Student Handbook

FUNDAMENTALS OF
DRILLING & WORKOVER
OPERATIONS

SAUDI ARABIAN DRILLING ACADEMY (SADA)

Published by SADA with support of Saudi Aramco Drilling & Workover
December 2018 1
 © Copyright Saudi Arabian Drilling Academy, 2018
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of Saudi Arabian Drilling Academy or Saudi Aramco.
 Preface

The Fundamentals of Drilling and Workover Operations textbook has been published in 2018 to serve
as a reference book for Saudi Arabian Drilling Academy (SADA) students.
This textbook has been designed for readers that have none or limited knowledge on the subject of
Rig Drilling. The textbook covers a wide range of topics related to “ Drilling & Workover Operations”,
beginning from the origin of hydrocarbons, rotary drilling, major rig types and systems to common
operations, common practices in modern drilling and workover. The textbook is edited and intended
to raise the knowledge of its readers on the subjects covered to the level of ‘awareness.’ Therefore,
this book can be considered as a foundation for higher level of technical education on the
fundamentals of drilling and wellsite operations. The manual is well structured to represent the order
of operations normally being practiced on a real life rig drilling operation.
Relevant Saudi Aramco handbooks and manuals have extensively been used in the development of
this textbook. The sections that have extensive use of Saudi Aramco materials have been cited and
listed at the last page of the this textbook. It is also worth mentioning that it would not have been
possible to come up with this reference book without the generous support received from Saudi
Aramco and (SADA) stake holders.

SADA appreciates all stakeholders for their contribution to the program development.
Table of Contents
1. HYDROCARBONS ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS IN OUR DAILY LIFE ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 ORIGIN OF OIL AND GAS .................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS FOR SAUDI ARABIA .................................................................................... 4
2. HYDROCARBONS LIFE CYCLE ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 HOW TO EXPLORE AND EXTRACT HYDROCARBONS .......................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Seismic phase ............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.2 Exploration phase ...................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Appraisal phase (Drilling field boundaries wells) ....................................................................................... 7
2.1.4 Development phase (Drilling field wells) ................................................................................................... 7
2.1.5 Maintenance phase (work over) ................................................................................................................ 7
2.1.6 Abandonment phase .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 COMPANİES WORK İN DRİLLİNG İNDUSTRY ................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Operator company ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Drilling contractor company ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.3 Service company ........................................................................................................................................ 8
2.2.4 Inspection company ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.5 Catering company ...................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.6 Transportation company ............................................................................................................................ 8
2.2.7 Training company ....................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.8 Companies Contributering in SADA ........................................................................................................... 9
2.3 SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
3. ROTARY DRILLING PROCESS .............................................................................................................................. 12
3.1 ROTARY DRILLING OVERVIEW.......................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 OIL AND GAS WELLS DRILLING SEQUENCES ..................................................................................................... 14
3.3 EXERCISE ............................................................................................................................................................ 21
4. DRILLING RIGS & TYPES .................................................................................................................................... 22
4.1 ONSHORE DRILLING RIGS ................................................................................................................................. 22
4.2 OFFSHORE DRILLING RIGS................................................................................................................................ 23
4.2.1 Jack-up Rigs .............................................................................................................................................. 23
4.2.2 Semi-Submersible Rigs ............................................................................................................................. 24
4.2.3 Drill Ship ................................................................................................................................................... 24
4.3 EXERCISE ............................................................................................................................................................ 25
5. MAJOR RIG SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................................ 27
5.1 POWER SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................... 27
5.1.1 Diesel Engines .......................................................................................................................................... 27
5.1.2 Generators ............................................................................................................................................... 28
5.1.3 SCR Room ................................................................................................................................................. 28
5.1.4 VFD Room................................................................................................................................................. 28
5.1.5 Cabling...................................................................................................................................................... 29
5.1.6 Diesel tanks .............................................................................................................................................. 29
5.1.7 Exercise .................................................................................................................................................... 30
5.2 HOISTING SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................... 32
 5.2.1 Derrick ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
5.2.2 Monkey Board and Stabbing Board ......................................................................................................... 33
5.2.3 Crown Block ............................................................................................................................................. 34
5.2.4 Traveling Block ......................................................................................................................................... 34
5.2.5 Hook ......................................................................................................................................................... 35
5.2.6 Drawworks ............................................................................................................................................... 35
5.2.7 Drill Line ................................................................................................................................................... 36
5.2.8 Deadline Anchor....................................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.9 The Top Drive ........................................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.10 Exercise .................................................................................................................................................... 38
5.3 CIRCULATING SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................... 42
5.3.1 Water pit .................................................................................................................................................. 43
5.3.2 Mud Mixing Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 43
5.3.2.1 Mixing Hopper ..................................................................................................................................................... 43
5.3.2.2 Mixing Pump ........................................................................................................................................................ 43
5.3.3 Mud Tanks ................................................................................................................................................ 44
5.3.3.1 Suction tank ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
5.3.3.2 Intermediate tank ................................................................................................................................................ 44
5.3.3.3 Sand trap ............................................................................................................................................................. 44
5.3.3.4 Settle tank............................................................................................................................................................ 44
5.3.3.5 Trip tank .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
5.3.3.6 Slug tank .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
5.3.4 Mud Agitator ............................................................................................................................................ 44
5.3.5 Mud Pumps .............................................................................................................................................. 45
5.3.6 Piping and Hoses ...................................................................................................................................... 45
5.3.7 Standpipe manifold .................................................................................................................................. 45
5.3.8 Stand pipe ................................................................................................................................................ 46
5.3.9 Rotary Hose .............................................................................................................................................. 46
5.3.10 Swivel ....................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.3.11 Drill String................................................................................................................................................. 47
5.3.12 Mud Return Line ...................................................................................................................................... 48
5.3.13 Solids Control Equipment......................................................................................................................... 48
5.3.14.1 Shale shaker......................................................................................................................................................... 49
5.3.14.2 Desander, Desilter, and Mud Cleaner .................................................................................................................. 49
5.3.15 Reserve pit ............................................................................................................................................... 49
5.3.1 Exercise .................................................................................................................................................... 50
5.4 ROTATING SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................................ 52
5.4.1 Kelly drive system .................................................................................................................................... 52
5.4.1.1 The Swivel ............................................................................................................................................................ 53
5.4.1.2 Kelly ..................................................................................................................................................................... 53
5.4.1.3 Kelly bushing ........................................................................................................................................................ 54
5.4.1.4 Master bushing .................................................................................................................................................... 54
5.4.1.5 Rotary table ......................................................................................................................................................... 55
5.4.2 Top drive system ...................................................................................................................................... 56
5.4.3 Drill String................................................................................................................................................. 57
5.4.3.1 BHA “Bottom Hole Assembly”.............................................................................................................................. 57
5.4.3.2 Drill Bit ................................................................................................................................................................. 58
5.4.3.3 Drill collar ............................................................................................................................................................ 58
5.4.3.4 Stabilizer .............................................................................................................................................................. 59
5.4.3.5 Reamer ................................................................................................................................................................ 59
5.4.3.6 Jar ........................................................................................................................................................................ 60
 5.4.3.7 Heavy weight drill pipe (HWDP) .......................................................................................................................... 60
5.4.3.8 Subs. .................................................................................................................................................................... 61
5.4.3.9 Float valve (NRV) ................................................................................................................................................. 63
5.4.3.10 Drill pipe .............................................................................................................................................................. 64
5.4.4 Drilling Console ........................................................................................................................................ 65
5.4.5 Exercise .................................................................................................................................................... 66
5.5 WELL CONTROL SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................. 71
5.5.1 Well control Principle & procedure (P&P) ............................................................................................... 75
5.5.1.1 Formations fluid................................................................................................................................................... 76
5.5.1.2 Formation properties ........................................................................................................................................... 77
5.5.1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure ............................................................................................................................................ 78
5.5.1.1 Bottom hole pressure (BHP)................................................................................................................................. 78
5.5.1.2 Pressure Gradient (PG) ........................................................................................................................................ 78
5.5.1.3 Formation Pressure.............................................................................................................................................. 79
5.5.1.4 Fracture Pressure ................................................................................................................................................. 80
5.5.1.5 Types of Drilling ................................................................................................................................................... 81
5.5.1.6 Kick ...................................................................................................................................................................... 84
5.5.1.7 Blowout ............................................................................................................................................................... 85
5.5.1.8 Primary well control............................................................................................................................................. 86
5.5.1.9 Secondary well control......................................................................................................................................... 87
5.5.2 Well control equipment ........................................................................................................................... 88
5.5.2.1 Diverter ................................................................................................................................................................ 89
5.5.2.2 BOP Stack ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
5.5.2.3 Annular Preventer................................................................................................................................................ 91
5.5.2.4 Single / Double Ram BOP ..................................................................................................................................... 92
5.5.2.5 Types of ram ........................................................................................................................................................ 93
5.5.2.6 Drilling Spool (Mud Cross) ................................................................................................................................... 96
5.5.2.7 Kill line ................................................................................................................................................................. 97
5.5.2.8 Choke line ............................................................................................................................................................ 98
5.5.2.9 Accumulator Unit (Koomey unit) ......................................................................................................................... 99
5.5.2.10 BOP Remote Control Panel ................................................................................................................................ 100
5.5.2.11 Choke Manifold ................................................................................................................................................. 101
5.5.2.12 Remote choke control panel (SWACO)............................................................................................................... 102
5.5.2.13 Mud Gas Separator............................................................................................................................................ 103
5.5.2.14 Full Opening Safety Valve (Gray-valve).............................................................................................................. 104
5.5.2.15 I-BOP .................................................................................................................................................................. 105
5.5.3 Exercise .................................................................................................................................................. 106
5.6 HANDLING EQUIPMENT & TOOLS .................................................................................................................. 112
5.6.1 Elevator links .......................................................................................................................................... 113
5.6.2 Elevator .................................................................................................................................................. 113
5.6.3 Drill pipe slips ......................................................................................................................................... 114
5.6.4 Drill collar & Casing slips ........................................................................................................................ 114
5.6.5 Safety Clamp .......................................................................................................................................... 115
5.6.6 Chain tong .............................................................................................................................................. 115
5.6.7 Rig Tong .................................................................................................................................................. 116
5.6.8 Iron Roughneck ...................................................................................................................................... 117
5.6.9 Drill pipe Spinner .................................................................................................................................... 117
5.6.10 Kelly Spinner........................................................................................................................................... 118
5.6.11 Tugger/Winch ........................................................................................................................................ 118
5.6.12 Bit breaker .............................................................................................................................................. 119
5.6.1 Hammer ................................................................................................................................................. 120
5.6.2 Hammer wrench .................................................................................................................................... 120
 5.6.3 Pipe wrench ........................................................................................................................................... 120
5.6.4 Exercise .................................................................................................................................................. 121
5.7 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 123
6. EXERCISE SET-1 ............................................................................................................................................... 124
7. GENERAL & RIG MATHEMATICS...................................................................................................................... 131
7.1 GENERAL MATHEMATICS .............................................................................................................................. 131
7.1.1 ADDITION ............................................................................................................................................... 131
7.1.1 SUBTRACTION ........................................................................................................................................ 133
7.1.2 MULTIPLICATION .................................................................................................................................... 136
7.1.3 DIVISION ................................................................................................................................................. 138
7.1.4 APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 139
7.1.4.1 Parenthesis ........................................................................................................................................................ 139
7.1.4.2 Exponential ........................................................................................................................................................ 139
7.1.4.3 Multiplication .................................................................................................................................................... 139
7.1.5 EXERCISE ................................................................................................................................................ 140
7.2 BASIC RIG MATHEMATICS .............................................................................................................................. 143
7.2.1 LENGTH CALCULATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 143
7.2.1.1 English system for measurements: .................................................................................................................... 143
7.2.1.2 SI system for measurements: ............................................................................................................................. 144
7.2.1.3 Conversion between SI units & English units: .................................................................................................... 144
7.2.1.4 Rig tape ............................................................................................................................................................. 145
7.2.2 AREA CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 147
7.2.2.1 Square:............................................................................................................................................................... 147
7.2.2.2 Rectangle: .......................................................................................................................................................... 147
7.2.2.3 Triangle:............................................................................................................................................................. 147
7.2.2.4 Trapezoid: .......................................................................................................................................................... 148
7.2.2.5 Circle .................................................................................................................................................................. 148
7.2.2.6 Annular area & cross section area ..................................................................................................................... 149
7.2.3 VOLUME CALCULATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 150
7.2.3.1 Volume of cuboids (Mud tanks): ........................................................................................................................ 150
7.2.3.2 Volume of cylinders: .......................................................................................................................................... 152
7.2.3.3 Annular capacity ................................................................................................................................................ 154
7.2.3.4 Metal displacement ........................................................................................................................................... 155
7.2.4 EXERCISES............................................................................................................................................... 156
8. DRILL BITS ....................................................................................................................................................... 166
8.1 FIXED CUTTER BITS ............................................................................................................................................. 166
8.1.1 Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bits (PDC) ........................................................................................ 167
8.1.2 Natural Diamond Bits ............................................................................................................................. 168
8.1.3 Thermally Stable Polycrystalline (TSP) Bits ............................................................................................ 168
8.1.4 Impregnated Diamond Bits ................................................................................................................ 169
8.2 ROLLER CONE BITS ...................................................................................................................................... 170
8.2.1 Milled Tooth Bits .................................................................................................................................... 170
8.2.2 Tungsten Carbide Insert Bits ............................................................................................................. 171
8.3 EXERCISE ...................................................................................................................................................... 172
9. DRILLING FLUIDS............................................................................................................................................. 175
9.1 DRILLING FLUIDS OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 175
9.2 DRILLING FLUIDS FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 175
 9.2.1 Transport cuttings .................................................................................................................................. 175
9.2.2 Release the cuttings at the surface ........................................................................................................ 175
9.2.3 Suspend cuttings when circulating is interrupted .................................................................................. 176
9.2.4 Control formation pressures .................................................................................................................. 176
9.2.5 Cool and lubricate the bit and drilling assembly .................................................................................... 177
9.2.6 Maintain wellbore stability .................................................................................................................... 177
9.2.7 Provide Buoyancy for the Drill String ..................................................................................................... 178
9.2.8 Protect formation productivity .............................................................................................................. 178
9.2.9 Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit ............................................................................................ 178
9.2.10 Ensure adequate formation evaluation ................................................................................................. 179
9.3 DRILLING FLUIDS TYPES ................................................................................................................................. 179
9.3.1 Air ........................................................................................................................................................... 179
9.3.2 Air/water ................................................................................................................................................ 179
9.3.3 Air/polymer ............................................................................................................................................ 179
9.3.4 Water ..................................................................................................................................................... 179
9.3.5 Water‐based mud (WBM) ...................................................................................................................... 179
9.3.6 Oil‐based mud (OBM) ............................................................................................................................ 179
9.3.7 Synthetic‐based fluid (SBM) ................................................................................................................... 180
9.4 PROPERTIES OF MUD ........................................................................................................................................... 180
9.4.1 Drilling fluids properties and testing equipment: .................................................................................. 180
9.4.1.1 Density ............................................................................................................................................................... 180
9.4.1.2 Viscosity ............................................................................................................................................................. 181
9.4.1.3 Rheology ............................................................................................................................................................ 181
9.4.1.4 Fluid loss ............................................................................................................................................................ 182

