GEE338 LCS Chapter - 1 Math Model For LTI System

GEE338 Linear Control Systems
Chapter 1
Mathematical Modeling of Linear Time
Invariant (LTI) Systems
Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim and Eng. Medhat Toubar
Electronics and Communication Department
Misr International University (MIU)
1 of 70 GEE338 Ch.1 Math Models Prof Fawzy Ibrahim
Chapter Contents
1.0 Introduction
1.0.1 Control Systems Terminologies
1.0.2 Control systems Classifications
1.0.3 Control systems Applications
1.2 Mathematical Model
1.3 System Representation using Differential Equations and
Transfer Function for:
1.3.1 Electrical and Electronic Elements
1.3.2 Translation Mechanical Elements
1.3.3 Rotational Mechanical Elements
1.3.4 Electro Mechanical Elements
1.4 Block Diagram Models
1.4.1 Components of a block diagram for a LTI system
1.4.2 Block Diagram Reduction Technique
1.5 Signal Flow Graph Models
1.5.1 Definitions 1.5.2 Flow graphs of control systems
1.5.3 Signal Flow Graph Algebra
1.5.4 Signal Flow Graph Reduction Technique
1.5.5 Block Diagram to Signal Flow Graph
Appendix A The Laplace Transform
1.0 Introduction
System: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a
certain objective.
Linear Time-Invariant Systems (LTI systems) :
• LTI systems are a class of systems used in signals and systems that are
both linear and time-invariant.
• Linear systems are systems whose outputs for a linear combination of inputs
are the same as a linear combination of individual responses to those inputs. In
other words the superposition theorem is applied.
• Time-invariant systems are systems where the output does not depend
on when an input was applied. In other words if the input is delayed by t the
output is also delayed by t .
Control System: An interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired response. It can be described by a
block diagram as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Simplified description of a control system or block diagram.

1.0 Introduction
A process or plant: It is the portion of a system which is to be controlled. The
input-output relationship represent the cause and effect of the process as
shown in Fig. 1.2 (Example: an electric motor its control input is voltage and its
output is rotation).
Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of
the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside the system
and is an input.
Controlled Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is measured and
controlled. the controlled variable is the output of the system.
A controller: It is device that generates the plant input signals to produce the
desired outputs.
Fig. 1.2 A Process to be controlled.

1.0 Introduction
The Manipulated Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is varied by the
controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.
Control: It means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system and
applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit deviation of
the measured value from a desired value. In other words, make some object
(system, or plant) behave as we desire. Example: Room temperature control.
Manual Control: Manual means done by hand. Example: room temperature
regulation via Electric Fan.
Automatic Control: It done by the system. Examples: room temperature
regulation via Air Condition (A.C.) and laundry machine, It is convenient when
dealing with dangerous (hot/cold places, space, bomb removal).
An Input Transducer: It is device that converts the form of the input to that used
by controller.
Feedback Control: It refers to an operation that, in the presence of disturbances,
tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system and some
reference input and that does so on the basis of this difference.
• A manual control systems for regulating the level of fluid in a tank by adjusting
the output valve. The operator views the level of fluid through a port in the side
of the tank is shown in Fig. 1.3. A manual control Systems for regulating the
level of fluid in a tank is shown in Fig. 1.4.
1.0 Introduction
• Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster,
Electric Fan
• Manual Control
Fig. 1.3 Manual Liquid-level

control system
Fig. 1.4 Automatic Liquid-level control system

1.0 Introduction
Compensator
• If a designed control system does not satisfy the required specifications, one
way to solve the problem is to redesign and replace the existing system with
another one and keep trying the prototyping till we the desired suitable design.
• Rather than change the existing system, we augment, or compensate, the
system with additional subsystem, so that the compensated system has the
desired specifications.
PID
• Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID) controller is a subsystem that is
designed to compensate for the implemented system error.
Control system analysis means the process of finding the response or output of
a system when it is excited by an input or excitation provided we know the
mathematical model of the system.
Control system design or synthesis means we have to find out the system
equations or the arrangement of the components, provided we know the output
of the system for an input.

