Ainshams 2

Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102300
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Evaluating the critical safety factors causing accidents in downstream oil

and gas construction projects in Malaysia
Ahsan Waqar a, Idris Othman a, Nasir Shafiq a, Muhammad Shoaib Mansoor b,⇑
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak 32610, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sargodha, 40100 Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This study aimed to identify and evaluate the primary safety factors that contribute to accidents in down-
Received 19 February 2023 stream oil and gas construction projects in Malaysia. A quantitative approach was used, including a pilot
Revised 20 April 2023 survey and a main survey of individuals involved in these types of projects. Exploratory factor analysis
Accepted 4 May 2023
(EFA) was performed on the pilot survey data, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted
Available online 17 May 2023
on the main survey results. The study identified several critical safety factors, including inadequate safety
training, insufficient safety procedures, and inadequate supervision. The findings provide insights into
Keywords:
the significant safety elements in Malaysia’s oil and gas construction industry and may aid in improving
Downstream oil and gas industry
Safety factors
both theoretical and practical aspects of construction safety in this field. This research helps to fill a gap in
Malaysia knowledge regarding construction safety in Malaysia’s oil and gas sector by highlighting the most impor-
Accidents in construction projects tant contributors to accidents in this industry.
Safety of construction projects Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
Sustainable construction versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction Aside from being home to numerous major oil refineries and
petrochemical facilities, Malaysia is home to a number of offshore
Later processes in the petroleum industry supply chain, includ- oil and gas resources. State owned enterprises, such as Petronas,
ing as refining, marketing, and transporting crude oil and natural the country’s national oil and gas firm, have a stranglehold over
gas, are collectively known as ‘‘downstream oil and gas.” Pipelines, Malaysia’s downstream industry [6,7]. The government of Malaysia
tankers, and retail networks are used in the downstream sector to has enacted a number of laws and regulations designed to foster
transport finished goods including gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel, the development of the oil and gas sector and guarantee the secure
heating oil, and petrochemical products to consumers [1,2]. Critical and efficient manufacture of petroleum goods [8,9]. The govern-
to this sector are refineries, which process crude oil into consumer ment has also launched a number of programs to improve the sec-
goods, and pipelines and terminals, which move these goods to tor’s human resources and technological infrastructure [10,11].
their ultimate destinations [3]. Marketing, or ‘‘downstream” oil Despite these efforts, the Malaysian oil and gas sector still faces
and gas, refers to the process of distributing and selling petroleum issues like as dwindling reserves, fiercer competition, and the need
products to final consumers like gas stations and industrial buyers. to use cutting edge methods and tools to boost productivity and
Every person on the planet is touched in some way by the down- security. Nonetheless, the industry is still vital to Malaysia’s econ-
stream industry, which is a complicated and critical part of the glo- omy and plays a significant part in the country’s progress [12,13].
bal economy. However, there are dangers involved with the Malaysia is no exception to the rule that the oil and gas sector is
production and handling of petroleum products that must be man- vital to national economies throughout the globe. Massive stores of
aged and controlled to prevent accidents like spills, fires, and these resources may be found throughout the country; they are
explosions [4,5]. essential for satisfying the energy demands of the country’s indus-
tries. Serious injury, death, and extensive property, infrastructure,
and ecosystem damage may result from accidents in this sector
[14,15]. Key hazards and risks linked with these projects will be
⇑ Corresponding author. identified, and the study’s overarching goal will be to pinpoint
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Waqar), idris_othman@utp. the root causes of and variables that contribute to accidents. Mea-
edu.my (I. Othman), [email protected] (N. Shafiq), muhammadshoaib- sures and best practices that may be put in place to reduce the
[email protected] (M.S. Mansoor).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2023.102300
2090-4479/Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Waqar, I. Othman, N. Shafiq et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102300
severity of these threats and increase project security are also been given to downstream oil and gas construction projects. The
investigated [16]. present study aims to make a distinctive scholarly contribution
The construction projects related to oil and gas downstream by addressing the dearth of information pertaining to the crucial
activities in Malaysia are intrinsically intricate and entail a signif- safety aspects in downstream oil and gas construction undertak-
icant level of uncertainty. The implementation stage of these pro- ings in Malaysia. Overall it establishes a fundamental basis for
jects encompasses a diverse array of tasks, including excavation, forthcoming investigations concerning safety within the down-
welding, and operation of heavy machinery, which have the poten- stream oil and gas sector. Additionally, it functions as a beneficial
tial to result in accidents and incidents resulting in significant reference for project leaders, subcontractors, and laborers to facil-
harm or loss of life [17,18]. The identification of critical safety fac- itate their recognition and reduction of safety hazards linked to
tors that contribute to accidents in downstream oil and gas con- such undertakings. The outcomes of this study hold pragmatic
struction projects in Malaysia is imperative for safeguarding the ramifications for the sector and augment the establishment of
well-being of workers and preserving the environment [19]. The more secure work methodologies and protocols, culminating in a
occurrence of accidents in downstream oil and gas construction safer workplace for all stakeholders.
projects is frequently attributed to human error. Fatigue, distrac-
tion, and pressure to complete tasks may lead to errors among
workers, which in turn could result in accidents [20,21]. The 3. Identification of safety factors
importance of efficient communication cannot be overstated when
it comes to ensuring safety in construction projects. Inadequate Construction projects need careful planning and safety. Unfor-
communication within or between employees and management tunately, numerous construction project dangers may cause
may result in misinterpretations, ambiguity, and incidents. worker injury or disease. Asad et al. (2019) and Zhou et al.
Employees who possess insufficient training may exhibit unfamil- (2017) stated that unmaintained overhead electricity wires may
iarity with safety protocols or may demonstrate inadequate profi- cause electrical hazards [26,27]. A coupling blow off may unleash
ciency in operating equipment [22,23]. This phenomenon has the dangerous chemicals, harming employees and the environment.
potential to elevate the likelihood of accidents. The incorrect uti- In restricted spaces, cooling system failure may be hazardous. Fol-
lization of equipment, including the usage of defective or dysfunc- lowing safety rules and not taking shortcuts reduces these hazards.
tional equipment or the disregard of safety protocols during This may involve following SOPs to guarantee safe and efficient
machinery operation, may result in incidents and physical harm work [28,29]. Construction sites may be noisy, especially without
[24,25]. Insufficient monitoring of employees may result in the hearing protection. If employees aren’t trained, caustic materials
adoption of unwarranted hazards, noncompliance with safety and chemicals may also be dangerous. Besides these hazards,
measures, or failure to adhere to appropriate protocols, ultimately building projects must be done safely. According to Jagoda & Woj-
culminating in incidents. cik (2019), this may include controlling dust and debris and pro-
Studies on safety in the oil and gas industry are available, but viding employees with PPE [30]. Faulty wiring is another
there is a dearth of research on the crucial safety elements leading construction issue that must be rectified immediately. Worker
to accidents in Malaysian building projects, especially in the down- training and certification reduces the likelihood of accidents and
stream sector. Because there is a lack of reliable information on the injuries [31].
incidence and root causes of accidents in Malaysia’s downstream Weld failures on high pressure lines, overloading oil and gas
oil and gas construction projects, it is difficult to assess the most transport, pushing and pulling heavy loads, sparking due to static
important safety aspects contributing to these mishaps. Accidents charge, wet working conditions, ineffective worker communica-
in downstream oil and gas construction projects in Malaysia may tion, lifting heavy items, COVID-19, excessive heat, and poor team-
be exacerbated by insufficient participation from stakeholders work are all major safety concerns in construction projects [32,33].
including employees, contractors, and regulators. This study fills Preventing such tragedies and protecting employees requires
in some of the gaps in the literature by examining the causes of safety measures. Unmaintained high pressure lines may endanger
accidents in Malaysia’s downstream oil and gas building projects employees. Overloading oil and gas delivery equipment may dam-
and providing insight into how those causes might be mitigated. age personnel. According to Alamri (2020), Lu et al. (2020) and
Policymakers, regulators, and safety experts will also benefit from Scott & Scott (2019), pushing and lifting big things without safety
this study’s findings since they may utilize them to shape new reg- precautions may potentially cause injuries. Static charge may spark
ulations and standards for the protection of construction workers. flames and explosions, endangering employees [23,34,35]. Wet
working circumstances increase the danger of slipping, falling,
and electrical shock, therefore employees need the right equip-
2. Research significance ment and training. Communicating dangers and safe work prac-
tices is essential. Teamwork and open communication between
This study holds a dual significance. Initially, the study offers employees and departments are essential to avoid misunderstand-
significant perspectives on crucial safety elements that contribute ings and accidents [36,37].
to incidents in downstream oil and gas construction endeavors Inefficient technical knowledge, explosion or leakage from
within Malaysia. The aforementioned data can be utilized to for- using the wrong equipment, crane failures, equipment mismatch,
mulate tactics and measures aimed at enhancing safety protocols resistance to new technologies, asbestos exposure, bad industry
and mitigating the frequency of mishaps in subsequent occur- standards for hazard monitoring, no leakage control devices, oxy-
rences. The present study is focused to offer valuable insights to gen deficiency, and gas/vapor leakages are all major safety con-
various stakeholders in the industry, such as project managers, cerns in construction projects [25,38]. Workplace asbestos
contractors, and workers, by enhancing their comprehension of dangers must be identified and managed to prevent long term
the potential hazards linked to these projects and the strategies health issues. Poor industrial standards for hazard monitoring
to alleviate them. Despite the existence of research on safety con- might leave employees unaware of their risks, therefore good mon-
cerns within the oil and gas sector, there is a dearth of literature itoring methods are essential [39,40]. Without leakage control sys-
that concentrates on the downstream segment, particularly in tems, equipment may leak gas or liquid, endangering personnel.
Malaysia. Furthermore, despite the existence of research on safety Monitor workplace oxygen levels to prevent employees from not
considerations in construction endeavors, limited attention has having enough oxygen to breathe. Biezma et al. (2020) and
2
Ghaithan et al. (2017), proper ventilation and gas and vapor leak Table 1
monitoring may protect employees from harmful pollutants Safety factors identified from literature.
[41,42]. Code Safety Factor References