10. CASING COMPONENTS AND ACCESSORIES ................................................................................................. 184

10.1 CASING STRINGS ............................................................................................................................................ 184
10.1.1 CONDUCTOR CASING ............................................................................................................................. 184
10.1.2 SURFACE CASING.................................................................................................................................... 184
10.1.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING .......................................................................................................................... 185
10.1.4 PRODUCTION CASING ............................................................................................................................ 185
10.1.5 LINER ...................................................................................................................................................... 185
10.2 CASING PROPERTIES ...................................................................................................................................... 186
10.3 CASING COUPLINGS & THREADS .................................................................................................................... 186
10.4 CASING ACCESSORIES .................................................................................................................................... 187
10.4.1 FLOAT (GUIDE) SHOE .............................................................................................................................. 187
10.4.2 FLOAT COLLAR ........................................................................................................................................ 187
10.4.3 DV TOOL ................................................................................................................................................. 188
10.4.4 CENTRALIZER/STOP COLLARS ................................................................................................................. 188
10.5 CASING RUNNING TOOLS .............................................................................................................................. 189
10.5.1 ELEVATORS ............................................................................................................................................. 189
10.5.2 POWER TONGS ....................................................................................................................................... 189
10.5.3 SPIDER SLIP............................................................................................................................................. 190
10.6 CASING MILLING/CLEANING TOOLS .............................................................................................................. 190
10.6.1 STRING MILL OR WATERMELON MILL.................................................................................................... 190
10.6.2 SCRAPERS ............................................................................................................................................... 191
10.1 PREPARING CASINGS ..................................................................................................................................... 192
11. CEMENTING OPERATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 194
 11.1 PRIMARY CEMENTING ................................................................................................................................... 194
11.1.1 Cementing Procedure: ........................................................................................................................... 195
11.1.2 Cementing Equipment: .......................................................................................................................... 195
11.1.3 Cementing Operation:............................................................................................................................ 197
11.2 SQUEEZE CEMENTING ................................................................................................................................... 197
11.3 PLUG BACK CEMENTING ................................................................................................................................ 198
11.3.1 Well or zone abandonment: .................................................................................................................. 198
11.3.2 Temporary well or zone abandonment. Zonal isolation or well stability: ............................................. 198
11.3.3 Enable drilling through fracture or weak formations. Directional drilling (kick-off plugs): ................... 198
12. WELL HEAD................................................................................................................................................. 200
12.1 EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................................................... 200
Landing Base .......................................................................................................................................... 200
Casing Hanger ........................................................................................................................................ 200
Casing Spools ......................................................................................................................................... 201
Tubing Spools ......................................................................................................................................... 201
Tubing Hanger ........................................................................................................................................ 202
Production Tree ..................................................................................................................................... 202
12.2 INSTALLING A LANDING BASE ON A LANDRIG ................................................................................................ 203
12.3 INSTALLING A CASING SPOOL ........................................................................................................................ 203
Nipple Down BOP ................................................................................................................................... 203
Set Casing Hanger/Slips.......................................................................................................................... 203
Cut the Casing ........................................................................................................................................ 203
Nipple Up the Casing Spool .................................................................................................................... 204
Pressure Test the Casing Spool .............................................................................................................. 204
Nipple Up the BOP ................................................................................................................................. 204
12.4 INSTALLING BOPS ........................................................................................................................................... 204
13. EXERCISE SET-II ........................................................................................................................................... 206
14. DIRECTIONAL DRILLING .............................................................................................................................. 214
14.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................................... 214
14.2 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 214
14.2.1 Multiple wells from offshore structures ................................................................................................ 214
14.2.2 Relief Wells ............................................................................................................................................ 214
14.2.3 Controlling Vertical Wells....................................................................................................................... 215
14.2.4 Sidetracking ............................................................................................................................................ 215
14.2.5 Sidetracking Into Multiple Sands From A Single Wellbore ..................................................................... 215
14.2.6 Inaccessible locations ............................................................................................................................. 216
14.2.7 Fault Drilling ........................................................................................................................................... 216
14.2.8 Salt Dome Drilling................................................................................................................................... 216
14.2.9 Shoreline Drilling .................................................................................................................................... 217
14.3 EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................................................... 217
14.3.1 Downhole Motors .................................................................................................................................. 217
14.3.2 Stabilizers ............................................................................................................................................... 218
14.3.3 Bend Sub ................................................................................................................................................ 218
14.3.4 Whipstock .............................................................................................................................................. 218
14.4 SURVEYING .................................................................................................................................................... 219
14.4.1 MWD ...................................................................................................................................................... 219
 14.4.2 LWD ........................................................................................................................................................ 220
15. SLICKLINE AND WIRELINE ........................................................................................................................... 222
15.1 SLICKLINE ....................................................................................................................................................... 222
15.2 WIRELINE LOGGING ....................................................................................................................................... 223
15.3 WELL LOGGING METHODS............................................................................................................................. 223
16. COILED TUBING .......................................................................................................................................... 226
16.1 OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................................................... 226
16.2 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 226
16.2.1 Circulation .............................................................................................................................................. 226
16.2.2 Pumping ................................................................................................................................................. 226
16.2.3 Coiled Tubing Drilling ............................................................................................................................. 227
16.2.4 Logging and perforating ......................................................................................................................... 227
16.2.5 Production .............................................................................................................................................. 228
16.3 MAIN PARTS OF A CT SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................ 229
16.3.1 Tubing Injector Assembly ....................................................................................................................... 230
16.3.2 Tubing Guide Arch .................................................................................................................................. 230
16.3.3 Service Reel ............................................................................................................................................ 231
16.3.4 Power Supply / Prime Mover. ................................................................................................................ 231
16.3.5 Control Console and Monitoring Equipment. ........................................................................................ 232
16.4 WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................................ 232
16.5 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 233
17. WELL COMPLETION .................................................................................................................................... 235
17.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................................... 235
17.2 HOW DOES WELL COMPLETION WORK? ................................................................................................................ 235
17.3 COMPLETION TYPES ...................................................................................................................................... 235
17.3.1 Open hole ............................................................................................................................................... 235
17.3.2 Liner ....................................................................................................................................................... 235
17.3.3 Cased Hole ............................................................................................................................................. 235
17.4 PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................................ 236
17.4.1 PRODUCTION TUBING ............................................................................................................................ 236
17.4.2 PRODUCTION PACKER ............................................................................................................................ 237
17.5 HORIZONTAL WELL COMPLETION ........................................................................................................................... 238
17.6 MULTILATERAL WELL COMPLETION TYPE ................................................................................................................. 239
17.7 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 240
18. DRILLING INDUSTRY PERSONNEL AND CAREER PROGRESSION ................................................................... 242
18.1 OPERATOR COMPANY JOB PROFILE............................................................................................................... 242
18.1.1 Rig Foreman (Company man)................................................................................................................. 242
18.1.2 Assistant Rig Foreman (if available) ....................................................................................................... 242
18.2 DRILLING CONTRACTOR JOB PROFILES .......................................................................................................... 242
18.2.1 Roustabout ............................................................................................................................................. 242
18.2.2 Floorman/Roughneck ............................................................................................................................. 242
18.2.3 Derrickman ............................................................................................................................................. 243
18.2.4 Assistant Driller ...................................................................................................................................... 243
18.2.5 Driller...................................................................................................................................................... 243
18.2.6 Tool pusher ............................................................................................................................................ 243
 18.2.7 Mud Engineer ......................................................................................................................................... 244
18.2.8 Barge Engineer (offshore rigs) ............................................................................................................... 244
18.2.9 Rig Mechanic .......................................................................................................................................... 244
18.2.10 Mechanic helper .................................................................................................................................... 244
18.2.11 Rig Electrician ......................................................................................................................................... 245
18.2.12 Electrician Helper ................................................................................................................................... 245
18.2.13 Crane operator ....................................................................................................................................... 245
18.2.14 Rig Welder .............................................................................................................................................. 245
18.2.15 Safety Advisor ........................................................................................................................................ 246
18.3 SERVICE COMPANY JOB PROFILES ................................................................................................................. 246
18.3.1 Wireline Junior Operator ....................................................................................................................... 246
18.3.2 Wireline Operator .................................................................................................................................. 246
18.3.3 Slickline Junior Operator ........................................................................................................................ 247
18.3.4 Slickline Operator ................................................................................................................................... 247
18.3.5 Coil Tubing Junior Operator ................................................................................................................... 247
18.3.6 Coil Tubing Operator .............................................................................................................................. 247
18.3.7 Stimulation Junior Operator .................................................................................................................. 248
18.3.8 Stimulation Operator ............................................................................................................................. 248
18.3.9 Cementing Junior Operator ................................................................................................................... 248
18.3.10 Cementing Operator .............................................................................................................................. 248
18.3.11 Casing/Tubular Junior Operator ............................................................................................................. 249
18.3.12 Casing/Tubular Operator ....................................................................................................................... 249
18.3.13 Liner Hanger Junior Operator ................................................................................................................ 249
18.3.14 Liner Hanger Operator ........................................................................................................................... 249
18.3.15 Well Testing Junior Operator ................................................................................................................. 250
18.3.16 Well Testing Operator ............................................................................................................................ 250
18.3.17 Completion Tools Junior Operator ......................................................................................................... 250
18.3.18 Completion Tools Operator ................................................................................................................... 250
18.3.19 Mud Logging Operator ........................................................................................................................... 251
18.3.20 Workshop Assistant Technician-Mechanic ............................................................................................ 251
18.3.21 Workshop Assistant Technician- Electrician .......................................................................................... 251
18.4 RIG ORGANISATION CHART ........................................................................................................................... 252
18.5 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 252
19. COMMUNICATION SKILLS ........................................................................................................................... 254
19.1 LISTEN, LISTEN, AND LISTEN........................................................................................................................... 254
19.2 WHO YOU ARE TALKING TO MATTERS. .......................................................................................................... 254
19.3 BODY LANGUAGE MATTERS. ......................................................................................................................... 254
19.4 ASK QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 254
19.5 BE BRIEF, YET SPECIFIC. .................................................................................................................................. 254
19.6 WRITE THINGS DOWN. .................................................................................................................................. 254
19.7 SOMETIMES IT’S BETTER TO PICK UP THE PHONE. ......................................................................................... 254
19.8 THINK BEFORE YOU SPEAK. ............................................................................................................................ 255
19.9 TREAT EVERYONE EQUALLY. .......................................................................................................................... 255
19.10 MAINTAIN A POSITIVE ATTITUDE AND SMILE. ........................................................................................... 255
19.11 SUMMARIZE .............................................................................................................................................. 255
20. UNIT CONVERSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 257
21. GLOSSARY OF DRILLING REPORT ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................... 258
22. EXERCISE SET-III .......................................................................................................................................... 264