1.0 Introduction
• Control System can be classified as follows:
Property Categories of Control Systems

Linearity linear system non-linear system
Time Variance time invariant system time varying system
# of Control single variable control

Multivariable Control system
Variables system
Classical representation State Space Representation

Representation
or (classical control) or (modern control)
Control Type manual control automatic control
closed-loop control
Control Action open-loop control
(feedback control)

1.0 Introduction
1. Open-loop control systems
• It is the system in which the control action is independent of the output
as shown in Fig. 1.5. .(Example: to control the speed of an electric fan: the
input is the fan speed (off, 1, 2, ..), the fan switch (input transducer) converts
the speed into resistance which is converted to a voltage (Controller) that
controls the speed of the motor (Plant or Process).
Example: laundry machine
• A laundry machine washes clothes, by setting a program.
• A laundry machine does not measure how clean the clothes become.
• Control without measuring devices (sensors) are called open-loop control.
(a)
Program setting Washed clothes
Laundry
(Input) Machine (Output)
(b)
Fig. 1.5 (a) An open-loop system; (b) An open-loop system example.
1.0 Introduction
2. Closed-loop control systems
• It is the system in which the control action is dependent on the output or the
input depends on the output as shown in Fig. 1.6.
• The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the
controller.
• An output transducer or sensor measures the output response and converts it
into the form used by the controller. For example, if the controller uses electric
signal to operate the valve of a temperature control system: the input position
can be converted to voltage by a potentiometer (Input transducer) and the
output temperature can be converted to voltage by a thermistor (Output
transducer or Sensor).
• Closed-loop control systems. Feedback control systems are often referred to as
closed-loop control systems.
• In practice, the terms feedback control and closed-loop control are used
interchangeably.
• In a closed-loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the
difference between the input signal and the feedback signal , is fed to the
controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a
desired value.
• Examples:- Refrigerator, Iron
1.0 Introduction
(a)
• A Servo System (or

servomechanism) is a feedback
control system in which the output
is some mechanical position,
velocity or acceleration. (b)
Fig. 1.6 (a) Closed-loop control system; (b) Servo System.
1.0 Introduction
Example 1.2
A temperature control system operates by sensing the difference between the
thermostat setting and actual temperature and then opening a fuel valve an
amount proportional to this difference. Draw a functional closed - loop block
diagram identifying the input and output transducers, the controller, and the
plant. Further, identify the input and output signals of all subsystems previously
described..
Solution
A feedback model is shown below
Fig. 1.5 (c) A feedback model .

1.0 Introduction
Open-loop control
Closed-loop control systems
systems
• Simple construction, • High accuracy
ease of maintenance, • Not sensitive to disturbance
and less expensive.
• Controllable transient
Advantages • There is no stability
response
concern.
• Convenient when output • Controllable steady state
is hard to measure. error
• Disturbances and
changes in calibration • More Complex, and More
cause errors, and the Expensive.
output may be different • Possibility of instability.
Disadvantages
from what is desired.
• Recalibration is • Need for output
necessary from time to measurement.
time
1.0 Introduction
1.0.3 Control systems Applications
• Control systems have played a vital role in the advance of engineering and
science.
• Their Applications include:
- Robotic systems
- Aircraft Autopilot.
- Autonomous Cars.
- Missile guidance systems.
- Industrial processes.
- Transportations.
- Medicine.
- Health.
- Military.
- … etc.

• In simplest terms, a mathematical model is an abstraction or simplification that
allows us to summarize (describe) a system.
• A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations
that represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
• Control Systems can be described by one of the following forms:
1. Differential equations (Time Domain).
2. The impulse response g(t) (Time Domain).
3. The transfer function G(s) (Laplace or s-Domain).
4. The frequency response G(j) (Frequency-Domain).
5. State space model (Time Domain).

Example 1.1: A Linear Time Invariant (LTI) control system described by the
following differential equation:
d 2 c (t ) dc(t )
2
 12  32c (t )  32r (t )
dt dt
Where r(t) is the system input and c(t) is its output, for this system derive:
a) The transfer function G(s) b) The impulse response g(t).
c) The frequency response G(j) d) draw its block diagram.
Solution a) Use the Laplace Transform theorem in Appendix A, take the Laplace
Transform of both sides of the D.E. assuming zero initial conditions we have:
s 2C ( s)  12sC ( s)  32C ( s)  32R( s)
Then ( s 2  12s  32)C ( s)  32R( s)
So, the transfer function G(s) is given by:
C (s) 32 32
G (s)   
s  12s  32 ( s  4)(s  8)
2
R( s)
Example 1.1 Solution
b) The impulse response function g(t) can be described as follows:
• Knowing the system transfer function, G(s) and the input, R(s) then output, C(s)
can be determined: C ( s)  G ( s) R( s)
• Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse is unity the response of the
system on impulse is: If r (t )   (t ) and R ( s )  1  C (s)  G (s)
• Impulse response function g(t) is the inverse Laplace transform of G(s) as:
• Using partial fraction, we get: g (t )  L G ( s )
-1
 