In construction projects, safety concerns include the high diver- F1 Overhead Power Lines [48]
sity of workers, faults in downstream supplying equipment assem- F2 Coupling Blow off [5,7]
bly, lack of safety training and education, sparking during wiring F3 Spill of Chemicals [4,6]
connections, minor chemical leakages, poor resource scheduling, F4 Failure of Cooling System [53,54]
F5 Taking shortcuts and not following SOPs [55,56]
unprotected edges and openings, insulation failure, reduced mobil- F6 Excessive Noise [21]
ity, and systematic instrument errors. Workers must be protected F7 Corrosiveness [18,48]
from these dangers [43,44]. Effective resource scheduling ensures F8 Poor implementation of safety standards [51,57,58]
employees have the right tools to perform safely. Falling employ- F9 Faulty Wiring [51]
F10 Lack of certified professionals [59,60]
ees may be prevented by protecting edges and openings. Proper
F11 Weld Failures on High Pressure Lines [9,10]
insulation and monitoring may protect employees from electrical F12 Overloading during transportation of oil and gas [12,14]
risks. According to Khan et al. (2019) and Gao et al. (2019) workers F13 Pushing and Pulling of Heavy Loads [61,62]
with limited mobility need equipment and help to operate safely F14 Sparking due to Static Charge [63,64]
[45,46]. Proper instrument calibration and maintenance may pre- F15 Wet Working Conditions [65,66]
F16 Ineffective communication with workers [57,58]
vent systematic mistakes from preventing personnel from working
F17 Lifting Heavy Items [58,67,68]
safely. F18 Impact of Covid-19 [53,54]
Improper use of emergency warning devices on site, poor pro- F19 Excessive Heat [17,69]
ject safety management leadership, high phobia among workers, F20 Poor collaboration between teams [55]
F21 Inefficient technical knowledge [70]
improper use of ladders, caught in or struck by running equipment,
F22 Explosion or Leakage by using Wrong Equipment [69,71]
no safety against natural disasters, pressure bursts in pipes while F23 Crane Failures [61,64]
diverting, contact with exposed electric wires, rapture of pipelines, F24 Equipment Mismatch [72,73]
faulty digital data monitoring equipment, chronic exposure to F25 Resistance to adoption of new technologies [58,74]
chemicals, flowing liquids and free flowing solids, failure of walk- F26 Asbestos Exposure [52,75]
F27 Bad industry standards for hazard monitoring [21,50]
ing surfaces, failure Workers must be protected from these dangers
F28 No control devices for leakage [48,49]
[18,20,47]. Emergency warning systems must be used properly to F29 Oxygen Deficiency [34]
alert personnel of possible threats. Effective project safety manage- F30 Gas/Vapor Leakages [32]
ment leadership prevents a lack of direction and coordination in F31 High diversity of workers [15,16]
F32 Faults in assembly of downstream supplying [27]
safety issues [21,48]. Properly maintaining and calibrating digital
equipment
data monitoring equipment ensures that employees have correct F33 Lack of safety training and education [23]
information to perform safely [49,50]. Proper chemical exposure F34 Sparking during Wiring Connections [35,36]
management may prevent long term health issues. Managing flow- F35 Minor Chemical Leakages [38,40]
ing liquids and free moving solids may endanger employees, thus F36 Poor resource scheduling [25,39]
F37 Unprotected Edges and Openings [50,52]
correct processes are needed. Falling due to walking surface failure
F38 Failure of Insulation [49,51]
requires adequate event management. Fire alarm systems must be F39 Reduced Mobility [68]
maintained and tested to alert personnel of possible fires [51,52]. F40 High incidence of systematic errors in instruments [63]
Fall protection failures may cause employees to fall, thus good inci- F41 Improper use of emergency warning devices on site [73,76]
F42 Poor project safety management leadership [58,72]
dent management is crucial. Hydraulic equipment failure may
F43 High ptophobia among workers [66,74]
damage employees; thus good incident management is crucial. F44 Improper Use of Ladders [65,77]
Proper ventilation and hazardous chemical monitoring are essen- F45 Caught in or Struck in Running Equipment [66,78]
tial in a dangerous workplace. Following Table 1 is presenting all F46 No safety against natural disasters [57]
the safety factors identified from analysis. F47 Pressure bursts in pipes while diverging [58,76]
F48 Contact with Exposed Electric Wires [72,73]
F49 Rapture of Pipeline [68,74]
F50 Faulty digital data monitoring equipment [61,63]
4. Research methodology F51 Chronic exposure to chemicals [62,64]
F52 Flowing Liquid and Free Flowing Solids [79,80]
F53 Failure of Walking Surfaces [81,82]
Quantitative studies are in depth, data driven, and empirical
F54 Failure of Fire Alarm System [59,83]
inquiries into observable phenomena that make use of quantitative F55 Failure of Fall Protection [60,84]
methods like statistics, mathematics, and computers. Data science F56 Failure of hydraulic equipment on site [85–87]
is the practice of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting numerical F57 Toxic Atmosphere [75,88]
information for the purpose of answering specific research ques-
tions or putting forward certain hypotheses [54,70]. Relationships
between variables may be described, predicted, and explained, and project managers, safety officials, and construction workers to
discoveries can be generalized to a broader population by using determine what causes lead to accidents during the building phase
quantitative research methods. Objective and standardized met- of downstream oil and gas projects in Malaysia. The purpose of a
rics, a large sample, and a meticulous experimental design are all pilot survey is to determine whether or not a full survey will pro-
hallmarks of this approach. Quantitative studies are conducted to vide reliable results. After that, a comprehensive survey was taken.
gather trustworthy evidence for or against a hypothesis and for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and other statistical methods
use in decision making [89,90]. were used to the pilot survey data in order to isolate the most
The study set out to determine which aspects of downstream oil important contributors to participants’ sense of security. A final
and gas project building in Malaysia provide the greatest risk of model including safety considerations was developed based on
disaster. From literature and opinion of 15 construction experts a the results of the questionnaire, using demographic analysis and
total of 57 safety factors were identified. Quantitative research a Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) technique. Because of this,
methods were used to get the job done. This would need adminis- we will have a solid scientific foundation on which to base our pri-
tering surveys and collecting data from key stakeholders including
3
oritization of safety measures and our suggestions for enhancing from EFA were utilized to improve the survey’s design by merging
the safety of downstream oil and gas development projects in items with strong correlation or separating those that did not con-
Malaysia. Fig. 1 presents the research flowchart, indicating all cru- tribute to a single component. Before administering the full scale
cial stages of study. survey, its design was assessed using EFA in the context of a pilot
Future researchers could consider conducting fully structured survey, allowing for refinements to be made beforehand. EFA was
interviews with industry experts and professionals to gain further conducted using SPSS 26 software. Validity and trustworthiness
insights into safety issues in the downstream oil and gas industry. of the survey instrument were guaranteed by using EFA to analyze
This could provide a more in depth understanding of the critical whether or not survey questions were indeed assessing the rele-
safety factors that cause accidents and incidents and could help vant underlying safety variables.
to validate the findings from the literature review and survey ques-
tionnaires. Second, to further strengthen the validity and reliability
4.2. Main questionnaire survey
of the survey questionnaires, future researchers could consider
using a larger sample size and conducting surveys at multiple sites
The purpose of a questionnaire survey is to collect data from a
to ensure that the results are representative of the entire industry
population sample using self-administered questions. In a short
in Malaysia. Also to better understand the relationship between
length of time and at little cost, questionnaires can gather data
critical safety factors, future researchers could consider using addi-
from a big number of people. Relationships among variables in a
tional statistical techniques, such as regression analysis or neural
complex system may be analyzed using structural equation model-
networks, to test the validity of the structural equation modeling
ing (SEM), a statistical technique. Applying it to survey data allows
results.
you to look for patterns in the data and see whether your presump-
tions about the correlations between latent (unseen) and visible
4.1. Pilot survey (observable) variables hold up (measured by the questionnaire
items) [70,90]. Furthermore, structural equation modeling (SEM)
In order to ensure the feasibility, reliability, and validity of the may be used to assess how well a theoretical model fits the data
survey instrument, its full scale counterpart was first tested via a and to quantify the relative importance of different factors. This
pilot survey. It is a crucial part of the survey design process since method has the potential to shed light on the underlying structure
it allows for the questions, layout, and administration to be fine- of the data and the correlations between variables, therefore
tuned. The pilot study’s findings were utilized to refine the final informing the crucial safety considerations that are so vital to
survey’s questions and format. The 5-point Linkert Scale was used. Malaysia’s downstream oil and gas sector [55,56].
In order to evaluate the probability of partial correlations between The concept of convergent validity describes the degree to
parameters, it is common practice to use a variant of the Kaiser- which diverse measurements of a single construct provide compa-
Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) [53,70]. A fac- rable findings. To put it another way, it determines whether or not
tor analysis proved successful in making sense of the data. When it the measurements of a concept are consistent with one another
came to Sphericity, Bartlett’s test revealed adequate correlation and whether or not they accurately reflect the construct itself.
between the most important instruments. To discover the hidden The concept of convergent validity is crucial to structural equation
order in a data set, statisticians use a method called exploratory modeling (SEM) since it ensures that the measurement model
factor analysis (EFA). The dimensionality of the survey instrument really represents the interrelationships between the variables. A
may be calculated with its help, which is why it is often used to the good convergent validity means that the measurements employed
analysis of pilot survey data. EFA entails rotating the factor solu- in the research are tapping into the same underlying concept
tion to obtain a clearer and more interpretable structure and calcu- [55,69]. To what degree do measurements of various conceptions
lating factor loadings, which are the correlations between the vary from one another is what is meant by discriminant validity.
survey questions and the underlying factors [17,67]. The findings Because it helps make sure that the correlations between variables
represent the underlying structure of the data, discriminant valid-
ity was a crucial part of structural equation modeling (SEM). The
measures’ ability to discriminate across similar and different con-
ceptions linked to safety is an indication of their discriminant
validity. Bootstrapping technique was applied on SEM model to
evaluate standard error in estimates. Smart PLS software was used
to analyze the data from main questionnaire survey from the per-
spective of functional SEM model.
5. Results
5.1. Pilot study
Accidents involving downstream oil and gas construction pro-

