The South-East Asian

Feedlot Manual

Australias livestock export trade to SouthEast Asia emerged in the 1980s as an industry of enormous magnitude. The trade quickly developed into a large, professional business offering significant benefits to both Australia and each importing country.

the new market opportunities by supplying large volumes of feeder cattle into neighbouring South-East Asia. Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and Brunei have clearly been Australias most

SOUTH-EAST ASIAN FEEDLOT

Importers and exporters quickly developed strategic alliances all the while sharpening their business and livestock skills. Cattle producers in northern Australian welcomed significant markets for feeder cattle. Critically important to the development of this trade has been the feedlot sector in South-East Asia. In most instances, the ability to feed Australian cattle with a high quality and relatively low cost feed ration is the single most important factor that allows this trade to operate profitably. Achieving weight gain efficiencies for all cattle on feed soon emerged as both a

MALAYSIA

INDONESIA

passion and a necessity for importers of Australian cattle. The South-East Asian Feedlot Manual is a summary of numerous industry-funded research studies covering the key components

Feedlot Design

MANUAL
of a feedlot operation. The manual is a valuable resource for all feedlotters while at the same time presenting key points in a straightforward and user-friendly format. The members of Australias meat and livestock industry organisations, Meat & Livestock Australia and Livecorp, commend this manual to those companies feeding Australian cattle in South-East Asia.

Profitability

Staff

Transport

Cattle

PHILIPPINES
Health

Manure

BRUNEI
Feed

Water

Quality Assurance

The South-East Asian

Feedlot Manual

Published by Meat & Livestock Australia on behalf of the Live Export program, an initiative of Meat & Livestock Australia and LiveCorp

ABN 39 081 678 364 April 2006 ISBN 1 74036 898 3 Meat & Livestock Australia
Reproduction in whole or part of this publication is prohibited without prior permission consent and acknowledgement of Meat & Livestock Australia Disclaimer: Care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this publication. However MLA and LiveCorp cannot accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the information or opinions contained in the publication. You should make your own enquiries before making decisions concerning your interests.

DESIGN

FEEDLOT DESIGN
What: The design of a feedlot must be compatible with the conditions of that country.

Why:

Cattle need to be housed with health and productivity in mind.

How:

1. 2. 3.

Know the environmental considerations for Asia. Understand the two basic types of feedlot design for Asia. Ensure knowledge of considerations for: Yards Land Buildings Handling & Processing Water Power Telecommunication

The Key Requirements for feedlot design are the same whether you are in Australia, the USA or Asia. The feedlot must be functional, environmentally sustainable, animal friendly and safe.
This is a broad overview of how Asian feedlots can meet these requirements while factoring in local considerations. Information regarding the detailed designs of pens, troughs and yards can be found in other reference publications.

Chapter Summary: Environmental considerations for Asia Feedlot designs in Asia Design requirements for working yards, buildings and cattle handling and processing area Considerations for water, power, and telecommunications

Environmental Considerations for Asia

The special environmental and social conditions that apply in Asia are: Tropical conditions with constant heat and humidity Heavy monsoonal rains Supply of relatively cheap labour Cheap local materials Expensive land and high population densities No formal rules covering feedlot design and positioning. The environmental conditions have led to most feedlots in Asia having concrete floors and fully or partially covered roofs. This practice has evolved because of the high rainfall and the need to reduce the space needed per head. In Australia, for example, the space requirements for feedlots are set by local legislation and are normally a minimum of 9 square metres per head and range up to 20 square metres per head. In Asia, feedlots often provide only 3 square metres per animal. This is possible to achieve with a concrete floor and frequent cleaning. Experience has also shown that there is no affect on the feet of animals and that the density does not necessarily lead to increased problems that cannot be managed. Problems do arise however if a strict regimen of pen cleaning is not adhered to.

feeder (300 to 450kg) to 3-4m. Feed troughs run either side of the shelter or either side of a centre laneway. Gate systems are provided for the movement of cattle to and from the handling yards. Water troughs are placed in fence panels to provide access for cattle in pens either side of the fence. Depending on the circumstances, cleaning is carried out every two days by mechanical means and the use of drive through pens. In some cases, cleaning is done by hand on a daily basis. Bedding is used to reduce the frequency of cleaning in some systems. Types of bedding include sawdust, wood shavings, rice hulls or straw.

Design of Feedlots in Asia

While the design of each feedlot in Asia is unique, there are two basic types that have evolved. These are: Intensive In the tropics, the majority of feedlots are constructed on the basis of full or substantial roofing of the cattle pens, concrete floors and a stocking density of one

These products allow pen cleaning to be undertaken on ten to fourteen day rotations and avoid the environmental issues of disposing of very fluid material, which is often discharged into watersheds. Unless floors are well designed with anti slip grooving, animals may fall over when moved causing stress and bruising.

Semi Intensive An alternative is to use adequate roofing to cover feed troughs and the laneway only, with the balance of the pens uncovered. Concrete flooring consists only of an apron of about two metres bordering the feed and water troughs. This system can only operate if the density of cattle in the pens is reduced to 12 square metres per animal. Waste is pushed up in a pile during the wet season and removed during the dry season and used as organic fertilizer. Pens are adequate in size to allow manoeuvring of equipment in the pens. The site should have a natural slope of no more than 3% away from the feed troughs. The desired situation is along a ridge with the laneway on the top and pens either side with a gentle slope to the backs of the pens. An earth drain along the bottom of the pens, allowing a buffer zone between the pens and the drain, can be constructed to channel water and waste into a collection pond. This would only operate at times of high intensity rainfall. Water from the pond could be pumped off for watering forage or to evaporate naturally. From time to time the collected waste sediment would be removed during the dry season and spread as fertilizer. The materials used in the construction range from steel to bamboo.

Working Yards
These yards require a loading ramp, adequate race length with sliding gates, a crush and separate weighing scale. There will be a need for drafting capacity in the yard either via the race or specially designed pen (or both). A hospital shelter with several pens, water and feed troughs should be attached to the handling yards. Design of the handling yards and feedlot pens must keep in mind animal welfare, safety and ease of handling.

Requirements for cattle handling and processing area.

The basic requirements of the receiving and handling yard are: Race of about 20m length with maximum 650mm internal measurement. Race to be fully covered, have non slip concrete floor and apron each side with at least four fully covered sliding gates designed to be operated from the near (left) side of the animal. Separate crush and weighing scales are preferred but may be a combined unit.

Capacity 1,000 head 3,000 head 5,000 head 1,000 head 3,000 head 5,000 head

Density high high high low low low

Pen Space 4m2/head 4m /head

2

Roads/Buildings 10m2/head 10m /head

2

Total m2 14,000 42,000 70,000 22,000 66,000 110,000

Hectares 1.4 4.2 7.0 2.2 6.6 11.0

4m /head
2

10m /head
2

4m /head
2

10m /head
2

4m /head
2

10m /head
2

4m /head
2

10m /head
2

Estimated Land requirements

The head of the race to have drafting gates both sides and a sliding gate leading straight up to the loading ramp. The loading ramp to have a single animal section for loading and a truck width section for unloading. All gate hinges should allow for opening either way with a greater than 90 degree swing. There should be a forcing pen and four other holding pens, including a three-way draft from the race. The pens may require gravel or concrete to avoid bogging if the soil type is not suitable. No sharp objects or materials should be used in the yard construction with rounded type materials preferred. A water trough servicing two pens is required, together with a tap near the race. Trucks used for road transport should have suitable anti-slip provision on the floor and a simple but suitable and strong gate system at the rear of the body/crate. It is recommended that easily fitted, reusable techniques be used for this purpose.

Heavy duty Australian cattle crush

River Water If the available supply is adequate, it is vital to check upstream to assess the degree of pollution from communities dependant on this source. Run-off from rice areas can have unacceptably high levels of herbicides, insecticides or fertilisers. Dams Dams are an option where there is: a suitable site, taking into consideration holding capacity, soil type, spillway design and base rock strata. adequate catchment area, using rainfall patterns and peak flow data to design suitable spillways.

Race and cattle crush for stress free handling and induction of cattle

Water
The water supply must be available in adequate quantities at all times ( wet or dry season ) and be of suitable quality. Ground Water Ground water is usually acceptable for stock, and the dry season supply must be tested. It is recommended that samples be laboratory tested before any firm decision is made to proceed.

community development below the wall to determine dangers if the dam should breach at any time. availability of suitable skills and equipment to construct the dam wall and spillway.

Power
If there is no power supply from the local utilities, it will be necessary to install a generator. Feedlots with 2500/3000 head capacity using power to operate small hammermills and vertical mixers need approximately 120kva, with a second smaller unit which runs at night when light only is required. It is suggested that this

Capacity

Kg/hd/30 day 90

Feed

Feed/Work ratio m3

Shed volume 450m3

1,000 head

90 (90m3)

Feed 1 x Work 5m3 or about 12m x 10m x 4m = 480m3 Feed 1 x Work 4m3 or about 12m x 15m x 4m = 864m3 Feed 1 x Work 3m3 or about 12m x 23m x 4m = 1,800m3

3,000 head

90

270 (270m3)

1,080m3

5,000 head

90

450 (450m3)

1,850m3

Table for estimating required feed shed storage space

should be considered. If diesel power is used only in the feed preparation process, then a smaller main unit will be adequate.

Telecommunications
ISD telephones and fax are vital considerations for efficient business operations. Similarly, mobile phone coverage and internet access have become increasingly important. UHF radio can be used very effectively on site and locally, but adequate external telecommunication access is vital.

The feedlot will need to be constructed on a pad with a slope sufficient to allow for drainage of waste water and effluent from the pens. The waste will need to be contained to ensure the external environment is not contaminated. Actual slope will be determined by location and feedlot design (eg partial or full cover of pens, rainfall etc.) and professional advice specific to the site should be sought prior to construction. Similarly, consideration will need to be given to the collection and treatment of manure from the pens. Issues such as collection technique (mechanical vs manual), treatment and use of manure will all need careful planning as they may seriously affect management and profitability of the feedlot. It is vitally important that effluent can be controlled through an efficient drainage system and/or regular pen cleaning. (see also Manure Section)

Buildings
The feedlot will require a staff/administration building (see also Staff section). A suitable feed storage shed is required to hold an estimated 70% of the daily intake for up to 14 days reserve. If the daily dry matter intake is calculated at 2.6% of body weight, the calculation for tonnage would be: 350kglw @ 2.6% @ 70% @ 14 days = 90kg (multiplied by the feedlot capacity) In designing the feed shed, consideration should be given to the working height and room needed for machinery operation, materials required to withstand constant machinery operation in the bunkers etc. (see also Feed section.)

Drainage
Control of runoff is an important consideration in the design of any new feedlot. This is particularly so in the tropics where rainfall volume and intensity can be extreme. Runoff is an issue because it can affect animal welfare (bogging, waterlogging, disease); it can affect the environment (contamination of water sources, odour); it can affect management (road bogging) and it can affect neighbours.

A well designed facility will result in a quieter, more productive cattle

Handling cattle in the yard

(see also Cattle section) Cattle should move easily through the yards and enter the single file race without hesitating. If cattle baulk and refuse to move at a particular point in the system it is important to observe them carefully to find out why they are baulking. Small distractions that go unnoticed by handlers can make cattle baulk. For example, the performance of the best systems can be ruined by a small piece of chain hanging in the single file race. Calm cattle may stop and refuse to move on. Below is a list of some of the things that may make cattle baulk and impede movement through a yard: entrance to the single file race is too dark blinding light in the animal's face such as facing directly into the sun

seeing people or dogs ahead shiny reflections off metal water puddles which reflect light changes in floor type or fence construction shadows hat or coat on a fence piece of plastic or paper cup on the floor air hissing high pitched noise from a motor drain grating on the floor chain or rope hanging in the race changes of colour in the facility clanging and banging metal one-way anti back up gates

Yard Design Tips

For sophisticated feed yard processing yards designs there are a number of web sites offering excellent information. The work of Dr. Temple Grandin (below) is regarded as the industry standard. Visit: www.grandin.com These sites will also provide information about site layout, preparation and animal handling techniques.

Importantly, the work of Dr. Grandin focuses on ensuring the welfare of the animal is maintained with the bonus of greatly improved movement of animals through the feed yard and slaughter complexes. It also promotes a greater understanding of the animal by handling staff - an important consideration where staff at a new feedlot may have had only limited experience with animal handling. There is also useful information available from various Australian state departments of Agriculture.

HIGH EFFICIENCY 180 DEGREE ROUND CROWD PEN Cattle think they are going back to where they came from

BASIC CATTLE RANCH LAYOUT BASIC CATTLE RANCH LAYOUT Temple Grandin Temple Grandin

14' (4.1m)

HANDLER WALKWAY CRUSH / SQUEEZE

ROUND FORCING PEN

14' (4.1m)

FORCING GATE 12' (3.5m) 16' (5m)

12' (3.5m) 14' (4.1m)

12' (3.5m)

MAN GATE

25'(7.6m)

12' (3.5m) CURVED CHUTE / RACE

LOADING RAMP

PROFITABILITY

FEEDLOT PROFITABILITY
What: A feedlot is a complex business. There are many contributors to financial success.

Why:

Need to be aware of all profit centres and confirm project viability before commencement.

How:

1. 2. 3.

Complete a feedlot feasibility asessment. Understand the the factors which affect feedlot profitability and how they interact. Understand the major loss factors of running a feedlot in Asia.

A FEEDLOT BUSINESS is a complex one with many contributors to its financial success. Any operator wishing to enter the business must understand all aspects of the industry in order to establish business plans and operational plans. This chapter looks at: How to assess the feasibility of a feedlot Operating constraints for a feedlot in Asia Factors affecting feedlot profitability Opportunities for custom feeding arrangements The major loss factors for feedlots in Asia

Feedlot Feasibility Assessment

The feedlot industry in most countries has evolved from the need to provide a consistent product to a demanding market. It must be efficient in its operations to be profitable due to the relatively high input costs of feed and labour. The two key questions to be asked before starting a feedlot venture are: 1: Is it feasible? 2: Will it be profitable? Risk Analysis Before deciding to enter a feedlot venture, a full study of resources and risks need to be carried out.

Limits in commodity supply To date, the feedlot industries of Indonesia and the Philippines have developed without significant controls. However, long term operators in these countries need to address environmental issues in existing feedlots and new ventures. As South East Asian economies develop, the demand for beef will rise. But those entering this industry need to be aware of the impediments that may cut the feedlot industry's share of this rising market. These are: Frozen beef in the fresh market. The availability of frozen beef in the fresh market will limit the potential of this market by putting strong downward pressure on price as well as replacing significant volume. In the supermarkets, the availability of frozen produce allows the supermarket to provide a product at approximately the same retail price as the fresh market and maintain increased profit margins. While the supply of frozen boxed beef to the fresh market is illegal in Indonesia for example, the practice will continue because of the profit margins involved, however, a balance will be required to maintain growth in the feedlot industry. Limited capacity to process increased supply Processing capacity can be a limiting factor to supply for the fresh market. This must be considered by an operating feedlot in its marketing plan. Commodity availability is a significant risk area. In the Philippines, the pressure on commodity availability has lead to increased prices and reduction of feedlot profitability. In Indonesia, shortages of commodities are less likely. For example, production of cassava is seven times the production of the Philippines and the growth of Indonesian palm oil and coconut production industries also ensures a large supply of by product suitable for cattle feed. However, regardless of location, commodity supply will always be an important, if not primary consideration in determining feedlot profitability.

Operating Constraints
Each feedlot needs to be aware of its individual, local operating constraints. For example, there may be government policies such as permit systems contolling the feedlot industry. It is important to determine what policies apply to feedlots in individual countries. Cattle performance is vital to the success of the operation and is governed by cattle type and quality as well as feedlot management technology. By using highly skilled feedlot management staff, feedlot management will ensure performance is maximized. The following is a list of considerations to remember when assessing your operating constraints: Technical Feasibility Is the feedlot capable of operating successfully on its own? Are all project inputs secured and outputs delivered without relying on social programs or political influence? Is there enough staff with the technical knowledge and experience to do the best job? Operational Size The optimum size of a feedlot is determined by capitalisation and overhead costs as well as the amount of stock that can be turned over per annum. Smaller feedlots tend to have lower rates of return due to higher costs per head. They also have a tendency to be opportunity based and move in and out of the industry as profit margins allow. Financial Feasibility Does your project deliver a financial return that meets the owner's objectives? The rate of return must include risk factors since the business investment has potential losses (for example death of stock), that are not normal. Business Relationships There should be compatibility of operational styles between the people involved in the business, as well as between those people in the industry with whom the business will deal. Many may be tempted to go into cattle feedlots without having a sound base to carry out the trading aspects of the business.

Government Policy It should be determined that if there is a change in Government and its policies, the project will still be viable. If local political representatives change, will that change adversely and affect the project and place its viability at risk? Reliability of Local Fodder Producers The degree of reliance on local farmers to commit to fodder production without failure is vital. The degree to which the project can afford to rely on local farmers also must be assessed. Alternative avenues for fodder procurement are needed in the event of crop failure/shortfall. Livestock and Crop Diseases The capacity of management and of the Department of Agriculture to contain outbreaks of disease in both plants and livestock must be assured. Supplies of water and feed quality and quantity will need to be secured. The variables of climate, including cyclones, floods, droughts could prove to be unmanageable in reaching production objectives. Local Community Involvement The objections or support of local communities could be crucial. These objectors or supporters could include local business competition, politicians or people in the community. Often there will be significant benefits derived from the project that will flow to the local community and in employment and business opportunities.

STAFF

STAFF
What: All feedlots require dedicated professional staff.

Why:

Without professional staff you have little chance of running an efficient feedlot.

How:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Know the positions and job descriptions. Understand the requirements for your feedlot. Understand how to create a safe working environment. Understand the training needs of your staff.

A PROFITABLE FEEDLOT cannot function without staff that are experienced and know their role in the feedlot. Chapter Summary: Staffing Positions for a Feedlot
The number of staff required will depend upon the size of your feedlot. Smaller feedlots will operate with one or two staff doing the majority of tasks from feeding and checking cattle to marketing and buying cattle. Meanwhile a fully operational 5000 head feedlot represents a considerable investment and will require significant staffing and management systems. For a large operation, the following staff positions will be necessary: General Manager Many large operations employ expatriate managers to ensure there are sufficient experienced management skills available. This person will have previous feedlot experience, preferably tropical cattle experience, and an ability to work with Asian people. Responsibilities will include: Management and feedlot construction Planning and coordinating feedlot operations and supervision of key staff areas including feedlot supervisor, forage production, accounts and marketing Implementing approved annual operations income and expenditure budget and achieving pre-determined targets for profit and production. Recruitment and training of key staff

The key positions required for a feedlot Training requirement for feedlot staff Accommodation requirements for staff

feedlot and will provide all inputs to the established groups, including technology, training, demonstration, distribution of seed and fertilizer. In addition, they will include coordination of the harvesting and preservation of forages and timely delivery to the feedlot, ensuring adequate supplies of raw materials for concentrate production to meet the needs of the feedlot at all times. This person will report directly to the General Manager. This is a pivotal position in terms of the economic success of the feedlot company and will require a dedicated and capable person. The appointee will liaise with all other staff members and will live on site or nearby. Accountant and Record Manager This appointee will have experience in bookkeeping and accounting and be responsible for the maintenance of full financial and transaction records. The appointee will live on site or nearby.