32 32 A B
G(s)  2   
s  12s  32 ( s  4)( s  8) ( s  4) ( s  8)
32 32
A  ( s  4)G ( s) s  4   8
( s  8) s  4
4
8 8
G ( s)  
32 32 ( s  4) ( s  8)
B  ( s  8)G( s) s 8    8
( s  4) s 8  4
• Use the Laplace Transform tables
in Appendix A, g(t) is:
g (t )  8(e 4t  e 8t )u (t )
c) The frequency response G(j) is defined as G(s) as s  j:
32 32
G ( j )  G ( s ) s  j     G ( )  ( )
( s  4)( s  8) s  j
( j  4)( j  8)
where |G()| is called the amplitude response and () is the phase response.
d) The Block diagram is shown in the following figure:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.6 Block diagram: (a) in time domain; (b) in s-domain and (c) in frequency domain
Example 1.2: A Linear Time Invariant (LTI) control system described by the
following transfer function G(s): 2
G (s) 
For this system derive: ( s  1)( s  2)
a) The differential equation b) The impulse response g(t).
c) The frequency response G(j) d) draw its block diagram.
Solution
a) The system D.E. is calculated as follows:
C (s) 2 2
Then G (s)    2
R ( s ) ( s  1)( s  2) s  3s  2
s 2C ( s)  3sC ( s)  2C ( s)  2 R( s)
• Use the Laplace Transform tables in Appendix A, take the inverse Laplace
Transform for both sides, we have:
d 2c(t ) dc(t )
2
 3  2c(t )  2r (t )
dt dt

b) Impulse response function g(t) is the inverse Laplace transform of G(s) as:
• Using partial fraction, we get: g (t )  L-1G( s)
C (s) 2 A B 2 2
G(s)      
R ( s ) ( s  1)( s  2) ( s  1) ( s  2) ( s  1) ( s  2)
• Use the Laplace Transform tables in Appendix A, the impulse response g(t) is:
g (t )  2(e t  e 2t )u (t )
c) The frequency response G(j) is defined as G(s) as s  j:
2 2
G ( j )  G ( s ) s  j  
( s  1)( s  2) s  j ( j  1)( j  2)
d) The Block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.7 Block diagram: (a) in time domain; (b) in s-domain and (c) in frequency domain
1.2 System Representation using Differential Equations
and Transfer Function
• The approach to dynamic system problems can be as follows:
1. Define the system and its components.
2. Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary assumptions
3. Write the differential equations describing the model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solution and the assumptions.
6. If necessary reanalyze or redesign the system.
• The general form of the differential equation for LTI-System is given by:
d n c(t ) d n 1c(t )
an n
 an 1 n 1
   a0 c(t ) 
dt dt
d m r (t ) d m 1r (t ) (1.1)
bm m
 bm 1 m 1
   b0 r (t )
dt dt
• Where r(t) is the system input or excitation and c(t) is its output or response.
• The transfer function, G(s) of a LTI system is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the output (response function), C(s) and input (driving
function), R(s) under assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

1.2 System Representation using DE and TF
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of Eq. (1.1) and assuming zero
initial conditions the system transfer function G(s) [n is the system order] can
derived as follows :
an s nC ( s )  an 1s n 1C ( s )    a0C ( s ) 
m 1
(1.2a)
bm s R( s )  bm 1s
m
R( s )    b0 R( s )
a n s n
 a n 1 s n 1
   a0 C ( s ) 
b m s m
 bm 1 s m 1
   b0  R ( s ) (1.2b)
C ( s) bm s m  bm1s m1    b0
G( s)   (1.2c)
R( s) an s n  an1s n1    a0
bm s m  bm 1s m 1    b0
R (s ) C (s )
an s n  an 1s n 1    a0
Fig. 1.8 System Block diagram.

