FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & BUILT

ENVIRONMENT

SEMESTER 1 2020/2021

BFC21303 GEOLOGY ENGINEERING

ROCK SLOPE STABILIZATION METHODS

NAME 1. ZARITH SALINA BINTI TERMIZI (DF190015)

& MATRIC : 2. NUR AMALIA BINTI ZUBAIDI (DF190044)

NUMBER 3. IKMAL HAKIM BIN ISMAIL (DF190038)

GROUP : GROUP 18

SECTION : SECTION 4

LECTURER : PROF. MADYA TS. DR. AZIMAN BIN MADUN

MARKS :
 ROCK SLOPE STABILIZATION METHODS
Zarith Salina Termizi(DF190015)1, Nur Amalia Zubaidi(DF190044)2, Ikmal Hakim Ismail(DF190038)3
1
Under Graduate Student, Faculty Of Civil Engineering And Built Environment, University Tun Hussein Onn,
86400, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

Keywords : rock slope stabilization, slope movement, discontinuities, slope failure, scaling, slope.

1.0 Introduction
A slope is a man-made structure. Highways, dams, and tunnels are constructed by sloping the lateral
faces of the soil because building slopes are generally less expensive than constructing walls. Hence, slope
stabilization must be priotised to ensure their long-term viability. Slope stability defined as the condition of
inclined soil or rock slopes to withstand movement. The stability of a slope is essentially controlled by the ratio
between the available shear strength and the acting shear stress. A slope can fail if there are occurrence natural
forces such as rainfall and earthquakes. The main forces contributing to slope failure are those arising from the
dead weight of the rock, soil, or other materials which place a load on the slope and from the pressure of water in
the slope. Slope stabilization is crucial in engineering to avoid slope failure as it can cause fatality and heavy
injury to humans.
In rock slope stabilization, there are various of methods. Each method is selected according to their
categories. Each stabilization measures that are appropriate for a site are selected and designed, geotechnical,
construction, and environmental issues must be considered. The geotechnical issues such as geology, rock
strength, groundwater, and stability analysis.
The objectives of this project are :

• Understanding about the importance of stabilization of rock slopes.

• To analyse the methods of rock slope stabilization.
• To analyse types of slope movements.
• To determine the parameters affecting rock slope failure.
• To determine the tools and equipment that used in each of the methods.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Factors Of Slope Movement
Rock slope stability analysis by Gian Paolo Giani (1998) stated that a slope movement happens due to a
phenomenon where shear stress in the soil increases or reduction of shear stress. The phenomena that contribute
to increasing of shear stress involves the toe or slope surface weakening which is due to :
1. Erosion by streams, glaciers, waves, tidal currents, weathering, wetting and drying and frost action.
2. Subsidence, previous rock fall, toppling, sliding and superficial scaling.
3. Phenomena connected to human activity such as mining, or civil excavations, channel construction,
or water level variation in the toe zone of reservoirs.
The causes that contribute to a shear strength reduction depend on the soil texture, rock structural defects, physical
and chemical reactions, and changes in the intergranular forces. Texture plays an important role in porous soil due
to their sensitive behaviour.
 According to McCauley et al. (1985), The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) made a
comprehensive study of rock falls that have occurred on the state highway system. Most of the causes of slope
failures is because of natural phenomena such as heavy rain, freezing thaw and prolonged periods of freezing
temperatures. The other major group factors are because of the existing of discontinuities in the rock mass.

2.2 Slope Movement Types and Analysis

Based on Gian Paolo Giani (1998) different methods of slope movement analysis according to the slope
potentially unstable movement.
1. Falls
Rockfalls consist of free-falling blocks of different sizes that are detached from a steep rock wall. The
block movement includes bouncing, rolling and sliding during the slope impacts. The block fall is
extremely rapid. The block velocities can reached more than 28m/s.
2. Topples
Toppling movements are due to forces that cause an overturning moment about a point below toppling
block unit centre of gravity. The resultant force is due to block weight, water pressure joint and the
adjacent block thrust determines the block toppling. The block movements are either falls, rolling and
slides.
3. Slides
A sliding movement is determined by unbalanced shear stress along one or more surfaces. These surfaces
are visible. Sliding surface is one of the most important problems in a landslide analysis. A landslide
phenomenon may already have occurred and the sliding surface shape and position can be identified by
means of site investigations (Walker et.al, 1987).