Feedlot Supervisor
This person should have previous experience in the local feedlot industry and will be directly responsible to the General Manager. The duties will encompass all day to day physical activities associated with the cattle fattening operation through to the turn off to market. The appointee would live on site or nearby. Forage Production Supervisor This person should have a background in ruminant nutrition, in smallholder rural extension services, and be technically qualified in the production of corn and other forages and legumes. The duties will involve the establishment of plasma farmer groups for the production of forages for the Marketing Manager This appointee will have had experience in the marketing of imported and local cattle and possess a good network of contacts in the marketing chain. The appointee will report directly to the General Manager. The appointee

will be familiar with good handling and transport procedures for cattle and apply these procedures at all times when sold cattle are being delivered. The appointee will liaise with the feedlot manager to obtain a regular inventory of cattle either nearing or ready for sale. The appointee will provide constant market intelligence to the General Manager and the Feedlot Manager.

During the establishment phase, training sessions focused on all individual aspects of the business should be undertaken. Once the lotfeeding operation has commenced, training courses on site and at suitable external venues will be arranged. However, it will remain important for all appointees to maintain an active physical role (hands on management) in the day to day activities of their respective division. Administration and Accommodation Requirements It will be necessary to establish a suitable management and administration office on site. The office need not be large but should be air conditioned and allow accommodation for the General Manager, each supervisor and the administration and marketing managers. An operations room is desirable which can also be used as a meal room. A small room is required for the storage and maintenance of all veterinary needs and associated equipment with a facility for cleaning equipment post use.

Technical Staff Technical staff should be appointed in each division according to need. They will receive training from the General Manager and their routine work instructions from their Supervisor/Manager.

Future Training Requirements

All operational aspects of the feedlot business will require the provision of training to the responsible person(s). It is recommended that the appointees are recruited early in the establishment stage and that this development phase be used as a training vehicle that will develop a "sense of belonging" amongst the employees at the management and labourer levels.

TRANSPORT

TRANSPORT
What: Transporting cattle from ship to feedlot and feedlot to sale as efficiently as possible.

Why:

Minimise health problems and bruising which affect profitability.

How:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Understand the requirements for road access/infrastructure/location. Ensure that all staff know how to drive and handle cattle. Understand preferred cattle truck design and how to modify existing trucks/transport. Understand why the above are important when moving to sale.

TRANSPORTATION is an important consideration for any feedlot. Moving cattle from the shipping yards efficiently and in the best condition to go on to feed will enhance a profitable feedlot.
Transport facilities in Asia are not specifically designed for cattle and road conditions often make transport slow and difficult. While trucks have to be adapted to cattle transport, it is possible, with proper planning and preparation to transport cattle reasonably efficiently and without stress or damage.

Ensuring the cattle reach their market in the best possible condition will also affect the bottom line. Chapter Summary: Location and infrastructure Customs and quarantine Road access from port to feedlot Preferred cattle truck design Discharge and delivery from the vessel Moving cattle from the feedlot to point of sale

Location and Infrastructure

The port should have the necessary infrastructure to facilitate the live cattle trade. This includes the Ports Authority that controls shipping movements, Customs Department, stevedoring, telephone, power, water and basic loading equipment. There must be adequate manoeuvering area for empty cattle and freight trucks to be unloaded from the ship. The depth of the port needs to be sufficient to allow the livestock vessels to dock.

Customs & Quarantine

Animal Quarantine The Provincial Veterinary Officer normally holds the responsibilities for livestock quarantine. In addition, that officer holds responsibilities for all matters relating to livestock and livestock products. Conditions of entry for cattle from Australia are covered by the export certificate requirements issued by the Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service (AQIS) veterinarians. The post discharge quarantine period varies from region to region and there is a pre discharge inspection of cattle at the wharf before the stock are released to unload.

difference between a profitable feedlot and a failed project. Consideration should also be given to the road building requirements on the actual feedlot site. Driver Skills and Training Most drivers are general transport drivers and have had little experience in the transport of cattle. The feedlot manager will be responsible for monitoring their performance and to take action when cattle arrive in a bruised or stressed condition during the transport phase from port to feedlot. Driver speeds should be monitored and controlled to ensure the cattle travel without being injured or unduly stressed. This may require the keeping of driver log records, however individual drivers should be closely monitored by the feedlot manager. Where driver training is generally lacking, the feedlot manager should talk to the transport company about their specific requirements. Trucks The trucks commonly used are heavy all-steel, highdecked body trucks, both ten and six wheeled units. The estimated weight of a ten wheeler is 18 tonnes. These trucks can carry approximately 12 head of feeder steers. Bedding in the form of sugar cane bagasse, rice straw, rice hulls or similar must be provided on the floor of the truck to prevent slippage and injury to the cattle. The open top may need to be covered with a cargo net,

Road Access from Port to Feedlot

Road Conditions Road conditions from the port to the feedlot have an affect on cattle transport and bruising. The road should preferably be sealed and able to take the trucks available for transport. It is vitally important that this issue is given due consideration when deciding the location of a new feedlot. The feedlot needs to be located within a reasonable distance of the unloading port, and the road needs to be of high quality to ensure that injury during transport is minimised. These injuries may mean the

bamboo or timber. Horizontal rails are tied with inner tubes or ropes and a temporary rear gate may need to be fashioned to allow the cattle to be contained while the drop gate is closed. A sufficient number of trucks should be available to ensure the smooth unloading of the ship in the minimum of time. Preferred Cattle Truck Design A semi trailer towing a single 32 foot deck trailer with a conventional Australian type crate is the preferred design for efficient movement of cattle. The crate should be partitioned internally, with gates inside to restrict cattle movement and have removable grid flooring. The flooring should be cleated or of a rubber non-slip matting to prevent cattle slipping and falling. At present, few cattle trucks of this type are available in Asia, however some operators are building similar rigs. The acceptable space allowed in the truck per beast is 0.9m2. At that space, a 9.5m by 2.5m deck would carry 26 head at 300kg liveweight entry to the feedlot. At an exit weight of 420kg, the trailer could carry 20 head. Typical small body trucks in Australia used for the

agitated because of excessive visual stimuli. Other features of interest are sliding gates that can be quickly closed, reducing the likelihood of animals coming back down the loading race before loading is completed. The photographs that follow highlight some of these features. While the actual design can vary significantly, it is important that the set-up meets the criteria (above) to ensure the trouble free movement of animals from ship to feedlot and feedlot to market. Truck Design Features

Injuries to cattle between the port and feedlot as a result of poor handling, substandard transport and unsuitable roads are one of the major causes of financial loss in some feedlots. Injuries sustained in this way take significant time to heal, if in fact the animal ever does recover. With suitable preparation and vigilance 90% of these injuries can be avoided, with less stress for the animal and more profit for the feedlot operator.

The truck (above) features an enclosed crate to reduce the visual stimulus as cattle are transported. The truck crate interior features a sheet of reinforcing mesh attached to the bottom of the crate (below) to ensure that animals do not slip during transport. This is perhaps the single most important design feature to be considered when transporting cattle. While it can be achieved in a number of ways, it is vital that animals are not transported on a bare steel truck floor as significant injuries will inevitably result. A pin locked sliding rear gate, (upper right) allows the gate to be closed quickly so cattle cannot reverse quickly and charge back down the race blocking loading.

transport of cattle have a number of design features that may be incorporated into trucks used in Asia. Most basically, the truck needs to be set up so that cattle have firm footing and do not slip as the truck moves; it should have adequate room for each animal and ensure that animals are held in pen sizes that do not allow a large group to become compressed into one corner of the space, resulting in injuries; and that there is sufficient visual blocking to avoid the animals becoming
Elevated floor stops animals slipping

The interior space of the cattle crate (bottom picture) is divided into two pens to separate the animals and to avoid too many stock becoming crowded at one end of the space resulting in injuries. Note also the smooth sides of the interior space. The cladding is placed inside the structural arches of the crate to minimise the risk of bruising. Similarly, there are no protruding sharp objects that may injure animals during loading or transport.

Discharge & Delivery

From the Vessel

The cattle ships have their own gangways for unloading cattle onto the wharf. These are slung into position from the ships derricks, usually from the top deck. Using the available 6 and 10 wheelers there is a one-time total capacity to move cattle from the ship to the feedlot as follows: 5 x 10 wheelers@16 head/unit 10 x 6 wheelers@ 12 head/unit 80hd 120hd 200hd

This is a one time lift of 200 head using 15 trucks at an average of 14 head per truck. At 1.5 hrs round trip the ship would be discharged as follows:
Pin locked sliding rear gate

All of these features are designed to minimise stress on the animals, ensuring they arrive at the feedlot or slaughterhouse in the best possible condition.

1100 head 14hd/truck

= =

79 loads 15 trucks = 8.6 hours

The design of unloading facilities will also influence unloading time and it is preferable if more than one truck can be positioned for unloading at one time. This example gives an indication of the amount of forethought and preparation required to ensure a smooth unloading. Demurrage Demurrage is a common shipping term used to describe the penalties you have to pay for being late and tying up the ship past the agreed time. Current charter agreements allow 48 hours unloading time, starting from the time the vessel docks and is cleared for customs.

Cattle crate divided into two pens

There is generally no requirement for a holding facility at the port. The current livestock charter companies allow a system of debits and credits of demurrage time to accrue on an annual basis so that exporters are only disadvantaged when unpreventable incidents occur.

Doing so is critical in establishing a satisfactory trading relationship and maintaining a reputation for delivering cattle whose high quality is assured. Some growers adopt a policy of holding finished steers in a small feedlot near the market and fattening them. They then move them to the market when they judge the timing to be best. This timing will vary with numbers of cattle on offer at the time, demand, and traders operating in the market. Electrolytes can be used prior to and during transport to help maintain cattle in appropriate condition for slaughter. (see Animal Health section).

Feedlot to Point of Sale

Cattle delivered for slaughter should be in the following condition: fresh unstressed unsoiled with undamaged skin no evidence of bruising or other factors likely to lower the yield and meat quality post slaughter.

CATTLE

CATTLE
What: Need to choose suitable cattle from Australia for the feedlot and select appropriate animals for slaughter.

Why:

A profitable feedlot is one which can find a market for each animal on feed.

How:

1. 2. 2. 3. 4.

Taking the stress out of cattle handling. Ensure you know the current market specifications. Ensure you know how to translate these market specs into live cattle specs. Know how to select correct cattle for slaughter. Understand meat quality.

A PROFITABLE FEEDLOT is one that can fit each animal on feed into a market This chapter looks at: Cattle Handling Taking the stress out of cattle handling
Well designed yards based on an understanding of cattle behaviour can reduce stress on both feedlot staff and cattle.

Market specifications in Asia The Importance of fat to the customer How to select cattle on feed for slaughter Challenges to the market for Asian feedlots

Research has shown that cattle that become highly agitated during restraint in a squeeze crush have lower weight gains than unstressed animals. Obviously they also have a greater capacity to injure themselves and staff.

Cattle that become excited and agitated may have levels of stress hormones in their blood up to three times higher than cattle handled gently and quietly. Cattle that are handled roughly become agitated very quickly. It may take up to 30 minutes for them to calm down and for their heart rates to return to normal. Excited and frightened cattle are also more difficult to handle than quiet cattle. Cattle behaviour The most important principles to understand are the animal's flight zone, it's point of balance, the importance of handling small groups and training cattle for handling procedures. Flight zone stress The size of the flight zone is the distance an animal will allow an operator to approach before moving away. The flight zone is the animal's safety zone. Tame cattle have no flight zone and will allow an operator to approach and touch them. Cattle which are unaccustomed to people will turn and move away when a person enters their flight zone. Flight zone size is determined by three factors: cattle genetics, the amount of contact cattle have had with people and the quality of that contact. Genetic factors (temperament) and experience interact in complex ways to determine an animals flight zone. For example, genetically flighty cattle may be tamed by gentle handling so that they have no flight zone. In contrast, genetically calm cattle raised in rangeland conditions with little or no contact with people may have a large flight zone.

The point is that cattle with calm temperaments or flighty temperaments will have smaller flight zones - if they are handled gently - than animals that are handled roughly or have little contact with people.

Sheep flight zone

This picture illustrates the flight zone of a large flock of sheep, herds of cattle behave much the same way. Notice that the sheep are circling around the handler while maintaining a safe distance. Sheep tend to move in the opposite direction of the handlers movement. Walking in the opposite direction of the direction of desired movement can be used to move groups of animals. Walking in the opposite direction tends to speed up movement and walking in the same direction tends to slow down movements. These principles work equally well with cattle.

BLIND SPOT SHADED GREY

EDGE OF FLIGHT ZONE

HANDLERS POSITION TO STOP MOVEMENT

45

HANDLERS POSITION TO START MOVEMENT

90 POINT OF BALANCE

Figure 1: The Flight Zone

Figure 1 illustrates the general flight zone of an animal. The actual flight zone of an individual animal will vary depending on how tame the animal is. An animals flight zone will vary depending on how calm it is. The flight zone gets bigger when an animal becomes excited. The flight zone is also bigger when you approach head on. Calm cattle are easier to move. If cattle become excited, it takes 20-30 minutes for them to calm back down. When cattle are suddenly confronted with something new, they become frightened and move away. This is why it is so important to accustom cattle gradually to people. Getting them used to handling will improve their performance in the feedlot.

The point of balance is at the animal's shoulder. Cattle will move forward if the handler stands behind the point of balance. They will back up if the handler stands in front of the point of balance. Many handlers make the mistake of standing in front of the point of balance while attempting to make an animal move forward in a race. Groups of cattle in a race will often move forward without prodding when the handler walks past the point of balance in the opposite direction of each animal in the race. It is not necessary to prod every animal. If the animals are moving through the race by themselves, leave them alone. Often they can be moved by tapping the side of the race.

Handlers who understand the concepts of flight zone and point of balance will be able to move animals more easily. The flight zone is the animal's personal space and the size of the flight zone is determined by the wildness or tameness of the animal. Completely tame animals have no flight zone and people can touch them. An animal will begin to move away when the handler penetrates the edge of the flight zone. If all the animals are facing the handler, the handler is outside the flight zone.

the next animal into the squeeze chute, the handler enters the flight zone and the animal will move forward after the handler crosses the point of balance at the shoulder. To move only one animal, the handler should stop walking when the point of balance of the animal is crossed.

Figure 2: Handler movement pattern to keep cattle moving into a chute.

When the handler is outside the flight zone the animals will turn and face the handler and maintain a safe distance.

Figure 3: Handler movement pattern to keep cattle moving in a curved race system.

When the handler enters the flight zone the animals will turn away. Cattle and other ruminants have a tendency to move in the opposite direction when a handler walks deep in their flight zone. The principle of the two following diagrams (Figure 2&3) is that the handler walks inside the flight zone in the opposite direction of desired movement. When the handler returns, he or she walks outside the flight zone in the same direction. When an animal is being held in the squeeze chute the handler should stand outside the flight zone. To move

To keep animals calm and move them easily, the handler should work on the edge of the flight zone. He penetrates the flight zone to make the animals move and he backs up if he wants them to stop moving. The handler should avoid the blind spot behind the animal's rear. Deep penetration of the flight zone should be avoided. Animals become upset when a person is inside their personal space and they are unable to move away. If cattle turn back and run past the handler while they are being driven down a drive alley in the stockyard, overly deep penetration of the flight zone is a likely cause. The animals turn back in an attempt to get away

from the handler. If the animals start to turn back, the handler should back up and increase the distance between himself and the animals. Backing up must be done at the first indication of a turn back. If a group of animals balk at a smell or a shadow up ahead, be patient and wait for the leader to cross the shadow. The rest of the animals will follow. If cattle rear up in the single file chute, back away from them. Do not touch them or hit them. They are rearing in an attempt to increase the distance between themselves and the handler. They will usually settle down if you leave them alone.

Figure 5: Moving cattle into a pen

Using the principles of flight zone behaviour, a handler is able to move cattle into a pen in a calm and orderly way. Using the positions shown on this diagram will enable the handler to control the flow of cattle through the gate. Cattle movement can be slowed or speeded up by moving forward or backward.

Meeting the market in Asia

The market in Asia has developed rapidly and this provides many challenges for lot feeders. The aim for a feedlot is to provide an animal at the end of the feeding period that is wanted by the customer. This can only be achieved by: Knowing the customers requirements or specifications. Being able to assess a live animal to see if it fits into the customers requirements
Figure 4: Moving stock from a large pen

Following the cattle through the process to see how they are received Acting on the feedback obtained to ensure more cattle meet the customer's requirements Knowing your customers requirements Meat is made up of muscle and fat and consequently, a market's requirements are usually expressed in relation to the proportions of muscle and fat in the meat required. These requirements are termed "specifications". The key markets in Asia are the wet markets and supermarkets. Wet markets Most wet markets in Asia require meat that contains very little fat. Carcasses with more than 3-4mm of fat at the P8 site will show a reduction of meat yield equivalent to 1% of carcass weight per millimetre of

When moving livestock from a large open area, understanding flight zone behavior and utilizing a few basic principles, moving animals in a calm and orderly fashion becomes very easy. To keep the animals moving in an orderly manner the handler alternates between penetrating the collective flight zone and withdrawing from the collective flight zone. Alternating pressure on the flight zone is more effective than continuous pressure. When the handler moves in the zig zag pattern he/she penetrates the flight zone when walking in the opposite direction of desired movement and retreats from the flight zone when walking in the same direction of desired movement.