jects in Malaysia were the primary focus of this research. The large
number of players in Malaysia’s oil and gas sector meant that just
263 legitimate participants were ultimately collected. The pilot
survey had a 67% response rate. Results of KMO test are presented
in Table 2 where sampling adequacy is 0.719, Chi-square values is
11520.70 and significance is less than 0.05. This suggests a strong
correlation between the data matrices [91]. It also showed that the
correlation matrix of all items was highly correlated at the 5% sig-
nificance level [92]. These results were consistent with other stud-
Fig. 1. Research design. ies and led to the EFA being deemed appropriate. The discrepancy
4
Table 2 phenomenon. As shown in Table 3, the alternating varimax method

KMO and Bartlett’s test results. was used to classify the components. In depth analysis of all vari-
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling 0.719 ables has been performed in just one of the libraries. But there is no
Adequacy. tried and true method for pinpointing causal elements. Accord-
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi- 11520.710 ingly, it was concluded that meditatively identifying these compo-
Square
df 1596
nents or pieces was suitable for this study.
Sig. 0.000 Poor craftsmanship and an increased risk of accidents and inju-
ries might happen when there are not enough trained personnel or
enough technical expertise. Unsafe working circumstances might
shed light on the areas where implementation was stymied in the result from a lack of clear communication with employees.
building industry. Four components with eigenvalues larger than Reduced mobility and a lack of safety training and education might
one were identified through principal component analysis. The leave employees vulnerable to risks on the workplace. Falls from
named components greater than eigenvalue 1 along with the vari- ladders and electrical shock from touching bare wires are also risks
ance explained are, Technical Risk (var = 17.922%), Planning Risk associated with working at heights [24,93]. When the fire alarm
(var = 8.200%), Working Environment Risk (7.902), Operational system isn’t working properly, it might take longer to get help to
Risk (var = 6.723%), Supervision Risk (var = 5.889%), Equipment a building where a fire has broken out, putting those who work
Risk (var = 4.346%), Working Height Risk (var = 3.959%). The cumu- there in danger. Companies in the downstream oil and gas con-
lative variance explained by all components is 54.940%. Since the struction industry should offer their employees with regular safety
slope of the curve diminishes noticeably towards the contact point, training and instruction, facilitate open lines of communication,
the analysis will have to include many factors to account for this and provide the necessary tools and protective gear. When down-
Table 3
Rotated matrix from EFA.
Code Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
F10 0.874
F16 0.845
F48 0.833
F54 0.822
F39 0.820
F21 0.690
F44 0.674
F33 0.656
F11 0.798
F34 0.756
F49 0.754
F13 0.709
F7 0.704
F4 0.682
F30 0.681
F2 0.606
F24 0.743
F52 0.715
F14 0.705
F9 0.695
F1 0.692
F37 0.605
F15 0.868
F38 0.819
F53 0.791
F6 0.761
F29 0.725
F19 0.683
F57 0.667
F35 0.828
F12 0.819
F5 0.756
F3 0.742
F26 0.741
F45 0.865
F50 0.813
F22 0.754
F23 0.746
F55 0.708
F17 0.657
F43 0.616
F18 0.655
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
F8, F20, F25, F27, F28, F31, F32, F36, F40, F41, F42, F46, F47, F51 and F56 were excluded from the results because of cross loading.
Component 8 was not considered because of single significant factor.
a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.
5
stream oil and gas construction put these considerations first, they operating procedures, utilize appropriate tools, and undergo regu-
can protect their workers from harm on the job, lessen the likeli- lar training [30,32]. To further avoid or lessen the severity of these
hood of accidents and injuries, and foster a safe culture [94,95]. risks, routine equipment checks and maintenance should be per-
There is a significant danger of electrical shock from overhead formed. Downstream oil and gas Construction may protect their
power lines, and sparking from static electricity may start fires in workers from harm, lessen the likelihood of accidents and injuries,
combustible materials. Workers are at risk of harm from equip- and foster a culture of safety by following these guidelines.
ment failure brought on by equipment mismatch, and from falls Mistaken readings and poorly informed judgments may lead to
caused by exposure to unprotected edges and apertures [92,96]. workplace mishaps when defective equipment is used. Heavy lift-
Slip and trip risks may be caused by liquids and freely moving sub- ing poses a risk of harm to employees due to the pressure it puts on
stances, while electrical shock can be caused by improper wiring. their muscles and joints [102,103]. A worker who falls from a
Slips, stumbles, and falls are more likely to occur when it is wet height is at risk of severe injury or death, and this risk is com-
outside [97,98]. Downstream oil and gas construction industry pounded if the fall protection system fails. All downstream oil
would do well to take the necessary precautions to address these and gas construction sites must have adequate protective gear,
risks, such as performing frequent equipment inspections, provid- operating procedures, and safety regulations in place to reduce
ing appropriate protective equipment, and creating protocols for these dangers to employees.
working near electrical equipment [24,91]. When downstream oil
and gas construction put these considerations first, they can pro- 5.2. Main questionnaire
tect their workers from harm on the job, lessen the likelihood of
accidents and injuries, and foster a safe culture. 5.2.1. Demographic profile
Failure of insulation and walking surfaces may lead to accidents A total of 324 people were surveyed by the main questionnaire.
and injuries, and excessive heat, oxygen deficit, and poisonous From an education perspective, 43% of the participants had a mas-
environment can pose major health threats to employees. Noise ter’s level of education, while the second highest type of education
pollution not only endangers employees’ hearing but also creates is a bachelor’s degree. Further, the highest percentage of 44% was
distractions that may lead to accidents on the job [99]. Enough observed in the case of participants from constrictor organizations
steps, such as providing adequate ventilation, maintaining equip- working in downstream oil and gas construction projects in Malay-