• So to derive the transfer function:
1. Write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior for each component.
2. Take the Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming all initial
conditions are zero.
3. Take the ratio of the output C(s) to the input R(s). This ratio is the transfer
function.
4. Represent each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block form.
5. Assembly the elements into a complete block diagram
• Differential equations describing the dynamic performance for a physical

system are obtained by utilizing the physical laws of the process. This process
is applied equally well to all systems:
1. Electric and electronic systems
2.Mechanical (translational and rotational) systems.
3.Electro Mechanical Elements
4.Fluid, hydraulic and thermodynamic systems.

1.2.1 DE and Transfer Function, G(s) for Electrical and Electronic Elements
Component Voltage-Current Current-Voltage Voltage-Charge Impedance Admittance
Z(s)=V(s)/I(s) Y(s)=I(s)/V(s)
Time Domain Laplace Domain
Capacitor
Resistor Inductor
1.2.1 DE and TF for Electrical and Electronic Elements
Example 1.3: For the series RLC circuit shown Write:
(a) the integodifferential equations
b) the transfer function of the following circuit, G(s) = Vs(s)/V(s).
Solution
a) Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial
conditions, yields the integro-differential equation as:
t
di(t ) 1
L  Ri (t )   i ( )d  v(t ) RLC circuit
dt C0
Changing variables from current to charge using i(t) = dq/dt, yields:
d 2 q (t ) dq(t ) 1
L  R  q (t )  v (t )
dt 2 dt C
the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor q(t )  Cvc (t )
So, the system differential equation is:
d 2 vC (t ) dvC (t )
LC  RC  vC (t )  v(t )
dt 2 dt
b) Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging
terms, and simplifying yields
( s 2 LC  sRC  1)VC ( s )  V ( s )
Example 1.3 Solution:
Solving for the transfer function, G(s) = Vc(s)/V(s) we obtain:
VC ( s ) 1 / LC
G (s)  
V (s) R 1
s2  s 
Another solution; L LC
• writing a mesh equation using the impedances as, we get Block diagram
V ( s )  ( R  sL  1 / sC ) I ( s )
But the voltage across the capacitor is:
Vc ( s)  I ( s) x1 / sC
Substitute we get the above results.
VC ( s ) 1 1 / LC
G (s)   
V (s) LCs 2  RCs  1 s 2  R s  1
So, L LC
( s LC  sRC  1)VC ( s )  V ( s )
2
Take the inverse Laplace transform, we get the differential equation as:
d 2 vC (t ) dvC (t )
LC 2
 RC  vC (t )  v(t )
dt dt
Example 1.3: Write the integodifferential equations and the transfer function of the
following circuit, G(s) = I2(s)/V(s). d iL 1
v L (t)  L  i L   v L (t)dt
dt L
d vC 1
iC (t)  C  vC   iC (t)dt
dt C
d
i 1 R1  L ( i1  i 2 )  v(t)
Time Domain dt
d t
1
i2 R2  L ( i 2  i1 ) 
c
 i 2 dt 0
dt 0
Take Laplace Transform of both
sides then find G(s) = I2 (s)/V(s)
Laplace Domain
Block diagram
1. Write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior for each component.
2. Take Laplace transform of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions.
3. Represent each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block form.
4. Assembly the elements into a complete block diagram.
Example 1.4:
Find the transfer function, G(s) = V3(s)/V(s), for the circuit shown below.
Solution
Using KCL at each:
At node (2)
V2 ( s )  V1 ( s ) V2 ( s )  0 V2 ( s )  V3 ( s )
   0 (1)
R1 sL1 R3
At node (3)
V3 ( s )  V1 ( s ) V3 ( s )  V2 ( s ) V3 ( s )  0
   0 (2)
sL2 R2 sL3
Put L1 = L2 = L3 = 1 H and
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 
Eq. (1) becomes:
 1 (1)
 V1 ( s )  1  1  V2 ( s )  V3 ( s )  0
 s
Example 1.4 Solution :
Find the transfer function, G(s) = V3(s)/V(s), for the circuit shown below.
Eq. (2) becomes:
 V1 ( s ) 1 1 
 V2 ( s )     1V3 ( s)  0 (2)
s s s 
From Eq. (2) we get:
 V1 ( s )  s  2 
V2 ( s )   V3 ( s )  0
s  s 
Substitute in Eq. (1) we get:
 2s  1   V1 ( s) 2s  1 
 V1 ( s)     V3 ( s)   V3 ( s)  0 Block Diagram
 s  s s 
Put V1(s) = V(s), then the transfer function, G(s) = V3(s)/V(s) is given by:
V3 ( s) (2s  1) / s 2 (2s  1)
G( s)   
V ( s) (2s  3) / s s(2s  3)

Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps) in system control
• Refer to the shown figure, The closed – loop gain G is defined as G = C(s)/R(s)
Since r(t) = (V+ – V -) A, this yields V+ – V - = c/A = 0, (A  ∞, I = 0) for ideal OP,
so V+ = V – and this is called a virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage
at the positive terminal will automatically appears at the negative terminal
because A  ∞.
Block diagram
ct    r t 
R2
G s  
C ( s) R
R1  2
R( s ) R1 C s  Z
G ( s)   2
Fig. 1.9 Inverting amplifier . Rs  Z1
- Op Amps can be utilized for:
- Signal amplification in the sensor circuits
- Filters used for compensation purposes
- Modeling of the “real world” systems
- Lead or lag networks - Design of controllers Block diagram
  C ( s)  R2 
c t     
R2
 1  
 r t G s    
 1  
 R1  R( s)  R1 
Fig. 1.10 Non-inverting amplifier.
Integrator
Transfer function of Integrator Transfer function of Differentiator

C s  Z 1 1 C s  Z R
 2    2    sCR   s
Rs  Z1 RCs s Rs  Z1 1 / sC
Rs 
t
C s   
1
 c(t )    r ( x)dx
dr (t )
c(t )  
s  0 dt
Fig. 1.11 (a) Integrator and (b) Differentiator.
R2
R1 Z2 
Z1  R2C2 s  1
sR1C1  1
C s  Z R2 R C s 1 RC R2 s  1 / R1C1
 2  x 1 1  1 1 x x
R s  Z1 R2C2 s  1 R1 R1 R2C2 s  1 / R2C2
C1 s 1/ R2C 2
 x Where  is 
C2 s  1 /( ) R1C1
Fig. 1.12 Op Amp as a lead compensator ( < 1) as a lag compensator ( > 1) .
Z1 
 R1C1s  1R3
R1  R3 C1s  1  R2C2 s  1R4
Z2 
R2  R4 C2 s  1
C s  Z R
G (s)   2 x 6
Fig. 1.13 Op Amp as lead-lag network. R s  Z1 R5

1.2.2 DE and TF for Translation Mechanical Elements

Example 1.5: Write the differential equations and the transfer function, G(s) = V(s)/
F(s) of the Spring, K, Mass, M, Damping, b system shown.
Solution Differential equation
dv(t ) d 2 x(t ) dx(t )
v(t )  M 2
 b  Kx (t )  f (t )
dt dt dt
x(t )   v(t )dt M dv(t )  bv(t )  K v(t )dt  f (t )
dt 
s-domain
 K
 Ms  b   V ( s )  F ( s )
• Draw the free body diagram for  s
the mass M as shown Transfer function
 Forces  Ma G(s) 
V (s)

s

F ( s ) Ms 2  f v s  K 
Free body diagram M

Example 1.6: Write the differential equations to model the system shown. If M1 = 4
kg, M2 = 5 kg, K1 = 7 N/m, K2 = 2 N/m, K3 = 3 N/m and b = 6 N.s/m, Derive the
transfer functions, G1(s) = X1(s)/ F(s) and G2(s) = V2(s)/ F(s).
Solution
1. Draw the free body diagram for the masses M1 and M2 as shown:
 Forces  Ma
Free body diagram M1 Free body diagram M2

Example 1.6 Solution:
2. Write an equilibrium equation for each mass:
For the Mass M1
K2 [x2(t) + b d/dt [x2(t) – x1(t)] – K1x1(t) - M1 d2/dt2 x1(t) = 0
Substitute the constant values, we get:
2 [x2(t) – x1(t)] + 6 d/dt [x2(t) – x1(t)] - 7 x1(t) – 4 d2/dt2 x1(t) = 0 (1)
For the Mass M2
f(t) - K3x2(t) - K2 [x2(t) – x1(t)] - b d/dt [x2(t) – x1(t)] – M2 d2/dt2 x2(t) = 0
5 d2/dt2 x2(t) + 2 [x2(t) – x1(t)] + 6 d/dt [x2(t) – x1(t)] + 3 x2(t) = f(t) (2)
• Collecting terms, the two simultaneous differential equations in x1(t) and x2(t),
we have:
4 d2/dt2 [x1(t)] + 6 d/dt [x1(t)] + 9 x1(t) - 6 d/dt [x2(t)] - 2 x2(t) = 0 (3)
- 6 d/dt [x1(t)] - 2 x1(t) + 5 d2/dt2 [x1(t) ]+ 6 d/dt [x2(t)] + 5 x2(t) = f(t) (4)
• Find the Laplace transform (3) and (4), we get:
(4s2 + 6s + 9) X1(s) – (6s + 2) X2(s) = 0 (5)
- (6s + 2) X1(s) + (5s2 + 6s + 5) X2(s) = F(s) (6)
• Eliminate X2(s) using (5) and (6) to get the transfer function G1(s) = X1(s)/ F(s).
• Eliminate X1(s) using (5) and (6) to get the transfer function G2(s) = V2(s)/ F(s).