Dorsel Turberosity Sawn Chine Crest 3rd Sacral Vertebra P8 SITE

Aside from fat, the carcase is made up of the following components: beef cuts excess fat. Even with trimming this meat has an elevated fat content. Supermarkets Most supermarkets in Asia sell meat with a higher fat content. They require meat with 15-25% from the subcutaneous and intramuscular deposit. Carcasses with a P8 measurement of 6-12 mm provide the maximum percentage of such meat when boned out. In these latter carcasses, the subcutaneous fat protects the surface muscle from drying out and discolouring in the chiller. Fat from both sites provide important flavours and aromas during cooking, and a medium which prevents the meat drying out when it is roasted or grilled. This fat also provides the sensation of juiciness when the cooked meat is eaten. Fat depth will have the greatest influence on carcase yield Fat is the most important meat specification in Asian markets. Excess fat: Reduces the amount or percentage of muscle in the carcase that is available for sale. Approx 5mm fat results in at least 10kg less meat for sale from a 200kg carcase. Is very expensive to produce. More than seven times as much feed is required to produce a kilo of fat tissue relative to a kilo of muscle Is expensive and difficult to remove, particularly in grilling and roasting cuts for the supermarket.
Ready reckoner (courtesy Peter Ridley)

beef trim waste fat bone

The fat depth of a carcase will also influence the levels of these four components. The ready reckoner (above) illustrates the relationship of these other components to fat. The carcases used to

obtain this data were boned out to provide meat with minimum fat, similar to many wet markets in South East Asia. The ready reckoner can be used to estimate boning room yields for such a market by drawing a vertical line from the P8 measurement. When the drawn line cuts one of the four graph lines, the percentage of the relevant component is shown in value along the vertical axis. For example: a carcass with P8 = 5mm contains approximately: 5.1% waste fat 11.5% beef trim 22.9% bone 60.5% 90%VL (VL = meat with 90% visual lean) Test this yourself: Put in your own values for meat (90% VL) beef trim, bone and waste fat for a carcass where P8 = 5 mm and another where P8 = 15 mm. See what excess P8 fat does to your returns.

Sex There are no visual clues to indicate if the meat on display comes from a steer or heifer carcass of the same fatness and age. The exception is bull beef which is preferred by some markets because of its leanness. Bull muscle may also appear to be slightly darker than muscle from steers of the same age. Fat thickness There are some markets that do not require fat cover. Estimate or measure the external fat depth of sliced beef in the meat display and take note of the fat content of ground beef. The average fat depth over the striploin primals and slices will be a useful guide to the P8 measurement of carcasses that will meet the butcher's requirements. Meat Colour Bright red colour in meat in the display cabinet indicates that it came from young cattle that were not stressed immediately prior to slaughter. Older cattle characteristically provide darker coloured meat due to the natural increase in muscle myoglobin with age. Very dark muscle usually indicates pre-slaughter stress, resulting in tougher meat and meat that will not last as well in the chiller. Fat Colour There are different market preferences for fat colour. Aus-Meat (Australia's meat industry standard organization) has a 1 - 10 colour card system where 1 = white and 10 = very yellow. These cards can be used to describe the acceptable fat colour range for any market. Experience suggests that for each 30 day period in the feedlot without access to green plant material, fat colour will change towards the white end of the range by one card.

How to select cattle for slaughter

Be aware of your market specifications The first step when selecting a feedlot animal for slaughter is to be aware what the consumers are buying in the market place. A visit to the market place will provide you with a number of characteristics or specifications that you can translate to the live animal. This principle applies whether you are in: The Hero supermarket at Sanayan Plaza or the Senen (Pasar Besar) wet market in Jakarta. The meat department at Yohan's Johor Bahru supermarket or the farmers wet market in Seremban, Negari Sembilan West Malaysia. The Monterey beef display cabinet in Mega Mall or in the farmers wet market at Cubao in Manila. Once you have observed the primals or sliced items offered for sale in the market place or the display cabinets, you can begin to visualize the live animal at the abattoir yard or feedlot pen. Carcass weight - liveweight Observe the cross sectional area of muscle groups, including the sliced portions of the ribeye, striploin and the weight of the primals.

Live Assessment
Many times the cattle that you may feel are your best feeder cattle actually turn out to be your worst cattle. An illustration of this is the effect that aggressive eaters may have on your eventual meat product. A regular occurrence in Asian feedlots is an "overfat" carcass. This can be a result of roughage and concentrate components of a ration not being mixed adequately or the feedlot ration used is not suitable for your market or cattle. For example, as cattle reach maturity, they have a lesser requirement for protein for maximum production efficiency than younger cattle.

Item Sex Dentition HSCW P8 Bruising Meat Colour Marbling pH

Carcass Steer/Heifer 0-2 180 - 240 kg 7 - 12 Nil Bright red Nil Less than 5.8

Live Cattle Steer/Heifer 0-2 (up to 18 months) 320 - 430 kg (Live) CS + 3 Not readily detected Well rested cattle CS + 3 Well rested before slaughter

The aggressive eaters, which are potentially your most profitable cattle, develop fat rapidly both subcutaneously and intramuscularly to the detriment of meat or muscle growth. This is only a problem where these animals are not being selected correctly for slaughter. It is important to understand correct selection criteria and actions for cattle at the end of the feeding period.

Visual Assessment Prior to assessment, visualize the image of a carcass for the market that you are selecting. Select cattle in a pen, preferably at feeding time. As they are standing at the feedbunk, observe their back line for fat depth and muscle inflation. You may have to enter the pen to select on butt shape or hindquarter shape. Once you have selected the animals, record ear tag numbers if available or use a spray can or paint to identify the individual animals for staff to use over the following week.

Selecting Cattle for Slaughter

It is critical that the cattle selected for slaughter are cattle ready for the market and that meet a specification. "Its just like picking a ripe mango". Imagine you have been asked to pick some ripe mangoes from a tree. Over the years, you have learnt by touch and sight what are the characteristics of a ripe mango. You can use the visual assessments of skin colour and the inflated size of the individual fruit with rounded shape. You can also use an objective assessment by picking a small number of fruit to check the mature colour of the flesh against a colour card. Next week, when you return to pick your mangoes again you will find that there are again a number of mangoes ready for picking. They will have gained considerable weight from last week and will meet the market specification. The same is true for feedlot cattle. Once they are ripe, they are ready for picking. In subsequent selections you will find individual animals that have grown to meet the specifications. But first, you must know how to assess the feel and sight of "ripe" cattle.

It is important to look at all assessed animals after their hide is removed to check the accuracy of assessments.

Hands on assessment Hand-on assessment is used to identify fat depth. It can be performed in a cattle shute or crush and is combined with visual assessment. Fat is soft and spongy to the touch. Muscle feels firmer than fat and returns to its original shape quickly after you release the pressure of your fingers from the live animal. Ultrasound The use of an ultrasound fat depth recorder removes the guess work from live assessment. The latest technical development is Video Imaging. This technique allows the operator to identify a clear image of bone, muscle and fat thickness in the live animal.

Selection Techniques
There are a number of techniques that can assist you in the selection of animals for slaughter.

Quality
Handy hint: An effective way to check your "live" assessment is to assess cattle in the abbatoir yard prior to the restraining box, or even in the bleeding area on the slaughter floor. Then check your assessments against the actual P8 measurements at the weighing scale. Quality is meeting the clients requirements and expectations. Consistency of product in terms of size, meat colour, fat colour and tenderness is foremost in your customers minds. Quality and consistency start in the feedlot and become a major issue in: Live cattle assessment and selection. The most important thing to remember with live assessment is that practice makes perfect. The transport of cattle to slaughter. Pre slaughter management at the abbatoir. Despite having all of these things correct, it needs to be stressed that the animals disposition at slaughter will have the most direct influence on the consistency of the product. Factors that affect meat colour and eating quality are fright, stress and deprivation of feed and water. One of the latest discoveries in meat science is that all of your good work can be undone in the race leading up to the restraining box. An animal standing alone in a race for even a few minutes can become stressed enough to adversely affect meat colour.

The Truth About Fasting

The fasting and curfew arrangements appropriate for liveweight selling or immediately prior to slaughter in non-tropical countries can cause serious problems if applied to cattle in tropical climates. Depriving cattle of feed or water in the tropics is always risky and the risk is much higher in feedlot cattle. Cattle on curfews in the tropics can have irreversible pathology such as elevated muscle pH (dark cutting meat). Problems that can occur include: Lost muscle weight. Deteriorating animal behaviour. Severe disruption to rumen microbial populations for some time after initial deprivation. If this stress occurs just before slaughter, a significant and unfavourable change in the eating characteristics of the beef can occur.

Credit Cattle handling techniques

The livestock handling information in this chapter illustrates recognised principles developed by Dr. Temple Grandin, widely recognised as wold leader in animal behaviour.

HEALTH

ANIMAL HEALTH
What: An efficient and profitable animal health program focusing on prevention.

Why:

Sick animals do not perform well in a feedlot. Equally, animal welfare demands consideration.

How:

1. 2.

Know components of a good preventative health program. Understand symptoms and treatments of key cattle diseases.

AN EFFICIENT ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAM that focuses on prevention will pay dividends for any feedlot. To design feedlot practices that will promote health requires a knowledge of those conditions that erode health, productivity and profits. This chapter looks at: Components of a preventative health program for a feedlot The main diseases encountered in feedlots in Asia How to diagnose, treat and prevent those diseases

Mortality levels for Australian cattle imported into Asian feedlots are extremely low (less than 0.1%). While deaths in the feedlot are low, there are sporadic cases of deaths related to the transport environment or soon after arrival. While deaths are the ultimate measure of production loss, it is important to recognize that conditions that lead to poor health also erode productivity. A profitable feedlot will incorporate preventative health measures as well as treatment. A good feedlot health program begins before the feedlot. The health of live cattle exported from Australia is an important factor in the determination of the overall profitability of the operation and is also important for animal welfare. Cattle bred in Australia are free from major diseases. Australian health protocols ensure that these cattle are also free from common parasites and that they have been vaccinated against the major preventable diseases. On Property Only healthy animals that are well grown and properly handled should be sourced for the feedlot. Studies have shown that animals that have been trained to drink at troughs and have been given prepared feeds perform better under feedlot conditions. The preparation of animals for transport to the feedlot yards is also of vital importance as it is the start of the journey to the feedlot and will set the scene for a reduction in stress. Pre Export Assemby Yards The purpose of this facility is to prepare the cattle for shipping and to carry out the various health and treatment protocols required. This process will require cattle to be handled intensively and will cause a degree of stress. Top Tips for feedlot health management: Ensure cattle are healthy and stress free upon arrival at the feedlot. Early detection and treatment of sick cattle is most important in getting complete recovery.

Proper handling of drugs and careful administration is a key to successful health management.

Health Program at the Feedlot

Cattle intake at the feedlot. When the cattle arrive at the feedlot, it is important the following points are observed. Avoid mixing a pen. Don't put incoming and sick cattle in the same pen. Minimise use of sick pens. If cattle must be hospitalized, keep them separate by class and days on feed. (for example; try not to keep cattle that arrived 90 days ago and new arrivals in the same pen). You can upset performance as well as trigger serious health problems by adding individuals to a pen after they've started on feed. Feed intake varies considerably while the cattle take time to work out a new pecking order. Strangely, its not the newcomers who suffer the most serious setbacks, but the original cattle in the group. Early diagnosis and treatment will pay dividends. The recognition of sick cattle is more a matter of knowing what constitutes "health" rather than being able to see "sickness". It is health that will determine the success of your operation. The signs of health are visible through observation and it is important that all feedlot staff are trained to take responsibility for

recognising health and that they can act if they see a situation that is not healthy. Careful observation means having the skills and taking the time to observe the animals and their environment. The manager should develop a routine of observing the animals three to four times per day and should be using his senses of sight, smell and hearing to recognize the signs of health and sickness. This means taking the time to carry out this observation, recording anything unusual and acting quickly to correct any problems. Pen checking should start early and continue through the day.

fibre content generally indicates a low protein or energy diet and reflects poor growth rates. Manure that is sloppy brown or black with an offensive smell may mean acidosis or intestinal upsets and also mean poor feedlot performance. Testing the manure sample: Examining faecal samples for forage and grain particles is another form of manure evaluation. One approach is to place a cup of manure on a piece of screen and wash it with a hose. Remove manure particles until the manure runs clear. Look for the following evidence:

Use the sense: Smell the feedlot for signs of poor digestion, acidosis. Listen to the cattle for coughs, splutters, teeth grinding Look at feed intake, feeding aggression, manure, agitation, restlessness and observe sick animals.

Whole seed passage: Appearance of whole corn or grain indicates the seed has passed through undigested, probably due to a hard or intact seed coat. Corn silage that is chopped too dry, long or mature results in whole corn seed passage. One solution to whole seed passage is to process the feed source more aggressively. If grain particles from processed grain remain, squeeze them with your fingers to see if any starch or hull remains. If hulls remain, you are not losing too much feed value. If starch remains, some feed value is not captured in the rumen or lower intestine. Additional feed processing can help, but guard against acidosis. Whole cottonseed: whole cottonseed appears in the manure. If the cottonseed was fuzzy, the forage mat in the rumen may not be forming, allowing the whole fuzzy seed to pass and not be ruminated and remasticated. If the cottonseed was delinted, some whole seed passage is normal (about 5-15% of seed fed). Forage particles: forage particles more than about 1 mm long indicate that cellulose-digesting bacteria are not breaking the fibre due to poor rumination (short fibre particle size), low rumen pH (acidosis), and/or

How to recognize sick animals. In addition to coming to the bunk more slowly, sick cattle will be depressed and will hold their heads lower than normal. Their attitude will be distant and they will be less responsive to external stimuli and not as curious. Often these cattle will try to hide behind other cattle or in the corner next to the end of the bunk. They will have less intestinal fill than other cattle. They may appear slab sided, and their abdomen will shake slightly when they walk and may make a sloshing sound. Reading Manure - is it pure science? The signs available from manure tell us a lot about feedlot health and performance. Evaluating manure visually is not a science, yet nutritionists keep a close eye on it. The appearance of fresh manure can be an indication of disease or nutrient imbalance and changes in the manure reflect digestive upsets and disease. Faecal consistency can be affected by moisture level, type of feed, rate of passage and rumen fermentation. The manure pat should be well formed, green to golden colour and not have an offensive smell. Manure that is dry, in balls or mounded and has a high

high rates of forage passage. Solutions include adding some hay or longer green chop, avoiding excess starch intake or adding a buffer. Faecal pH: measuring faecal pH is easy, but of marginal value. No relationship between faecal pH and rumen pH exists. If starch is not fermented in the rumen or enzymatically digested in the small intestine, the large intestine will ferment the starch leading to a faecal pH below 6. To measure faecal pH, take half a cup of fresh manure and mix it with water to make a slurry. Insert a pH meter probe and measure. Filter paper or sticks do not work well the manure stains the paper making it difficult to read. Faecal pH is normally between 6.5 and 6.8. If pH is below 6, calculate starch levels, evaluate rumen conditions and make appropriate changes to the diet. The key is to manage your pen conditions sufficiently year round. What you should do: Keep pens and bedding dry by using appropriate stocking rates, pen cleaning and run-off and manure management. Keeping cattle clean can put dollars in your pocket by improving their sale appearance. Provide shelter from wind with a natural cover of high porosity fencing. Wind, cold and wet conditions greatly increase energy requirements, feed intake and feeding costs. Odour control is important in feedlot operation. It will also minimize stakeholder problems. Keep manure dry through proper stocking rates, good drainage, maintained watering facilities and keeping manure solids out of manure retention ponds. In warm weather, scrape and collect manure every two to three days. If there are earth floor pens, do not disturb the manure soil interface that seals the surface from water percolation. The manure pack provides solid footing for cattle and speeds surface drying.

Processing sick cattle

The following are action steps to take should certain conditions arise: Antibiotics When taking the temperature of cattle, on arrival or when they are sick, use 105 degrees fahrenheit (rectal) to define "sick". Treat initial suspect animals with antibiotics (engermycin) and return to the normal pen. Treat relapses with Trivetrin for 3 days and return to pen. If the rectal temperature is less than 104 degrees Fahrenheit, do not treat with antibiotics. Some judgement is required as some cattle will have normal or below normal temperatures and can still be sick. Bovine Respiratory Disease, Pneumonia or Shipping Fever Rectal temperature equal to or greater than 105 degrees Fahrenheit, give Engermycin and return to pen. Cattle pulled by pen checking. Depression, off feed, temperature greater than or equal to 104F give Engermycin and return to pen. Relapse pulled by pen checking Give Trivetrin for 3 days before returning to pen.

Bruising a costly mistake!

Bruising is an impact injury that can occur at any stage of the transport chain and may be due to poor design of handling facilities, ignorant or abusive stockmanship, or poor road driving during transportation. Contrary to popular belief, livestock can be bruised moments before slaughter and stunned cattle can be bruised right up until they are bled.

Preventative medicine
Heat stress, mud and rain can create major performance and health problems and affect future weight gain.

Preventing injuries and bruises Flooring Non slip flooring is essential to prevent falls and crippling injuries. Humane, efficient handling is impossible on slick floors. All areas where livestock walk should have a non-slip surface. Existing floors can be roughened with a jack hammer or grooving machine. On scales, crowded pens and other high traffic areas, a grid of one inch steel bars will provide secure footing. Construct a 30cm by 30cm grid and weld each intersection. Use heavy rods to prevent the grid from bending. New concrete floors for cattle should have a 200mm diamond or square pattern with 3.5mm by 3.5mm V grooves. It is also essential to use the right concrete mix for maximum resistance to wear. Gates, fences and races Gates, fences and races should have smooth surfaces to prevent bruises. Sharp edges with a small diameter such as angle irons, exposed pipe ends and channels will cause bruises. Round pipe posts with a diameter larger than 75mm are less likely to bruise. Livestock are easily bruised if they become caught between the end of the gate and the fence. This is a common cause of bruises in the valuable loin area. Horns on cattle Surveys show that groups of horned cattle will have twice as many bruises as polled cattle. A few horned animals can do a lot of damage and tipping horns does not reduce bruising. The Principles of Low Stress Restraint (see also Feedlot Design section.) Feedlot facilities should be designed to limit bruising losses. Stress should be minimized and restraining systems should be designed to minimize bruising. The key points to consider are: Solid sides or barriers around the cattle to prevent them from seeing people deep inside their flight zones. This is especially important for wild or excitable cattle. To prevent lunging at the headgate, the animal's view of an escape pathway must be blocked until it is fully restrained. Provide non-slip flooring. Slow steady motion of a restraint device is calming, while sudden jerky motion excites.

Use the concept of optimal pressure. Sufficient pressure must be applied to provide the feeling of restraint, but excessive pressure that causes pain or discomfort must be avoided. The entrance of the restraint device must be well lit, however lamps must not glare into the eyes of approaching animals. All species must be able to see a place to go. Livestock will remain calmer if they see other animals within touching distance. Minimise noise from equipment. High pitched noise is more disturbing to livestock than a low pitched rumble. Restraint devices must be designed to avoid uncomfortable pressure points on the animal's body.

Hints for Animal Health in the Feedlot

Try to avoid hospitilisation. Use Dexamethazone once or twice only for oedema (tissue swelling) in conditions such as: Laryngitis Difficult breathing (lung oedema) Swollen footrot Nervous disease (brain oedema) Use caution with sick cattle where slaughter is an option. Slaughter early if you don't think treatment will help. Ask for diagnostic help. Assume most fat cattle "downers" are probably injuries. Avoid over-treatment of feedlot cattle. Treat five days at the most and then have the animal seen by a vet. Use drugs only at the recommended label dosage. Always check the label and observe the withholding period. Remain vigilant about injection sites. Be careful about over injecting in one site. Avoid injections into the rump and back legs if possible.