Table of Figures
Figure 1 Importance of hydrocarbon in our daily life ........................................................................................ 2
Figure 2 Total Petroleum system ....................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 3 Top global oil reserves ......................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4 OPEC countries oil production percentages ........................................................................................ 5
Figure 5 Seismic Operation ................................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 6 Surface Facilities................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Historical pictures for rotary drilling .................................................................................................. 12
Figure 8 Rotary drilling rig ................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 9 On-shore drilling rig Figure 10 workover rig ................................................................................ 22
Figure 11 Types of offshore rigs ....................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 12 Jack-up drilling rig ............................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 13 Semi-submersible Drilling Rig .......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 14 Drill Ship ........................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 15 Diesel Engines .................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 16 Generators ....................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 17 VFD Room......................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 18 Cabling .............................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 19 Electrical Cable Plug Board............................................................................................................... 29
Figure 20 Diesel tanks ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 21 Hoisting Systems .............................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 22 Derrick, Monkey and stabbing board............................................................................................... 33
Figure 23 Crown Block ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 24 Traveling block & Hook .................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 25 Hook ................................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 26 Drawworks ....................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 27 Drill Line ........................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 28 Deadline Anchor............................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 29 The Top Drive ................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 30 Circulating System ............................................................................................................................ 42
Figure 31 Hopper ............................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 32 Mud mixing pump ............................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 33 Mud Tanks ........................................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 34 Mud Agitator .................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 35 Mud Pumps ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 36 Piping & Hoses ................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 37 Standpipe Manifold .......................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 38 Standpipe ......................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 39 Rotary Hose ...................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 40 Swivels .............................................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 41 Drill String ......................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 42 Return flow line................................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 43 Shale Shakers ................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 44 Mud cleaner ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 45 Kelly drive system components ....................................................................................................... 52
Figure 46 Swivel ............................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 47 Kelly .................................................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 48 Kelly bushing .................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 49 Master bushing ................................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 50 Rotary table...................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 51 Top Drive System.............................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 52 Drill bits ............................................................................................................................................ 58
Figure 53 Drill collar ......................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 54 Stabilizer........................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 55 Reamer ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 56 Jar ..................................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 57 Heavy weight drill pipe..................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 58 Different types of subs ..................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 59 Lifting sub ......................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 60 Shock sub.......................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 61 Shock sub components ..................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 62 Float valve ........................................................................................................................................ 63
Figure 63 Drill pipe single and stands .............................................................................................................. 64
Figure 64 Drilling console ................................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 65 Impact of blowout on environment ................................................................................................. 73
Figure 66 Rigs blowout..................................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 67 Formation fluid content ................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 68 Formation Porosity ........................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 69 Formation Permeability ................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 70 Hydrostatic Pressure ........................................................................................................................ 78
Figure 71 Formation Pressure .......................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 72 Fracture Pressure ............................................................................................................................. 80
Figure 73 Balance drilling................................................................................................................................. 81
Figure 74 Over balance drilling ........................................................................................................................ 82
Figure 75 Under balance drilling ...................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 76 Kick ................................................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 77 Blow out ........................................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 78 Primary well control ......................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 79 Secondary well control ..................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 80 Blowout Preventer (BOP) ................................................................................................................. 88
Figure 81 Diverter ............................................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 82 BOP Stack ......................................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 83 Annular BOP ..................................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 84 Single Ram BOP ................................................................................................................................ 92
Figure 85 Double Ram BOP .............................................................................................................................. 92
Figure 86 Pipe Ram .......................................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 87 Variable Bore Ram ........................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 88 Blind Ram ......................................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 89 Blind Shear Ram ............................................................................................................................... 95
Figure 90 Mud Cross (Drilling Spool) ................................................................................................................ 96
Figure 91 Ring Gasket ...................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 92 Kill line .............................................................................................................................................. 97
Figure 93 Choke line ......................................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 94 Accumulator Unit ............................................................................................................................. 99
Figure 95 BOP Remote Control Panel ............................................................................................................. 100
Figure 96 Choke Manifold .............................................................................................................................. 101
Figure 97 Remote choke control panel (SWACO) ........................................................................................... 102
Figure 98 Mud Gas Separator ........................................................................................................................ 103
Figure 99 Full opening safety valve (Gray valve)............................................................................................ 104
Figure 100 I-BOP ............................................................................................................................................ 105
Figure 101 Elevator links ................................................................................................................................ 113
Figure 102 Elevators....................................................................................................................................... 113
Figure 103 Drill pipe slips ............................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 104 Drill collar and casing slips ........................................................................................................... 114
Figure 105 Drill collar safety clamp ................................................................................................................ 115
Figure 106 Chain tong and usage on rig floor ................................................................................................ 115
Figure 107 Rig tong and Make-up connection operations............................................................................. 116
Figure 108 Iron roughneck ............................................................................................................................. 117
Figure 109 Drill pipe spinner .......................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 110 Kelly spinner ................................................................................................................................. 118
Figure 111 Air winch ...................................................................................................................................... 118
Figure 112 Bit breaker .................................................................................................................................... 119
Figure 113 Hammer ....................................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 114 Hammer wrench .......................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 115 Pipe wrench.................................................................................................................................. 120
Figure 116 Rig tape ........................................................................................................................................ 145
Figure 117 Differences between normal measuring and rig tape measuring ............................................... 146
Figure 118 Typical PDC Bit ............................................................................................................................. 167
Figure 119 Natural Diamond Bit .................................................................................................................... 168
Figure 120 Typical Thermally Stable Polycrystalline Bit ................................................................................. 168
Figure 121 Typical Impregnated Diamond Bit ............................................................................................... 169
Figure 122 Milled tooth bit ............................................................................................................................ 170
Figure 123 Tungsten Carbide Insert bit .......................................................................................................... 171
Figure 124 Various types of bit nozzle ........................................................................................................... 172
Figure 125 Drill bits gauge ring ...................................................................................................................... 172
Figure 126 Shale Shakers ............................................................................................................................... 175
Figure 127 Sag often occur under dynamic conditions.................................................................................. 176
Figure 128 Blowout due to loss of control of formation pressure ................................................................ 176
Figure 129 Heat caused by rotation and hydraulic forces at the bit ............................................................. 177
Figure 130 Buoyancy helps support drill string weight.................................................................................. 178
Figure 131 Mud balance ................................................................................................................................ 180
Figure 132 Marsh funnel viscometer ............................................................................................................. 181
Figure 133 Rotational viscometer .................................................................................................................. 181
Figure 134 API (room temperature) Filter press ............................................................................................ 182
Figure 135 Casing String Terminology ........................................................................................................... 185
Figure 136 Casing String API Grades .............................................................................................................. 186
Figure 137 Cross Section of Casing Couplings................................................................................................ 186
Figure 138 Float (guide) shoe ........................................................................................................................ 187
Figure 139 Float collar.................................................................................................................................... 187
Figure 140 DV tool for stage cementing ........................................................................................................ 188
Figure 141 Centralizers .................................................................................................................................. 188
Figure 142 Casing elevator............................................................................................................................. 189
Figure 143 Power Tong .................................................................................................................................. 189
Figure 144 Spider Slip .................................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 145 String Mill ..................................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 146 Casing scraper .............................................................................................................................. 191
Figure 147 Drifts............................................................................................................................................. 192
Figure 148 Drifting Casings ............................................................................................................................ 192
Figure 149 Cement Unit ................................................................................................................................. 195
Figure 150 Casing Cement Heads .................................................................................................................. 196
Figure 151 Cement Head Plug........................................................................................................................ 196
Figure 152 Cementing Process....................................................................................................................... 197
Figure 153 EZ Drill® SVB Squeeze Packer ....................................................................................................... 197
Figure 154 Cement Plug for side tracking ...................................................................................................... 198
Figure 155 Landing base ................................................................................................................................ 200
Figure 156 Casing Hanger .............................................................................................................................. 201
Figure 157 Casing spool ................................................................................................................................. 201
Figure 158 Tubing spool ................................................................................................................................. 202
Figure 159 X-mass tree or Production tree.................................................................................................... 202
Figure 160 Casing Hanger .............................................................................................................................. 203
Figure 161 Cutting Casings ............................................................................................................................. 204
Figure 162 Installing BOP ............................................................................................................................... 205
Figure 163 Multiple wells from offshore structures ...................................................................................... 214
Figure 164 Relief Well .................................................................................................................................... 214
Figure 165 Controlling Vertical Wells ............................................................................................................ 215
Figure 166 Side Tracking ................................................................................................................................ 215
Figure 167 Accessing multiple sands with side track laterals from a main wellbore .................................... 215
Figure 168 Drilling directional wells beneath natural surface obstructions .................................................. 216
Figure 169 Fault Drilling ................................................................................................................................. 216
Figure 170 Salt Dome Drilling ........................................................................................................................ 216
Figure 171 Shore Drilling ................................................................................................................................ 217
Figure 172 Downhole Motor (Schlumberger Power Pack) ............................................................................ 217
Figure 173 Stabilized BHA for directional drilling .......................................................................................... 218
Figure 174 Bent Sub to initiate directional drilling ........................................................................................ 218
Figure 175 Whipstock to initiate directional drilling...................................................................................... 218
Figure 176 TOTCO inclinometer (The device to measure the hole inclination)............................................. 219
Figure 177 LWD with GR and Resistivity Sondes ........................................................................................... 220
Figure 178 Slick line Truck .............................................................................................................................. 222
Figure 179 Logging Truck ............................................................................................................................... 223
Figure 180 A Sample Log ................................................................................................................................ 224
Figure 181 Logging tools (sonde) of various type .......................................................................................... 224
Figure 182 CT Pumping and Circulation Application...................................................................................... 226
Figure 183 CT Drilling Unit ............................................................................................................................. 227
Figure 184 CT Logging and perforation .......................................................................................................... 227
Figure 185 CT Unit .......................................................................................................................................... 228
Figure 186 Main parts of CT System .............................................................................................................. 229
Figure 187 Tubing Injector Assembly ............................................................................................................. 230
Figure 188 Tubing Guide Arch ........................................................................................................................ 230
Figure 189 Service Reel .................................................................................................................................. 231
Figure 190 Service Reel .................................................................................................................................. 231
Figure 191 Control Console and Monitoring Equipment ............................................................................... 232
Figure 192 Well Control ................................................................................................................................. 232
Figure 193 Types of completions ................................................................................................................... 236
Figure 194 Production tubing ........................................................................................................................ 236
Figure 195 Production Packer ........................................................................................................................ 237
Figure 196 Horizontal well completion .......................................................................................................... 238
Figure 197 Multilateral well completion types .............................................................................................. 239
Figure 198 Rig Crew Reporting Structure ...................................................................................................... 252
 1. HYDROCARBONS

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS IN OUR DAILY LIFE

A hydrocarbon is a molecule whose structure includes only hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Because they are the building blocks of everything that define modern society. They are actually too important
to burn, even though we mainly use them as fuel. All modern medicine, material science (polymers, semi-
conductors, LED, etc.) are synthetic products of hydrocarbons. When HC's are gone, those products are gone
with them...

Examples of Hydrocarbons:

❖ Natural gas and fuels

- Many of the natural fuel sources we use are hydrocarbons. Compounds like methane,
butane, propane, and hexane are all hydrocarbons. Their chemical formulas consist of only
carbon and hydrogen atoms, in a variety of ratios and chemical configurations.

❖ Plastics

- Many of the plastics we use in everyday life and in industry are made from long chains of
monomers, formed from petrochemicals. These petrochemicals are simply hydrocarbons of
different chemical compositions.

❖ Paraffin
- The wax that we use for a variety of industries, everything from candle making and food
preservation to medical and industrial uses, contains hydrocarbons.
❖ Isopropyl alcohol
- This common medical chemical is interesting in that it contains a hydrocarbon.
❖ Asphalt
- the common substance that most people are familiar with is actually a hydrocarbon that
has been heated to form the substance tar. It is then mixed with other key industrial ingredients to
form the mixture that makes up the road's surface.

Over the past decade, global primary energy consumption has increased by 17%. For overall energy
consumption, Hydrocarbons continued to maintain a dominant share. Oil led all sources with a third of global
energy consumption.

1
 Figure 1 Importance of hydrocarbon in our daily life

2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
1.2 ORIGIN OF OIL AND GAS

Hydrocarbons form by decomposition of living organisms under increasing temperature and pressure in
millions of years.

Living organisms (plants, sea creatures, sea animals) will settle at the sea bottom once they die. They will be
buried with further deposition exposing them to the rising temperature and pressure. As they decay with the
help of earths radioactivity, they turn into hydrocarbons.

The first rock where hydrocarbons are formed called the source rock. Hydrocarbons will migrate up if they can
find fractures in the source rock till they are trapped by a seal rock.

They then will accumulate under making oil and gas conventional reservoirs. Hydrocarbon reservoirs are
limited. Once depleted it will take millions of years to generate them back.

Figure 2 Total Petroleum system

3
 1.3 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS FOR SAUDI ARABIA

Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf countries have reserves of mostly conventional high-grade oil. Venezuela's
huge reserve numbers come from the massive heavy oil deposits in the Orinoco Basin, while Canada's come
from the oil sands. Extracting these heavier oil sources is more energy and carbon-intensive than the high-
quality Gulf oil.

Figure 3 Top global oil reserves

Oil has largely transformed Saudi Arabia from an agricultural and basic-trade economy into a powerful oil-
based one.

From ancient times to the 1930s, the inhabitants of what is now Saudi Arabia were Bedouin relying on livestock
for survival or farmers and traders residing in a few towns, with some fishermen and, later, pearl divers, along
the coast. Fueled by enormous revenues from oil exports, the economy boomed during the 1970s and 1980s.
Unlike most developing countries, Saudi Arabia had an abundance of capital, and vast development projects
sprang up, turning the once underdeveloped country into a modern state.

The economy of Saudi Arabia is now centered on the country’s enormous petroleum resources. (Although Saudi
Arabia also has large natural-gas reserves, the gas sector has been less important to the country’s economy,
and Saudi Arabia is not a natural-gas exporter.) Since the 1970s, the country has been the world’s largest crude-
oil exporter, and it possesses the world’s largest proven conventional crude-oil reserves (estimated to be about
20 percent of the world’s total proven crude-oil reserves). Saudi Arabia’s unique ability to bring on or cut large
amounts of crude-oil production (and hence exports) means that no other country has as much voluntary
influence on the world crude-oil market; Saudi Arabia is thus referred to as the world’s ‘swing producer’. Within
the Organization of Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC), of which it was a founding member, Saudi
Arabia is of paramount influence, as other members are significantly smaller producers and have less ability to
manipulate production voluntarily.

Saudi Arabia possesses around 22 per cent of the world’s proven petroleum reserves and ranks as the largest
exporter of petroleum.

4
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
Saudi Arabia takes the second spot on this list of the top 10 oil-producing countries. Its output came in at
12,090,000 bpd in 2017.

USA 15,647,000 bbl/day

Saudi Arabia 12,090,000 bbl/day
Russia 11,210,000 bbl/day

The oil and gas sector accounts for about 50 per cent of gross domestic product, and about 85 per cent of
export earnings. Apart from petroleum, the Kingdom’s other natural resources include natural gas, iron ore,
gold, and copper.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a consortium of oil-exporting nations, decided to

maintain the current production level at a meeting in November 2014. Saudi Arabia - the biggest oil producer
with around 30 percent quota of the organization's total production blocked calls for a production decrease
from poorer countries in the organization.

Figure 4 OPEC countries oil production percentages

5
 2. HYDROCARBONS LIFE CYCLE
2.1 HOW TO EXPLORE AND EXTRACT HYDROCARBONS

The life of an oil and gas field can be sub divided into the following phases.