ment, and guaranteeing properly maintained walking surfaces, sia. Beside this, there were 43 percent of managers involved in the
are required to minimize or reduce these dangers. When down- survey, which is a critical factor in terms of increasing the accept-
stream oil and gas construction put these considerations first, they ability of the results. In the context of experience, 45% of the par-
can protect their workers from harm on the job, lessen the likeli- ticipants had 15 to 20 years of experience. while young
hood of accidents and injuries, and foster a safe culture [100,101]. professionals were also involved, having 5 to 10 years of experi-
When building a high pressure line or pipeline, these consider- ence with a 33 percent ratio. From a profession perspective, there
ations are essential for worker safety. While the pushing and tug- were 64% civil engineers, which is the highest among the other
ging of large weights may create stresses and accidents to professions and suited to the requirements of this study. Overall,
employees, weld failures on high pressure lines can cause leaks the demographic profile is appropriate in the context of supporting
and dangerous explosions. A quick discharge of harmful substances the data for further statistical analysis. The demographic profile is
may occur if a coupling blows off, and gas or vapor leakages can be presented in the following Fig. 2.
very dangerous to human health [71,90]. During the electrical con-
nection process, sparks might fly, which can cause fires if they land 5.2.2. First order construct
on combustible materials. Overheating and equipment failure may For the development of SEM, it was important to develop first
result from a broken cooling system, and ripping of pipes can cause order construct analysis, where initially the reliability and validity
major environmental damage and threaten the safety of employees of all constructs are calculated. In the context of convergent valid-
and the local population. Downstream oil and gas construction ity and discriminant validity, the PLS-SEM approach resulted in
firms should make safety a top priority and perform routine checks providing Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and AVE. Follow-
and maintenance on all equipment to eliminate or reduce the like- ing Table 4 is presenting the results for all of the factors of safety
lihood of accidents. There will be less chances for accidents and along with their constructs. The AVE values are higher than 50%,
injuries, and a greater emphasis on safety will permeate the which indicates effective relationships in the model [104,105].
workplace. The initial loadings are also presented, from which the modified
Overloading during transportation may lead to spills and leaks, loadings were evaluated and factors such as F33, F37, F2, F26,
while corrosive substances can cause equipment failure and and F43 were removed from the model. Remaining factors were
increase the likelihood of accidents and injuries. Workers exposed included in the model which resulted in providing reliable model
to asbestos face substantial health risks, while chemical spills pose indicated in Fig. 3 with factor loadings.
dangers to the community and the environment. Exposure to even The links constructs and the associated factors, are often evalu-
trace amounts of dangerous compounds from even the smallest ated using structural equation modeling (SEM), and the criteria
chemical leaks may have devastating effects on human health developed by Fornell and Larcker are often used. SEM is a statistical
[15,16,29]. Downstream oil and gas construction industry must method for investigating hypotheses on the connections between
place a premium on worker safety and implement effective meth- variables and for tracing their potential causes [14]. From Table 5
ods to eliminate or reduce the risks associated with their work the results are presented where the factors indicate acceptance
environment. There will be less chances for accidents and injuries, of relationship between the factors and their constructs. It further
and a greater emphasis on safety will permeate the workplace. proves the validity of structural model. Table 6 is presenting the
Using the incorrect equipment may lead to explosions or leaks, Hetrotrait-Monotrait Criterion Ratios for all of the constructs
and not following SOPs can raise the likelihood of accidents and involved in structural model. To evaluate the reliability of self-
casualties. When cranes break down, it may lead to structural col- reported personality assessments, psychologists utilize a metric
lapses and equipment malfunctions, and being trapped in or hit by called the HTMT Criterion Ratio [29]. It evaluates the similarity
moving machinery can cause significant injury or death. Down- between self-reported and observer evaluations of a personality
stream oil and gas construction industry should make worker trait, as well as the similarity between self-reported and self-
safety a top priority by requiring employees to adhere to standard reported ratings of two different traits. If the HTMT ratio for a
6
Fig. 2. Demographic Profile.
self-reported personality test is high, then means the test is valid in in the case of the working environment’s risk as indicated in Fig. 4
the sense that it measures what it claims to measure. But if the and Fig. 5.
HTMT ratio is low, it might mean that the test isn’t assessing the
intended construct, but rather revealing something else about 5.2.4. Predictive relevance of structural model
the individual’s behavior, such their response biases or their desire The PLS-SEM approach was utilized to determine the predictive
to seem socially desirable [26]. Overall, the HTMT criteria ratio is a relevance of the structural model indicating the impact of variables
useful tool for psychologists and other academics interested in the on dependent variable, as shown in Table 9. All the constructs are
reliability of self-reported personality assessments. The two-way found to be relevant with the main variable such as, critical safety
nature of information was investigated by relying on the signifi- of downstream oil and gas construction projects in Malaysia
cance value 0.9. All the values obtained are less than 0.9 which is [106,107]. The Q2 value is found to be 0.136, which is greater than
indicating acceptable statistic further confirming the high signifi- 0 and justify the reconstruction of model with clear signs of predic-
cance of constructs in model. The outer loadings are presented in tive relevance.
Table 7.
6. Discussion
5.2.3. Second order measurement model 6.1. Contributions by constructs