Identify cattle that are a poor recovery risk to the veterinarian. Downers Severe dyspnoea (laboured breathing) Debilitating lameness Overwhelming injury What should you have in your drug treatment kit? The feedlot should have on hand a drug treatment kit that contains all of the drugs necessary to prevent and treat the common ailments. Obtain your drug kit from your veterinarian and use it under their instructions and supervision. A list of the drugs that will be most useful are: Vitamin B12 injection Vitamin ADE injection Dexamethasone Aminoplex Electrolyte Engermycin antibiotic Terramycin LA Terramycin MA antibiotic Penicillin antibiotic Penicillin streptomycin antibiotic Disposable 10ml and 20ml syringes Disposable needles

feedlot and identifying underlaying health issues. Similarly, individual animal treatment records are needed to ensure that withholding periods are not breached.

Diseases of Feedlot Cattle in Asia

Stress is a major contributor to disease. There are a number of disease conditions arising from the stress syndrome. Many people group these diseases under the word "stress" and while there are many expressions of this syndrome, the basic causes are reasonably well understood and preventable. Causes of the stress syndrome. The control of stress starts at the property of origin, follows through all phases of transport and includes the induction period in the feedlot. It must be realized that cattle taken off feed for periods as little as 12 hours begin to change their metabolism and these changes are the start of syndromes that may eventually lead to death or at least severe production losses. Nutrition is one key to preventing stress problems and the provision of a properly balanced diet during periods

In the interests of preventative medicine it is vitally important that all operators involved in the feedlot industry realize the importance of animal care during this period. Indifferent attitudes at all levels of responsibility, from managers to the stockman, must not not tolerated.

Infrastructure Requirements
While it is preferable to avoid hospitalization where possible, it is nevertheless necessary to provide appropriate facilities should more substantial treatment be unavoidable. Every feedlot should have a hospital/isolation pen incorporated into the feedlot design. It should be easily accessed from the main feed pens to minimize stress, but also isolated from the main yards to avoid pathogen spread, preferably downwind. Where possible, the administration building should include a dedicated veterinary office with a fridge for maintaining temperature of antibiotics, vaccines etc. This office is used for storage of all medicines and records of veterinary treatments etc. Accurately recording the use of drugs is an important measure in assessing the overall health of the

of transport is vital. For example, an energy and protein imbalance in the diet can cause disease problems and a diet too high in protein and too low in energy can lead to fat mobilization and be related to fatty liver syndrome and ketosis. This can easily occur when there is an energy deficit and diets provided do not address the need to balance energy and protein ratios.

Tissue catabolism Ruminal atony Decreased levels of calcium and magnesium ions Increased susceptibility to infections due to loss of immune competence These lead to reduced appetite, hyper-excitability, slow recovery and increased disease susceptibility.

Transport Stress
The transport stress complex consists of a number of related syndromes. These syndromes are interactive and generally act together. The major syndromes seen are: Transit tetany syndrome Fatty liver syndrome Ketosis syndrome Cattle taken off feed, handled and transported any distance undergo a series of physiological changes that lead to muscular exhaustion, imbalance in electrolytes and metabolic changes that can take a considerable time to reverse. This is commonly seen in cattle transported to saleyards or feedlots where the transport shrink may be up to 12%. The time taken to reverse the metabolic changes and for cattle to return to normal growth patterns may be 10 days or longer. There is also an adverse effect on the immunity of the animal with an increased susceptibility to disease, particularly viral infections. This is apart from any physical damage to the animal due to poor yard design or inadequate trucks. From an economic standpoint, these factors are vitally important since they can impair meat quality and increase carcass loss as well as causing production losses in cattle introduced to the feedlot in varying condition. The major conditions that occur during and following handling and transport are: Muscular exhaustion Metabolic acidosis Decreased blood glucose Subclinical ketosis Dehydration

Transit tetany Transit tetany is often seen in cattle transported long distances and is caused by a drop in calcium and magnesium levels in the bloodstream. Symptoms: Symptoms vary, however, animals are often restless, weak and may have a staggering gait. There may be partial paralysis of the hindquarters, muscle spasms, excitability and the animal may froth at the mouth and lie down. There is paralysis of the rumen and the animal does not eat. Animals may grind their teeth and may show a depraved appetite eating mouthfuls of dirt or manure. Treatment: Animals suffering from the symptoms will respond to treatment with calcium boro-glutonate and magnesium sulphate. Prevention: To prevent the condition, use glucose and electrolytes in the water before transport. Make sure animals are not transported long distances without adequate provision for food and rest. Use glucose and electrolytes in the water when animals are resting during transport. On arrival at destination, have medicated water available for the cattle. Fatty Liver Syndrome and Ketosis Fatty Liver Syndrome and Ketosis is caused by restriction of feed, feeding high fibre, low quality roughage, or any upset of the rumen by feed changes, high excitement states or toxic products (eg Lupins). After a fast as short as 12 hours, changes have commenced and the liver starts to convert fats to glucose in order to fuel the needs of the body. This starts a complex biochemical process that can easily get out of hand and become dangerously unbalanced. The build up of the byproducts of this metabolism lead to oxidative damage to the liver cells and the accumulation of fatty by-products in the liver. The end result is fatty liver syndrome. There are two distinct metabolic disorders in which ketosis can occur. Of primary importance here is the hyperglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic form which generally occurs in transport situations. This form of disturbance

has many similarities with the initial stage of non-insulin dependant diabetes in humans. Symptoms: the signs of this problem are not obvious and animals may seem reasonably healthy up to the point they start to die. Signs may include slight depression, loss of appetite, hyper-excitability, ruminal atony, lowered faecal output, hard faeces, teeth grinding and ear drooping. Affected animals can be in either good or in poor condition. Diagnosis: Changes in blood biochemistry also occur and these can be measured to confirm a diagnosis of the problem, or to provide useful information if the condition is suspected in high risk animals. The clinical pathology tests that are useful are: Bilirubin Glucose Calcium Magnesium Serum malondialdehyde Aspartate aminotransferase Glutamate dehydrogenase Alkaline phosphatase Fatty acids Treatment: The approach to treatment is to re-establish the normal patterns of fuel utilization. Suppression of excessive ketogenisis is the most important factor here. Ketogenisis can be suppressed by a number of therapeutic agents that act either by suppressing the mobilization of fatty acids, or by inhibiting the transport of fatty acids into the hepatic mitochondria, the site at which fatty acids are converted to ketones. Useful therapies include glucose infusions, glucose precursors and glucocorticoids. Prevention of Transport Stress The transport stress syndrome can be prevented by adherence to simple rules: 1. Animals should always have a source of digestible food that is not too high in fibre and has an adequate energy and protein balance available at all times during any holding or drafting operations. 2. All transport legs should be kept as short as possible and fasting for periods greater than 24 hours should be avoided.

3. The provision of water plus glucose and electrolytes has been shown to offer a practical means of alleviating the effects of this dehydration and to help prevent the degradation of conditions related to welfare encountered in the transportation environment.

Diseases seen on arrival

When a new shipment of cattle arrive, they should be placed in separate pens where they can rest and recover from their recent sea voyage. They should be provided with plenty of space, soft bedding, shade shelter, unlimited access to clean water and adequate supplies of attractive feed such as grass and hay. In addition, such an area needs to allow staff to easily inspect the stock and if necessary, to segregate sick, injured or suspect animals without undue disturbance to the balance of the newcomers. Problems most commonly observed are: Lameness Treatment: In all but minor cases of lameness, animals are best removed to the sick pen for further assessment. If the lameness is severe, such as leg fractures, tendon ruptures or major wounds or trauma to the limbs then the best course of action is immediate slaughter as these animals will take a long time to recover and will perform poorly in the feedlot. For minor lameness showing swellings, small cuts and abrasions, the best treatment will generally be the administration of anti-inflammatory and antibiotic medicines. External wounds are treated the same but with external antibacterial and insect repellent compounds as well. Bedding in the hospital pens should be especially thick and soft to ensure that it is comfortable for the injured and sick animals to lie down and rest. Skin wounds Treatment: Move the animal to the sick pen and treat the wound as above with antibiotic/antiseptic as well as insect repellent. In feedlots where screw worm flies are present, particular care is required to ensure the wound is not struck, and if it is, speedy treatment is applied. Fluid swellings about the hip bones Treatment: More common in females these swellings are simply bruises (haematomas) and will generally resolve slowly without further treatment. In most cases, the swelling will be of a jelly like consistency and hence

cannot be drained by lancing. If swelling is still present at time of slaughter, it will usually only result in only a minor blemish on the carcass. Downers These are animals which, for a variety of reasons arrive at the feedlot either down on the truck or collapse soon after arrival. While there are a wide range of reasons for the animals to be down, the course of action required is generally similar. Treatment: For animals that are unconscious, it is probably best to proceed with emergency slaughter. For animals that are relatively bright and alert, but simply too weak to stand, there is a reasonable chance that they may be returned to good health. You must ensure that there are no major injuries such as broken limbs that have not been noticed, and are the cause of the animal being down. In most cases the cause of this condition will be general weakness. A combination of anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce the pain, electrolytes to rectify the dehydration and other metabolic imbalances, and an antibiotic injection to protect against infection, especially pneumonia, is usually sufficient to allow the animal to regain its feet and proceed to recovery. If after two such treatments over an eight hour period the animal is still unable to stand four hours after the last treatment, emergency slaughter is recommended. Remember the drugs that have been given to the animal will still be in its tissues

rendering the meat unsuitable for human consumption. However, it will still be suitable for pet food. Respiratory infection Runny noses, high temperatures, depression and rapid shallow breathing are likely to indicate that the animal has been stressed at some stage during the journey, probably associated with higher temperatures. Treatment: These animals should be taken to the sick pen and treated without delay. Intensive antibiotic therapy and general care are recommended . If the problem is treated effectively at an early stage, then the chances of survival and a return to normal performance in the feedlot are good.

MANURE

MANURE
What: The major by-product of any feedlot is animal waste

Why:

Manure is an environmental hazard and must be used appropriately - either use it on your farming land or sell it as organic fertiliser.

How:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Understand the value of manure. Ensure that it is removed from the pens correctly. Understand the workings and considerations of stockpiling. Understand the value of using it on your land. Understand the considerations of selling manure as organic fertiliser.

ANIMAL MANURE is a valuable source of plant nutrients and organic matter. It contains a vast array of organisms that add to the biological activity of soils. However, if not managed with sufficient care, manure can also be a major cause of pollution. Poorly managed manure will contribute to the contamination of surface and/or groundwater. This chapter looks at: The nutrient value of manure How to remove manure from pens How to compost manure safely Considerations for marketing organic fertilisers

Composting manure has become an important part of the feedlot operation in Asia as it can make a sound contribution to profits if it is used and marketed properly. There have been many innovations in the composting area; however, the principles remain the same.

Composition and benefits of manure

Manure management systems consist of various components including manure collection, storage, transport, and land application. Manure is a dynamic organic material continually undergoing biological and chemical changes. Each phase of management may result in losses and changes to the beneficial nutrients in the manure. Therefore, the value of manure as a fertiliser, depends on the quantity and form of nutrients present when it is applied to land. It is also important to understand each nutrient available in manure for correct application rates. Over application of certain nutrients can be detrimental to the soil and sometimes contaminates water sources. Value of Nitrogen (N) in manure. Nitrogen in manure exists in two forms, inorganic and organic. Inorganic form Inorganic nitrogen (ammonia) is the simple, soluble form that plants can use. It is readily available in the soil. After application to land, ammonia is converted by soil bacteria to a nitrate (NO3) form. Nitrate can be lost from the root zone through leaching or denitrification (loss to the atmosphere). Organic form Manure solids also contain nitrogen in the organic form. Until the organic matter is biologically decomposed in the soil, the nitrogen remains unavailable for plant use. Nitrogen in the organic form is desirable as it acts as a reserve in the soil and is slowly released for plant use. Stored manure Solid beef cattle manure loses much of its ammonia to the atmosphere (volatilization) while in storage. When the material is eventually spread on to land for crop production, most of the remaining nitrogen is in the organic form and not subject to volatilization. Because

of the lack of inorganic forms, the nitrogen compounds in beef manure must be decomposed by soil microbes before they are available to plants. It can be assumed that as a general rule, 50% of the nitrogen in applied manure is available during the next year of production. The rest of the nitrogen becomes available over the next three to five years. Grazing animals deposit manure directly on the land in the form of urine and faeces. The nitrogen content of this manure depends on: The size of the animal The nitrogen content of the diet The consumption of water The most significant factor governing the nitrogen content of the manure (especially the amount in the urine) is the crude protein nitrogen content of the forage and other feed sources.

Value of Phosphorous (P) in manure Most of the phosphorous contained in manure is in the organic form. Its availability is dependant on the rate at which soil organisms break down the organic material (mineralization) and release phosphorous. Up to 50% of total applied phosphorous in manure is available to the crop in the year it is applied. Value of Potassium (K) in manure All potassium in manure is available to the current crop. Soil that regularly receives manure is not often lacking in this nutrient. Grass tetany can be caused by cattle eating grass grown on soil with excess potassium. Trace element value The major fertiliser elements of manure are considered to be nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. However, manure also contains the secondary nutrients of sulphur, magnesium and calcium, as well as the micronutrients iron, manganese, boron, chlorine, zinc, copper and molybdenum. The availability of these elements as plant nutrients, varies depending upon the soil type and soil acidity. Value of manure as a soil conditioner A benefit of applying manure to soil is the improvement of the soils physical structure. The decomposition of manure by bacteria contributes to better aeration, better permeability and increased water holding capacity of the soil. Other soil conditioning benefits include pH buffering and an improvement to soils with high salt levels. When using manure as a soil conditioner, application rates must not exceed the nutrient requirements of the crop being grown.

Skid steer loaders, front end loaders and a variety of blades attached to machines have all been successfully used to clean pens. The method employed will depend on the machinery available on the feedlot, the structure/base of the pens and the composting plan in place. Smaller feedlots use hand labour and cleaning may be done on a daily basis. This is often simply the use of shovel and wheelbarrow cleaning. Simple methods can be just as effective as mechanical methods of cleaning - the important thing is to maintain a pen cleaning program that results in clean pens for the cattle at all times. In some feedlots, bedding such as rice straw or bagasse is used and pens are cleaned by hand or machine on a two-week cycle. Liquid waste is generally drained into laneways and collection drains and channelled to settling ponds, or run directly onto the pasture or cropping area. A good drainage system is the first step in maintaining the manure pad in good condition. A well drained, dry pad will ensure cattle remain in healthy, comfortable conditions, reduce insect burdens and reduce the spread of disease. The second step of good manure pad management is the regular cleaning of pens as described above. This is particularly important in high rainfall areas and where drainage is limited. Allowing the manure pad to degenerate into slop will cost the feedlot money through reduced production efficiency. Similarly, manure can be a significant income stream for the feedlot. Its neglect will reduce the feedlots income producing capacity. Yards need to be regularly cleaned to ensure animal welfare and hence production efficiency is maintained.

Removing manure from pens

Because of the large number of different designs of feedlots in Asia, there are many different systems of pen cleaning. While a variety of methods may be employed in cleaning the pens, the actual importance of manure removal cannot be overstated. Manure accumulation can result in disease outbreak, proliferation of flies and biting insects, cause odour problems and result in the bogging of cattle during wet conditions. All of these impacts have the potential to impact on feedlot profit. Larger feedlots use mechanical methods to pick up and remove excess manure. This is generally done on a regular basis, in some cases, every two to three days.

oxidizing carbon, generate heat and carbon dioxide (CO2). Nitrogen (N) is their main source of protein, which is needed for body building and population growth. Aerobic and Anaerobic Composting There are two types of composting processes: aerobic and anaerobic - and different species of bacteria occur in each process. Aerobic composting uses oxygen. Rapid, high temperature composting is usually aerobic. This is the recommended method for most feedlot manure composting.

What is the value of composting?

By composting the manure from the feedlot with other agricultural wastes, a valuable organic fertiliser can be produced. Some feedlots are earning up to $20 per head from the sale of organic fertiliser.

When there is little air and high moisture, anaerobic composting is likely to result. Anaerobic means without oxygen. In the anaerobic process, fermentation results in the formation of ammonia-like substances and hydrogen sulphide, which smells like rotten eggs. The anaerobic process is generally not recommended for feedlot manure composting. Temperature is an important variable in composting. As temperatures rise and fall in the compost, different bacterial species will become more or less active. Psychrophilic bacteria, mesophylic bacteria and thermophilic bacteria each operate best within specific temperature ranges. The bugs that work the composting cycle Psychrophiles The psychrophiles are the first to go to work. They can work in temperatures below 0 degrees, but are most active around 13C. They are a cooler temperature aerobic bacteria that burn or oxidize carbon and generate some heat. Often they generate enough heat to make conditions tolerable for the next group of bacteria called mesophiles. Mesophiles Mesophilic bacteria do most of the decomposition work. These are mid-range bacteria that operate in temperatures between 15C and 40C, but thrive when temperatures are closest to the 21 to 32 range. Heat generated as a byproduct of the mesophiles' work will raise the temperature in the pile even more, creating conditions suitable for thermophilic composting. Thermophiles The thermophiles do the "hot" composting. They start to take over when the temperatures reach 40 to 45C and will continue to work in temperatures up to about 70 when their numbers start to decline.

How does composting happen?