1.2.3 DE and TF for Rotational Mechanical Elements
 2 N1 T2 N 2
 
1 N 2 T1 N1
Transfer Function for:

(a) Angular (b) Torque
Displacement

1.2.4 DE and TF for Describing Electro Mechanical Elements
• The antenna azimuth position control system shown below contains
electromechanical sub-system can be described as follows (as an example):
Potentiometer Differential and Power Motor Transfer The Geer system
Parameter
(Kpot) Amplifier Transfer Function Function N1 N2 N3
5
10 GM 
Value Kpot = 1V/1° GA  s ( s  1) 20 200 200
s2

• The general form of the differential equation for LTI-System is given by:
d n c(t ) d n 1c(t )
an n
 an 1 n 1
   a0 c(t ) 
dt dt
d m r (t ) d m 1r (t )
bm m
 bm 1 m 1
   b0 r (t )
dt dt
• A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
• Such diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various
components. Differing from a purely abstract mathematical representation, a
block diagram has the advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows
of the actual system.
• Transfer function can be represented as a block diagram:
bm s m  bm 1s m 1    b0
R(s ) C (s )
an s n  an 1s n 1    a0
System block diagram
1.3.1 Components of a block diagram for a LTI system
Fig. 1.14 Components of a block diagram .

1.3.2 Block Diagram Reduction
1. Any number of cascaded blocks can be reduced by a single block representing
transfer function being a product of transfer functions of all cascaded blocks.
Fig. 1.15 Reduction of cascaded blocks .

2. Moving a summing point a. behind the block b. ahead of the block.
(a) Behind the block
(b) Ahead of the block
Fig. 1.16 Moving a summing point.

3. Moving a pickoff point a. behind the block b. ahead of the block
(a) Behind the block
(b) Ahead of the block
Fig. 1.17 Moving a pickoff point.

4. Equivalent transfer function for parallel subsystems is the sum of their transfer
functions.
Fig. 18 Equivalent transfer function for parallel subsystems .

5. Feedback control system
For negative feedback:
E ( s)  R( s)  C ( s) H ( s)
C (s)  E (s) H (s)
Substitute for E(s):
C ( s )  R( s )  C ( s ) H ( s )G ( s )
C ( s )1  G ( s ) H ( s )  R( s )G ( s )
C (s) G
T (s)  
R( s ) 1  GH
Similarly for positive feedback:

C (s) G
T (s)  
R( s ) 1  GH
Fig. 19 Equivalent transfer function for feedback control system.

Example 1.7 reduce the following block diagram

Example 1.7 Solution 1. Moving the summing point ahead of G1, we have:
2. Combing G1 and G2 in Cascade, we get:

Example 1.7 Solution 3. Interchange the wo summing points we get:
4. Eliminating the feedback loop G1, G2 and H1 we get:

Example 1.7 Solution 5. Similarly eliminating the second feedback loop we get:
6. Similarly eliminating the third feedback loop we get:


Example 1.7 Solution If the feedback of H1 block is changed from negative to
positive feedback as shown.
Then the total transfer function, T(s) becomes:
G1G2G3
T ( s) 
1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3

Example 1.8 reduce the following block diagram
Solution Eliminating the first feedback loop we get:
1
G1 ( s ) 
G