All the safety factors considered in the analysis are formative
constructs associated with creating impact on downstream oil The technical risk construct includes, F10 ‘‘Lack of certified pro-
and gas construction projects. The bootstrapping analysis out- fessionals”, F16 ‘‘Ineffective communication with workers”, F21
comes are indicated in the following Table 8, where variable infla- ‘‘Inefficient technical knowledge”, F39 ‘‘Reduced Mobility”, F44
tion factor (VIF) values are calculated for each of the relations of ‘‘Improper Use of Ladders”, F48 ‘‘Contact with Exposed Electric
the formative construct with the main aspect of the study, such Wires”, and F54 ‘‘Failure of Fire Alarm System”. The most impor-
as critical risk factors in oil and gas construction projects (down- tant factor identified from the analysis is ineffective communica-
stream) [12,15]. The collinearity was important to be determined, tion with workers, which contributes to increasing the chances of
and it was important to get VIF values less than 3.5. From Table 8, accidents on oil and gas construction projects in Malaysia. Accord-
it is evident that all VIF values are less than 3.5, and this justifies ing to Al-Mekhlafi et al. (2021) and Jagoda & Wojcik (2019), it can
the relationship in the model. The contribution is also unique for be justified in the context of this study where it is identifying the
each of the constructs in the model, as the value of is different almost similar factors with previous studies but other factors like
for all constructs [16,27]. The highest contribution is indicated in failure of fire alarm system and reduced mobility or the unique
the case of the planning-risk construct, while the least is indicated aspects of technical risk construct [28,30]. The findings are further
7
Table 4
Reliability and validity test outcomes of constructs.
Safety Phase Assigned Code Loadings Cronbach Alpha Composite Reliability AVE
Initial Modified
Technical F10 0.870 0.839 0.929 0.942 0.701
Risk F16 0.880 0.889 – – –
F21 0.785 0.805 – – –
F33 0.683 Deleted – – –
F39 0.832 0.850 – – –
F44 0.770 0.790 – – –
F48 0.831 0.806 – – –
F54 0.864 0.876 – – –
Planning F1 0.868 0.889 0.889 0.919 0.695
Risk F14 0.855 0.856 – – –
F24 0.871 0.881 – – –
F37 0.497 Deleted – – –
F52 0.774 0.754 – – –
F9 0.777 0.780 – – –
Working Environment Risk F15 0.783 0.821 0.889 0.912 0.599
F19 0.785 0.757 – – –
F29 0.784 0.766 – – –
F38 0.722 0.763 – – –
F53 0.750 0.784 – – –
F57 0.736 0.710 – – –
F6 0.827 0.810 – – –
Operational F11 0.815 0.813 0.883 0.908 0.587
Risk F13 0.703 0.684 – – –
F2 0.639 Deleted – – –
F30 0.745 0.781 – – –
F34 0.755 0.756 – – –
F4 0.721 0.730 – – –
F49 0.785 0.782 – – –
F7 0.771 0.807 – – –
Supervision F12 0.915 0.931 0.881 0.917 0.735
Risk F26 0.691 Deleted – – –
F3 0.852 0.826 – – –
F35 0.757 0.762 – – –
F5 0.891 0.901 – – –
Equipment F22 0.872 0.902 0.85 0.893 0.678
Risk F23 0.813 0.861 – – –
F45 0.847 0.787 – – –
F50 0.752 0.733 – – –
Working Height Risk F17 0.929 0.953 0.818 0.913 0.84
F55 0.835 0.878 – – –
F43 0.586 Deleted – – –
indicating that significant differentiation can be associated with environment is found to be a very critical factor which is related
the study, where it can easily provide a better understanding of with Malaysia. Nkrumah et al. (2021) and Scott & Scott (2019)
the implications of these risk factors on the health and safety of found the impact of weather on the working conditions for the
workers, and further, it is justifying the need for improving com- workers, due to which it is important to consider this factor when
munication as the top priority, which can ultimately handle the developing the handling methods for health and safety hazards in
negative impact on the downstream oil and gas construction oil and gas construction projects [32,34]. The study there for con-
sector. tribute from the unique perspective where the most critical factor
The planning risk construct includes, F1 ‘‘Overhead Power is wet working conditions due to heavy rainfall in Malaysia that
Lines”, F14 ‘‘Sparking due to Static Charge”, F24 ‘‘Equipment Mis- ultimately contribute in increasing the chances of any major or
match”, F52 ‘‘Flowing Liquid and Free Flowing Solids”, and F9 minor injury.
‘‘Faulty Wiring”. The overhead power lines are found to be very The operational risk construct includes, F11 ‘‘Weld Failures on
critical for the health and safety of workers when they are involved High pressure Lines”, F13 ‘‘Pushing and Pulling of Heavy Loads”,
in construction. In accordance with Sundaram Haridoss (2017) and F30 ‘‘Gas/Vapor Leakages”, F34 ‘‘Sparking during Wiring Connec-
Zhou et al. (2017), the most significance is associated with this tions”, F4 ‘‘Failure of Cooling System”, F49 ‘‘Rapture of Pipeline”,
variable because it is found that most of the downstream infras- and F7 ‘‘Corrosiveness”. The welding failures are also found to be
tructure of Malaysia is present in the region where there are signif- very critical for the development of operation risk on the construc-
icant electrical utilities passing over the high-potential oil and gas tion site, and that is effectively identified by the study as the most
equipment, which can ultimately create disaster if not properly important factor. Further, Brkić & Praks (2021) and J. Zhang et al.
managed [14,27]. The findings are therefore indicating the unique (2019) stated that there are serious applications for the leakage
aspect of this study where it is effective identified that in effective of gas from the system when the workers are working identities,
planning of overhead power lines along with other factors can con- and a sort of fracture or cooling system can contribute to increas-
tribute in increasing the risk of accidents on construction sites. ing the risk of minor and major injury [51,88]. It is the reason that
The working environment construct includes, F19 ‘‘Excessive it needs specific implications for developing the overall operational
Heat”, F29 ‘‘Oxygen Deficiency”, F38 ‘‘Failure of Insulation”, F53 element that suits the site and reduces the risk for workers.
‘‘Failure of Walking Surfaces”, F57 ‘‘Toxic Atmosphere”, F6 ‘‘Exces- The supervision risk construct includes, F12 ‘‘Overloading dur-
sive Noise”, and F15 ‘‘Wet Working Conditions”. The wet working ing transportation of oil and gas”, F3 ‘‘Spill of Chemicals”, F35
8
Fig. 3. Structural model with path coefficient including outer loadings.
Table 5
Latent variables correlation and discriminant validity.
Constructs ESR OR PR SR TR WER WHR