Composting is the biological decomposition or breakdown of organic material by bacteria and other organisms. Bacteria are the primary decomposing agents but there are many others including fungi, actinomycetes, worms and beetles. These organisms bring about the decomposition by feeding on organic material. The result is compost or humus, a dark nutrient rich soil conditioner. Any organic material can be added to compost. For our purposes organic material is everything available as waste, especially fruit and vegetable scraps, bagasse, corn cobs, bedding, straw as well as sawdust. Decomposing organisms are all the micro-organisms and larger organisms involved in breaking down organic material. Bacteria are the primary decomposing microorganism. They arrive with the organic material and start the process by breaking down organic material for their own food. Bacteria grow and multiply while conditions are right for them and die off as they create conditions more suitable for others. Bacteria, actinomycete and fungi all consume waste directly and are known as first level decomposers. They are assisted by larger organisms - earthworms, beetles, mites, sowbugs, whiteworms and flies - that also consume waste directly. Bacteria require both nitrogen and carbon that come from organic materials. The more variety, the greater likelihood they will find a blend of essential nutrients. Bacteria use carbon as a source of energy and, by

Thermophiles work quickly and don't live long - three to five days at most. Turning the pile will provide oxygen (O2) and allow the thermophilic bacteria to continue their activity. As temperatures decline and thermophiles die off, the compost moves into a more mature stage. Mesophiles and psychrophiles, which may have been working in a reduced capacity around the cooler edges of the decomposing organic material, will become more active. Actinomycetes Actinomycetes are a higher form of bacteria, similar to fungi, and second in number to bacteria. They don't respond well to acidic conditions (below pH 5) or high moisture conditions, but operate best at medium temperature areas of the compost. Actinomycetes take over during the final stages of decomposition, often producing antibiotics that inhibit bacterial growth. They are likely to work on tough organic material and give compost its pleasant earthy smell. They are especially important in the formation of humus. They liberate carbon (C), nitrate nitrogen (NO3) and ammonium nitrate (NH4), making nutrients available to plants. Fungi Fungi are smaller in number than bacteria or actinomycetes, but larger in body mass. Fungi are simple organisms that lack a photosynthetic pigment. The individual cells have a nucleus surrounded by a membrane and they may be linked together in long filaments. Fungi live on dead or dying material and obtain energy by breaking down organic material. Like actinomycetes, fungi are present during the early and final stages of composting, when organic material has been changed to a more digestible form. Of the major microorganisms, fungi function best under acidic conditions. Macro-Organisms - Physical Decomposers Macro-organisms are the visible organisms involved in transforming organic material into compost. They are more active in the later, mature stages of composting when temperatures are dropping but decomposition is not complete. Micro-organisms decompose chemically, while macro-organisms are higher up in the food chain, and decompose physically - by digging, grinding, chewing, digesting, sucking and churning.

Controlling the Feedlot Manure Compost

The compost process for feedlot manure must be controlled to produce the best quality fertiliser and to reduce the wastage of nutrients. The compost process can be hastened if a starter culture is added to the manure to start the process. This starter culture can be purchased commercially or produced on farm. It is a vital part of the process of producing a high quality organic fertiliser. Aeration and temperature control are the two most important aspects of the compost process. Oxygen must be supplied if the process is to be completed quickly, and temperatures must be kept below 60C to allow the micro-organisms to work. These factors can be controlled by turning the compost or by providing forced aeration. The simplest and cheapest method is by placing the manure in long windrows and using a tractor to turn the compost. Turning is best done when the temperature of the compost reaches 50C. Turning is repeated as the temperature rises again after the previous turn. The composting process is completed when the temperature ceases to rise. The system that uses forced aeration will give better control of the compost process and will generally result in a compost that retains more nutrients and has a higher content of humic acid. This will produce a premium organic fertiliser. After the compost process is complete, it is prepared for sale by screening and grinding. A simple hammermill can be used for this and the final product bagged for sale.

Factors affecting water contamination from manure application

There are a number factors to be considered when applying decomposed manure to the soil. Soil Characteristics The proportions of sand, silt, clay and organic matter in a soil determine the water and nutrient holding capacity. In general soils with high clay and/or organic matter have a higher capacity to hold water and nutrients in the root zone. They consequently have less likelihood of contaminating ground water than sandy soils where leaching is more prominent.

Drainage Poorly drained soils become easily waterlogged resulting in increased surface runoff and greater risk of contamination of drainage features and rivers. Slope Land with significant slope also has greater potential for runoff and consequent contamination of drainage features, rivers and groundwater. Nitrate in the root zone The nitrate form of nitrogen is of major concern due to its potential to contaminate drinking water. Where nitrate leaches from soils over sensitive ground waters, or adjacent to surface waters, the nitrate will contribute to water contamination. Excessive levels of root zone nitrate are found in soils where the application rates of manure and fertiliser have been high in relation to the ability of the crop to use the nitrogen. Excess levels of root zone nitrate are also found in soil where there has been application of manure after the crop is harvested.

These stockpiles should be located at least 30 metres away from any water source or well.

Marketing Organic Fertiliser

A number of feedlots in Indonesia and the Philippines have developed a successful local market for organic fertiliser from feedlot manure. Indeed, in many cases it has become a major profit centre for the business. A feedlot may bag the whole production in 2kg to 20 kg bags and sell it to market gardeners or flower producers. Otherwise, the feedlot may choose to use it on pineapple and corn crops as a bulk application to increase production and to reduce crop rotation times.

Odour
In many cases, feedlots are located relatively closely to heavily populated areas. The control of waste runoff and odour from the feedlot consequently become important issues to the surrounding population. The two major factors affecting odour at the feedlot are effective and consistent management of the manure pad as described above, and maintaining a balanced ration for the cattle that reduces the faecal deposition of excess nutrients. A poorly balanced ration will result in increased odour emissions from the feedlot, as well as costing the feedlot money through reduced production efficiencies. (see also the feed section for advice on maintaining a balanced ration).

Storage Considerations
Long term storage by stockpiling manure directly on the ground is not recommended where pollution may occur. Stockpiling manure on the ground in areas of high rainfall or a high watertable is likely to pollute.

FEED

FEED
What: Adequate clean, efficient feeding is the key to the whole feedlot process.

Why:

Elements like: ration formulation commodities used quality of commodities palatability will all impact on performance.

How:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Understand the basic nutritional aspects for feedlot cattle. Understand the available commodities in Asia. Understand the key elements of ration design. Understand correct feeding practices. Understand production of commodities like silage.

EFFICIENT FEEDING PRACTICES are vital in ensuring success in any feedlot. This chapter looks at: The key aspects of a feeding management plan The principles of feedlot cattle nutrition and digestion The commodities available in Asia The process of making and feeding silage Feed mixing and storage considerations Ration design and formulation Feed trough management The benefits of performance recording

Feeding Management Plan

Feeding practices that are preferred in the USA and Australia have little or no application in Asia. This is due to the differences in available commodities, the tropical climate and the different market requirements. The feedlot manager needs to: Have a thorough knowledge of the needs of his cattle Be able to react quickly to changes in feed supply Be able to continually assess the performance of the animals. Each feedlot manager must learn how to formulate and adjust the ration to suit the stock and the market being fed for. As well, while assessing performance managers must be able to make necessary adjustments to the ration. Pen checking is vital Pen checking is a vital part of feedlot management. Managers must learn to recognise the signs of health and disease. They must be able to use sight, smell and hearing to be able to recognise the factors that indicate problems. All cattle must be checked at least twice daily and high risk cattle should be checked more frequently. Any sick or doubtful cattle should be pulled out of the pen and treated separately. The incidence of feed related problems in feedlots vary. However, if the rations are well managed, problems are less likely to occur. The conditions that are commonly seen in cattle that are starting on feed are non-eaters, bloat, scours and polioencephamalacia. Affected animals should be recognised early and treated separately. The feeding regime for cattle comprises starter and finisher rations. Starter rations should be palatable and attractive to cattle. Extensive use of green chop, silage and molasses will assist in minimising digestive upsets and aid in stimulating the rumen. The design of the starter ration is based on what ingredients are available to the feedlot. These ingredients must have a minimum amount of energy

and protein to meet the requirements for growth.

What are the principles of feedlot cattle nutrition

Cattle are placed in feedlots to conserve energy that would normally be used for grazing. This energy is converted to growth. In Asia, feedlots are important because they provide a productive use for by-product feedstuffs that might otherwise be wasted. The key issue in feedlot management is to keep the cost per kilogram of liveweight gain as low as possible. Because the animal is fed a prepared ration and cannot select the feed of choice, it is important to understand the function of the rumen and the impact of different types of feed on rumen function and metabolism so that the rumen will be balanced and rumen health maintained. Principles of Ruminant Nutrition Cattle are ruminants. They have a forestomach (rumen) in which grass and other feedstuffs are broken down (digested) by colonies of microorganisms to provide essential nutrients to the animal. The forestomach contains billions of bacteria, protozoa and fungi which digest most of the feed into smaller particles, helped by the grinding action of the back teeth when the animal is chewing. Ruminant animals chew their food twice, once just after eating and then later when lumps of food are regurgitated from the forestomach into the mouth for further chewing.

forage resources. The level of concentrate offered is determined by the quality of the forage available.

The Principles of Feed Digestion

To maximize live weight gains and to ensure profitability in feedlot operations, there are a number of elements that are important. These are: Cattle - genetics, age, sex and ability to grow Feed intake - sufficient intake of a ration balanced for energy, protein and other nutrients Commodities used - suitability and control of variability Environmental control - heat, humidity, feedlot design Prevention of disease Use of production enhancement tools (HGP's etc) It is a feature of tropical feedlots in Asia that by-products form the primary source of feed commodities used. These by-products are highly variable in their nutritional levels. The value of the available by-products will vary with their protein and carbohydrate content and the type of proteins and carbohydrates they contain.

The process of digestion in the forestomach is called fermentation and the nutrients formed by this process are used by the microorganisms for their own growth and biological functions. The digestion process also produces nutrients that are used by the host animal, namely: energy yielding substances called volatile fatty acids (VFA's) micobial protein, derived mainly from ammonia nitrogen released from the breakdown of feed proteins The energy yielding fatty acids pass through the rumen wall into the blood system, providing up to 70% of a productive animals requirements for energy. The cells of the micro-organisms are continuously propelled from the rumen by contractions of the rumen wall, and flow as part of the digesta into the small intestine. Here the components of the cells, which consist of protein, carbohydrate and fat are digested by gastric juices and the resulting nutrients (namely amino acids, glucose and long chain fatty acids) are absorbed across the intestinal wall into the blood and carried to the body tissues. Some feed may also reach the small intestine without being completely digested or degraded by the rumen micro-organisms. This fraction provides the animal with extra nutrients (sometimes known as by-pass or escape nutrients) in a more direct form. A key to formulating high performance rations with tropical feedstuffs is knowing the extent to which nutrients are used in the rumen and small intestine. The supply and balance of feed nutrients can then be directed towards maximizing the growth of the microorganisms in the rumen as well as providing bypass nutrients to support the animals productivity potential. In practical terms, high performance rations consist of 70-95% concentrate feed and the rest is supplied by

An understanding of carbohydrate and protein metabolism will influence the selection of feed commodities and the blending of ingredients.

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrates are the major component of cattle diets, comprising 70 - 80% of the net energy requirements for a high producing animal. Carbohydrates are composed of repeating units of sugars or sugar derivatives and can be fermented in the rumen to yield volatile fatty acids (VFA's: acetate, propionate and butyrate) and lactic acid. Some carbohydrates are digested post rumen while others pass through the animal undigested. Carbohydrates are made up of different fractions and are estimated by various measures. Understanding and applying these concepts to practical ration formulation is necessary to optimise production and rumen health.

Volatile Fatty Acids Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA's) are produced in large amounts through ruminal fermentation and are of paramount importance as they provide greater than 70% of the ruminants energy supply. Virtually all the acetic, butyric and propionic acids formed in the rumen are absorbed across the rumen wall and carried via the ruminal and portal veins to the liver. Continuous removal of VFA's from the rumen is important not only for distribution, but to prevent excessive and damaging drops in the pH of rumen fluid. The rumen is lined with stratified squamous epithelium similar to skin, which is generally not noted for efficient absorption. Nonetheless, this squamous epithelium has a structure that functions similarly to the columnar epithelium in the small gut and performs efficient absorption of VFAs, as well as lactic acid, electrolytes and water. The epithelial surface is also greatly expanded by the formation of papillae. It is of considerable practical importance that the size and length of rumen papillae respond to concentrations of VFAs in the rumen. Animals that have been on a high plane of nutrition, with abundant VFA production, have long, luxuriant papillae well suited to promote absorption. In contrast, animals which have been under nutritional stress have small blunted papillae, and require time on a high quality diet to allow for development of their papillae and absorptive capacity.

ATP. Another important use of acetate is as the major source of acetyl Co-enzyme A for synthesis of lipids. Propionic Acid is almost completely removed from portal blood by the liver. Within the liver propionate serves as a major substrate for the production of glucose, which is absolutely critical to the ruminant because almost no glucose reaches the small intestine for absorption. Butyric Acid, most of which comes out of the rumen as the ketone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, is oxidized in many tissues for energy production. Carbohydrate and Protein Synchroni Rumen micro-organisms require protein and carbohydrates to synthesize microbial protein and volatile fatty acids. The goal should be to balance carbohydrate and protein availability, such that one or the other is not limiting at any time. For example, if a diet has high levels of soluble protein, adequate quantities of readily fermentable carbohydrates should be included in the diet to prevent ammonia loss.

Energy and protein imbalance can cause disease problems. For example, a diet too high in protein and too low in energy can lead to fat mobilization and be related to fatty liver syndrome and ketosis.

In simple terms, this means that cattle take time to adapt to feedlot rations.

Protein Metabolism
Protein feeding systems for ruminants must take into consideration the following factors: The provision of nitrogen sources in the rumen (and other nutrients) in amounts sufficient to promote optimum fermentation and growth of microorganisms The provision of by-pass amino acids in addition to those provided by the micro-organisms. Interactions between the availability of amino acids to the tissues in relation to other nutrients that may affect efficiency of utilisation and may affect feed intake.

All VFAs appear to be absorbed by the same mechanism, which is diffusion through the epithelium, down a concentration gradient. As they pass through the epithelium, the different VFAs undergo different degrees of metabolism. Acetate and propionate pass through the epithelium largely unchanged, but almost all of the butyric acid is metabolised in the epithelium to beta-hydroxybutyric acid, a type of ketone body. The three major VFAs absorbed from the rumen have somewhat distinctive metabolic fates: Acetic Acid is utilized minimally in the liver, and is oxidized throughout most of the body to generate

protein levels will limit the response. Protein feeding systems that are based on a simplistic view of crude protein do not take into account these cardinal elements of protein nutrition in the ruminant. Feeding Urea Non protein nitrogen sources such as urea, can only be used to correct a deficiency of ammonia in the rumen fluid. If there is sufficient ammonia produced from other protein sources that are degraded in the rumen, then feeding of urea is of little value. The amount of urea that is fed in the ration can be calculated from a knowledge of the amount of rumen degradable nitrogen available from the ration and the amount required by the animal. If there is a deficit of both the amount of un-degraded dietary protein (UDP) and rumen degraded protein (RDP), then the deficit of UDP must be corrected first by giving a choice of protein supplement that contains the required amount of UDP. As most rations that are used in Asia have an adequate supply of protein (for example from copra meal), the need to feed urea is less. However, where high levels of silage and roughages are fed, 10 - 30 grams of urea per head per day will help provide enough non protein nitrogen to bridge the gap required. Because of these differences in requirements, rations are formulated to provide minimum CP levels and there is also provision made to supply by-pass protein and a variety of protein sources to ensure that amino acid needs are being met. Ruminants require ten essential amino acids, which they must gain from the diet or from microbial protein.

Protein metabolism and supply needs to be balanced in terms of amino acid supply to the animal as well as the relationship between protein utilisation and energy levels. The yield of microbial protein will vary with different commodities. For example, a diet of silage alone will yield low quantities of amino acids as the energy availability to the microbes is limiting. If extra energy is added, then increases in microbial protein production will occur. This means that from a practical point of view, extra energy (for example cassava) should be fed when feeding silages. Tropical forages tend to have less non structural carbohydrates than temperate species and this needs to be accounted for when designing rations based on Napier grass or similar tropical forages. It should also be noted that energy contained in fats and oils (eg copra meal, cottonseed and palm kernal cake) are not available to the micro-organisms for the production of microbial protein. Therefore, while the analysis of a ration may show sufficient total energy, there may not be enough available to the microbes to function at maximum levels. Protein Requirements The actual protein requirements for feedlot cattle, when measured in terms of Crude Protein (CP), will vary according to the types of feed being fed and the protein/energy ratio of the ration. For example, a 300kg steer on a ration containing 11Mj/kg would need a crude protein ration of 10.15% to grow at 1kg per day. The same steer on a predominantly silage ration would need approximately 11.5%CP to gain the same weight. Similarly, younger cattle have a higher CP requirement than older cattle. For higher performances, slightly higher levels of CP will be required. The level of response to hormone growth promotants is also linked to protein levels - low

Energy Requirements
The primary measure of energy in feeds is the amount in megajoules (Mj) of metabolisable energy per KG of dry matter. A certain minimum amount of energy is required for maintenance and after this requirement has been satisfied, the balance provided in the ration is available for growth. The factors affecting the amount of energy required for maintenance are: Bodyweight Age Breed Sex Pregnancy Exercise (grazing or feedlot) Environmental conditions (temperature, wind, rain etc.) These factors are included in standard equations used to calculate the theoretical requirements for maintenance. A simplified version of this calculation for feedlot cattle is: Mj of energy required for maintenance = 450 x weight 0.75 /1000 The energy requirements for gain or production are also calculated by taking into consideration the efficiency of conversion of food energy into body fat and protein and the calculations used are also influenced by the same factors that affect maintenance requirements. Special consideration must also be given when hormone growth promotants (HGP's) are used, as these will influence the calculations. Example using this equation An example of this for brahman cattle under feedlot conditions involves the calculation of the energy available for growth (Eg) from the ration being fed. If the dry matter intake and the energy content of the ration is known, then the energy available for growth is calculated from the available energy (MEg) left after maintenance requirements have been met. This is calculated by the formula: Eg = MEg x (0.0435 x Mj/kg ration) The daily weight gain is then calculated from the Eg by the formula: ADG = Eg [6.28 + (0.3 x Eg) + (0.0188 x Wt)]

The full equations for making these calculations can be found in text books on ruminant nutrition, however, the simplest method for most feedlot managers is to use a computer program designed for this purpose.

Mineral Metabolism
Subclinical mineral deficiencies are particularly difficult to recognise in production feeding systems as they may be transient and there are no visible signs of deficiency, even though they can reduce productivity. One major problem with mineral nutrition is predicting the availability of the mineral to the animal and assessing the impact of different ratios of minerals to one another. The proportion of a mineral that is absorbed can vary according to: the chemical composition of the mineral the physiological state of the animal its interaction with other minerals and other compounds such as proteins. For example, copper nutrition is affected by molybdenum, sulphur and iron. Magnesium is influenced by potassium and ruminal ammonia. The following table lists a guide to dietary mineral requirements.

