
options include:
 Statistics: Choose which statistics to compute for the contingency table (e.g., counts, row
percentages, column percentages, expected values, chi-square test).
 Cells: Specify whether to display cell frequencies, percentages, both, or neither.
 Format: Choose the format of the output table (e.g., hierarchical, flat, summary).
5. Cells: You can also specify whether to compute certain statistics for specific cells using the "Cells" option.
For example, you can request chi-square contributions or standardized residuals.
6. Format: Choose the format of the output table, such as hierarchical or flat.
7. Run: After selecting variables and customizing options, click the "OK" button to run the Crosstabs
procedure.
8. Output: SPSS will generate output tables containing the contingency table with frequencies, percentages,
and other statistics based on your selections. Additionally, if you requested statistical tests (e.g., chi-square
test), the results of these tests will be displayed.
9. Interpretation: Interpret the output to understand the relationship between the variables. Look for patterns,
differences, or associations in the contingency table and assess the significance of any observed associations
using statistical tests like the chi-square test.
CHARTS
The Charts procedure in SPSS allows you to create visually appealing and informative graphical representations
of your data, making it easier to interpret and communicate your findings.
In SPSS, the "Charts" procedure is used to create various types of graphical representations or charts to
visualize data. Here's how you can use it:
1. Select Variables: Before running the Charts procedure, select the variables you want to visualize. These
variables can be either categorical or continuous.
2. Run Charts Procedure: Go to "Graphs" > "Chart Builder". This will open the Chart Builder dialog box.
3. Select Chart Type: In the Chart Builder dialog box, you'll see a gallery of different chart types on the left-
hand side. Choose the type of chart you want to create (e.g., bar chart, histogram, line chart, scatterplot) by
clicking on it and dragging it to the preview area on the right-hand side.
4. Define Variables: In the preview area, you'll see placeholders for variables (e.g., X-Axis, Y-Axis). Drag
your variables from the Variable list onto these placeholders to define them for the chart. The chart will
update dynamically as you add variables.
5. Customize Chart: You can customize various aspects of the chart, such as titles, axis labels, colors, and
styles, by clicking on the elements of the chart and using the Properties window on the right-hand side.
6. Options: Depending on the type of chart you're creating, there may be additional options available in the
Chart Builder dialog box. For example, for a bar chart, you can choose whether to create clustered or
stacked bars.
7. Run: After customizing the chart to your liking, click the "OK" button to generate the chart.
8. Output: SPSS will generate the chart and display it in the Output Viewer window. You can further
customize the appearance of the chart in the Output Viewer by right-clicking on it and selecting "Edit
Content" or by using the chart editor tools.
9. Export or Save: Once you're satisfied with the chart, you can export it as an image file (e.g., PNG, JPEG)
or save it as part of your SPSS output file for later reference.