2.3 Rock Slope Stabilization Methods

A successful rock slope stabilization program requires the integration of a number of interrelated
activities, including geotechnical engineering as well as environmental and safety issues, construction methods
and costs, and contracting procedures (Duncan C. Wyllie et.al, Chapter 18). The most common method that is
used in rock slope stabilization is reinforcement. Reinforcement is most commonly used to prevent ultimate
sliding or rotational failure of potentially unstable rock masses along discontinuities. However, there are typically
six other repair methods used for stabilizing rock slopes which are removable of unstable rocks. catchment,
flattening of slope, buttresses, surface protection and drainage.

3.0 Methodology

There are several methods used for stabilizing rock slopes which are catchment, drainage, removal of
unstable rock, flattening of slope, buttresses, surface protection and reinforcement. These methods can also be
used for singly or in combination. The most common method that used to stabilizing rock slope is Reinforcement
to prevent unstable rock from sliding or rotational failure along discontinuities. Surface protection using mesh or
shotcrete can also be used to avoid sunlight, air and water assaults and progressive raveling.

3.1 Reinforcement
Rock support dowels, bolts, or tiebacks oppose development along joints and restrict block fallout and
loosening. Tensioned support (jolts or tiebacks) will change the pressure state around the incline face by inciting
compressive burdens, which give restriction, consequently improving the strength of the stone mass.
 Dowel: Dowels are usually made of steel bars grouted in predrilled holes resin or cement. Dowels are
not pretension poll-tensioned. The reason is that when the rock mass moves, it will to tension the bar as it resists
the movement. Reinforcing steel and high strength bars are most commonly used. The diameter size of the bar is
between about 1 and 1.5 inches. The hole size depends on the type of grout being used, the length of the bar, and
the type of rock.
Tiebacks: Tiebacks are usually similar to dowel but tiebacks are much longer and post-tensioned from
dowel. Sometime, steel strand is used instead of bar to provide a detailed discussion about the design, installation,
and testing of tensioned ground anchors. The tensioning of tiebacks will increase shear strength across joints and
provides additional confinement to the rock. The amount of confinement provided can be calculated by dividing
the anchor force by the tieback spacing.

3.2 Surface Protection

Surface protection usually is used in a small area which is not suitable for adequate catchment areas. This
can be accomplished using a net that is fastened to or over the slope. The netting commonly consists of chain link
fence or gabion wire fabric held in place by rock bolts or cable tendons. Steel fabric, straps, or channels control
rockfalls between reinforcement elements (dowels, bolts, or tiebacks)
Steel Mesh: Steel mesh surface protection usually consists of chain link fence. Welded wire fabric can
be used, especially if the possibility of using shotcrete also exists. Chain link fence interferes with the proper
application of shotcrete. Another type of steel mesh is wire nets, which are discussed further below. The main
design components involved with specifying steel mesh are the wire size and the method and frequency of tie-
downs. Standard sizes of chain link fence and welded wire fabric are available. Tie-downs usually consist of short
rock dowels with the size, method of grouting, and number per square feet of slope specified. If rock dowels are
being used to reinforce the slope in addition to the mesh, the mesh can be attached to the reinforcement dowels
without additional tie-downs needed.
Wire Nets: Wire Nets Wire nets have recently been introduced to the United States from Europe. Wire
nets are similar to chain link fence except they have wider wire spacing and greater energy absorption
characteristics.
Shotcrete: Shotcrete: Shotcrete is pushed through open joints, holes, folds and gaps on the rock surface
and has the same binding function as a mortar on a stone wall. The adhesion of the shotcrete to the rock surface,
along with the shear strength of the shotcrete sheet, gives resistance to the fallout of loose rock blocks as well as
to the containment of the rock mass. It can also seal rock that is vulnerable to weathering due to exposure to
natural elements.