❖ Seismic phase
❖ Exploration phase
❖ Appraisal (Drilling) phase
❖ Development phase
❖ Maintenance/workover phase
❖ Abandonment

2.1.1 Seismic phase

Oil and gas explorers use seismic surveys to produce detailed images of the various rock types and
their location beneath the Earth's surface and they use this information to determine the location
and size of oil and gas reservoirs.

Seismic is in a way like a medical x-ray scan. As x-ray gives an idea about human inside, the seismic
gives information about the earth crust.

Figure 5 Seismic Operation

At this stage we are not sure if there is oil or not. The next phase is to drill an exploration well to find
out if the structure has hydrocarbons in it.

2.1.2 Exploration phase

Exploration wells are drilled for data collection in new regions. Information is mainly represented by
drilled rock, core samples, well tests and well logging data.

The length of the exploration phase will depend on the success of making discoveries. There may be
single exploration well or many exploration wells drilled.

6
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
Once exploration drilling is completed, it is time to study all the findings. The hydrocarbon type and
the approximate volume are being studied. Are the reservoir properties constant? That is what will be
studied in the appraisal phase.

2.1.3 Appraisal phase (Drilling field boundaries wells)

If an economically attractive discovery is made, then the company enters the appraisal phase of the
life of the field.

During this phase more seismic studies may be performed and more wells will be drilled to establish
the extent of the reservoir. These appraisal wells will yield further information, on the basis of which
future plans will be based.

2.1.4 Development phase (Drilling field wells)

Once the appraisal phase has been completed and the reservoir is decided to be developed. The next
step is to identify how many producing wells and injection wells are need to be drilled. The moment
the producers are drilled and completed, the reservoir is considered a producing reservoir. So, you
will need surface facilities ready to separate gas, oil and water phases from the production.

Crude oil from the producing

wells

Separator Usage
Gas
Water
Oil

Water to Crude Pipeline

Injection wells

Figure 6 Surface Facilities

2.1.5 Maintenance phase (work over)

The well will not keep its initial production constant for various reasons. Therefore, some maintenance
may be needed to regain the production as much as possible.

2.1.6 Abandonment phase

Once the well completes its economic life which is called a depleted well, it is time to initiate the
abandonment phase. There are a number of proper procedures to be followed before leaving the
depleted producers.

7
 2.2 Companies work in drilling industry

2.2.1 Operator company

The company that serves as the overall manager and decision-maker of a drilling project. Generally,
but not always, the operator will have the largest financial stake in the project. At the successful
completion of logging the target zones, the decision to complete or plug and abandon generally has
partner input and potential override clauses. As far as the drilling contractor and service companies
are concerned, the designated operator is paying for the entire operation, and the operator is
responsible for recouping some of that expense from the partners.

2.2.2 Drilling contractor company

The company that owns and operates a drilling rig. The drilling contractor usually charges a fixed
daily rate for its hardware (the rig) and software (the people), plus certain extraordinary expenses.

2.2.3 Service company

The company which provide services to the petroleum exploration and production industry but do
not typically produce petroleum themselves

2.2.4 Inspection company

The company which provide inspection service to the companies work in oil and gas field.

2.2.5 Catering company

The company which provide catering service to the companies work in oil and gas field.

2.2.6 Transportation company

The company which provide transportation service to the companies work in oil and gas field.

2.2.7 Training company

The company which provide Training service to the companies work in oil and gas field.

8
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
2.2.8 Companies Contributering in SADA

9
 2.3 SUMMARY

Hydrocarbon products are everywhere in our daily life. Oil and Gas are two important natural energy

resources made up of hydrocarbons. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a major producer of Oil and Gas in

the world. It ranks the 3rd in the world and the first among the OPEC countries in terms of daily production.

They are the two important natural resources which helps immensely in the development of the country.

The process of extracting oil and gas from beneath the earth has some major phases. Included in these

phases are exploration phase, appraisal phase, development phase, workover phase and abandonment

phase.

10
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

11
 3. ROTARY DRILLING PROCESS
3.1 ROTARY DRILLING OVERVIEW
The concept of rotary drilling has evolved and grown over time. Leonardo da Vinci created a design
for a rotary drill in the early 1500s; it closely resembled the rotary drilling method employed today.
Even though rotary drilling has had an early beginning, its use did not gain popularity until the late
1800s to early 1900s. Though there were many patents for rotary drills as early as the 1830s, the first
one was invented by Englishman Robert Beart in 1845.
Rotary drilling was first used for drilling oil wells in 1901 when Captain Anthony Lucas and Patillo
Higgins applied it to their Spindletop well in Texas. By 1925, the rotary drilling method was improved
with the use of a diesel engine.

Figure 7 Historical pictures for rotary drilling

12
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
Rotary drilling is characterized as a method of drilling that employs a sharp, rotational drill bit to bite
its way through the earth’s crust. It is used in the construction, mining, and oil industries for its ability
to cut through even the most challenging and hardest formations.
A bit is mounted on the lower end of drill pipe and is rotated against the bottom of the hole. A drilling
mud is circulated down the hole, ordinarily through the drill pipe, and back up to the surface through
the annulus between the drill pipe and the borehole wall.
The drilling mud serves several purposes. It supplies a fluid medium for carrying the cuttings from the
hole to the surface, exerts a hydrostatic pressure against the borehole wall which opposes flow of
subsurface fluids into the borehole during the drilling operation, cools the bit, and in some instances
forms a filter cake of low permeability on the borehole wall to prevent flow of the fluids from the
borehole into the formations penetrated thereby.
Frequently extreme pressure lubricating additives are incorporated in the drilling mud, and in such
instances the drilling mud lubricates the bearings of the drill bit.
The rotary drilling rig consists of a prime mover, hoisting equipment, rotating equipment and
circulation equipment, all of which perform tasks crucial to drilling a well or hole. With the help of
pneumatics, hydraulics or an electric motor, high torque and rotation are transmitted from the prime
mover to the drill, which sits on a mast above the hole.

Figure 8 Rotary drilling rig

13
 3.2 OIL AND GAS WELLS DRILLING SEQUENCES

14
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

15
16
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

17
18
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

15

19
 16

20
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
3.3 Exercise

1. Re arrange the operations sequence

a. Start cementing job ( )
b. Run the casing ( )
c. Drilling the hole ( )
d. Complete the well ( )

2. Re arrange the operations sequence

a. Running 13 3/8’’ casing ( )

b. Drilling 8 ½ ‘’ hole. ( )
c. Start cementing 13 3/8’’ casing. ( )
d. Drilling 17 ½’’ hole. ( )
e. Start cementing 9 5/8’’ casing. ( )
f. Drilling 12 ¼ ’’ hole. ( )
g. Running 9 5/8’’ casing. ( )
h. Start cementing 9 5/8’’ casing. ( )
i. Running 7’’ casing. ( )
3. What does the rotary drilling rig consists of?

a. …………………………………………..
b. …………………………………………...
c. …………………………………………..
d. ……………………………………………

4. …………………………………………… serves several purposes. It supplies a fluid medium for carrying the
cuttings from the hole to the surface.
a. Drilling fluid
b. Drill bit
c. Drill string

5. ……………………… has the ability to cut through even the most challenging and hardest formations.
a. Drill string
b. Drilling fluid
c. Drill bit

21
 4. DRILLING RIGS & TYPES

A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth subsurface. Drilling rigs can be massive structures
housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile
equipment mounted on trucks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil
platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs'). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex
equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust.
Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile and used for drilling and workover. Larger rigs are capable of
drilling through thousands of ft. of the Earth's crust so they are used for deep drilling.

4.1 ONSHORE DRILLING RIGS

Onshore drilling refers to drilling deep holes under the earth’s surface whereas offshore drilling relates to
drilling underneath the seabed.
The equipment used in both offshore and onshore drilling rigs are almost the same. However, there are some
key differences between offshore and onshore drilling. Onshore drilling rigs come in different sizes and
strengths. They are generally classified by their maximum drilling depth and their mobility.

Figure 9 On-shore drilling rig Figure 10 workover rig

22
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
4.2 OFFSHORE DRILLING RIGS

An offshore drilling rig used when drilling has to be performed below sea. The selection process of an offshore
rig is heavily depends on the sea water depth.
Offshore drilling rigs are also called Mobile Offshore Drilling Units or MODUs. Figure 11 shows three different
types of offshore rigs. They can be towed or propelled into place.

JACKUP SEMI SUBMERSIBLE DRILL

RIG RIG SHIP

Figure 11 Types of offshore rigs

4.2.1 Jack-up Rigs

The jack-up rig is the most common rig in the offshore drilling
industry today. Jack-up rigs can only operate in water that is less
than 300 - 400 feet (100 - 121 meters) deep. The rig is towed to
the drilling location by tug boats. When on location, the rig’s legs
(three or four legs) are lowered to the seafloor. The rig is then
jacked up above the water to a predetermined height. Three-
legged jack-up rigs are the most common for drilling as they are
stable while elevated. Four-legged rigs are more stable while
floating.

Figure 12 Jack-up drilling rig

23
 4.2.2 Semi-Submersible Rigs
Figure 13 shows a semi-submersible rig, which is used for drilling in deep water.

Figure 13 Semi-submersible Drilling Rig

These rigs are called semi-submersible (or just semi) because they are semi-submerged at the drilling
location. To keep them stable during drilling operations, the rigs’ pontoons are submerged under the
surface of the sea. The main structure, or hull, is supported on columns above the water. These are
expensive drilling rigs used for water depths of over 300 feet.

4.2.3 Drill Ship

A drill ship is a built or remodeled ship that accommodates a complete drilling rig. Once on location,
the ship uses its propellers to keep the drilling rig over the well. Drill ships are used for deep water
drilling at depths up to 12,000 feet (Figure 14 ).

Figure 14 Drill Ship

24
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
4.3 Exercise
1. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Semi-submersible rig
b. Drill ship
c. Jack up
d. Land rig

2. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Semi-submersible rig
b. Drill ship
c. Jack up
d. Land rig

3. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Semi-submersible rig
b. Drill ship
c. Jack up
d. Land rig

4. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Semi-submersible rig
b. Drill ship
c. Jack up
d. Land rig

25
 5. ………………………….can only operate in water that is less than 300 - 400 feet (100 - 121 meters) deep.
a. Semi-submersible rig
b. Jack up
c. Drill ship
d. Land rig

6. ………………………….. expensive drilling rigs used for water depths of over 300 feet.
a. Jack up
b. Drill ship
c. Semi-submersible rig
d. Land rig

7. …………………………… are used for deep water drilling at depths up to 12,000 feet.
a. Jack up
b. Drill ship
c. Land rig
d. Semi-submersible rig

8. …………………………… drilling rig used when drilling has to be performed below sea.
a. On-shore rig
b. Land rig
c. Off-shore rig
d. Super rig

9. …………………………. drilling deep holes under the earth’s.

a. Drill ship
b. Land rig
c. Off-shore rig
d. Semi-submersible rig

26
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

5. MAJOR RIG SYSTEMS

There are five main systems on a rotary drilling rig and accessories. These systems work together to drill the
well.
❖ Power system
❖ Hoisting system
❖ Circulating system
❖ Rotating system
❖ Well control system [3].

The accessories is including the handling equipment and tools.

5.1 POWER SYSTEM

The power needed to operate the rig comes from diesel engines. The power is transferred from the engines to
the rig equipment through either a mechanical or an electrical drive.

On a mechanical rig, the drive power is transferred from the engines to the rig equipment by a driveshaft, belt,
chain, or gears. Most of the rig area has large diesel engines and large drive assemblies. The engines need to
be close to the equipment they are powering. Also, there are fuel lines that provide fuel to all the engines.

The electricity produced by the generators is directed to the SCR or VFD system. These transforms, regulate,
and distribute the electricity so that it can power the rig equipment. Electrical rigs have replaced mechanical
rigs as they are easier to rig up and maintain than mechanical rigs.

The power system consists of:

❖ Diesel engines
❖ Generators
❖ SCR room
❖ VFD room
❖ Cabling
❖ Diesel tanks

NOTE: DC motors are driven by Silicon Control Rectifiers (SCR), and a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is used
to drive AC motors.

5.1.1 Diesel Engines

The diesel engines on a rig can either supply mechanical power to a machine part or drive the
generator. The size and number of diesel engines on a rig depends on the size of the rig. Figure 15
shows some examples of diesel engines.

Figure 15 Diesel Engines

27
 5.1.2 Generators
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator is attached to the
driveshaft of a diesel engine to form a generator set. It converts the rotation of the driveshaft into
electricity. Figure 16 shows a generator set.

On a mechanical rig, the generators are smaller as they do not provide all the power to operate the
mechanical equipment. Generators on electrical rigs are larger because they provide all the power for
the rig and its components.

Figure 16 Generators

5.1.3 SCR Room

Generators produce ac electricity. The SCR room is where
the generator output is converted from ac to dc electricity.
The dc motors drive the draw-works, rotary table, top
drive, and the mud pumps. The driller can control this
equipment by varying the supply voltage to the appropriate
motor.

CAUTION: The SCR room is a HIGH VOLTAGE area that

contains the electric circuit breakers. The SCR room must
be kept completely dry from mud, fluids, or water.

5.1.4 VFD Room

The VFD room performs a similar function as an SCR,
but for ac motors. It converts the generator output
to an electrical ac supply that can be adjusted to
control the motors. The driller varies the frequency
of the ac current to adjust the speed of the
equipment. The ac voltage supply to the equipment
remains the same. The VFD uses newer technology
than dc motors. It is cheaper to operate, smaller,
and allows more control of the power sent to the
equipment. Figure 17 shows the SCR and VFD room.

Figure 17 VFD Room

28
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.1.5 Cabling
Cables carry the electricity from the SCR/VFD room
to the motors or other equipment. Cables provide
electricity as well as communications and are easily
damaged if mishandled.

Figure 18 shows an example of a cable connector

and a socket. These have special covers on them to
prevent fire or explosion and must be installed
correctly. The cables connect to a board [4].

Figure 18 Cabling

CAUTION: All cables should be routed in such a way

that they do not create a trip hazard or obstruct a
walking area.