2
s  0 .7 s  1
1  GH 1  1
x
2
s 2  0 .7 s  1 s  2
( s  2)
 2
( s  0.7 s  1)( s  2)  2
Eliminating the second feedback
loop we get:
2( s  2)
C (s) ( s  0.7 s  1)( s  2)  2
2
T (s)  
R( s) 1  2 s ( s  2)
( s 2  0.7 s  1)( s  2)  2
2( s  2)
 2
( s  0.7 s  1)( s  2)  2  2 s ( s  2)
2( s  2)
 3
s  0 .7 s 2  s  2 s 2  1 .4 s  2  2  2 s 2  2 s
2( s  2 )
 3
s  4 . 7 s 2  4 .4 s  4
Example 1.9 Solution For the antenna azimuth position control system shown in
the figure below, if this system schematic parameters are as follows:
Potentiometer Differential and Power Motor Transfer The Geer system
Parameter
(Kpot) Amplifier Transfer Function Function N1 N2 N3
100 0 .5
Value Kpot = 0.15 V/1° G A

s  25
G M  s(0.2  1) 20 200 200
For this system perform

the following:
a) Draw the system closed
loop transfer function.
b) Apply the block diagram
reduction method to
obtain the total transfer
function T(s) = o(s)/i(s).

a) The system closed loop transfer function is shown:
b) The total transfer function

T(s) = o(s)/i(s) is calculated as follows:
0. 5
G1  G A GM GGear 
s (0.25s  1)( s  25)
G1 ( s )
T ( s )  K Pot x
1  K Pot G1 ( s )
 0.5 
(0.15) 
T (s)   s(0.2s  1)( s  25)   0.075

0.075
 015x0.5  s(0.2s  1)( s  25)  0.075 0.2s 3  6s 2  25s  0.075
1   
 s ( 0.2 s  1)( s  25) 
1.4 Signal Flow Graph Model
1.4.1 Definitions
• Node: a point representing a signal or variable.
• Branch: unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.
• Path: a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed
from one node to another node.
• Loop: a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node and
along the path no node is met twice.
• Nontouching loops: two loops are said to be nontouching if they do not have
a common node.
Fig. 20 Signal Flow Graph Model.

1.4.2 Flow graphs of control systems



1.4.4 Mason’s Signal Flow Graph Gain Formula
• The transfer function T(s) of a closed loop control system is:
C (s) k p k  k
T (s)  
R(s) 
• Where
∆ = 1 – Σ(All different loop gains)
+ Σ(Gain products of all combinations of two non-touching loops)
- Σ(Gain products of all combinations of three non-touching loops)
+ …
• Pk : The paths connecting the input R(s) and the output C(s).
• ∆k : is ∆ with the loops touching the kth path removed.

1.4.4 Mason’s Signal Flow Graph Gain Formula
Example 1.10 Calculate the TF, T(s) = Y(s) / R(s) of the system for the LTI system
described by the following signal flow graph model.
Solution
1. Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for each forward path k.
P1  G1G2G3G4
P2  G5G6G7G8
2. Calculate all loop TF’s.
L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 ,
L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7
3. Consider nontouching loops 2 at a time.

– Loops L1 do not touch Loops L3 and L4
– Loops L2 do not touch Loops L3 and L4
1.4 Signal Flow Graph Models P1  G1G2G3G4
1.4.4 Mason’s Signal Flow Graph Gain Formula P2  G5G6G7G8
Example 1.10 Solution L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 ,
4. Calculate Δ.
L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7
  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1L3  L1L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 
  1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 
 G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  G3 H 3G6 H 6  G3 H 3G7 H 7 
5. Calculate Δk for each forward path.
1  1  L3  L4   1  (G6 H 6  G7 H 7 )
 2  1  L1  L2   1  (G2 H 2  G3 H 3 )
6. The TF of the system is
C ( s ) P11  P2  2
T (s)  
R( s) 
G1G2G3G4 1  (G6 H 6  G7 H 7 )   G5G6G7G8 1  (G2 H 2  G3 H 3 ) 

1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  G3 H 3G6 H 6  G3 H 3G7 H 7 