Equipment and System Risk = ESR 0.823
Operational Risk = OR 0.174 0.766
Planning Risk = PR 0.232 0.391 0.834
Supervision Risk = SR 0.143 0.142 0.299 0.858
Technical Risk = TR 0.141 0.211 0.368 0.223 0.837
Working Environment Risk = WER 0.091 0.093 0.21 0.063 0.167 0.774
Working Height Risk = WHR 0.078 0.089 0.318 0.14 0.248 0.205 0.916
Table 6
HTMT values.
Constructs ESR OR PR SR TR WER

Equipment and System Risk = ESR
Operational Risk = OR 0.179
Planning Risk = PR 0.242 0.425
Supervision Risk = SR 0.135 0.199 0.313
Technical Risk = TR 0.158 0.22 0.393 0.224
Working Environment Risk = WER 0.119 0.196 0.214 0.118 0.172
Working Height Risk = WHR 0.133 0.176 0.342 0.138 0.271 0.225
9
Table 7
Cross-loadings for discriminant validity.
Variables Equipment Operational Planning Risk Supervision Risk Technical Risk Working Environment Risk Working
System Risk Risk Height Risk
F22 0.902 0.22 0.252 0.162 0.147 0.121 0.118
F23 0.861 0.148 0.165 0.163 0.12 0.121 0.143
F45 0.787 0.113 0.21 0.06 0.124 0.003 0.034
F50 0.733 0.004 0.088 0.02 0.03 0.016 0.078
F13 0.151 0.684 0.444 0.136 0.128 0.063 0.058
F11 0.038 0.813 0.24 0.016 0.138 0.093 0.045
F30 0.215 0.781 0.269 0.17 0.119 0.044 0.018
F49 0.045 0.782 0.231 0.028 0.155 0.065 0.028
F34 0.025 0.756 0.173 0.006 0.181 0.045 0.054
F4 0.149 0.73 0.355 0.18 0.247 0.09 0.193
F7 0.235 0.807 0.302 0.216 0.143 0.089 0.042
F1 0.194 0.343 0.889 0.343 0.331 0.298 0.265
F24 0.219 0.338 0.881 0.264 0.306 0.216 0.226
F14 0.251 0.323 0.856 0.259 0.348 0.17 0.342
F52 0.085 0.332 0.754 0.108 0.29 0.058 0.184
F9 0.196 0.297 0.78 0.24 0.254 0.094 0.3
F3 0.156 0.181 0.147 0.826 0.235 0.031 0.127
F35 0.051 0.037 0.133 0.762 0.05 0.096 0.02
F5 0.134 0.171 0.326 0.901 0.189 0.057 0.147
F12 0.123 0.102 0.352 0.931 0.231 0.056 0.142
F10 0.12 0.12 0.251 0.148 0.839 0.153 0.174
F16 0.156 0.132 0.289 0.222 0.889 0.119 0.183
F21 0.093 0.273 0.41 0.215 0.805 0.169 0.288
F39 0.125 0.126 0.236 0.167 0.85 0.103 0.116
F44 0.083 0.29 0.41 0.216 0.79 0.145 0.282
F48 0.115 0.077 0.228 0.111 0.806 0.162 0.196
F54 0.143 0.159 0.274 0.199 0.876 0.12 0.174
F15 0.014 0.106 0.158 0.027 0.084 0.821 0.153
F19 0.124 0.221 0.19 0.097 0.172 0.757 0.154
F29 0.062 0.109 0.068 0.105 0.143 0.766 0.17
F6 0.086 0.171 0.097 0.102 0.187 0.81 0.155
F38 0.026 0.141 0.078 0.033 0.071 0.763 0.144
F53 0.092 0.014 0.332 0.087 0.12 0.784 0.205
F57 0.067 0.105 0.098 0.102 0.075 0.71 0.096
F17 0.071 0.187 0.377 0.166 0.25 0.216 0.953
F55 0.074 0.082 0.164 0.073 0.197 0.146 0.878
Table 8
Second-order model test involving bootstrapping for formative construct.
Path b SE t-values p-values VIF