Figure 19 Electrical Cable Plug Board

5.1.6 Diesel tanks

Tanks are designed to deposit & save fuels conveniently. The tank is designed with a water draw at
the very bottom of the tank, so that any water formed can be drawn off. The tanks also usually have
floating suction that pulls fuel off the top and does not pull any water off the bottom or disturb any
water that could be on the bottom.

Figure 20 Diesel tanks

29
 5.1.7 Exercise

10. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Generator
d. Kelly bushing

11. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Cabling
d. Kelly bushing

12. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Generator
d. Kelly bushing

13. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Generator
d. Kelly bushing

14. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Generator
d. Cabling

30
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
15. ………….………………converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Generator
d. Cabling

16. ………….………………is where the generator output is converted from ac to dc electricity.

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. SCR Room
d. Cabling

17. ………….………………supply mechanical power to a machine part.

a. VFD Room
b. Diesel Engine
c. Generator
d. Cabling

18. ……………………….is designed to deposit & save fuels conveniently.

a. Water tank
b. Mud tank
c. VFD Room
d. Diesel tank

19. …………………. carry the electricity from the SCR/VFD room to the motors or other equipment.
a. VFD Room
b. Cables
c. SCR Room
d. Cabling

20. ………….………………It converts the generator output to an electrical ac supply that can be adjusted to
control the motors.
a. VFD Room
b. Cables
c. SCR Room
d. Cabling

31
 5.2 HOISTING SYSTEM

The hoisting system supports the weight of the drill string. It raises and lowers the drill string during drilling
operations. The system works like a large pulley system below. It includes:

❖ Derrick
❖ Monkey board
❖ Crown block
❖ Traveling block
❖ Hook
❖ Draw works
❖ Drill line
❖ Dead line anchor
❖ Top drive

Figure 21 Hoisting Systems

32
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.2.1 Derrick
The derrick is installed on the rig floor, over the rotary table on top of the substructure. The traveling
block, swivel, and kelly (or top drive) are supported from the top of the derrick.

The derrick is what the hoisting system hangs from. It allows the top drive or kelly to be raised to add
pipe and lowered as the bit drills the hole [5].

5.2.2 Monkey Board and Stabbing Board

These are two different boards located on the derrick. The derrickman works on these platforms when
tripping pipes in and out. The monkey board is used for running drill strings and the stabbing board is
used for running casing strings.

Derrick
Monkey
board

Stabbing
board

Figure 22 Derrick, Monkey and stabbing board

33
 5.2.3 Crown Block
The crown block and traveling block work
together as in a pulley system. The crown block is
attached to the top of the derrick and has sheaves
that rotate. The sheaves have grooves that allow
the drill line to move through the crown block and
spool onto the drawworks drum. The sheaves on
the crown block are the top of the working path
for the drill line. Figure 23 shows the crown block.

Figure 23 Crown Block

5.2.4 Traveling Block

The traveling block is shown in (Figure 24). It also contains sheaves like those on the crown block. The
sheaves allow the drill line to move through the traveling block as the drawworks rotate. As the
drawworks feed out the drill line, the traveling block lowers. The traveling block is raised if the
drawworks rotate in the other direction to pull in the drill line. The traveling block is the lower part of
the working path of the drill line.

Figure 24 Traveling block & Hook

34
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.2.5 Hook
As shown in Figure 25, the hook is below the traveling block. The hook can be part of, or separate
from, the traveling block. The swivel (or top drive) hangs from the hook when drilling. During tripping
operations, the kelly is put away and equipment used to handle drill pipe is attached to the hook [6].

Tripping is called when the drill string is being lowered into the hole before drilling starts (tripping in)
or pulled out of the hole (tripping out). A ‘round trip’ is when the drill string is pulled out of the hole,
for example to change the bit, and then run back down to the bottom of the hole.

Figure 25 Hook

5.2.6 Drawworks
The drawworks is shown in Figure 26. This is the machine that reels in or out the drill line. The
drawworks is installed on the rig floor. It has a rotating section called the drum or spool. The drill line
is anchored to the drum so that as the drum rotates, the drill line is reeled in, or reeled out. This action
raises and lowers the traveling block, as the line is fed through the sheaves on the crown block and
traveling block.

Figure 26 Drawworks

35
 5.2.7 Drill Line
The drill line is a wire rope that suspends the weight of the drill string and traveling block assembly.
One end of the drill line is attached to the drum on the drawworks, and the other is attached to a
deadline anchor at the bottom of the derrick.

a spool of new drill line is located after the deadline anchor. New drill line is fed through the hoisting
system to replace the old drill line when it becomes worn.

Crown block

Fast line

Deadline

Draw works

Deadline anchor

Storage wheel
Traveling block

Drill line

Figure 27 Drill Line

36
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.2.8 Deadline Anchor
The deadline anchor is at the bottom of the
derrick. This is the tie-down spot for the drill
line. The deadline anchor secures the wire
rope with a set of clamps. A sensor can be
installed in the deadline anchor to measure
the weight hanging from the hoisting system
[7]
.

Figure 28 Deadline Anchor

5.2.9 The Top Drive

On some rigs, a top drive is used instead of the
kelly bar, swivel, and rotary table. It also
provides mud flow and rotation to the drill
string

The main difference is that the top drive rotates

the drill string, not the rotary table. The top
drive is also carried by the hoisting system [8].

Figure 29 The Top Drive

37
 5.2.10 Exercise

1. Pick the number for the following equipment.

5

a- Travelling block …………………….

b- Storage reel ……………………. 8

c- Crown block ……………………. 3

9
d- Hook …………………….

e- Fast line ……………………. 6

7
f- Drum brake …………………….

g- Dead line …………………….

h- Draw work …………………….

i- Dead line anchor ……………………. 10

j- Drilling line ……………………. 2 4

1

2. What’s the name of this equipment?

A. Dead line anchor
B. Top drive system
C. Draw work
D. Crown block

3. What’s the name of this equipment?

A. MAST
B. Monkey board
C. Draw work
D. Crown block

38
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
4. What’s the name of this equipment?
A. MAST
B. Monkey board
C. Draw work
D. Crown block

5. What’s the name of this equipment?

A. Monkey board
B. MAST
C. Hook
D. Travelling block

6. What’s the name of this equipment?

A. Travelling block
B. Monkey board
C. MAST
D. Hook

39
 7. What’s the name of this equipment?
A. Travelling block
B. Monkey board
C. Dead line anchor
D. Hook

8. What’s the name of this equipment?

A. Travelling block
B. Monkey board
C. Dead line anchor
D. Hook

9. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Drilling line
b. Hook
c. Monkey board
d. Dead line anchor

40
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
10. …………………………………… is a board that Used while running and pulling drill strings.
a. Travelling block
b. Monkey board
c. Dead line anchor
d. Hook

11. ……………………….. secures the wire rope with a set of clamps.

a. Travelling block
b. Crown block
c. The deadline anchor
d. Monkey board

12. ……………………….. is a wire rope that suspends the weight of the drill string and traveling block
assembly.
a. Drilling rig
b. Monkey board
c. Hook
d. Drilling line

13. ……………………. Is attached to the top of the derrick and has sheaves that rotate.
a. Crown block.
b. Drilling rig
c. Monkey board
d. Hook
14. ……………………. below the traveling block. The hook can be part of, or separate from, the traveling
block.
a. Derrick
b. Hook
c. Drilling rig
d. Monkey board

15. …………………. the machine that reels in or out the drill line, it used to POOH and RIH the drill string.
a. Derrick
b. Hook
c. Monkey board
d. Draw work
16. …………………. the machine that reels in or out the drill line, it used to POOH and RIH the drill string.
a. Derrick
b. Hook
c. Monkey board
d. Draw work

41
 5.3 CIRCULATING SYSTEM

The circulating system is shown in (Figure 30). This

system pumps drilling fluid into the hole during
drilling and collects the fluid as it comes out of the
hole. The rock cuttings are taken out from the
returning fluid. The cleaned fluid then gets
pumped into the hole again. The circulating
system includes:

❖ Water Pit
❖ Mud Mixing Equipment
❖ Mud Tanks
❖ Mud Pumps
❖ Piping and Hoses
❖ Standpipe
❖ Rotary Hose
❖ Swivel
❖ Drill String
❖ Drill Bit
❖ Mud Return Line
❖ Solids Control Equipment
❖ Reserve pit

Figure 30 Circulating System

42
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.3.1 Water pit
Tank which used to store the water required to be mixed with other material to form the drilling
fluids which is essential for the drilling operations

5.3.2 Mud Mixing Equipment

5.3.2.1 Mixing Hopper
The device used to facilitate the addition of drilling fluid additives to the whole mud system.

Figure 31 Hopper

5.3.2.2 Mixing Pump

A type of pump commonly used in the handling and mixing of oilfield fluids.

Figure 32 Mud mixing pump

43
 5.3.3 Mud Tanks
The mud tanks are square steel tanks that store
drilling fluid. They supply the fluid for the mud
pumps to move through the circulating system. The
volume of drilling fluid can be monitored within the
tanks.

Figure 33 Mud Tanks

5.3.3.1 Suction tank

The mud tank from which mud is picked up by the suction of the mud pumps.

5.3.3.2 Intermediate tank

The mud tank from which mud might be stored in ordered to be transferred to suction tank.

5.3.3.3 Sand trap

A small pit typically located immediately after the shaker screens, which is used as a settling pit
to separate coarser solids that accidentally bypass the shakers.

5.3.3.4 Settle tank

Tank which located next to sand trap and used to settle the largest drilling solids to bottom of
the tank.

5.3.3.5 Trip tank

Is a small metal tank with small capacity about 20-40 bbls with 1 bbl divisions inside and it is
used to monitor the well.

5.3.3.6 Slug tank

Tank which located next to suction tank and contains a volume of mud that is more dense than
the mud in the drill pipe and wellbore annulus.

5.3.4 Mud Agitator

Mud agitators stir the mud to keep the weighting materials and other chemicals thoroughly mixed
in the mud and attached to the majority of mud system tanks.

Figure 34 Mud Agitator

44
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.3.5 Mud Pumps
(Figure 35) shows the mud
pumps. These are large pumps
with pistons that move the
drilling fluid through the
circulating system. The mud is
pumped up a pipe in the derrick
and then flows down through
the inside of the drill pipe. At
the bottom of the hole, the mud
comes out through the drill bit
and up to the surface around
the outside of the drill pipe.

Figure 35 Mud Pumps

5.3.6 Piping and Hoses

Metal pipes and hoses transport the fluids on
the rig. There are high pressure and low-
pressure pipes. The pipes are attached to the
sides of the tanks, buildings, or derrick and
secured with clamps and safety lines/slings.

The hoses used in the circulating system are

usually high-pressure hoses. They connect
the metal pipes to the equipment (Figure PIPES
36). These hoses must be secured with safety HOSE
lines [9]. S

Figure 36 Piping & Hoses

5.3.7 Standpipe manifold

The mud discharged from the pump manifold flows into the standpipe through the standpipe
manifold.

Figure 37 Standpipe Manifold

45
 5.3.8 Stand pipe
In this picture (Figure 38) you can see that the
standpipe is a metal pipe attached to the side of the
derrick by a clamp. A gooseneck fitting (a curved
connection) connects to the top of the standpipe.
Drilling fluid flows into the standpipe from the
manifold at the bottom and out through the gooseneck
to the rotary hose. The standpipe also keeps the rotary
hose clear of the rig floor as the Kelly travels up and
down the derrick.

Figure 38 Standpipe

5.3.9 Rotary Hose

The rotary hose transports drilling fluid from the
standpipe into the swivel. From there, the fluids go
down into and through the Kelly into the drill string.
As shown in (Figure 39), one end of the rotary hose
connects to the standpipe gooseneck and the other
end connects to the swivel. The rotary hose must be
flexible and withstand high pressures. Safety chains
and clamps secure the ends of the rotary hose to the
derrick and the swivel. These chains/clamps will hold
the hose if the connection breaks. They will prevent
the loose hose from injuring crew members or
damaging equipment during emergencies [11].

Figure 39 Rotary Hose

46
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.3.10 Swivel
The swivel connects the Kelly and drill string to
the hoisting system.

It allows the drill string to rotate while it is

connected to the rotary hose. This provides a
continuing flow of mud to the drill string while
drilling takes place.

In the circulating process, mud flows from the

rotary hose, through the swivel, the Kelly, the
drill pipe, and the collars to the bit. A high
pressure rotary hose attaches to the swivel.
This hose connects the circulating system to the
rotary system. The swivel has a rotating seal
assembly that prevents mud from leaking.
The swivel is carried by the hoisting system.
Figure 40 Swivels
5.3.11 Drill String
The drill bit, drill pipe, and any other equipment that goes in the hole to drill is what makes up the drill
string. To drill the well, the drill string is rotated by the rig from the surface.

The drill bit cuts the rock as it rotates at the bottom of the hole. The mud coming out of the bit cleans
the cuttings away as the bit rotates. The drill pipes, or tubulars, are long steel pipes that have a
threaded connection on the top and bottom so they can be joined together. As the hole is drilled
deeper, more drill pipes are added to the drill string on the rig floor. Drilling fluid is pumped down
through the drill pipe to the bit at the bottom of the hole. The drill pipe comes in different sizes,
strengths, and weight for drilling different sizes and depth of hole. A larger diameter hole requires a
larger diameter drill pipe.

The diameter of the bit determines the diameter of the hole. If the well is deeper, then the drill pipe
needs to be stronger. The bit is screwed onto large diameter, heavy pipe called drill collars. The bit
and drill collars are called the “Bottom Hole Assembly” or BHA. The drill collars provide the weight to
push the drill bit into the rock as it is rotated. Between drill pipes and large diameter drill collars we
usually connect transition pipes which are called heavy weight drill pipes (HWDP) To drill through the
rock, the drill string rotates and applies weight to the bit. The interaction between the bit and the rock
formation generates a great deal of heat from the friction. Mud flows down the drill string and out the
bit to keep it lubricated and cooled.

