❖ Mesh :

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects

➢ A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies:

1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be
shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust; if one link becomes unusable, it does not affect the
entire system.
3. Security where every message sent travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient see it.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

➢ The main disadvantages of a mesh topology are:

1. Difficult installation and reconfiguration because every device must be

connected to every other device.
2. The bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space can
accommodate.
3. The hardware required to connect each link can be expensive.
❖ Star :

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not linked to each other.

Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between

devices. The controller acts as an exchange. If one device wants to send data

to another, it sends to the controller, which then relays the data to the other

connected devices

➢ The advantages of star topology are:

1. Less expensive than a mesh topology.

2. Easy to install.

3. Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected.

4. Easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it

can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

➢ The disadvantages of the star topology are:

1. Any fault occur to the central controller will drop down the entire network.

2. Although the star needs less cabling than mesh, it still needs more cables

than ring and tree topology.

❖ Tree :

A tree topology is a variation of a star. However, not every device plugs directly

into the central hub. The majority of devices connect to a secondary hub that in

turn is connected to the central hub

The central hub in the tree is an active hub. An active hub contains a

repeater, which is a hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns

before sending them out. Repeating strengthens transmissions and increases

the distance a signal can travel between sender and receiver.

The secondary hubs may be active or passive hubs. A passive hub

provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices. Internally,

each passive hub contains a set of resistors to balance the circuit linking the

connected devices.

The advantages and disadvantages of a tree topology are generally the same

as those of a star. The addition of secondary hubs however, brings two further

advantages.

First, it allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub and can

therefore increase the distance a signal can travel between devices.

Second, it allows the network to isolate and prioritize communications from

different computers.
❖ Ring :

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration

only with the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in

one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device

in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended

for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

➢ The advantages of ring topology are:

1. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

2. Addition or deletion of a device requires moving only two connections.

3. Fault isolation is simplified.

➢ Disadvantage of the ring topology : is that a break in the ring (such as a

disabled station) can disable the entire network, and it is one way data flow.

➢ Hybrid Topologies

Often a network combines several topologies as sub-networks linked together in

a larger topology. For instance, one department of a business may have

decided to use a bus topology while another department has a ring. The two

can be connected to each other via a central controller in a star topology.

❖ According to the size :

We are generally referring to three primary categories:

➢ Local area networks (LANs).
➢ Metropolitan area networks (MANs).
➢ Wide area networks (WANs).

➢ Local Area Network (LAN)

✓ A local area network is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single
office building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and the
type of technology used. A LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in
someone's home office or it can extend throughout a company and include
voice, sound, and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few
Kilometers.
✓ LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware
(e.g., a printer), software or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many
business environments, links a work group of task-related computers, for
example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers
may be given a large-capacity disk drive and become a server to the other
clients. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by
the whole group.
✓ In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their
transmission media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one
type of transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring,
and star.
✓ Traditionally, LANs have data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, however,
speeds are increasing and can reach 1Gbps or even ten's of Gigabits per
seconds.
➢ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire city. It may
be a single network such as a cable television network or it may be a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be
shared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-to-device.
For example, a company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all of its
offices throughout a city
A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may
be a service provided by a public company, such as a local telephone company.
Many telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called Switched
Multimegabit Data Services (SMDS)

➢ Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network provides long-distance transmission of data; voice,
image, and video information over large geographical areas that may comprise
a country, a continent, or even the whole world. In contrast to LANs (which
depend on their own hardware for transmission), WANs may utilize public,
leased, or private communication devices, usually in combinations, and can
therefore span an unlimited number of miles. A WAN that is wholly owned and
used by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network.

➢ According to the physical architecture (center of control)

✓ Centralized Networks : A central computer "Mini computer or Mainframe" that
manages all communication and requests in the network.
✓ Distributed Network : A group of Personal Computers (PC's) works together
and share the same input / output devices.
✓ Hybrid Network : A combination of centralized and distributed networks
 The OSI Model

The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body

dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards (Established in
1947). An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. An open system is a set of
protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of
their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to open
communication between different systems without requiring, changes to the
logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI is not a protocol, it is a
model for understanding and designing a network architecture.

❖ The Model :

The Open Systems Interconnection model is a layered framework for the design
of network system that allows for communication across all types of computer
systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines
a segment of the process of moving information across a network:
❖ OSI Layered Architecture:

Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers.
By defining and localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers created an
architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible.
Figure (2.1) shows the layers involved when a message sent from device A to
device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many
intermediate nodes. The intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three
layers of the OSI model.

➢ Encapsulation and Protocol data unit (PDU)

✓ Data - The general term for the PDU used at the application layer
✓ Segment - Transport layer PDU
✓ Packet - Network layer PDU
✓ Frame - Data Link layer PDU
✓ Bits - A PDU used when physically transmitting data over the medium
❖ Data link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for delivering data units (groups of bits) from
one station to the next without errors. It accepts a data unit from the third layer
and adds meaningful bits to the beginning (header) and end (trailer) that
contain addresses and of control information.
A data unit with this additional information called a Frame.