3.3 Buttresses
Strengthening of the rock may be achieved with buttresses, bulkheads or retaining walls. Usually, these
structures are built of cast-in-place, reinforced concrete, but it is often common to use stone or masonry. In tandem
with support approaches, rock reinforcement is also used.

4.0 Result And Discussion

In many cases, engineered slopes require stabilization to ensure their long-term viability and reduce localized
slope failure. Generally, the most effective strategy is to prevent the failure is to prevent the failure at the source
through stabilization, not to install structures to protect against them in the future. There are many methods that
can be used to stabilize a rock slope. These include altering the slope geometry, installing drainage, adding
reinforcement or a using combination of these methods. Table 1 provides an overview of combination stabilization
procedures. A more detailed discussion of each is included this section.
 Table 1: Overview of stabilization methods and their limitations.

Mitigation measure Description / Purpose Limitations

Slope Geometry Modification
Used to remove loose rock from slope via A temporary measure that usually
Hand /Mechanical hand tools and mechanical equipment. needs to be repeated every 2 to 10
Scaling Commonly used in conjunction with other years, as the slope face continues to
stabilization methods. degrade.
Used to remove overhanging faces and Possible right of way issues, debris
protruding knobs and to modify he slope containment, difficulty with drilling
Trim Blasting
angle to improve rockfall trajectory and slope and undermining or loss of support by
stability. key block removal.
Reinforcement
Internal Stabilization
Tensioned steel bars used to increase the Less suitable on slopes comprising
normal force friction and shear resistance small blocks. Requires good access to
Rock Bolts along discontinuities and potential failure slope. Visible bolt ends and hex nuts
surfaces. Applied in a pattern or in a specific may need to be covered with
block. shotcrete to improve aesthetics.
Untensioned shear bars installed to increase Passive support system requires
shear resistance and reinforce a block. block movement to develop bolt
Rock Dowels Increase normal force friction once block tension. Required good access to
movement occurs. Less visible than rock slope. Visible bolts ends may need tp
bolts. be covered.
Provide shear support at the leading edge of a
Cast in place concrete needed around
dipping rock block or slab using grouted steel
Shear Pins bars to contact leading edge of block.
bars. Can easily be blended with surrounding
Requires good access to slope.
rock by colored concrete.
Joint apertures must be greater than 2
Resin / epoxy injected into the rock mass
mm for migration of product. In
through a borehole, travels along joints to add
slopes with excessive moisture,
Injectable Resin / cohesion to discontinuities. Decrease the
product will expand and provide little
Epoxy number of rock bolts or dowels needed in a
increase in cohesion. Should not be
rock slope. Great for aesthetics as it cannot be
used as the only mitigative measure
seen.
on a rock slope.
External Stabilization
Pneumatically applied concrete requiring Reduces slope drainage. Can be
high velocity and proper application to unsightly unless sculpted or colored.
consolidate. Primarily used to halt the Wire mesh or fibre reinforcement
ongoing loss of support caused by erosion required to prevent cracking. Must be
Shotcrete and ravelling. Adds small amount of applied in a minimum thickness of 50
structural support for small blocks. Sculpted mm to resist freeze. Quality and
and colored shortcrete can be used for durability are very dependent on
improved aesthetics and to cover rock bolts nozzleman skills.
and dowels. Drainage must be install.
Drainage
Reduce water pressures within a slope using
Difficult to quantify the need and
horizontal drains or adits. Commonly used in
verify the improvements achieved.
Weep Drains conjunction with other design elements.
Will need periodic cleaning to
Good for aesthetics because drain are rarely
maintain water drainage.
visible.