Figure 41 Drill String

47
 5.3.12 Mud Return Line
Mud exiting the bit force cuttings at the bottom of the well up the annulus back to the surface and
into the mud return line. Mud flows down the mud return line to the shale shakers and solids control
equipment for cuttings removal and cleaning [12].

Mud Return line

Figure 42 Return flow line

5.3.13 Solids Control Equipment

Most rigs use solids control equipment (to remove solids from the mud) when heavy drilling fluids are
in circulation. These are:

❖ Shale shaker
❖ Degasser
❖ Mud-Gas Separator
❖ Desander, Desilter, and Mud Cleaner
❖ Centrifuge [13]

48
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.3.14.1 Shale shaker
The shale shaker has a set of trays with a filter, or screens that vibrate. As the screens vibrate mud
filters through them and flows onto the next solid control and mud conditioning equipment. The
screens remove cuttings from the mud and deposit them into reserve pit [14].

Figure 43 Shale Shakers

5.3.14.2 Desander, Desilter, and Mud Cleaner

Shale shakers remove large cuttings from the mud returns, but not smaller solid particles. The
returning mud is heavier than the mud that is pumped into the well. The solids must be removed
or “cleaned” from the mud to maintain a desired mud weight. To do its job correctly, the mud
must not be allowed to get too heavy. To clean the mud, drillers use filtering devices known as
desanders, desilters and mud cleaners. These separate the sand and shale from the mud and
dump them into the reserve pit [15].

Figure 44 Mud cleaner

5.3.15 Reserve pit

Any pit not part of the active (circulatory) system. The reserve pit may be used to store spare or
waste mud, base oil or brine. In operations on land, the reserve pit is usually a plastic-lined, earthen
pit, in which waste mud is stored until final disposal.

49
 5.3.1 Exercise
1. What’s the name of this equipment?
A. Agitator
B. Desilter
C. Desander
D. Mud pump

2. What’s the name of this equipment?

A. Agitator
B. Desilter
C. Desander
D. Mud pump

3. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Mud pump
b. Desander
c. Stand pipe
d. Mud return line.

4. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Swivel
b. Shale shaker
c. Drilling line
d. Stand pipe manifold

5. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. stand pipe
b. Mud pump
c. Shale shaker
d. Rotary hose

50
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
6. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Stand pipe
b. Rotary hose
c. Shale shaker
d. Rotary hose

7. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Mud pump
b. Swivel
c. Shale shaker
d. Rotary hose

8. ……………………………. supply the fluid for the mud pumps to move through the circulating system.
a. Stand pipe
b. Solid control equipment
c. Mud tank
d. Rotary hose
9. ……………………………. stir the mud to keep the weighting materials and other chemicals thoroughly
mixed in the mud.
a. Mud Agitator
b. Mud tank
c. Stand pipe
d. Rotary hose
10. ……………………………. a metal pipe attached to the side of the derrick by a clamp it allows mud to flow
into the rotary hose through the goose neck attached in swivel.
a. Stand pipe
b. Mud Agitator
c. Mud tank
d. Rotary hose
11. ……………………………. has a set of trays with a filter, or screens that vibrate. As the screens vibrate mud
filters through them and flows onto the next solid control and mud conditioning equipment.
a. Mud Agitator
b. Shale shaker
c. Drilling mud
d. Rotary hose

51
 5.4 ROTATING SYSTEMS
The rotating system on the rig includes all the equipment that uses rotation to drill the well. The
system includes:

❖ Types of rotation drive system (Kelly & top drive)

❖ Drill string (BHA & Drill pipe)
❖ Drilling Console

Types of rotation drive mechanism

5.4.1 Kelly drive system

It’s was the most common type used to rotate the drill string and drill the well.

The main component of this system is:

a- Swivel
b- Kelly.
c- Kelly bushing.
d- Master bushing.
e- Rotary table.

As the rotary table turns, the master bushing rotates, which

in turn rotates the Kelly bushing, Kelly, as well as the rest of
the drill string.

The rotation of the Kelly bar rotates the drill string to drill the
hole.

As the hole is drilled deeper, the Kelly is lowered until the top
of the Kelly rests on the Kelly bushing.

Then the Kelly is pulled up, and another drill pipe is added to
the drill string to continue drilling deeper.
The new drill pipe is connected between the top of the drill
string and the bottom of the Kelly.

Figure 45 Kelly drive system components

52
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.1.1 The Swivel
The rotary tool that is hung from the hook of the traveling block to suspend the drill string, permit
it to rotate freely and prevents the hook, travelling block, drilling line & crown block from rotation.

Figure 46 Swivel

5.4.1.2 Kelly
The heavy steel member, usually four or six-sided that is suspended from the Swivel through the
Rotary Table and connected to the top most joint of drill pipe to turn the drill string as the rotary
table turns.

The Kelly bar moves up and down it slides through a Kelly bushing and the Kelly transfers
rotation from the rig to the drill string.

Figure 47 Kelly

53
 5.4.1.3 Kelly bushing
A device that when fitted to master bushing transmits rotation to the Kelly and simultaneously
permits vertical movement of the Kelly to make hole.

The Kelly bushing contains four studs that stick out on each corner of the bushing, enabling it fit
snuggly and securely inside the master bushing.

Figure 48 Kelly bushing

5.4.1.4 Master bushing

A device that fits into the rotary table to accommodate the slips and drive the Kelly bushing so
that the rotating motion of the rotary table can be transmitted to the Kelly.

The master bushing fits into the rotary table and transfers rotation to the Kelly bushing.

The Kelly bushing fits into the master bushing and transfers the rotation to the Kelly bar.

Figure 49 Master bushing

54
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.1.5 Rotary table
Equipment used to turn the drill string and support the drilling assembly.

The rotary table is driven by a motor to drive shaft and rotates master bushing which rotate the
Kelly and drill string.

The rotary table used to hang the drill string by slips inserted into the master bushing.

Rotary table should have the capacity to suspend / hang the drill string.

Figure 50 Rotary table

55
 5.4.2 Top drive system
A top drive is a mechanical device on a drilling rig that provides clockwise torque to the drill string to
drill a borehole.

It is an alternative to the rotary table and Kelly drive.

It is located at the swivel's place below the traveling block and moves vertically up and down the
derrick.

The top drive allows the drilling rig to drill the longer section of a stand of drill pipe in one operation.

A rotary table type rig can only drill 30-foot (9.1 m) (single drill pipe) sections of drill pipe whereas a
top drive can drill 60–90-foot (18–27 m) stands (double and triple drill pipe respectively, a triple
being three joints of drill pipe screwed together), depending on the drilling rig size.

Handling longer sections of drill pipe enables a drilling rig to make greater daily progress because up
to 90-foot (27 m) can be drilled at a time, thus requiring fewer "connections" to add another 30-foot
(9.1 m) of drill pipe.

Another advantage of top drive system is time efficiency. When the bit progresses under a Kelly
drive, the entire string must be withdrawn from the well bore for the length of the Kelly to add one
more length of drill pipe.

Another advantage of top drive system is time efficiency. When the bit progresses under a Kelly
drive, the entire string must be withdrawn from the well bore for the length of the Kelly to add one
more length of drill pipe.

Figure 51 Top Drive System

56
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.3 Drill String
The drill bit, drill pipe, and any other equipment that goes in the hole to drill is what makes up the drill
string.

To drill the well, the drill string is rotated by the rig from the
surface.

The drill string consists of two main parts

A- BHA “Bottom Hole Assembly”

1- Drill Bit.
2- Drill Collar.
3- Stabilizer.
4- Reamer.
5- Jar.
6- Heavy weight drill pipe (HWDP)
7- Subs.
B- Drill pipes

5.4.3.1 BHA “Bottom Hole Assembly”

The lower portion of the drill string, consisting of (from the bottom up
in a vertical well) the bit, bit sub, a mud motor (in certain cases),
stabilizers, drill collar, heavy-weight drill pipe, jarring devices ("jars")
and crossovers for various thread forms.

The bottom hole assembly must provide force for the bit to break the
rock (weight on bit), survive a hostile mechanical environment and
provide the driller with directional control of the well.

The Information for each component of BHA such as

A- Outer diameter (OD)

B- Inside diameter (ID)
C- Length (L)
D- Serial number (Sr. No.)
E- Fish neck OD & Length (F.N)
F- Cumulative length of BHA.

Should be recorded in BHA

Tally sheet and to be presented
to Senior tool pusher (S.T.P)
and Rig Foreman.

57
 5.4.3.2 Drill Bit
The tool used to crush or cut rock, everything on a drilling rig directly
or indirectly assists the bit in crushing or cutting the rock

The diameter of the bit determines the diameter of the hole.

The drill bit cuts the rock as it rotates at the bottom of the hole.

The bit is on the bottom of the drill string and must be changed when
it becomes excessively dull or stops making progress.

Most bits work by scraping or crushing the rock, or both, usually as part
of a rotational motion.

Figure 52 Drill bits

5.4.3.3 Drill collar

A component of a drill string that provides weight on bit (WOB) for
drilling.

Drill collars are thick-walled tubular pieces machined from solid bars
of steel, usually plain carbon steel but sometimes of nonmagnetic
nickel-copper alloy or other nonmagnetic premium alloys.

Drill collar have a threaded connection on the top and bottom, so

they can be joined together it called Pin & box.

Drill collar is identified by the following:

DC - 9 ½‘’ - #217 ib./ft - 30’ -7 5/8" REG - Spiral -789

Drill collar outer diameter: 9 ½ inch.

Drill collar nominal weight: 217 ib./ft.
Drill collar length: 30 feet.
Drill collar thread connection size & type: 7 5/8’’
Regular.
Drill collar type: Spiral.
Drill collar Serial number: 789

Figure 53 Drill collar

58
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.3.4 Stabilizer
A drilling stabilizer is a piece of downhole equipment used in the bottom hole assembly (BHA) of
a drill string.

It mechanically stabilizes the BHA in the borehole to avoid unintentional sidetracking, vibrations,
and ensure the quality of the hole being drilled (Control hole deviation).

It is composed of a hollow cylindrical body and stabilizing blades, both made of high-strength
steel. The blades can be either straight or spiraled and are hard faced for wear resistance.

Figure 54 Stabilizer

5.4.3.5 Reamer
A reamer is a piece of equipment attached to drill string.

The purpose of the reamer is to keep hole in gauge and enlarge a pilot hole to accommodate the
required pipe size.

There're two main types of reamers

1- Near bit reamer "Between bit and drill collar"

It used to keep the hole full gauge and protect gauge of tools above it.

2- String reamer "Between drill collar and drill pipe"

It used to reaming out dog legs, key seat and ledges.

Figure 55 Reamer

59
 5.4.3.6 Jar
A mechanical device used downhole to deliver an impact load to another downhole component,
especially when that component is stuck.

There are two primary types, hydraulic and mechanical jars.

While their respective designs are quite different, their operation is similar.

Energy is stored in the drill string and suddenly released by the jar when it fires.

Figure 56 Jar

5.4.3.7 Heavy weight drill pipe (HWDP)

Between drill pipes and large diameter drill collars we usually connect transition pipes which are
called heavy weight drill pipes (HWDP).

A type of drill pipes whose walls are thicker and collars are longer than conventional drill pipe.

HWDP tends to be stronger and has higher tensile strength than conventional drill pipe, so it is
placed near the top of a long drill string for additional support.

HWDP is work as transition pipe between BHA and drill pipe.

Figure 57 Heavy weight drill pipe

60
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.3.8 Subs.
A short, threaded piece of pipe used to adapt parts of the drill string that cannot otherwise be
screwed together because of difference in thread size or design.

Figure 58 Different types of subs

There're many different types of subs such as:

1. Bit Sub
A short drill string component ("sub") has double box sub used to connect
the drill bit with drill collar and contain the float valve inside.

For example
This bit sub is 7 5/8'' Reg Box X 7 5/8''

2. Crossover Sub
A short drill string component ("sub") has pin & box ends and
used to connect two different types of tubular (different size or
thread type).

3. Kelly Saver Sub

A short drill string component ("sub") attached at the end of Kelly to protect Kelly from
wearing due to frequent connection/disconnection of drill pipes.

61
 4. Lifting Sub
A short drill string component that is temporarily connected to the top of a tool assembly
that is to be lifted vertically.

Figure 59 Lifting sub

6-Shock sub
The Shock Sub impact and vibration reduction sub is a drill string component that absorbs
and dampens the variable axial dynamic loads produced by the drill bit during routine
drilling and milling operations. It is most beneficial when drilling in hard rock, broken
formations, and intermittent hard and soft streaks. Reducing the impact loads helps to
increase ROP; improve borehole quality; and extend the life of the cutting structure,
bearings, connections, and surface equipment—all translating to a lower cost of drilling per
foot.

Figure 60 Shock sub

Figure 61 Shock sub components

62
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.3.9 Float valve (NRV)
A Float Valve or non-return valve (NRV) is a valve that is used to prevent backflow during a drilling
operation. The float valve is inserted into the bit sub before running the drill string into the hole.

It allows the mud to flow from up to down and it prevents the opposite flow.

There're two common types of NRV:

1- Flapper type
2- Plunger type

It prevents back flow of mud or any other fluid from drill string and prevent the bit plugging.

Figure 62 Float valve

63
 5.4.3.10 Drill pipe
Tubular steel conduit fitted with special threaded ends called tool joints.

The drill pipe connects the rig surface equipment with the bottom hole assembly, both to pump drilling
fluid to the bit and to be able to raise, lower and rotate the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and bit.

The drill pipe comes in different sizes, strengths, and weight for drilling different sizes and depth of
hole.

The drill pipe grades are identified by symbols and number and refers to minimum yield strength.

The drill pipe grade is D-55, E-75, X-95, G-105 and S-135.

The Number refers to the minimum yield strength in thousands psi it measures drill pipe strength.

A larger diameter hole requires a larger diameter drill pipe, as the hole is drilled deeper, more drill
pipes are added to the drill string on the rig floor.

If the well is deeper, then the drill pipe needs to be stronger.