Mineral Calcium Phosphorous Chlorine Magnesium Potassium Sodium Sulphur Trace Mineral Cobalt Copper Iodine Iron Manganese Selenium Zinc

Dietary Level g/kg DM0 1.9 - 4.0 1.8 - 3.2 2.0 1.9 5.0 0.8 - 1.2 1.5 Diet Level mg/kg DM 0.11 7 - 10 0.5 40 15 - 20 0.05 20 - 30

In practical terms, a balanced mineral supplement or pre-mix is usually included in feedlot diets. This ensures that basic mineral nutrition is catered for. However, this mix may need to be adjusted when feeding certain feeds. For example, extra sodium may be added when feeding corn silage or sorghum based feeds. Feedlot cattle require supplementation with trace elements, such as copper, cobalt and zinc. These are normally supplied as a pre-mix with in feed growth promotants. If mixing facilities are such that the mixing of the micro ingredients will be inconsistent and some animals might receive too high a dose, then these can be fed through the drinking water. Feeding through the drinking water ensures each animal receives the correct dosage. Excess Minerals Excess minerals or mineral imbalances can cause production problems. Excess iron concentration in either the feed or water can lead to problems. Although iron is necessary in biological systems, it is a potent oxidising compound that can adversely affect cell function. If an analysis shows that iron is present in excessive quantities (above 400 ppm), then no more iron should be fed and anti-oxidants may have to be added at increased levels. Anti-oxidants used are Vitamin E, Vitamin A, copper, zinc, selenium, manganese. Iron also interacts with zinc, copper and manganese in the intestine and this reduces the absorption of these essential minerals. To avoid trace mineral deficiencies, increase the concentrations of specific trace minerals that are affected by iron, if excess iron concentration is a problem.

Plants are the natural source of vitamin A activity for animals. Green and yellow plants contain carotene, a pigment that animals convert to vitamin A. The wall of the small intestine is the primary site for conversion of carotene to vitamin A. In recent years, there have been increasing incidences of Vitamin A deficiency from diets that previously would have been described as adequate for Vitamin A. The cause has variously been attributed to: Greater use of grains with less roughage, lowering caretone levels of ration. Loss of carotene through longer storage, heat treatments and processing of feedstuffs. Feeding younger calves in feedlots that have lower body reserves and higher Vitamin A requirements. Stress of cattle from transport, handling, disease and parasites. Larger daily weight gains from cattle genetic improvements. Vit A requirements higher per unit of liveweight. Higher concentrations of nitrates in forages particularly when grown under stress, with high levels of Nitrogen fertiliser. Higher levels of nitrates in drinking water. Reduced Vitamin E intake because of lower roughage intake, heat treatments etc. Vitamin A has a primary role in maintaining the skin and lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts in

Vitamin Metabolism
The vitamin needs of feedlot cattle will vary from grazing animals because the feedlot environment and production requirements place greater demands on the animals physiology. In certain circumstances, for example, in the case of thiamine, the artificial diets lead to increased demands that may not exist in grazing environments. In general however, ruminants synthesize Vitamin C, K and B in sufficient quantities to meet normal demands while vitamins A, D and E have to be provided through the diet.

It is advisable to supply incoming feeders with 500,000 to 1 million IU of vitamin A. This amount is usually given by intramuscular or rumen injection, but can also be administered in-feed. The Vitamin A requirements of feedlot cattle can be met by feeding around 6 milligrams of carotene or 5 000 IU of vitamin A for each 100kg of body weight, or supplying 3 000 IU of vitamin A per kg of feed.

Vitamin A Vitamin A needs special attention in feedlot rations.

healthy condition. One of the first obvious signs of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. An easy way to check for this condition is to place an obstacle in front of cattle and observe whether they stumble over it at twilight. Other early signs are loss of appetite, rough hair coat, dull eyes, slowed gains and reduced feed efficiency. Later developments include excessive watering of eyes, staggering gait, lameness or stiffness in knee and hock joints, and swelling of the legs and brisket. Vitamin D Vitamin D is formed by the action of sunlight upon certain sterols in the skin. Animals kept indoors do not form vitamin D. Vitamin D increases the absorption from the digestive tract and the metabolic use of phospherous and calcium. It helps regulate blood calcium levels and aids in the development of bones. Animals with deficient vitamin D display Rickets and have soft, poorly formed bones. In calves, poor appetite, decreased growth, stiff gait, weakness and laboured breathing followed by swollen joints, slight arching of the back, bowed legs and bent knees are all signs of deficiency. Vitamin E Vitamin E appears to have a primary role as a chemical anti-oxidant, reducing destruction of other vitamins and essential fatty acids in the digestive tract and after their absorption. High grain rations with limited roughage, especially high moisture grains, rations low in selenium, high fat levels in ration, lengthy storage of feeds and high drying temperatures of feeds are all thought to be possible causes in vitamin E deficiency.

B Group Vitamins Included in the B vitamin complex are thiamine, biotin, riboflavin, niacin, vit B12 and niacin. Thiamin deficiancy has been discussed in the Animal Health section.

Measuring Moisture Content

Moisture content of feeds is an important factor in the purchase and formulation of rations. As all commodities are purchased "wet", and all rations are formulated on a "dry" basis, the moisture content is vital if the correct levels of the commodity are to be used. Moisture levels of commodities may vary between sources, or between shipments, and rations must be adjusted to take these variations into account. It is important that feedlot managers can accurately assess moisture levels in feedstuffs.

There are two methods commonly used: the manual squeeze test or the microwave method.The squeeze test requires taking a handful of the commodity or ration and squeezing into a ball for 30 seconds. Release the ball and record the results. The microwave method entails the following procedure: Take a 100 to 500 gram sample and weigh on an accurate scale. Place in the microwave with a 250 ml glass of water. Microwave on high for three minutes.

Squeeze Test Result Retains Shape with some free moisture expressed Retains Shape but no free moisture expressed Falls apart slowly Falls apart rapidly

Estimated Dry Matter Content Less than 25% 25 - 30% 30 - 40% Above 40%

Weigh the sample if it feels dry or stir the sample and repeat for 1 minute. Continue until the sample does not lose weight. Calculate the dry matter using the formula: Dry Weight / Wet Weight x 100%

ADF from course roughage = at least 65% of the NDF from course roughage, and particle size = 1cm length of cut. Adequate fibre level of the proper particle length assures normal chewing activity, saliva production and ruminal function. Effective fibre is a measure of the feed's ability to stimulate chewing and includes fibre content and texture (particle size). Symptoms of insufficient effective fibre include: decreased rumination decreased salivation decreased ruminal pH and acetate/ propionate ratios decreased growth rates

By-products
Fibrous by-products are a major feed resource for the Asian feedlot industry. Commonly used by-products which supply fibre and energy to the diet are soybean hulls, corn gluten feed, dried distillers grain, brewers grain, wheat pollard and wheat bran. Some of these products, such as dried distillers grain are also considered excellent sources of crude and bypass protein as well. Alternative feeds such as whole cottonseed provide fibre, lipid and protein. When feeding by-products, potential objectives include: increasing growth rates, decreasing feed costs, extending limited supplies of forage, and/or reducing the incidence of ruminal acidosis. Important considerations when incorporating these byproducts into a feeding system include: economics of using by-products in different feeding systems. proper handling and storage facilities. potential variations in nutrient content. effectiveness of fibre in finely ground feeds whether the by-product will replace starch or forage fibre in the ration. An understanding of both the practical and fundamental aspects of feeding fibrous by-products is necessary to successfully incorporate them into diets for feedlots. When replacing forage fibre with significant amounts of fibrous by-products, adequate effective fibre in the ration must be maintained. A complete consideration of fibre nutrition for animals includes: ADF = 19 - 21% of dry matter (minimum) NDF = 26 - 29% of dry matter (minimum) (ADF - Acid detergent fibre) (NDF - Neutral detergent fibre)

intake fluctuations and off-feed problems laminitis low body condition score

Commodities available in Asia

The availability of commodities in each district is usually limited to that area and the various agricultural activities concentrated in that area. For example; brewers grain and other brewery products are associated with major breweries. It is also only economical to transport brewers grain relatively short distances. Tapioca or cassava products are normally associated with mills in the local area. Pineapple waste and products such as green bananas are sourced from local plantations and canneries. Napier grass or green corn is often grown by local farmers or on the property. Silage production is carried out on the feedlot.

Roughage and Fibrous Energy Needs These commodities provide energy and maintain rumen motion. Forage Maize (Corn) Harvested at grain dough stage (around 75 days), this forage is very palatable and a good source of digestable energy for fast growing cattle, but not sufficiently balanced in protein and energy to support maximum growth rates. Forage maize silage can be a less palatable feed and an addition of 0.5-1.0% limestone as a buffer when making silage normally improves its quality. Urea (mixed with molasses) is also commonly used to boost the nitrogen content of the silage (5kg urea/tonne silage) Maize (Corn) Stover This refers to the maize plant after the corn has been picked. It is considered a poor quality forage because of its relatively low protein and energy content and digestibility (< 50% dry matter). For this reason, its use is restricted to providing a roughage source for high concentrate rations by feeding 10-20% of the diet (dry feed basis), or up to about 50% fresh basis. Elephant Grass (Napier Grass) The use of this grass and the hybrid King Grass, as a forage source for cattle is popular throughout South East Asia because of its potentially high yielding source of digestible fibre. It is particularly suited for cultivation by smallholder farmers supplying nearby feedlots and it can also be used for the making of silage. King Grass requires at least 3 months of growth before the first cut. Thereafter it can be cut at intervals of 6-8 weeks, and should be replanted after 5-6 years. To prepare for feeding, fresh grass should be chopped (3-5cm) and mixed into the concentrate feed and fed at a rate of 15-30% of the whole ration (dry fed basis) or about 55-65% as fed. Sugarcane Tops Used extensively as a forage source to maintain smallholder livestock, the fresh leaves, with a dry matter digestibility of 60% can be used as a roughage source in high performance rations at a rate of up to 25% of the diet (dry matter basis) or about 50% as fed.

Pineapple Pulp The pulp, consisting of the outer skin and inner core of the fruit, is a bulk energy source for cattle, but is limited by its relatively high fibre content. It is therefore usually fed as part of the roughage component of the diet, up to 60% as fed. The fresh material is very wet containing up to 85% water, and may be dried into a bran for convenience of transport and feeding. Because of its acidic nature, the pulp should be introduced gradually to new cattle. The addition of 50g/head/day of sodium bicarbonate in the concentrate feed during the introduction period may improve rate of uptake by new animals. Rice Straw While rice straw is among the most abundant feedstuffs available in Asia, it is also one of the lowest in nutritional value. Protein and energy content is not sufficient to maintain liveweight of cattle and intake is limited by its poor digestibility (43% of dry matter) due to a high content of lignin and silica. Whole straw can be treated to increase its digestibility by 2-6%. A common method is to soak or spray batches of straw with a solution of 4% urea per 100kg of fresh material before stacking and storing under a sealed cover for at least 21 days. The straw is left uncovered for 24 hours before feeding. There are very few reports of high growth rates in cattle fed rations containing rice straw. Its use therefore in fattening diets should be limited to 5 - 10% of the ration as filler or as a temporary roughage source in the event of no other forage being available. Rumen Degraded Concentrates These commodities provide extra nutrients to balance the requirements of rumen microorganisms. Corn (Maize) This cereal grain and its by-products are the most common ingredients found in cattle fattening rations. It is often the most expensive ration component because of its demand for human consumption. The grain contains 70% starch which provides a high value concentrated energy sourse, but protein content is relatively low at 9%.

Yellow maize is rich in the precursor of vitamin A. It can comprise up to 85% of fattening rations and should be hammer milled through screen sizes of 10-19 mm or cracked by a roller, but not finely ground. Corn (Maize) Bran This is strictly the outer coating of the grain kernal that is seperated from the grain and therefore has a much lower energy value and more fibre. In practice, the bran is usually a mixture of milling by-products including the germ and gluten. The nutritional value of this product is comparable with maize but with a higher fibre content. It is very desirable to have 15-25% of this feed as a fermentable energy source in concentrate feeds containing oil cake and seed by-products. Wheat Pollard A by-product of flour mills, the pollard consists of bran (wheat kernal and inseparable flour), germ and feed flour, which together form a palatable energy and protein source for fattening cattle. It can be fed up to a level of 45% of high concentrate rations. Wheat pollard is also a good source of phosphorous and vitamin E. Rice Bran Rice bran is an excellent source of protein and energy, with relatively high levels of unsaturated oil (approx 15g oil/kg dry matter) making the product prone to rancidity during storage and producing soft subcutaneous fat. The fibre content of rice bran can vary due to contamination with rice hulls. Good quality bran (<9% crude fibre) may be fed up to 50% of the total ration (dry feed basis), however it is usually restricted to 1525% to avoid the deposition of soft fat. Spent Grains (Brewers Grain) This is a by-product of the brewing industry and consists mainly of mashed cereal grains. It is a relatively digestible bulk feed containing 15-20% crude fibre and a good energy and protein source for cattle rations. Wet spent grains contain 80% water making transport over long distances prohibitively expensive, unless they can be dried to 10% moisture and preserved with 5% salt. Tapioca Waste (Onggok) Tapioca or cassava waste is the residue from starch extraction from the tuber. It is an energy feed that is readily digested in the rumen. Since it contains very little protein, it should be fed with urea or a protein source

that is readily degraded in the rumen. When dried it may be fed as the major energy source in the concentrate feed and can be included at levels up to 50% of the ration. Sago Sago palms are cut down when starch reserves in the trunk peak just before flowering when the plant is 10 15 years old. The trunk is either split and internal tissues scooped out, or the exterior removed and the internal tissues rasped to produce sawdust. The sawdust containing starch can be washed and strained to free the starch, called sago meal, leaving behind a fibrous refuse which ferments rapidly unless dried. Dried sago pith/rasps should be limited to 30% in the concentrate feed as an energy source. Molasses This residue from sugar production contains 50% soluble sugars that are readily fermented in the rumen. It also contains a wide range of minerals, particularly potassium, but it is low in phosphorous. High levels of molasses in the diet inhibit digestion of forages in the rumen and therefore its use as a cattle feed is usually restricted to about 10% of the ration as an attractant and carrier for urea, or as a binder for pelleting. Fattening rations based on ad lib molasses should contain 3% urea to provide a nitrogen source for rumen bacteria, small amounts of roughage (0.5 - 1.0%LW) to stimulate rumen motility and a high protein supplement that is relatively resistant to rumen degradation. Green Bananas Bananas are an excellent source of energy which is in the form of starch (around 73%). However the protein content of green bananas is low and tannin bound. As with molasses, feeding high levels of bananas in the ration (eg 60%) should be accompanied by a non-protein nitrogen source such as urea (as 10% urea/molasses if offered free choice). Cattle relish bananas and no processing is required; however, salt should be added. Urea Fertiliser grade urea (46% Nitrogen) is a concentrate source of fermentable nitrogen which can be used in small quantities to supplement basal diets fed to older cattle. However, urea must be administered properly to avoid poisoning of cattle. To raise the protein eqivalent of a ration by 2% requires 7g

urea/kg dry feed. This is administered by dissolving urea in molasses solution or micromixing with a suitable dry concentrate feed such as rice bran before thorough mixing in the ration concentrate. Concentrate Feed Supplements These nutrients are resistant to breakdown in the rumen but provide extra nutrients to the animal. Copra Copra is the byproduct of the oil extraction process from coconuts, usually by mechanical press. It is relatively high in good quality protein that is resistant to rumen degradation (pelleting further increases resistance). Oil residues may also be high (2.5-6.5%) depending on the efficiency of processing. Copra oil is uniquely high in the saturated fatty acid laurate that is beneficial for marbling of meat. Copra readily absorbs molasses making it more palatable as an animal feed. In the pelleted form, Copra can be fed up to 25% of the diet (dry fed basis). Palm Kernal Cake PKC is the solid residue left after the extraction of oil from the oil palm kernal. It has been used in Malaysia as the only source of protein and energy on cattle fattening rations. The protein is good quality and the oil is mostly saturated, but the feed is not very palatable as the oil content is high (expeller pressed PKC has 6-10% oil content) and needs a long adaption period facilitated by adding molasses if high levels are to be fed. It is recommended not to feed more than 50% of the ration as PKC. Soybean Meal This is a high quality concentrate feed and one of the best plant protein sources with up to 50% protein (dry matter basis). Soybean meal is usually too costly as a cattle feed, but if available economically can be used at 5-10% of the concentrate feed. Cotton Seed The delinted whole seed contains around 20% of oil which is 50% unsaturated fat and around 20% good quality protein for cattle rations. Cottonseed can be included in feedlot rations at a rate of 10-15%. Cocoa Bean Shell This is ususally a mixture of bean shell and fragments of bean meal after the beans have been roasted. This combination has a high nutritional value for ruminants including vitamin D, however it also contains a toxic substance called theobrine, which limits its use as a feed

to a small amount (<10% in concentrate feed). Kapok Seed Meal The seeds are ground to make a high protein meal that may be included in the concentrate feed at a rate of 10%. Higher levels have been fed without problems reported. Leucaena (Ipil Ipil) Leaf Meal The leaves and small stems from this shrub legume are sun-dried to produce a good quality protein supplement for cattle feed. Leucaena leaves contain the toxin mimosine and its derivative dihydroxy piridin. Local cattle in most parts of Asia have the ability to break down this toxin in the rumen, but not all Australian cattle have the specific rumen microorganisms necessary and therefore leucaena should be restricted to about 10% of the ration.