4.1 Slope Geometry Alteration

These methods change the configuration of a slope by removing rock or soil. Firstly, scaling is used to
reshape slopes and to stabilize existing slopes and mitigate rockfall. For new construction, scaling should be
completed immediately after the initial slope construction and periodically thereafter to remove any loosed rocks.
Hand scaling on existing slopes may be required on a more regular basis, depending on the construction and
condition of the rock face. As a stabilization or mitigation measure, scaling is typically effective for a period of
two to ten years, depending on site conditions, so it is not considered a permanent mitigation measure. However,
it is relatively inexpensive and serves as an effective short-term strategy. Because it enhances site safety, it is
routinely included with other mitigation efforts such as new rock excavation and rock reinforcement.
Hand scaling is the most common and inexpensive from scaling. Workers rappel from the top of the
slope or work out of a crane or man lift basket and use steel pry bars or air bags to remove any loosed rocks. In
most cases, several workers are scaling a slope at one time. It is effective on small areas that are accessible by
workers and that have rocks that are not too big to be removed manually.
Mechanical scaling is used on larger slope areas or to augment hand scaling efforts. This process uses
hydraulic hammer, long reach excavators or crane that drag a heavy object. The most important aspect of designing
a rock scaling operation is ensure the selected method is capable of handling the rock that need to be removed.
Once scaling has begun on a feature, it will become unstable and it cannot be left and the area re-opened to traffic
restored until it is removed.
Lastly, trim blasting is used to remove sections of rock that are too large for conventional scaling
operations. Trimming typically uses cushion or smooth blasting techniques, as described earlier. After the rock
section is blasted, the area should be hand scaled to remove smaller material. As with all blasting procedures,
trimming can procedure flyrock and loud air-blast.

4.2 Reinforcement Systems

The reinforcement systems work is to strengthen the rock mass internally by increasing its resistance to shear
stress and sliding along fractures. While systems work externally is to protect the rock from weathering and
erosion and to add a small amount of structural support.

4.2.1 Internal Stabilization

The most common type of internal reinforcement are anchors, which are threaded steels bars or cables
that are inserted into the rock via drilled holes and bonded to the rock mass by cement grout or epoxy resins.
Because the bond strength between the cement grout or resin and the rock is less than the maximum yielding stress
of the steel, it has a large impact on the design load of the rock reinforcement. The anchors used for slope
stabilization are typically 6m in length, 20 mm to 50 mm in diameter and made of high-strength steel. Rock
anchors can be categories to tensioned and untensioned.
Tensioned anchors (also known as rock bolts) are used on rock masses that already show signs of
instability or on newly cut rocks slopes to prevent movement along fractures and subsequent decrease of shearing
resistance. A hex nut and bearing plate are used to distribute the tensile load from the bolt to the rock mass. Rock
bolt are considered a type of active reinforcement due to the post-tensioning they provide and are used to add
compressive stress to joints within a rock mass. This force increase the friction along the fracture planes and helps
to reduce block movement.
For untensioned anchors have two type that can be used in rock stabilization which is rock dowels and
shear pins. Both are untensioned, fully grouted steels bars used for passive reinforcement. Dowels are used on
steep slopes in the same fashion as rock bolts, while shear pins are used on flatter slopes where bedding planes
and discontinuities determines the slope angle and failure plane. Rock dowels are typically used on newly
excavated slopes. They can be installed in a grid pattern to support an entire face or used to support one block.
Once block movements occurs, depending on dowel orientation, the tensile strength of the bar is engaged and the
normal force between opposing discontinuities is increased. Furthermore, shear pins are installed at the leading
edge of a sliding block. They rely on the shear strength of the steel dowel cross section to provide resistance in
the sliding plane of the block. In places where it is not possible to install shear pins directly into the block, the
pins can be incorporated into a concrete buttress.

4.2.2 External Stabilization

The type of external reinforcement is shotcrete. Shotcrete is a wet or dry-mix mortar with a fine aggregate
(up to 23mm) that is sprayed directly onto a slope using compressed air. Several applications may be needed to
build the shotcrete up to the required thickness. Unreinforced shotcrete gives little structural support or protection
against weathering but can be used to prevent differential erosion between units, slope ravelling and loosening of
blocks. Shotcrete can also be applied around the exposed ends of rock bolts to help prevent weathering around the
bearing plates and limit slope degradation. In contrast to cast in place concrete, shortcrete can be shaped, contoured
and colored to match the surrounding rock.
Structural shotcrete can also be used to form part of a retaining system supporting the rock slope. The
system typically includes other components such as welded wire mesh, rock bolts and dowels. In this applications,
the shortcrete will be required to resist or transfer loads and may also have an essential surface protection function
in conjunction with its structural function.
In any shotcrete application, drainage will be required to draw water from behind the shotcrete to prevent
elevated water pressure from causing cracking and instability in both the shotcrete and localized blocks. Color
can be applied to the shotcrete surface to help it blend with surroundings. To achieve the best results, the designer
and contractor should consider the following:

• Although darker colors tend to be less intrusive than lighter ones, designers should avoid applying dark
shortcrete to light rock.
• Consider the overall color and tone of the undisturbed rock formation, determine the average color of the
surrounding rock and apply that color to the shotcrete.
• If the shortcrete is covering all the exposed rock, there is little point in aiming to achieve a color match.
It’s better to select an unobtrusive color that fits the local context.
• Instead of combining several colors in the shotcrete mix, start with a single color and then apply at least
two different colors as stain.
• Time always changes the color of both rock and shortcrete, through water staining, air particles, exhaust
emissions, vegetation growth and weathering.

4.3 Drainage Systems

Slope stability can also be improved through the installation of drainage system which most often consist
of horizontal weep drains. Water in a rock slope often contributes to slope instability, as excessive pore pressure
acts on the rock mass and lowers the shear strength along any discontinuities. Drains are installed at the base of
the slope and require periodic maintenance to prevent clogging. Usually, they are used in conjunction with other
stabilization measures. Horizontal drains can be installed in a rock slope to reduce pore pressure and improve
stability and are a cost effective, aesthetically pleasing and relatively low maintenance option for most slopes with
excessive flowing water. They are most effective for large scale slope instability where the potential sliding planes
are deeply seated within the rock mass. The most important factor in designing horizontal drains is to orient the
holes so they intersect the maximum number of water carrying fractures as very little water is contained within
the intact rock. Drainage holes should be spaced about 3 to 10 mm apart and drilled to a depth of at least one-third
of the sloe height. In addition, the slope base must be protected from motorists and any obstructions that could
damage the drains or inhibit water movement.

5.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, there are many types of rock slope stabilization methods, for example are scaling, gabion, netting
and shotcrete. Rock slope stabilization is divided into two categories which are stabilization measures and
protection measures. As for stabilization measure, it is divided into two categories which are reinforcement and
removal rock. Although some flaws and limitations to the classification system have been discussed over the
years, the simple nature of the system makes it desirable for practitioners to modify the parameters to better fit
the context of local conditions. Any subsequent modifications to the system in the context of local condition
should consider the role of weathering and water movement in rock mass, as they have not been given much
emphasis in current scope of available system. Next, stabilization measure adopted for protection of the slide slope
with conventional type always does not give successful results. The pioneering solution applied for landslide
stabilization such as application of rock bolts, shotcrete and water management is found to be highly effective in
controlling the side. Prevailing rock mass condition demonstrates the slope is prone to small scale failure at the
base and earthquake vibration for small time may initiate rock fall in the region.
 6.0 Acknowledgement
First and foremost, praises and thanks to Allah s.w.t for His blessings throughout our journey to complete
this project successfully.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our BFC 21303 Geology Engineering Lecturer, Prof.
Madya Ts. Dr Aziman Bin Madun for his guidance in preparing this project. His sincerity and determination in
guiding us for this project has gave us hope in finishing our project in time.
Furthermore, we are extremely grateful to our parents for their love, prayers, encouragement and sacrifice
for us and also willing to provide us expenses to be used in this project. A special thanks to our friends for
supporting us from the start and for their ideas and cooperation during this project.
We have no valuable words to express our thanks, but our heart is still full of the favours received from
each person.

7.0 Reference
1. Abramson, L. W., Lee, T. S., Sharma, S., & Boyce, G. M. (2001). Slope stability and stabilization
methods. John Wiley & Sons.
2. Gian Paolo Giani. (1998). Rock Slope Stability Analysis. A.A Balkema Publishers.
3. Kanchan Chaulagai (2017). Stabilization Measure Adopted for Controlling Landslide.
4. Fookes, P. G. & A. J. Weltman (1989). Rock Slope: stabilization and remedial measure against
degradation in weathered and fresh rock. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.