The drill pipe length usually varied from 29 to 33 feet, to save the time of rig we connect three joints
of drill pipe together and treated as one part (one stand = 3 drill pipes which is approximately 91
feet).

Single Joint of drill pipe

Stand of drill pipe = 3 joints of drill pipes

Figure 63 Drill pipe single and stands

Drill pipe is identified by the following:

DP – 5’’ - X 95 - #19.50 ib./ft - 32’ -3 1/2" IF -1789

Drill pipe outer diameter: 5 inches.

Drill pipe grade: X-95

Drill pipe nominal weight: 19.50 ib./ft.

Drill pipe length: 32 feet.

Drill pipe thread connection size & type: 3 ½’’ IF.

Drill pipe Serial number: 1789

64
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.4.4 Drilling Console
You have learned about some of the main equipment used to drill a well.

The driller operates this equipment from a console on the rig floor.

Sensors display equipment information on gauges on the driller’s console.

The driller uses the information to monitor the condition and status of the equipment and make
decisions on what action needs to be taken.

All the driller’s controls are in the console

Some rigs are automated and use more computerized controls.

Figure 64 Drilling console

65
 5.4.5 Exercise

1. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Reamer
b. Float valve
c. Stabilizer
d. Kelly bushing

2. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Reamer
b. Float valve
c. Stabilizer
d. Kelly bushing

3. What's the function of equipment in picture?

a. It used to rotate the drill string.
b. It used to free the drill string in case of stuck.
c. It used to drill the hole.
d. It used to connect two different types of
tubular.

4. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Drill bit
b. Drilling jar.
c. Mud pump.
d. Draw-work.

66
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5. What's the name of this equipment?
a. Drilling jar.
b. Drill bit
c. Mud pump.
d. Cross over sub.

6. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Rotary table.
b. Kelly bushing.
c. Master bushing.
d. Kelly.

7. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Kelly bushing.
b. Drill string.
c. Swivel
d. Kelly.

8. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Drill bit.
b. Drill collar.
c. Top drive system.
d. Mud pump.

9. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Drill collar.
b. Drill bit.
c. Drill pipe.
d. Draw work.

67
 10. What's the name of this equipment?
a. Drill collar.
b. PDC bit.
c. Tri-cone bit.
d. Drill pipe.

11. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Stabilizer.
b. Reamer.
c. Top drive system.
d. MAST.

12. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Drill string.
b. Top drive system.
c. Float valve (NRV)
d. Draw work

13. What's the name of this equipment?

a. PDC Bit.
b. Mud pump.
c. Reamer.
d. Tri-Cone Bit

14. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Rotary hose.
b. Rotary table.
c. Top drive system.
d. Kelly bushing.

68
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
15. What's the name of this equipment?
a. Stand of drill pipe.
b. Drilling jar.
c. Single joint of drill pipe.
d. Kelly bushing.

16. ……………………. suspend the drill string, permit it to rotate freely and prevents the hook, travelling
block, drilling line & crown block from rotation.
a. Rotary table.
b. Kelly bushing.
c. Swivel
d. Kelly
17. …………………….A device that when fitted to master bushing transmits rotation to the Kelly and
simultaneously permits vertical movement of the Kelly to make hole.
a. Rotary table.
b. Kelly bushing.
c. Swivel
d. Kelly
18. ………………….Equipment used to turn the drill string and suspend the drilling assembly by slips.
a. Kelly bushing.
b. Rotary table.
c. Swivel
d. Kelly

19. ……………………..A device that fits into the rotary table to accommodate the slips and drive the Kelly
bushing so that the rotating motion of the rotary table can be transmitted to the Kelly.
a. Master bushing.
b. Rotary table.
c. Swivel
d. Kelly
20. drive is a mechanical device on a drilling rig that provides clockwise torque to the drill string to drill a
borehole. It is an alternative to the rotary table and Kelly drive.
a. Swivel
b. Top drive system
c. Kelly drive system.
d. Kelly

21. ……………………....is consists of The drill bit, drill pipe, and any other equipment that goes in the hole to
drill hole.
a. BHA
b. Mud pump
c. Drill string
d. Swivel

69
 22. What's the name of this equipment?
a. Reamer.
b. Drill collar.
c. Stabilizer.
d. Master bushing.

23. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Driller console.
b. Draw work.
c. Stabilizer.
d. Mud pump.

24. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Drill collar.
b. Drill bit.
c. HWDP.
d. Crown block.

25. What's the name of this equipment?

a. Swivel.
b. Stabilizer.
c. Driller console.
d. Kelly

70
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5 WELL CONTROL SYSTEM

“Well control” means preventing fluid or gas from underground escaping the well. A well that is not under

control can cause a major incident.

Well control equipment closes off the wellbore by sealing around the drill string. The well control equipment

traps gas and pressure inside the hole. This gives the rig crew valuable time to react and fix the problem.

71
 ❖ Overview on well control

Well control and blowout prevention have become particularly important topics in the hydrocarbon
production industry for many reasons.

Among these reasons are higher drilling costs, waste of natural resources, and the possible loss of
human life when kicks and blowouts occur.

Well control is the technique used in oil and gas operations such as drilling, well workover, and well
completions for maintaining the fluid column hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure to prevent
influx of formation fluids into the wellbore.

This technique involves the estimation of formation fluid pressures, the strength of the subsurface
formations and the use of casing and mud density to offset those pressures in a predictable fashion.

Understanding of pressure and pressure relationships are very important in well control.

One concern is the increasing number of governmental regulations and restrictions placed on the
hydrocarbon industry, partially as a result of recent, much-publicized well-control incidents. For these
and other reasons, it is important that drilling personnel understand well-control principles and the
procedures to follow to properly control potential blowouts.

The key elements that can be used to control kicks and prevent blowouts are based on the work of a
blowout specialist and are briefly presented below:

Quickly shut in the well.

When in doubt, shut down and get help. Kicks occur as frequently while drilling as they do while
tripping out of the hole.

Many small kicks turn into big blowouts because of improper handling.

Act cautiously to avoid mistakes—take your time to get it right the first time.

You may not have another opportunity to do it correctly.

72
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

❖ History of well control

Gushers were an icon of oil exploration during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

During that era, the simple drilling techniques such as cable-tool drilling and the lack of blowout
preventers meant that drillers could not control high-pressure reservoirs.

When these high-pressure zones were breached, the oil or natural gas would travel up the well at a
high rate, forcing out the drill string and creating a gusher.

A well which began as a gusher was said to have "blown in": for instance, the Lakeview
Gusher blew in in 1910.

These uncapped wells could produce large amounts of oil, often shooting 200 feet (60 m) or higher
into the air.

A blowout primarily composed of natural gas was known as a gas gusher.

Despite being symbols of new-found wealth, gushers were dangerous and wasteful.

They killed workmen involved in drilling, destroyed equipment, and coated the landscape with
thousands of barrels of oil; additionally, the explosive concussion released by the well when it pierces
an oil/gas reservoir has been responsible for a number of oilmen losing their hearing entirely; standing
too near to the drilling rig at the moment it drills into the oil reservoir is extremely hazardous.

Figure 65 Impact of blowout on environment

73
 The impact on wildlife is very hard to quantify but can only be estimated to be mild in the most
optimistic models—realistically, the ecological impact is estimated by scientists across the ideological
spectrum to be severe, profound, and lasting.

To complicate matters further, the free-flowing oil was—and is—in danger of igniting.

Figure 66 Rigs blowout

One dramatic account of a blowout and fire reads, with a roar like a hundred express trains racing
across the countryside, the well blew out, spewing oil in all directions.

The derrick simply evaporated, casings wilted like lettuce out of water, as heavy machinery writhed
and twisted into grotesque shapes in the blazing inferno.

The development of rotary drilling techniques where the density of the drilling fluid is sufficient to
overcome the downhole pressure of a newly penetrated zone meant that gushers became avoidable.

If, however, the fluid density was not adequate, or fluids were lost to the formation, then there was
still a significant risk of a well blowout.

In 1924 the first successful blowout preventer was brought to market.

The BOP valve affixed to the wellhead could be closed in the event of drilling into a high pressure zone,
and the well fluids contained.

Well control techniques could be used to regain control of the well. As the technology developed,
blowout preventers became standard equipment, and gushers became a thing of the past.

In the modern petroleum industry, uncontrollable wells became known as blowouts and are
comparatively rare. There has been significant improvement in technology, well control techniques,
and personnel training which has helped to prevent their occurring.

74
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

❖ Well control classifications

Well Control can be classified into two main topics

A- Principles and Procedures.

Part of well control concerns to deliver full knowledge about the principles, the basics that should be
learned and the standard procedure for dealing with wells that have a well control issue.

B- Well Control Equipment.

Part of well control concerns to deliver full knowledge about the well control equipment names,
functions, installation, testing, standard operating procedure and maintenance.

Well control equipment should always be ready for immediate use.

5.5.1 Well control Principle & procedure (P&P)

• Formation fluid
• Formation properties
o Porosity
o Permeability
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Bottom hole pressure
• Pressure gradient
• Formation Pressure
• Fracture pressure
• Types of drilling
o Over balance
o Balance
o Under balance
• Kick
• Blow out
• Primary well control
• Secondary well control

75
 5.5.1.1 Formations fluid
- In order to understand the well control, we have to study some of keys definition.
- Formations fluid means any fluid that occurs in the pores of a rock, this fluid might be gas,
oil or/and water.
- Strata containing different fluids, such as various saturations of oil, gas and water, may be
encountered in the process of drilling an oil or gas well.
- Fluids found in the target reservoir formation are referred to as reservoir fluids.

Figure 67 Formation fluid content

76
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.1.2 Formation properties
- To understand the formation behavior, we’ve to learn the rock properties.
- There’re two main rock properties that’s very important regarding to well control.

❖ Formation Porosity
- The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can contain
fluids.

Figure 68 Formation Porosity

❖ Formation Permeability
- The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids through its void spaces

- Rock permeability is varied from formation to another and it measures in milli darcy.

Figure 69 Formation Permeability

77
 5.5.1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure
- The pressure exerted by the weight of mud’s column.
- The hydrostatic pressure used as primary well control which used to control the formations
pressure.
- Hydrostatic pressure = 0.052 x M.WT. x TVD
- Where
- 0.052: Const. (conversion factor)
- M.WT: Mud weight in PPG.
- TVD: True vertical depth in feet. (is the vertical depth from surface to target)

Figure 70 Hydrostatic Pressure

5.5.1.1 Bottom hole pressure (BHP)

- The pressure, usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi), at the bottom of the hole.
This pressure may be calculated in a static, fluid-filled wellbore with the equation:
o BHP = MW * Depth * 0.052
- For circulating wellbores, the BHP increases by the amount of fluid friction in the
annulus.
o BHP = (MW * Depth * 0.052) + Annular Pressure Loss (APL)

5.5.1.2 Pressure Gradient (PG)

- Pressure gradient is a term used to describe the pressure at specific depth, it's the
change in pressure per unit of depth, typically in units of psi/ft.
- The pressure gradient can be determined by the following equation
o PG = Pressure/depth
- Or it can be inferred from the hydrostatic pressure equation:
o HP = 0.052*MW*TVD
o HP / TVD = 0.052*MW
o PG = HP / TVD = 0.052*MW

78
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.1.3 Formation Pressure
- The fluid pressure in the pore spaces of the formation.
- The formation is classified according to the pressure gradient.
- The normal formation pressure gradient is equal to weight of sea water column which is
equals to 0.465 psi/ft.
- If the pressure gradient of formations is 0.465 psi/ft so the formation is considered as
normal formations pressure.
- If the pressure gradient of the formation is higher than 0.465 psi/ft. so the formation is
considered as abnormal formation pressure.
- If the pressure gradient of the formation is lower than 0.465 psi/ft. so the formation is
considered as subnormal formation pressure.

Figure 71 Formation Pressure

79
 5.5.1.4 Fracture Pressure
- The Pressure above which circulation of fluids will cause the rock formation to fracture
hydraulically.
- The fracture pressure is determined by Leak off test (LOT).
- If the hydrostatic pressure exceeds the fracture pressure loss of circulation will occur which
means loss of the drilling fluid into the formation.
- The loss of circulation might be cured by pumping loss circulating material (LCM) or CMT
plug.

Figure 72 Fracture Pressure

80
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

5.5.1.5 Types of Drilling

1- Balance Drilling
- Which means drilling with hydrostatic pressure is approximately equals to formation
pressure.
- It's too hard and very risky to achieve this type of drilling because there's possibility to lose
some of the mud column which might cause kick situation.

Figure 73 Balance drilling

81
 2- Overbalance drilling
- Which means drilling with hydrostatic pressure is higher than to formation pressure.
- The most common types of drilling is used to drill the well safely (from well control side of
view)
- In this case the hydrostatic pressure is higher than the formation pressure and less than
fracture pressure.

Figure 74 Over balance drilling

82
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
3- Underbalance drilling
- Which means drilling with hydrostatic pressure is less than formation pressure.
- As the well is being drilled, formation fluid flows into the wellbore and up to the surface.
This is the opposite of the usual situation, where the wellbore is kept at a pressure above
the formation to prevent formation fluid entering the well.
- The main advantage of using UBD is Increases rate of penetration (ROP) and eliminates the
formation damage.

Figure 75 Under balance drilling

83
 5.5.1.6 Kick
A “kick” is an undesirable flow of formation fluid into the well bore.

There’re many causes of kick such as: -

1- Failure to keep hole full.

2- Low density fluid.
3- Loss of circulation.
4- Gas cut mud.
5- Surging / Swabbing.
6- Abnormal Pressure zone.
7- Lack of crew knowledge & training.

Once detecting the kick, the driller shut in the well in order to start the killing operation to
remove the influx (kick) from the well and re-store the control on the well by new killing mud
weight.

Figure 76 Kick

84
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.1.7 Blowout
- An uncontrolled exit of the formation fluids at the surface or into lower pressured
subsurface zones (underground blowout).
- Uncontrolled flows cannot be contained using previously installed barriers and require
specialized services intervention.
- A blowout may consist of water, oil, gas or a mixture of these.
- Blowouts may occur during all types of well activities and are not limited to drilling
operations.