Silage
Silage in Asia The production of silage offers the Asian feedlot industry an effective method of storing large quantities of green chopped forage that is produced in the wet season for use all year round. The silage is useful for the formulation of starter rations though cattle may be slow onto silage. Any product can be made into silage, however the main products used in Asia are Napier grass, corn and some fruit by-products such as pinepple pulp. The Phases of Silage Production The two main phases in the ensiling process are the aerobic phase and the anaerobic phase. Aerobic phase: This occurs in the presence of air and will vary from a few hours to several days depending on ensiling conditions. It is preferable to limit this phase to as short a time as possible to minimise the destruction of water soluble and other nutrients. The heat generated by an extended aerobic phase can raise the temperature of the ensiling forage material sufficiently to cause heat damage. The secret to good quality silage is the exclusion of air. This is accomplished by chopping the silage to a short length, packing it thoroughly and sealing the pit effectively. This can also be achieved in bags and where labour is not expensive it is possible to make good quality silage in 30 kg bags, providing bags are airtight film and not woven. Anaerobic phase: This begins when the available

oxygen is used up through plant respiration and aerobic bacteria cease to function. Anaerobic bacteria begin to multiply rapidly and the fermentation process begins. Ideally the micro-organisms which grow most rapidly will predominantly be Lactobacillus species which produce lactic acid from the fermented plant material. The lactic acid which is produced will lower the pH of the silage. Fermentation completely ceases after 3-4 weeks when the pH becomes so low that all microbial growth is inhibited. Beware of Clostridial-type bacteria Clostridial type micro-organisms will grow if the ensiling procedures are such that lactic acid producing bacteria arent favoured. These organisms use plant water-soluble carbohydrates, lactic acid and protein for growth and produce butyric acid. Consequently, the quality of silage is greatly reduced if a clostridial-type of fermentation predominates. This most commonly occurs in low dry matter crops that are low in sugars, especially tropical grasses and legumes. Literally hundreds of fermentation products are formed in addition to lactic and butyric acids. In addition to lactobacilli and clostridial micro-organisms, silage also contains yeasts, moulds, coliforms, bacilli and propionic acid producing bacteria. As well as the use of plant sugars as energy sources, silage micro-organisms degrade protein to amino acids, amines and ammonia during fermentation.

reduction in pH, which is necessary for good preservation. Therefore more acid must be produced to reduce the pH to desired levels. This is undesirable in silage because more water soluble carbohydrates (WSC) must be used to produce the additional acid. Where the buffering capacity is high, it has been estimated that twice the amount of WSC is required to give good fermentation, compared with forages with a low buffering capacity. The organic acids (malic, succinic and glyceric acid) in forages are mainly responsible for buffering capacity. In the ensiling process these acids are degraded by bacteria and are replaced by acids with stronger buffering properties. These replacement acids cause the buffering capacity of the forage to increase two to fourfold. Plant proteins also increase the buffering capacity of silage. Legumes are generally well buffered which means that more acid is required to cause changes in the pH of the fermenting material. As a general rule about 10-12 per cent WSC in legume dry matter will be sufficient for ensiling to occur, whereas with grasses a minimum of only 6-8 percent is required. Moisture content In general, the lower the moisture content in the crop, the higher the pH level at which anaerobic stability is reached. Organic acids are lost in the wilting process and this reduces the buffering capacity of the plants, which improves the ensiling process. This factor is one of the reasons why field wilting is beneficial with crops that have low WSC contents and high buffering capacities. As well, lactic acid bacteria are more tolerant to lower moisture concentrations than are the undesirable clostridial organisms, making wilting beneficial for ensiling. Very wet forage is therefore undesirable since clostridial growth may not be inhibited even when the pH drops to 4. Also, with wet forages, the nutritional value and voluntary intakes of the silage produced are often low. Several methods are commonly used to estimate moisture content of forages prior to ensiling. Commercial moisture meters are available, The hand or squeeze method of estimating moisture content and microwave ovens can all be used to analyse a forage sample for moisture content. Type of bacteria which predominate The most desirable fermentation will occur where lactic acid producing bacteria predominate. Although it is

Factors affecting Silage Fermentation

The primary factors affecting the success of silage fermentation are: Water Soluble Carbohydrates Micro-organisms use water soluble carbohydrates, or sugars, as the main energy source for growth. The main sugars present in plants are fructose, glucose and sucrose. There is only limited fermentation of other carbohydrates in plants such as starch, cellulose and hemicellulose. If starches are present, the addition of amylase enzymes may help to turn some of these starches into readily fermentable sugars and improve the process. Buffering Capacity Buffering capacity is the degree to which forage material resists changes in pH. It has an influence on the ease with which forage material can be ensiled. Forages with a high buffering capacity will be highly resistant to a

frequently assumed that fresh forage is adequately supplied with lactic acid producing bacteria, the numbers may be low under some circumstances. Many of the silage inoculants commercially available are formulated to increase the numbers of these bacteria. Some new inoculants based on L. buchnerli can assist to minimise heating at feed-out, especially in maize silages. Speed of fermentation The primary aim of storing forage as silage is to preserve the material with a minimum of nutrient loss. Therefore, it is desirable to limit the nutrient consuming activity of aerobic microorganisms and to inhibit the breakdown of protein by clostridial micro-organisms under anaerobic conditions.

The actual amount of atmospheric oxygen, which is initially trapped in the forage, is very small. If sealing is adequate, 99.5% of the oxygen can be used up in 30 minutes by respiring plant tissues. This amount of combustion causes very little temperature rise (less than 30C). However, considerable air can enter the forage if silage is not covered with plastic or sealed in some other manner. Slow filling of the pit, forage that is not chopped finely enough, and inadequate packing are other causes of excessive air in silage. Low temperature When microbial growth occurs in silage, temperature rises. In general, the greater the rate of growth of micro-organisms, the greater the temperature. The rate of acidification is greater when silage temperatures are higher, however, at these higher temperatures, conditions are more suitable to undesirable clostridium and result in lower quality silage. Temperatures in the 150 to 250C range have been shown to allow growth of the more important lactic acid producing species of bacteria while inhibiting the undesirable clostridial species. High temperatures will cause heat damage in silage. Above 400C in the presence of oxygen, a chemical reaction between plant WSC and protein occurs. This reaction produces brown products which give heat damaged silage its characteristic brown colour with tobacco or caramel odour. The protein bound in this browning reaction is largely indigestible to the rumen microorganisms and to the animal. Rapid Acidification Since it is the pH levels of silage that stops fermentation, it is of vital importance in the production of quality silage. It is the rate of acidification which is of greatest importance since rapid acidification reduces the risk of early growth of clostridial organisms.

Characteristics of good ensiling procedures

Exclusion of air It is extremely important that air be excluded to optimise fermentation. There are several reasons for this: Plant respiration results in the loss of nutrients, which would otherwise be available for the anaerobic bacteria to use for lactic acid production. Temperature of the ensiling forage mass will increase when oxygen is present. This is generally undesirable since high temperature leads to heat damage of the silage. Air in the silo delays the breakdown of the plant cells and release of plant juices. This in turn delays the onset of rapid fermentation since the nutrients in the juices are not immediately available to the microorganisms. Exposure to excessive oxygen during the silo filling encourages growth of fungi, which cause greater instability and susceptibility to aerobic deterioration when silage is being fed.

How to control the ensiling process

There are a number of ways the ensiling process can be controlled. They include: Moisture content This is the most important means of controlling the ensiling process. Materials high in moisture like pineapple pulp may require the addition of other, dry ingredients to reduce the overall moisture to 70-75%. If cassava is added, it

will increase the energy level of the silage and starch will not be broken down as fermentation bacteria are unable to use it. Other products such as rice bran can be used to absorb some of the excess moisture and lead to a better silage product. Mechanical pre-treatment Chopping, cutting and bruising all increase the potential for making good silage. This is due to cell breakage that favors bacterial growth and facilitates packing for air exclusion. Anaerobic fermentation can be established quickly in cut forage, reducing temperature rise. More lactic acid is produced and less dry matter is lost. There is also an observable increase in silage consumption with shorter chop lengths.

Rapid filling, packing and sealing The pit should be filled as rapidly as possible to reduce exposure to air. Similarly, packing is important in excluding air from silage layers in the pit. Silage benefits from being completely sealed to exclude air. The silage making process can become anaerobic within 5 hours when the pit is sealed immediately after filling, whereas this can take 90 hours if sealing is delayed for 48 hours. Use of additives The type and extent of fermentation which occurs in silage and the aerobic stability of the silage after it is removed from the pit can be controlled to some extent with silage additives such as organic acids and/or their salts. Silage should be sealed with a plastic sheet every night after chopping.

WATER

WATER
What: Water is the lifeblood of the feedlot and there must be adequate supplies of fresh, cool and clean water.

Why:

Water is vital to maintain rumen function, assist feed intake and digestion and nutrient absorption.

How:

1. 2. 3.

Understand and know your water supply (Including testing). Ensure that your cattle are getting enough water. Provide fresh clean water ad lib with a trough management system.

WATER is the lifeblood of any feedlot. The cattle must have access to adequate amounts and it must be kept fresh, cool and clean.
The aim of every feedlot should be to provide a supply of water that is: adequate reliable clean cool fresh This will promote normal rumen function, high feed intake and digestion, and nutrient absorption. Water also maintains blood volume and supplies tissue needs. The feedlot site will determine the water supply, however it is a vital function of feedlot management to maintain a healthy supply of water. itself to accurately determine the water supply available to the animal.

This chapter looks at: Water requirements for feedlot cattle Elements of water trough management Checking feedlot water quality

Water Requirements for feedlot Cattle

Are your cattle getting enough water? Cattle drink at least 5% of their bodyweight in water per day, and even more in a tropical environment. When assessing water requirements, you should allow 2 litres of water for each 0.5kg of dry matter intake. That is, 40 litres for an animal eating 10kg dry matter per day. Providing insufficient or poor quality water to cattle can limit growth and cause health problems.

Factors Affecting Cattle Drinking Behavior Some of the factors that affect drinking behaviour include: the animals eating patterns and ease of access to the watering area. animal dominance stray voltage ( stray voltage in excess of one half volt could lead to water consumption problems.) Animals have peak water intake during the hours when feed intake is greatest. When given the opportunity, animals tend to alternately consume feed and drink water. Ideally, fresh, clean water should be available to the animal whenever feed is consumed. Have you noticed your cattle are drinking less water? Some possible causes of inadequate water intake are: Lack of supply to troughs Corroded valves Inadequate system pressure

HANDY HINT! Remember that daily water intake comes from drinking water and moisture consumed in the ration. For example, a beast eating an 18kg ration daily, at a 40% moisture content reading would be consuming 7.2 litres of water per day in feed.

Even a small limitation in water intake will decrease dry matter intake by 1 kg daily, enough to limit peak production. Water meters are available from many water system equipment dealers. The meters can be used to measure water flow in lines leading to water troughs. How to Measure Water Intake Water should be measured only at the drinking device

Poor chemical quality Very acidic or alkaline Hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg odour) Metallic taste from iron High dissolved solids content Pollution Coliform bacteria from manure Algae growth Chemicals Stray voltages Drinking devices Poor or unstable surfaces that the animal stands on Poor animal access to troughs Poor trough placement, slippery muddy surfaces, animal over-crowding Water Temperature A plentiful supply of fresh cool water is important for cattle, as warm water reduces intake and will reduce weight gain and productivity. Water troughs should be positioned in the shade and the design should be such that the water is replenished frequently. Underground storage supply will ensure cool water is available. Water Supply It is important to have at least two days supply of water available in case of supply failure problems. It is also important to ensure that ground water supplies are not contaminated by feedlot runoff. Water supply should be monitored on a constant basis and at least twice daily to ensure there are no problems. Water troughs should be cleaned on a regular basis, the frequency of cleaning will depend on the feedlot design and the number of cattle per trough. In summary, although we are often most concerned with ration protein, energy levels and dry matter intake, providing a clean fresh water supply is among the most essential practices of a successful feedlot. What water are you dealing with? A water analysis is important for two reasons: 1. To analyse for the presence of minerals in the water. 2. To analyse for the presence of bacteria and other unhealthy aspects in the water. Animals are particularly sensitive to poor water quality because high producing animals may consume 40-50 litres or more of water daily. Analysis of water is important in determining the intake of extra calcium, sodium and magnesium salts. In cases where these salts are high and high protein diets are being fed, it is useful to add 1% ammonium chloride to the diet to acidify the urine and help prevent the development of kidney and bladder stones. Some feedlots will monitor the acidity of the urine through the feeding period and if it turns alkaline then urinary acidifiers are fed. Always note where the water you release from the trough is going. Be careful not to allow the water to run into the pen and create problems.

Sites of potential contamination/pollution in the system include: the source (bore, well, spring, dam), pressure tank or reservoir, and the trough itself, most commonly through feed or manure.

Symptoms of Inadequate or Excessive Water Intake: Low water intake results in low urine output and constipated, firm manure. These symptoms also apply to dehydration from disease or fever . Restricted water intake may promote intestinal disease if cattle drink from puddles of water containing urine. Note that lack of salt, potassium and crude protein in the ration may also cause this behaviour. Excessive water intake leads to excessive urine production, abnormally loose manure and a relatively bloated condition. This bloated appearance is especially noticeable in young calves. Diarrhoea caused by excessive water intake will still be normal in colour and odour.

Water Trough Management

It is necessary to inspect the water troughs at least every day. Water troughs will get a build up of feed, manure, algae and moss. It is important to empty them regularly and thoroughly clean them out.

Coliform Bacteria HANDY HINT! Animals allowed to drink from surface water sources such as ponds and creeks are potentially at risk from bacteria and land runoff containing pesticides. Often it is best to fence off these areas for better animal health. Water for animal consumption must contain no coliform bacteria for calves and coliform counts should be under 10 per 100 millilitres for adult cattle. Bacterial polluted water may increase susceptibility or contribute to a variety of calf and animal disease problems. Drinking troughs should be kept relatively clean. A raised base around tanks helps to keep manure contamination problems to a minimum. Cleaning tanks and troughs to prevent build up of old feed and other debris is important.

Water problems can occur with wells and springs, especially when associated with poor environmental management. Often, septic tanks, feedlot waste and industrial drainage may be involved. Hard water or antibacterial water treatments usually have no adverse effect on animals. High water levels of sulphate and magnesium may cause diarrhoea and increase dietary requirements for selenium, vitamin E and copper. Water with high iron levels may also increase the need for dietary copper. Acidic Water Water with a pH of less than 5.5 ( acidic ) may increase problems related to mild acidosis such as: low daily gains off-feed problems more infectious and metabolic disease increased infertility increased animal culling Alkaline Water Alkaline water (pH greater than 8.5) may result in problems related to mild alkalosis such as amino acid and B vitamin deficiencies and symptoms similar to mild acidosis. When animals are drinking alkaline water, rations high in alfalfa, buffers and minerals are more likely to contribute to mild alkalosis. High Mineral Water Nitrate (NO3) levels over 100-150 parts per million may cause reproductive problems in adult cattle. Feedlot cattle will experience reduced growth rates. Generally, there is no significant effect of mildly elevated water nitrate levels on growth. Nitrite levels in water which are over 4 ppm may be toxic to cattle. Symptoms include infertility, reduced gains, respiratory distress and eventually death. Other minerals which may cause problems include lead (over 10ppm may be toxic), magnesium (over 125ppm) and sulphate (over 250ppm) may be laxative.

Checking Water Quality

The water supply for cattle should be checked annually for coliforms, pH, nitrates and nitrites and total bacteria, particularly if a water quality problem is suspected. Many commercial laboratories offer water testing services. Expected levels for common water quality tests are given in the following table. You cannot expect maximum animal performance unless the needs for water quality and intake are fully satisfied. If water quality problems are suspected, your veterinarian can recommend and interpret any tests that may be necessary.

Test
pH Dissolved solids (ppm) Total Alkalinity (ppm) Sulfate (ppm) Fluoride )ppm) Calcium (ppm) Magnesium (ppm) Iron (ppm) Manganese (ppm) Copper (ppm) Arsenic (ppm) Cadmium (ppm) Mercury (ppm) Lead (ppm) Nitrate as NO3 (ppm) Nitrate as NO2 (ppm) Barium (ppm) Zinc (ppm)

Range
6.8-7.5 500 or less 0-400 0-250 0-1.2 0-43 0-29 0-0.3 0-0.05 0-0.6 0.05 0-0.01 0-0.005 0-005 0-10 0-0.1 0-1 0-5

Problem
<5.5,>8.5 >3 000 >5 000 >2000 >2.4 >500 >125 >0.3 >0.05 0.6-1.0 >0.2 >0.05 >0.01 >0.10 >100 >4-10.0 >10 >25

Water quality standards table

QUALITY ASSURANCE

QUALITY ASSURANCE
What: Quality Assurance is a worldwide movement to ensure a level of accountability for all products.

Why:

Consumers need assurance that food products they buy are of the highest possible standard.

How:

1. 2. 3.

Understand why QA is necessary and how it can benefit your feedlot. Understand the process of becoming Quality Assured. Know how to get started in the process.

THE WORLD WIDE move towards quality assurance is in an effort to assure the consumer that the product they are buying is a quality article and to provide a vehicle for continuous improvement in the feedlot. This chapter looks at:
This aspect of feedlot management is sometimes absent from Asian feedlot operations. Its introduction delivers immediate and measurable benefits to the industry and to individual operators.

What Quality Assurance is ISO standards Australian feedlot QA program Examples of QA procedures for a feedlot QA manual

What is Quality Assurance?

Quality is merely a matter of ensuring that what is expected is delivered. It is essential to understand "what is expected before one can ensure it is delivered". Generally what is expected is more than most producers realise. The solution here is to take the time (on an ongoing basis) to find out what the customer really thinks and ensure it is understood throughout your operation. If a product exhibits these characteristics as well as performing the task for which it was designed to the extent promised, then quality has been supplied. The second problem, "ensuring it is delivered", is far more difficult to solve. To ensure that what is expected is delivered requires that none of the features required are discarded or altered, even though you may be reliant on other products to uphold standards. To solve the problem it must be understood why things do not turn out as expected and defects occur. Defects normally occur because of human mistakes. Whether it's a fault of design or tardiness in application, generally similar problems have occurred before and are avoidable. Problems occur because something was not done or was done incorrectly. Things are not done because no one had the responsibility to do it or there was a lack of knowledge, ability or attitude in those responsible. Therefore, to ensure that what is expected is delivered requires: All customer requirements to be fully understood throughout all processes. All tasks throughout the process defined and responsibilities allocated Disciplines are instituted and enforced through formal documentation and monitoring. The methods, standards and procedures of all tasks are formally documented and known The level of competence is raised and matched to future skills required. From the manager down, an attitude of dedication to quality and not expedience, is made.

Understanding your customers needs is critical to QA

Quality Assurance (QA) can be defined as the assurance that a producer can give to the customer that the products or services being provided, are fit for the purpose for which they are intended and that this conformance will occur every time. One of the principle rules of quality systems is that you must understand your customer's needs and organize your business to satisfy their needs. A basic QA program involves the documentation of your existing procedures for processes and the coordination and documentation between these processes. Any existing, but segregated, quality programs or procedures need to be drawn together to provide a fully integrated program for the whole company. This provides evidence of the quality management system and that it is under control. It is not good enough to say that you have control. This assurance, or proof that quality exists, has become the most important marketing indicator used by purchasers of goods, or services, throughout the world.

ISO Standards
So that both the supplier and purchaser of goods or services have a realistic expectation of what is to be supplied and received, standards have been developed by the International Standards Organisation (ISO). They are administered in Australia by Standards Australia. The common name for these are: ISO 9001 ISO 9002 ISO 9003 These standards generally apply internationally to all parts of the service and manufacturing industry. In Australia the National Feedlot Accreditation Scheme and the Cattlecare scheme are the industry related set of standards. These have been written in a specific language for the feedlot and grazing industry. These standards follow the same principle and format as the ISO standards. The feedlot scheme is administered by AusMeat accredited abattoirs.

allows them to market Quality Assured product into premium markets. This program is third party industry audited however, the development and adoption of the procedures, based on industry standards, does impart considerable benefit to the feedlot operation. The operational procedures are developed for each feedlot and an example of a procedures manual for an Australian feedlot is given below. These procedures are simple common sense. However, having such a manual in place and ensuring it is upgraded and adhered to will ensure more efficient operation of the feedlot. The procedures used deliver measurable benefits to the feedlot operation and are designed to cover all aspects of the feedlot operation. Even if you do not have a formal QA System, the adoption of these or similar procedures will bring benefits to your operation.