➢ The responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

✓ Node-to-node delivery: The data link layer is responsible for node-to-node
delivery.
✓ Physical Addressing: Headers and trailers added at this layer include the
physical address of the most recent node and the next intended node.
✓ Access control: When two or more devices connected to the same link, the
data-link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control
over the line at any given time.
✓ Flow control: To avoid overwhelming the receiver, the data link layer regulates
the amount of data that can be transmitted at one time. It adds identifying
numbers to enable the receiving node to control the ordering of the frames.
✓ Error handling: Data link layer protocols provide for data recovery, usually by
having the entire frame retransmitted.
❖ Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet across multiple network links. Whereas the data link layer oversees
node-to-node delivery, the network layer ensures that each packet gets from
its point of origin to its final destination successfully and efficiently.
To make such end-to-end delivery possible, the network layer provides two
related services: Addressing and routing.

➢ Routing : means selecting the best path for sending a packet from one
point to another, when more than one path is available.
These addresses are different from the physical (node) addresses included in
the data link header; it is known as a logical address.

➢ Specific responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

✓ Source-to-destination delivery: Moving a packet (best effort) from its point of

origin to its intended destination across multiple network links.,
✓ Logical addressing: Inclusion of the source and destination addresses in the
header.
✓ Routing: Deciding which of multiple paths a packet should take.
✓ Address transformation: Interpreting logical addresses to find their physical
equivalents.
❖ Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for source -to-destination (end-to-end)

delivery of the entire message. Whereas the network layer oversees end-to-
end delivery of individual packets,

➢ Specific responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

✓ End-to-end message delivery: Overseeing the transmission and arrival of all
packets of a message at the destination point.
✓ Service-point (port) addressing: Guaranteeing delivery of a message to the
appropriate application on a computer running multiple applications.
✓ Segmentation and reassembly: Dividing a message into transmittable
segments and marking each segment with a sequence number. These numbers
enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly at the
destination and to identify and replace packets lost in transmission.
✓ Connection control: Deciding whether or not to send all packets by a single
path.

❖ Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains,
and synchronizes the interaction between' communicating devices. It also
ensures that each session closes appropriately rather than shutting down
abruptly and leaving the user hanging.

❖ Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

✓ Session management: Dividing a session into sub sessions by the introduction
of checkpoints and separating long messages into shorter units called dialog
units appropriate for transmission.
✓ Synchronization: Deciding in what order to pass the dialog units to the
transport layer and where in the transmission to require confirmation from the
receiver.
✓ Dialog control: Deciding who sends, and when.
✓ Graceful close: Ensuring that the exchange has been completed appropriately
before the session closes.

❖ Presentation Layer
The presentation layer ensures interoperability among communicating devices.
Functions at this layer make it possible for two computers to communicate even
if their internal representations of data differ (e.g., when one device uses one
type of code and the other uses another). It provide necessary translation of
different control codes and character sets, graphics characters, and so on to
allow both devices to understand the same transmission the same way.

➢ Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include following:

✓ Translation: Changing the format of a message from that used by the sender
into one mutually acceptable for transmission. Then, at the destination,
changing that format into the one understood by the receiver.
✓ Encryption: Encryption and decryption of data for security purposes.
✓ Compression: Compressing and decompressing data to make transmission
more efficient.
✓ Security: Validating passwords and log-in codes.
❖ Application Layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access

the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as

electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management,

and other types of distributed information services.

➢ Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

✓ Web Services : Allows accessing web content in the form of text, images and

multimedia using the HTTP protocol

✓ File access, transfer, and management: Allows a user at a remote computer

to access files in another host (to make changes or read data); to retrieve files

from remote computer for use in the local computer; and to manage or control

files in remote computer at that computer.

✓ Mail services: Provides the basis for electronic mail forwarding and storage.

✓ Directory services: Provides distributed database sources and access for

global information about various objects.

 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
❖ A simple periodic: analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into
simpler signals.
❖ A composite periodic : analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
❖ A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude,
the frequency, and the phase.

The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.

❖ Signal amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is
normally measured in volts.

A. signals with high beak amplitude

B. signals with low beak amplitude

Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes
❖ Period and Frequency
✓ Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete
1 cycle.
✓ Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s. Note that period and
frequency are just one characteristic defined in two ways.

Two signals with the same amplitude, but different frequencies

Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have
a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
B = fh – ft = 900 – 100 = 800 Mz
❖ Bit Length :
As know the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance
one cycle occupies on the transmission medium. We can define something
similar for a digital signal: the bit length. The bit length is the distance one bit
occupies on the transmission medium.

❖ Bit Rate :
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not
appropriate characteristics. Another term bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used
to describe digital signals.
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

‫االستاذ يجي مهم‬ ‫ هذا سؤال رسم الموجة مأكد عليه‬: ‫مالحظة‬

²º²ª 5‫ـــــ‬丂‫^(ــــ‬0^(‫ـــــ‬л˙ лл˙¨л

 Example : A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a
middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme
frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.
Sol :
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz.

Examples : A digital signal has 8 levels. How many bits are needed per level?
We calculate the number of bits from the formula log2 L bits.
Sol :
Number of bits per level = log2 8 = 3
Example: Assume we need to download files at a rate of 100 pages per minute. A
page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line where one character
requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Sol :
100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,636,000bps = 1.636 Mbps

Example: A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog

voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two
samples per hertz). Assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required
bit rate?
Sol :
2 x 4000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps

Example : HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. There
are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times per
second. Also, 24 bits represents one color pixel. What is the bit rate for high-
definition TV (HDTV)?
Sol :
1920 x 1080 x30 24 = 1,492,992,000 or 1.5 Gbps
Network: is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we
have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication
possible.

Switch: is a Layer 2 device just as a bridge is. In fact a switch is called a

multiport bridge, just like a hub is called a multi-port repeater.

The difference between the hub and switch is that switches make decisions
based on MAC addresses and hubs don't make decisions at all