Equipment System Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.196 0.019 7.744 <0.001 1.077
Operational Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.255 0.025 13.556 <0.001 1.2
Planning Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.361 0.024 9.95 <0.001 1.519
Supervision Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.218 0.022 10.282 <0.001 1.153
Technical Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.294 0.023 16.714 <0.001 1.222
Working Environment Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.169 0.022 13.582 <0.001 1.106
Working Height Risk -> Critical Risk Factors in Oil and Gas Construction Projects (Downstream) 0.243 0.02 6.938 <0.001 1.166
‘‘Minor Chemical Leakages”, and F5 ‘‘Taking shortcuts and not fol- by the use of wrong equipment is regarded to be the most impor-
lowing SOPs”. The highest importance is given to overloading dur- tant factor that ultimately increases the equipment system risk
ing the transportation of oil and gas, and it is identified as the [51,88]. This contributes to creating a significant impact on analy-
critical factor that may cause supervision risk. According to Perkins sis and also provides useful insights where the study is indicating
& Gholipour (2021) and Radelyuk et al. (2021), it is critically iden- the potential need for improving analysis and also providing miti-
tified that the overall supervision raise can contribute increasing gation methods for handling the equipment system risk. It is
the chances of major injuries on the construction sites and there- important that the overall risk factors be managed appropriately
fore high priority should be given to handling of overloading dur- by the people involved in the construction of oil and gas projects
ing transportation of oil and gas [21,47]. The study contributes in in Malaysia.
the context of identifying the critical problem of overloading when The working height risk construct includes, F17 ‘‘Lifting
transporting oil and gas products in the downstream segment of Heavy Items”, and F55 ‘‘Failure of Fall Protection”. In accordance
Malaysia and ultimately they can cause serious damaged to worker with Drumond et al. (2018) and Perkins & Gholipour (2021) The
if not properly managed. lifting of heavy items is found to be more important for the con-
The equipment system risk construct includes, F22 ‘‘Explosion struction workers on oil and gas project in Malaysia because it
or Leakage by using Wrong Equipment”, F23 ‘‘Crane Failures”, can cause injuries to workers [21,49]. The failure of fall protec-
F45 ‘‘Caught in or Struck in Running Equipment”, and F50 ‘‘Faulty tion devices is also associated with causing injuries, and the ulti-
digital data monitoring equipment”. In accordance with Brkić & mate finding from this construct is almost identical to the
Praks (2021) and J. Zhang et al. (2019), the explosion or leakage existing studies.
10
Fig. 4. SEM indicating model significance.
6.2. Comparison with previous studies The study’s findings are consistent with prior research, particu-
larly with regard to the identification of comparable factors that
The research conducted identified six distinct risk constructs, contribute to accidents in oil and gas construction projects. Biezma
which were categorized as technical, planning, working environ- et al. (2020) and Marinina et al. (2022) have identified that inade-
ment, operational, supervision, and equipment system risk con- quate communication with workers is a significant contributor to
structs [29,32]. The construct of technical risk encompasses the escalation of accidents on construction sites [5,42]. Marinina
inadequate communication with employees, which has been iden- et al. (2022) and Tanvi Newaz et al. (2022) have both identified
tified as the most significant factor in the research. The construct of overhead power lines as a critical factor that can lead to catas-
planning risk encompasses the presence of overhead power lines, trophic events if not appropriately managed [5,93]. The impact of
which have been identified as a highly significant factor in ensur- weather conditions on the working conditions of workers has been
ing the well-being and safety of laborers [28,83]. The construct of studied by Chen et al. (2021) and Perkins & Gholipour (2021), who
the working environment encompasses wet working conditions, reported that heavy rainfall is one such factor that can affect the
which has been identified as a crucial factor in relation to Malaysia. working conditions of workers [21,81]. The identification of weld-
The construct of operational risk encompasses welding failures, ing failures and equipment-related risks as crucial factors that can
which have been identified as a crucial factor in the emergence potentially elevate the likelihood of minor and major injuries was
of operational risk within the context of construction sites reported by Johny et al. (2021) [48]. Barbazyuk et al. (2021) as well
[11,87]. The construct of supervision risk encompasses the poten- as Onojake & Waka (2021) underscored the significance of ade-
tial for overloading during the transportation of oil and gas, which quate supervision in mitigating the likelihood of mishaps at con-
has been identified as a crucial factor that may give rise to such struction sites [60,96].
risk. The construct of equipment system risk encompasses the The study makes a valuable contribution to the current knowl-
potential for explosion or leakage resulting from the use of incor- edge base by offering a distinct viewpoint on the crucial safety ele-
rect equipment. This factor is widely considered to be of para- ments that lead to accidents in downstream oil and gas
mount importance in the escalation of equipment system risk construction undertakings in Malaysia. The research has identified
[92,99]. certain factors that are pertinent to the Malaysian setting, includ-
11
Fig. 5. Bootstrapping analysis indicating significance values and path coefficients.
Table 9
Predictive relevance statistics. the conveyance of oil and gas. Subsequent scholars may utilize
2 these discoveries as a foundation to delve deeper into these vari-
Predictive relevance SSO SSE Q (=1- SSO/SSE)
analysis of model ables and ascertain supplementary factors that contribute to mis-
haps in downstream oil and gas construction endeavors.
Critical Risk Factors in Oil 14980.000 12943.475 0.136
and Gas Construction Additionally, the study’s practical implications hold significance
Projects (Downstream) for policymakers, safety professionals, and project managers who
bear the responsibility of guaranteeing the safety of workers in
the downstream oil and gas construction sector in Malaysia. The
results obtained from this investigation may be utilized to formu-
late efficacious safety regulations, instructional courses, and safety
ing damp working conditions and the existence of substantial elec- procedures with the aim of mitigating the likelihood of mishaps
trical utilities traversing high-potential oil and gas equipment. The and fostering laborer well-being in this perilous sector.
study’s results may be utilized to enhance the management of
health and safety risks in oil and gas construction ventures,
thereby mitigating the likelihood of accidents at construction sites. 7. Conclusion
The implications of the study’s findings hold substantial theo-
retical and practical significance for subsequent researchers. The The objective of the present research was to identify and eval-
research emphasizes the significance of proficient communication uate the main risk factors linked to accidents that take place during
with laborers in reducing the likelihood of mishaps in downstream the construction of downstream oil and gas projects in Malaysia.
oil and gas building undertakings in Malaysia. The research addi- The research employed a mixed-methods design, comprising a pre-
tionally highlights several crucial safety considerations, including liminary survey and a comprehensive questionnaire survey, to col-
but not limited to, the presence of overhead power lines, working lect data from a cohort of professionals in the industry.
in wet conditions, welding malfunctions, and overloading during Quantitative techniques, namely factor analysis and structural
12
equation modeling, were employed to analyze the data and deter- thermore, management must undertake suitable measures to
mine the most significant risk factors linked to accidents on these effectively tackle these concerns.
particular projects. Thirdly, enhanced collaboration and communication among
The study’s results emphasize various significant risk factors corporations, contractors, and regulatory entities are imperative.
that are linked to accidents in downstream oil and gas projects The consistent application of safety standards across the industry
in Malaysia. The findings suggest that insufficiency in safety train- can be instrumental in identifying and addressing potential haz-