The QA Procedures Manual

Initially this involves writing and maintaining your QA manual and eventually gaining accreditation of a QA system. The manual written for you here covers all the points required by the code of practice and can be used in running a full QA system. Your manual will determine the practice you adopt to

Australian Feedlot Quality Assurance

Australian feedlots have a QA system available that

Procedure
Purchase of cattle Transport of cattle Cattle intake procedures Daily handling and observation Selection for sale procedures

Benefit
Buying the right cattle will ultimately determine the success of the operation. Caring for cattle in the transport phase avoids health problems later. Careful intake and inspection procedures improves health and production. Consistent procedures identify and prevent problems. Careful live assessment of sale cattle will assist the feedlot meet buyer specifications and increase profits. Careful planning of feed purchase specifications leads to better rations and improved profits. Proper feed storage procedures prevent spoilage and loss. Well prepared diets mean maximum weight gains and least cost of gain. A plentiful supply of clean water is vital to feedlot profits. Procedures to manage chemicals are vital to prevent residues. The industry must develop procedures to protect the environment to ensure the long term viability of the industry. Systems management pays dividends by better prediction of quality and recognition of problems.

Purchase of feed

Storage of feed Ration preparation Water supply Chemicals Environment protection

Systems Management

ensure compliance with the Code of Practice and will deliver the benefits of improved management procedures. If you find you need to change the manual to suit your working practice, then this can be done. You can also use the type manual as a base to write your own manual, change it as much and as often as you like. You should keep copies of previous versions of your manual.

Cattle Intake Procedures Identification of Cattle

1. Restrain animal. 2. Clean ear of contamination. 3. Attach identification tag in the ear, as required. 4. Record details in the cattle record.

Procedure Purchase of Cattle

1. Develop a set of buying specifications for each class of cattle required and keep these in a separate record. 2. Issue purchase specifications to purchasing officer. 3. Check all cattle against purchasing specifications on induction at the feedlot. 4. Record all cattle in the cattle record. 5. Feedback provided on all out of specification purchases to buyers or vendors. 6. For cattle fed on behalf of others, apply the same conditions as above.

Cattle Intake Procedures Vaccination of Cattle

1. Restrain animal. 2. Ensure all equipment is clean and operational, and a spare set is available. 3. Confirm the product is correct and complies with requirements in relation to the expiry date. 4. Apply the vaccine according to the manufacturer's instructions. 5. Record details in the cattle record.

Cattle Intake Procedures Drenching of Cattle

1. Restrain animal. 2. Ensure all equipment is clean and operational, and a spare set is available. 3. Confirm the product is correct and complies with requirements in relation to the expiry date. 4. Apply the drench according to the manufacturer's instructions. 5. Record details in the cattle record.

Procedure Transport of Cattle

1. Engage a reliable carrier who conforms to the transport code of practice. 2. Specify pre-loading conditions in relation to cattle watering and feeding required. 3. Specify loading density and special pre-loading or on-route checks required. 4. Ensure all documents arrive with the cattle and check for injury or illness and isolate affected stock for treatment. 5. Make a visual inspection of the cattle on arrival. 6. Count the cattle on arrival, agree on the numbers with the transport company representative and sign for receipt of that number. 7. Record details in the cattle record.

Cattle Intake Procedures HGP Treatment of Cattle

1. Restrain animal. 2. Ensure all equipment is clean and operational, and a spare set is available. 3. Confirm the product is correct and complies with requirements in relation to the expiry date. 4. Apply the HGP according to the manufacturer's instructions. 5. Record details in the cattle record.

Cattle Intake Procedures Inspection of Cattle

1. Make a visual inspection of the cattle for any injury or illness and isolate affected stock for treatment. 2. Weigh all cattle and check against specifications as per the market specifications list. 3. Record details in the cattle record.

Cattle Intake Procedures Injection of cattle

1. Restrain animal. 2. Ensure all equipment is clean and operational, and a spare set is available. 3. Confirm the product is correct and complies with requirements in relation to the expiry date. 4. Apply the injection according to the manufacturer's instructions or follow the advice of the vet. 5. Record details in the cattle record.

staff are trained to judge variations in manure in terms of the animals well being. 3. Check feed intakes are within normal expectations. 4. Inspect cattle in hospital pens closely and confirm treatments required. 5. Record any actions taken in the cattle record.

Daily Handling and Observation Dealing with Sickness

1. Isolate and examine any sick cattle and hold in a hospital pen. 2. Ensure shade water and feed is provided and that animal welfare needs in relation to adequate treatment are met. 3. Call the veterinarian to carry out diagnosis and treatment when required. 4. Carry out all treatments required in a timely manner and record in the cattle treatment book. 5. Note withholding periods and record these in the cattle record.

Daily Handling and Observation Care of Stock and Stock Facilities.

1. Check stock density is within guidelines and adequate to control dust and prevent excess moisture build-up. 2. Ensure shade is provided and that animal welfare in relation to adequate staffing , health inspections, feeding management and yard management ensure cattle are healthy and contented. 3. Check pen troughs and facilities and repair or rectify any damage or malfunction and clean water as required. Record any major repairs in the facility maintenance record. 4. Inspect pens and laneways for excess pollution and clean as necessary. 5. Monitor fly populations and take appropriate action to avoid excessive build up. 6. Monitor climatic extremes and take appropriate action. Record these events in the environmental data record.

Cattle Assessment and Selection for Market

1. Select cattle to meet contract or market specification as contained in the market specification list. 2. Ensure any special requirements as regards time on feed or ration type are met. 3. Check all withholding periods are met and cross check all tag numbers with the treatment record. 4. Record details in the cattle record.

Daily Handling of Cattle.

1. Handle cattle quietly and avoid stress as much as possible. 2. Ensure dogs and whips are not used and staff are trained in the quiet handling of cattle. 3. Handle cattle during the quietest part of the day wherever possible. 4. Record handling events and movements of cattle in the cattle record.

Transport Out - Care of Cattle Prior to Transport

1. Draft and weigh all cattle prior to expected loading time. 2. Ensure handling is minimised. 3. Ensure watering and feeding is as required prior to transport. Consider use of electrolytes to alleviate transport stress. 4. Confirm time of loading and delivery time. 5. Make a visual inspection of the cattle prior to departure for any injury or illness and isolate affected stock for treatment. 6. Ensure all documents are accurately completed.

Daily Handling and Observation Daily Observation of cattle.

1. Visually inspect all cattle for signs of injury or illness. 2. Check manure for signs of abnormality and ensure

7. Engage a reliable carrier who conforms to the transport code. 8. Ensure all yards, races and ramps are inspected for protrusions prior to loading. 9. Specify loading density and special pre-loading or onroute checks required. 10.Count all cattle and agree with the transport company representative and record and sign the cattle delivery book. 11.Record details in the cattle record. 12.Note pH of slaughtered cattle and review transport procedures if over 5.6.

4. Ensure that all weather accessibility is maintained for trucks delivering to store. 5. Check that all handling equipment has sufficient capacity and is maintained according to the manufacturers specifications. 6. Prevent mixing of stored ingredients by providing separate storage areas or sufficient separation that will ensure non contamination. 7. Ensure that all equipment and work practices comply with safe working conditions.

Preparation of Rations - Processing at Feedmill

1. Ensure all plant is operational and maintained according to manufacturers specifications. 2. Check that all safety equipment is in place. 3. Monitor the processing to ensure that the required product is being delivered into the feed mixing process.

Purchase of Feed
1. Check on the availability and basic specifications of all potential feed ingredients and check these in the feed ingredients file. 2. Write the specifications for each of the ingredients that will be used and list these in the feed ingredients file. 3. Ensure that all ingredients used are free from any contamination and that all treatments or additions are specified. 4. Request that all impurities be listed for all sources of ingredients. 5. Use all available methods, including contract forward purchase, to ensure that ingredient supplies are guaranteed for the period of feeding. 6. Use the rations file to determine forward requirements of ingredients for the feedlot and plan the supply accordingly. 7. Ensure that ingredient sources are not contaminated by any vegetable or chemical material that will adversely affect the running of the feedlot. 8. Record all ingredient purchases in the feed purchases record.

Preparation of Rations - Feed Rations, Mixing

1. Ensure all ingredients are weighed into the mixer according to the ration specification and that the correct energy density is obtained. 2. Specify the mixing requirements for the ration in the ration specification and ensure that these requirements are met. 3. Record the amount of the ingredients actually used on the ration mixing sheet and submit these to the feedlot office on the feed mix record sheet, for inclusion in the feeding record. 4. Analyse rations as required by the nutritionist and record results in the feeding record.

Feeding of Cattle - Feeding at Feedmill and Feed Yards

1. Provide staff with the feed quantity and ration mix requirements for each pen and ensure that this is carried out. 2. Ensure the feed out machinery is operational and maintained according to manufacturers specifications. 3. Confirm the mixing consistency by visual inspection. 4. Manage the feeding system so that fresh feed is available to the stock as required. Feed to suit weather conditions and cattle intake patterns.

Storage of Feed
1. Ensure that feedlot storage is sufficient to cater for the feed requirements for feedlot operating at capacity. 2. Ensure that all on-farm storage has adequate moisture, vermin and insect control. 3. Check that all farm storage conforms with QA procedures for farm storage.

Do NOT allow stale feed to accumulate. Note the manure and take corrective action as required. 5. Clean troughs as required. 6. Clean up all feed spillage's as required to prevent fly infestation or odour build up. 7. Record all feed delivered to the cattle in the cattle feeding record and ensure that cattle are fed for the specified number of days.

2. Determine the requirements of other chemicals used at the feedlot on a needs basis. 3. Consult with the veterinarian for all prescription drug requirements. 4. Secure the supplies of the required drugs and chemicals from a reputable distributor and ensure only approved medicines are used. 5. Record all purchases in the chemical purchases record.

Water Storage
1. Ensure that a secondary storage facility for water is available. 2. Calculate the quantity of water required in secondary storage based on peak demand conditions for a period of not less than two days.

Chemical Storage
1. Store all medicines and chemicals correctly, according to manufacturers recommendations. 2. Make sure all medicines and chemicals are stored securely and under lock and key if necessary. 3. Keep out of reach of children, animals and any person not authorised to handle the chemicals. 4. Pay special attention to those chemicals requiring refrigeration or protection from light.

Water Supply
1. Ensure an adequate supply of water is available to run the feedlot under peak demand conditions. 2. Calculate stock water requirements on the model Code of Practice and adjust to suit local conditions. 3.Test water sources for water quality in relation to salinity and other mineral content and record in the water quality file. Use guidelines contained in the model Code of Practice and adjust to local conditions. 4. Adjust feed rations in relation to salt content if the salinity of the water requires it. 5. Ensure water sources are accessible to the feedlot. 6. Record analysis results in the water analysis record.

Contingency Planning Failure of Feed Supply or Quality

1. Change to secondary feed storage/supply. 2. Investigate cause of supply interruption and correct. 3. Take samples of feed for quality analysis if indicated. 4. Switch to back-up mill and mixer if required. 5. Record the problems and outcome in the feed supply record.

Contingency Planning Outbreak of Disease

1. Isolate affected animals. 2. Contact the veterinarian if indicated. 3. Take samples and conduct tests as directed or as required so that an early and accurate diagnosis of the problem is made. 4. Inform the relevant authorities if required. 5. Initiate timely treatment. 6. Record the problem and outcome in the animal treatment record.

Water Use
1. Check the water troughs at least once daily for quantity and quality. 2. Remove contaminated water immediately and clean the troughs. 3. Clean the water troughs regularly as required but not less than every seven days. 4. Ensure cattle are not deprived of water for any length of time. 5. Record all interruptions of water supply or large variations in water quality in the water supply record.

Contingency Planning Extreme Weather Conditions

1. Appropriate rations to be fed during periods of extreme heat, cold or pressure disturbance.

Chemical Purchase
1. Determine the requirements of all veterinary medicines used in the intake procedure.

2. Move animals to shaded pens if required, or release from the feedlot to safe grazing paddocks. 3. Maintain all weather access to feedlot so as not to hinder cattle movement, feeding or receipt of commodities. 4. Record weather extremes and actions in the appropriate feedlot records.

2. Note any local authority regulations regarding disposal and comply. 3. Record all disposals of chemicals in the chemical use record.

Waste Utilisation Feed Spillage

1. Ensure all feed spillages are promptly cleaned and recorded in the feedlot diary. 2. Dispose of waste feed into the compost pile.

Contingency Planning Emergency Slaughter of Cattle

1. The emergency slaughter of cattle is undertaken as necessary. 2. Every effort must be made to ensure that the animal does not undergo undue pain or suffering. 3. Euthanasia must be carried out according to the model Code of Practice. 4. Record all emergency slaughtering in the cattle deaths and disposals record.

Waste utilisation Manure Management

1. Ensure pens are scraped as required to prevent excessive build-up (keep pack less than 100mm) and keep cleaning records in the manure record. 2. Ensure the manure pad interface is maintained during the scraping operations. 3. Ensure the manure stockpile is maintained to minimise environmental impact. 4. Dispose of manure on croplands with a minimum impact on the community and incorporate the manure into the soil as soon as practical. 5. Apply the manure using an accepted method of application. 6. Take soil samples for analysis at least each 3 years when continually spreading manure and record the results in the soil analysis record.

Preparation of Chemicals
1. Read the label and ensure compliance and understanding, check the expiry dates and communicate to other persons involved in the procedure. 2. Determine the safety requirements of the chemicals used and ensure compliance. 3. Ensure all equipment associated with the use of the chemicals is in order and all special conditions are met.

Waste Utilisation
1. Ensure all ponds are regularly cleaned and have free access for rainfall periods. 2. Dispose of effluent by irrigation or managed flood systems. 3. Ensure runoff is contained within the property. 4. Ensure all drains are cleaned to carry rainfall flows and that they do not accumulate water. 5. Record volumes of water disposal and dates in the effluent disposal record.

Use of Chemicals
1. Recheck the label to ensure compliance and understanding, recheck the expiry dates and communicate to other persons involved in the procedure. 2. Administer or apply the medicine or chemical according to the manufacturers or veterinarians instructions. 3. Note all withholding periods and record all stock treatments in the cattle treatment record. 4. Record the use of other chemicals in the chemicals use record.

Water Utilisation Rubbish Disposal

1. Ensure all general rubbish is taken to a pit and buried. 2. Note special conditions applying to special categories of rubbish and recycle wherever possible.

Disposal of Chemicals
1. Check the label to ensure compliance and understanding of the disposal procedure.

Environment Protection Land Protection

1. Ensure adequate land is available to receive solid manures or cart off site. 2. Ensure soil types are suitable for the receipt of solid and liquid wastes by establishing sustainable agronomic regimes. 3. Monitor and record soil changes by analysis each 3 years.

3. Carry out internal audit and review each 4 months and record the audit and results in the management review file. 4. Training of Staff Train new Staff and continually update existing Staff. 5. Ensure all staff are trained in those procedures relevant to their duties. 6. Communicate any changes to procedures as they occur and record the communication in the staff correspondence file. 7. Send staff to appropriate industry functions, have them visit other feedlots if appropriate and record attendances in the staff training record. 8. Ensure all staff are specifically trained in Occupational Health and Safety and provide safety manuals where applicable and record this in the staff correspondence file. 9. Deal with any obvious non-conformity immediately and record this in the staff records. 10. Review all staff performances on an annual basis and record the results of the performance review in the staff record.

Environmental Protection Ground Water

1. The feedlot should not be sited above ground water recharge areas or underground water resources, unless these resources are protected from contamination. 2. Carry out ground water analysis every 24 months and record in the water analysis file.

Environmental Protection Surface Water

1. Do not locate the feedlot in flood zones and protect the feedlot from undue flooding. 2. Locate the feedlot so that there is a reasonable buffer between it and watercourses.

Environmental Protection Community Amenity

1. Establish the feedlot in a position to protect communities from excessive odours and nuisance in accordance with local authority requirements and registration requirements. 2. Comply with registration requirements in relation to stocking densities, feedlot size and any special requirements designed to reduce nuisance. 3. Comply with any restrictions on transport routes or road usage that may be applied. 4. React immediately to any event causing community nuisance and record all events in the community amenity record.

Measure and Record Calibration of Equipment

1. Ensure all measuring equipment is accurate and that it is maintained according to manufacturers instructions and in good working order. 2. Make calibration checks on weighing equipment at least monthly and record the results in the equipment and facilities maintenance record.

Measure and Record Feedlot Records

The following records will be kept by the feedlot: Feedlot daily diary. Cattle purchase specifications, market specifications. Feed ingredient specifications list. Rations specifications list. Cattle transport record. Cattle purchase report file. Cattle record. Feeding record. Cattle treatment record. Feed purchases record. Chemical purchases & disposal record. Cattle deaths & disposal record. Water supply record. Water analysis record.

Management of the QA System

1. Ensure all documents relating to the QA system are accessible to all staff and that those staff having specific responsibilities have copies of any material directly related to them and the location and issuing of documents is recorded in the documents control register. 2. Update and amend QA procedures as appropriate and record in the QA manual.

Soil analysis record. Staff record for training and review. Staff correspondence file. Environmental data record. Manure control record. Effluent disposal record. Equipment & facilities maintenance record. Occupational Health & Safety Record. Quality assurance document control register. Quality assurance manual. Management review file. Manufacturers instructions file. Community amenity record. Standards & Codes of Practice.

4. Notify the responsible person or persons of the nonconformity and advise them of the corrective course of action. 5. Record the non-conformity in the non-conforming and corrective action record.

Non-Conformity Prevention of Non-Conforming Product

1. Investigate the cause of the non-conformity. 2. Develop new procedures to avoid the same nonconformity from occurring again. 3. Change all copies of the QA manual to include the new procedures. 4. Inform all staff of the changes to the quality assurance system, make sure that they understand and confirm in writing and record in the staff correspondence file.

Non-Conformity Identification and Control

1. Identfy the non-conformity by checking the QA records against specifications. 2. Isolate the non-conforming product or cattle from those that meet the specifications. 3. Assess the extent of the non-conformity and decide how to correct it.

Contingency Planning Failure of Water Supply or Quality

1. Change to emergency water storage/supply. 2. Investigate cause of supply interruption and correct. 3. Take samples of water for quality analysis if indicated. 4. Record the problems and outcome in the water supply record.

The South-East Asian Feedlot Manual is a Joint Livestock Export program initiative from MLA and LiveCorp

Meat & Livestock Australia Location Level 1, 165 Walker Street, North Sydney NSW 2060 Australia Postal Locked Bag 991, North Sydney NSW 2059 Australia Tel: +61 2 9463 9333 Fax: +61 2 9463 9393 Email: [email protected] Website: www.mla.com.au

LiveCorp Suite 202, 32 Walker Street North Sydney NSW 2060 Tel: +61 2 9929 6755 Fax: 61 2 9929 6733 Email: [email protected] Website: www.livecorp.com.au

A joint Livestock Export program initiative