Example 1.11 For the control system described by Signal Flow Graph (SFG),
perform the following:
a) Obtain the total transfer function C(s)/R(s) by using Masons’s gain formula.
b) From this signal flow graph (SFG), obtain and draw the equivalent block
diagram.
c) Using block diagram reduction method, obtain the total transfer function
C(s)/R(s).
Solution a) Mason’s Signal Flow Graph Gain Formula to determine the transfer
function T(s) of a closed loop control system is:
C (s) k p k  k
T (s)  
R(s) 
Where
∆ = 1 – Σ(All different loop gains)
+ Σ(Gain products of all combinations of two non-touching loops)
- Σ(Gain products of all combinations of three non-touching loops)
Pk : The paths connecting the input R(s) and the output C(s).
∆k : is ∆ with the loops touching the kth path removed
1. Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for each forward path k as:
1 1  1  100
P1  100   5  2 and P2  100  
500
ss s s s
2. Calculate all loop TF’s as:
2 3  1  1   500 1  100
L1  , L2  , L3  100  5 1  2 and L4  100  1 
s s  s  s  s s s
3. L1 and L2 are nontouching loops at a time.
4. Calculate Δ as:
 2 3 500 100  6
  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   ( L1 L2 )  1      2 
105 506
  2  1  2
 s s s s  s s s
5. Calculate Δk for each forward path as:
1  1 and 2  1
6. The TF of the system is calculated as:
500 100
x1  x1
C ( s ) P11  P2  2 s 2
s 100 s  500 100( s  5)
T (s)     2  2
R( s)  1
105 506
 2 s  105s  506 s  105s  506
s s
b) The equivalent block diagram is shown below:
c) 1. Moving a pickoff point behind the block, we get:
2. Eliminating the feedback loops: (1/s and 2), (1/s and 3) and Parallel (s and 5)
we get:

b)
3. Combing the four blocks in Cascade, we get:
4. Similarly eliminating the third feedback loop we get:
100( s  5)
( s  2)( s  3) 100( s  5) 100( s  5)
T (s)     2
100( s  5) ( s  2)( s  3)  100( s  5) ( s  5s  506)
1
( s  2)( s  3)

Example 1.12 For the control system described by the block diagram shown,
perform the following:
a) Obtain the equivalent signal flow graph (SFG).
b) Obtain the total transfer function C(s)/R(s) by using Masons’s gain formula.
Solution a) The SFG is shown.
b) Mason’s SFG Gain Formula is:
C (s) k p k  k
T (s)  
R(s) 
2  2s
L1  , L2 
( s  2)( s  0.7 s  1)
2
( s 2  0.7 s  1)
  1  L1  L2    1  L1  L2   1  ( L1  L2 )  1 
2  2 s ( s  2)
( s  2)( s 2  0.7 s  1)
2
P1  1  1
s 2  0.7 s  1
2
x1
C ( s ) P11 s 2
0 . 7 s  1 2( s  2 )
T (s)     3
R( s)  2  2 s ( s  2) s  4 . 7 s 2
 4. 4 s  4
1
( s  2)( s  0.7 s  1)
2

• The Laplace Transform, F(s) of time function f(t) is given by:
• Examples of some standard functions are listed as:

• Some Laplace Transform Theorems are listed as:

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GEE338 Linear Control Systems

Fig. 1.1 Simplified description of a control system or block diagram.

Fig. 1.2 A Process to be controlled.

Fig. 1.3 Manual Liquid-level

Fig. 1.4 Automatic Liquid-level control system

7 of 70 GEE338 Ch.1 Math Models Prof Fawzy Ibrahim

Property Categories of Control Systems

# of Control single variable control

Classical representation State Space Representation

Control Type manual control automatic control

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• A Servo System (or

Fig. 1.5 (c) A feedback model .

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Fig. 1.8 System Block diagram.

5. Assembly the elements into a complete block diagram

• Differential equations describing the dynamic performance for a physical

2.Mechanical (translational and rotational) systems.

3.Electro Mechanical Elements

4.Fluid, hydraulic and thermodynamic systems.

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Time Domain Laplace Domain

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Transfer function of Integrator Transfer function of Differentiator

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Free body diagram M

Free body diagram M1 Free body diagram M2

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Transfer Function for:

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Fig. 1.14 Components of a block diagram .

Fig. 1.15 Reduction of cascaded blocks .

(a) Behind the block

(b) Ahead of the block

Fig. 1.16 Moving a summing point.

(a) Behind the block

(b) Ahead of the block

Fig. 1.17 Moving a pickoff point.

Fig. 18 Equivalent transfer function for parallel subsystems .

Similarly for positive feedback:

Fig. 19 Equivalent transfer function for feedback control system.

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2. Combing G1 and G2 in Cascade, we get:

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4. Eliminating the feedback loop G1, G2 and H1 we get:

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6. Similarly eliminating the third feedback loop we get:

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Then the total transfer function, T(s) becomes:

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For this system perform

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b) The total transfer function