ing, deficient safety protocols, and an absence of safety culture are ards in a timely manner. It is recommended that companies estab-
prominent risk factors. Additional significant variables encompass lish a close working relationship with contractors to ensure strict
breakdowns in communication, malfunctioning equipment, and adherence to safety standards. Regulatory bodies should provide
insufficient dedication to safety on the part of management. guidance and oversight to ensure that compliance with regulations
This study holds noteworthy theoretical implications, as it fur- is maintained.
nishes novel perspectives on the determinants that give rise to Ongoing research and analysis are required to identify potential
mishaps on oil and gas projects downstream in Malaysia. The safety hazards in the downstream oil and gas construction sector in
results of the study can serve as a basis for further investigation Malaysia. This can facilitate the advancement of novel safety pro-
in this field, and can also provide direction for the establishment tocols and protocols, while also pinpointing prospective domains
of safety protocols and regulations in the relevant industry. The for enhancement in extant safety frameworks. Subsequent
findings underscore the significance of safety culture within the research endeavors ought to concentrate on ascertaining the opti-
workplace and the necessity for enhanced safety education and mal methodologies for enhancing safety within the industry, and
protocols to mitigate the likelihood of mishaps. should entail cooperative efforts among industry specialists, schol-
The study holds equal significance in terms of its practical ars, and regulatory entities.
implications. The findings have the potential to provide valuable The study’s results emphasize the necessity of implementing a
insights for the development of safety policies and protocols in thorough and preemptive strategy for safety management within
the Malaysian oil and gas construction sector, aimed at mitigating the downstream oil and gas construction sector in Malaysia. It is
the occurrence of accidents in downstream projects. The research imperative for companies to give precedence to safety by fostering
outcomes indicate that safety training and culture ought to be a a safety culture, enhancing collaboration and communication, and
primary concern for industry executives. Furthermore, the study persistently investing in research and analysis to detect potential
recommends that communication breakdowns and equipment safety hazards. Through the implementation of these suggested
failures be tackled by implementing more comprehensive safety measures, corporations can enhance safety results, avert mishaps,
protocols. and make a valuable contribution towards a more secure and sus-
The present study has significantly contributed to the compre- tainable sector.
hension of the variables that lead to incidents in oil and gas pro-
jects downstream in Malaysia. The results of the study
Declaration of Competing Interest
underscore the significance of safety culture and training, along-
side the necessity for enhanced safety protocols and equipment
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
upkeep. The findings have the potential to provide valuable
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
insights for future studies in this field, and to offer direction for
to influence the work reported in this paper.
the formulation of safety protocols and guidelines in the relevant
industry. The study’s results possess the capability to enhance
workplace safety and diminish the frequency of accidents in down- Acknowledgement
stream oil and gas projects located in Malaysia.
The author would like to thank Grant YUTP-FRG 1/2021
(015LC0-367) for supporting this study.
8. Recommendations
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sectional study in the oil and gas industry. J Safety Res 2016. and is pursuing his Ph.D. in Construction Management
[83] AlNoaimi FA, Mazzuchi TA. Risk management application in an oil and gas and has 5 research papers already published. He has 6
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governance attributes and financial performance in oil and gas industries. University Technology of MARA in 1993. After that, he
Institutions Econ 2015. got his Masters in Project Management and Ph.D. in
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oil and gas storage and transportation facilities. Rev Educ Theory 2021. Malaysia and University Technology PETRONAS in 2006
[88] Brkić D, Praks P. Probability analysis and prevention of offshore oil and gas and 2015, respectively. 23 years of experience in oil and
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Lecturer at the University Technology PETRONAS and
effect of compartment geometry. J Loss Prev Process Ind 2017.
has 85 publications to his credit.
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ranking case study: operating gas compression plant. MethodsX 2021.
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assessment of technologies for addressing the risk of falling from height on Nasir Shafiq Currently, he is working as a professor in
construction sites. Saf Sci 2022. civil structural engineering. Before that, he completed a
[94] Theophilus SC, Ekpenyong IE, Ifelebuegu AO, Arewa AO, Agyekum-Mensah G, term as Director of Research in Sustainable Resources at
Ajare TO. A technique for the retrospective and predictive analysis of University Technology PETRONAS Malaysia in 2017. His
cognitive errors for the oil and gas industry (TrACer-ogi). Safety 2017. specialty is High Performance Concrete, Structural Ret-
[95] Kadir AA et al. A review of integrated management system in the offshore oil rofitting and Repair, FE Modeling, Building Information
and gas industry. J Adv Rev Sci Res 2015.
Modeling, BIM, and Low Carbon Technologies including
[96] Barbazyuk EV, Myachina KV, Ryakhov RV, Dubrovskaya SA. An assessment of
Foot Print. He has 335 publications in total.
the potential effect of oil-and-gas 6 - 10 kV overhead power lines on bird
mortality in the western Orenburg Region steppe. In: IOP conference series:
earth and environmental science; 2021.
[97] Khan MB, Waqar A. Carbon fiber-reinforced concrete composites using
response. 2023;(March).
[98] Waqar A et al. Effect of Coir Fibre Ash (CFA) on the strengths, modulus of
elasticity and embodied carbon of concrete using response surface
methodology (RSM) and optimization. Results Eng 2023;17(January).
[99] Sabilla NP, Widajati N. Determining the exposure of benzene, toluene, xylene Muhammad Shoaib Mansoor He completed his Bachelor
(In condensate) in a chemical laboratory of natural gas company by chemical degree in Civil Engineering in 2020 from the University
health risk assessment (chra). Indian J Forensic Med Toxicol 2021. of Sargodha, Pakistan and has industry working expe-
[100] Waqar A, Othman I, Shafiq N, Mansoor MS. Applications of AI in oil and gas
rience of 2 years. Overall, Shoaib has 2 research publi-
projects towards sustainable development: a systematic literature review.
cations and has strong research interests in construction
Artif Intell Rev 2023(0123456789).
project management. Furthermore, he has a strong
[101] Khan M et al. Optimization of fresh and mechanical characteristics of carbon
fiber-reinforced concrete composites using response surface technique. background in dealing with construction site problems
2023;13. related to roads and bridges.
[102] Waqar A, Khan MB, Shafiq N, Skrzypkowski K, Zagórski K, Zagórska A.
Assessment of challenges to the adoption of IOT for the safety management
of small construction projects in malaysia: structural equation modeling
approach. Appl Sci 2023;13(5).
[103] Waqar A et al. Effect of volcanic pumice powder ash on the properties of
cement concrete using response surface methodology. J Build Pathol Rehabil
2023;8(1):pp.
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102300

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ain Shams Engineering Journal

Evaluating the critical safety factors causing accidents in downstream oil

[41,42]. Code Safety Factor References

5.1. Pilot study

Accidents involving downstream oil and gas construction pro-

Table 2 phenomenon. As shown in Table 3, the alternating varimax method

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Fig. 2. Demographic Profile.

5.2.3. Second order measurement model 6.1. Contributions by constructs

Fig. 3. Structural model with path coefficient including outer loadings.

Constructs ESR OR PR SR TR WER WHR

Constructs ESR OR PR SR TR WER

Path b SE t-values p-values VIF

Fig. 4. SEM indicating model significance.

Fig. 5. Bootstrapping analysis indicating significance values and path coefficients.

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