Figure 77 Blow out

85
 5.5.1.8 Primary well control

- Hydrostatic pressure (Mud) is the primary well control (the first defensive line in well).
- Mud hydrostatic prevents formation fluids entering the wellbore.
- Hydrostatic pressure should be kept all the time higher than the formation pressure to
prevent kick and blowout of the well by closely monitoring the mud weight and mud level in
the well and comparing by the formation pressure.
- Hydrostatic pressure should be higher than formation pressure and lower than fracture
pressure Formation pressure < Hydrostatic pressure < Fracture pressure.

Figure 78 Primary well control

86
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.1.9 Secondary well control

- BOP or (Blowout preventer) is considered as secondary well control which is used in case
the primary well control (mud) has failed to perform his function.
- BOP is activated to shut the well and prevent formation fluids flowing at the surface and
cause harm to people or damage the rig and its equipment.
- The next operations is to record the pressure coming from the well and prepare new mud
with higher mud weight to kill the well and restore the primary well control.

Figure 79 Secondary well control

87
 5.5.2 Well control equipment
• Diverter
• BOP Stack
• Annular Preventer
• Single/double ram
• Types of rams
• Drilling spool (mud cross)
• Kill line
• Choke line
• Accumulator unit (Koomey Unit)
• BOP Remote Control panel
• Choke manifold
• Remote choke control panel (SWACO)
• Mud Gas separator
• Full opening safety valve
• I-BOP

Figure 80 Blowout Preventer (BOP)

88
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.1 Diverter

- The diverter is an low pressure annular preventer with a large piping system underneath
and it usually used in top hole drilling when shallow gas is expected and it also depends on
the regulations and operator policies
- The diverter should be used only when the well cannot be shut in because of fear of
formation breakdown or lost circulation.
- It’s installed on Conductor casing prior to drill surface section.
- It is utilized to divert the kick from the rig (not shut in equipment) and it required the
conductor pipe to be installed.
- The large diameter pipe typically has two directions diverting the wellbore fluid out of the
rig (figure 81).
- The vent line should have large diameter, straight and short in length.
- When the shallow gas is detected the vent line (downwind) should be activated first then
close the diverter.

Diverter

Vent lines

Figure 81 Diverter

89
 5.5.2.2 BOP Stack
- The blow-out preventer (BOP) is shown, the BOP is the largest part of the well control
equipment. It prevents high pressure from escaping from the well and possibly causing a
disaster.
- A set of two or more BOPs used to ensure pressure control of a well.
- A typical stack might consist of one to six ram-type preventers and, optionally, one or two
annular-type preventers.
- The configuration of the stack preventers is optimized to provide maximum pressure
integrity, safety and flexibility in the event of a well control incident.
- The most common BOP stack configuration is from top (Annular Preventer, Upper pipe ram,
Blind shear ram, Mud cross, kill line, choke line, manual and hydraulic valves, Bottom pipe
ram).
- The BOP is installed after drilling surface hole and setting surface casing.

Annular BOP

Upper
Pipe Ram
Double Ram

Blind/shear
Ram

Kill Line

Choke Line
Mud Cross

Lower Pipe
Single Ram Ram

Figure 82 BOP Stack

90
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.3 Annular Preventer

- A large valve used to control wellbore fluids. In this type of valve, the sealing element
resembles a large rubber doughnut that is mechanically squeezed inward to seal on either
pipe (drill collar, drill pipe, casing, or tubing) or the open hole.
- The ability to seal on a variety of pipe sizes is one advantage the annular blowout preventer
has over the ram blowout preventer.
- Most blowout preventer (BOP) stacks contain at least one annular BOP at the top of the
BOP stack.
- It can shut in the well on itself (in case of there is no tubular in hole) but the rubber should
be replaced after.
- It cannot seal around the reamer and stabilizer.

Figure 83 Annular BOP

91
 5.5.2.4 Single / Double Ram BOP

- Ram preventers are commonly available in single-, double.

- Single Ram BOP is usually containing one pipe ram and it’s usually installed at the bottom of
BOP Stack (Lower Ram).
- Double Ram BOP is containing usually one pipe ram and one blind shear ram.
- Single ram BOP is distinguished by it has separate flange to be connected with BOP stack
through it but the double ram has two ram body is welded (doesn’t have separate flange for
every ram BOP body) it’s considered as one part.

Figure 84 Single Ram BOP

Figure 85 Double Ram BOP

92
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.5 Types of ram
A- Fixed Pipe Ram
- A type of sealing element in high-pressure split seal blowout preventers that is
manufactured with a half-circle hole on the edge (to mate with another horizontally
opposed pipe ram) sized to fit around drill pipe.
- Most pipe rams fit only one size or a small range of drill pipe sizes and do not close properly
around drill pipe tool joints or drill collars.

Figure 86 Pipe Ram

B- Variable Bore Ram

- A relatively new style is the variable bore ram, which is designed and manufactured to
properly seal on a wider range of pipe sizes. For example VBR 3 ½’’ to 7’’

Figure 87 Variable Bore Ram

93
 C- Blind Ram
- Two blocks of steel that meet in the center of the wellbore to seal the well have a hole.
- It used to seal off wellbore in case there’s no pipe in the well.
- If the blind ram is activated with drill pipe in hole so it will cause collapse for the opposite
body but it will never seal / shut the well.

Figure 88 Blind Ram

94
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
D- Blind shear Ram
- A blowout preventer (BOP) closing element fitted with hardened tool steel blades designed
to cut the drill pipe or tubing when the BOP is closed, and then fully close to provide
isolation or sealing of the wellbore.
- This is the last resort of well control before evacuating the rig site.

Figure 89 Blind Shear Ram

95
 5.5.2.6 Drilling Spool (Mud Cross)
- Pressure-containing piece of equipment having end connections with or without side outlet
connections, used below or between drill-through equipment and it serve as a spacer or
crossover.
- It is allowing the choke and kill lines to be connected to BOP Stack.
- This tool is characterized by size, end type (studded/flanged) and rate working pressure.
- For example, this connection of mud cross is 11’’ x 5000 psi (flange end).
- Ring gasket is a mechanical seal which fills the space between two or more mating surfaces,
generally to prevent leakage.
- There’s specific ring gasket size is fits to specific size of flange.

Figure 90 Mud Cross (Drilling Spool)

Figure 91 Ring Gasket

96
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.7 Kill line
- A high-pressure pipe leading from an outlet on the BOP stack to the high-pressure rig
pumps and it used If the drill pipe is inaccessible.
- During normal well control operations, kill fluid is pumped through the drill string and
annular fluid is taken out of the well through the choke line to the choke, which drops the
fluid pressure to atmospheric pressure.

Figure 92 Kill line

97
 5.5.2.8 Choke line
- A high-pressure pipe leading from an outlet on the BOP stack to the backpressure choke
and associated manifold.
- During well-control operations, the fluid under pressure in the wellbore flows out of the
well through the choke line to the choke manifold, reducing the fluid pressure to
atmospheric pressure.

Figure 93 Choke line

98
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.9 Accumulator Unit (Koomey unit)
- An accumulator or Koomey unit is a unit used to hydraulically operate Rams BOP, Annular
BOP, HCR and some hydraulic equipment.
- Energy is stored by compressing a pre-charged gas bladder with hydraulic fluid from the
operating or charging system to allow accumulator to operate BOP in case of emergency.
- The accumulator stores pressurized hydraulic fluid that opens and closes the valves in the
BOP. High pressure pumps in the accumulator pressurize the hydraulic fluid into vessels
called bottles.
- Handles on the accumulator operate the BOP equipment. The BOP can also be operated
from control panels located around the rig.

Figure 94 Accumulator Unit

99
 5.5.2.10 BOP Remote Control Panel
- A device placed on the rig floor that can be operated by the driller to close BOP, it has
control hand wheels all these controls operate the preventers on the BOP stack remotely by
hydraulics from an accumulator unit.
- When the hand wheels is operated it direct air pressure to actuating cylinders that turn the
control valves on the main BOP control unit, located a safe distance from the rig.
- A BOP control panel in located next to the doghouse and/or the tool-pusher and foreman
office that the driller can access quickly.
- There may be other locations around the rig that the BOP can be controlled from in an
emergency.
- The preventers can also be closed manually by using hand-wheels on the BOP.

Figure 95 BOP Remote Control Panel

100
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.11 Choke Manifold
- A set of high-pressure valves and associated piping that usually includes at least two
adjustable chokes, arranged such that one adjustable choke may be isolated and taken out
of service for repair and refurbishment while well flow is directed through the other one.
- The function of choke manifold is to hold back pressure while circulating up the kick,
regulate the flow of gas or fluid escaping from the well through the BOP and then the flow
is sent to equipment that removes the gas from the mud.

Figure 96 Choke Manifold

101
 5.5.2.12 Remote choke control panel (SWACO)
- A set of controls, usually placed on the rig floor, or elsewhere on location, that is
manipulated to control the amount of drilling fluid being circulated through the choke
manifold.
- This procedure is necessary when a kick is being circulated out of a well.

Figure 97 Remote choke control panel (SWACO)

102
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.13 Mud Gas Separator

• A device placed after choke manifold captures and separates the large volumes of free gas
within the drilling fluid.
• If there is a "kick" situation, this vessel separates the mud and the gas by allowing it to flow over
baffle plates.
• This equipment separates the gas from the mud as it exits the well, the mud flows into the MGS
near the top. As the mud falls, it hits baffle plates inside the MGS. This agitates the mud and allows
the gas to escape from the mud. The gas exits at the top of the MGS. The separated gas is sent to
pits for burning off the gas, called flare pits.
• The gas then is forced to flow through a line, venting to a flare and the mud then is returned to
tanks.

Figure 98 Mud Gas Separator

103
 5.5.2.14 Full Opening Safety Valve (Gray-valve)

- It is a ball valve designed for high pressure condition and it can hold pressure from both
directions.
- It used in well control situation if the well is kicks while tripping operations.
- It always kept in open position with its Alan-key.
- This is a manually operated ball valve that connects to the top of the drill string during well
control operations.
- It is connected when there is a sign that there is gas or fluid entering the well. The stabbing
valve is stored on the rig floor in the open position, ready for use. Once connected to the
drill string, the ball valve is closed. The gray valve prevents gas or fluid from coming up
through the drill string. Mud cannot be pumped through the stabbing valve when it is
closed.

Figure 99 Full opening safety valve (Gray valve)

104
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.5.2.15 I-BOP

• This valve is a non-return valve (check valve) installed above the FOSV allowing pumping drilling
fluid through the valve into the drill string.
• Once IBOP is installed, FOSV can be opened, so that the driller can pump fluid into the well, I-
BOP prevents upward flow and the more widely used type is “dart-type”.
• With the IBOP valve installed in the drill string, it allows you to strip in hole without mud flowing
through the drill sting.

Figure 100 I-BOP

105
 5.5.3 Exercise
1. What’s the Primary well control?
a. BOP (blowout preventer).
b. Drilling fluid (mud).
c. Casing.
d. Cement.

2. What’s the Secondary well control?

a. Drilling fluid (mud).
b. Casing.
c. Cement.
d. BOP (blowout preventer).

3. ………….. is the fluid pressure in the pore spaces of the formation.

a. Formation fluid
b. Rock Porosity
c. Formation pressure
d. BOP

4. ……….….is the percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume within rock that can contain
fluids.
a. Formation fluid
b. Rock Permeability
c. Rock Porosity
d. Formation pressure

5. ……………any fluid that occurs in the pores of a rock, this fluid might be gas, oil or/and water.
a. Formation fluids
b. Rock Permeability
c. Rock Porosity
d. Formation pressure
6. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Blind Shear Ram
b. Mud Cross
c. BOP
d. Blind Ram

7. ………….is the ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids through its void spaces.
a. Rock Permeability
b. Formation fluid
c. Rock Porosity
d. Formation pressure

8. ……………….. is an uncontrolled exit of the formation fluids at the surface.

a. blowout
b. overbalance drilling
c. underbalance drilling
d. kick

106
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
9. Over balance drilling is the common type of drilling regards to well control and it means the
hydrostatic pressure is ……………….. formation pressure.
a. Equals to
b. Higher than
c. Lower than
10. …………….is an undesirable flow of formation fluid into the well bore.
a. Blowout
b. Formation pressure
c. Kick
d. Porosity
11. ……………. is Pressure above which circulation of fluids will cause the rock formation to fracture
hydraulically.
a. Formation fluid
b. Rock Porosity
c. Formation pressure
d. BOP
12. Under balance drilling is the common type of drilling regards to well control and it means the
hydrostatic pressure is …….. formation pressure.
a. Equals to
b. Higher than
c. Lower than

13. Under balance drilling is the common type of drilling regards to well control and it means the
formation pressure is ……………the hydrostatic pressure.
a. Equals to
b. Higher than
c. Lower than

14. What’s the hydrostatic pressure for well has TVD = 7590 ft. and mud weight = 8.9 ppg?
a. ……………………… ppg.

15. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Blind / shear ram.
b. Blind ram.
c. Fixed Pipe ram.
d. Variable bore ram.

16. Over balance drilling is the common type of drilling regards to well control and it means the
formation pressure is ……………the hydrostatic pressure.
a. Equals to
b. Higher than
c. Lower than

107
 17. What’s the hydrostatic pressure for well has MD = 7590 ft., TVD = 7359 ft. and Mud weight = 9.9
ppg?
a. ……………………… ppg.

18. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Remote choke panel (SWACO).
b. Accumulator Unit (Koomey Unit).
c. Blowout Preventer (BOP).
d. BOP Remote Control Panel.

19. Well has formation pressure is 2970 psi at depth of 5970 ft. (TVD) and mud weight used for drilling is
8.9 ppg. The drilling now is ……………….
a. Balance.
b. Over balance.
c. Under balance.
d. None of above.

20. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Remote choke panel (SWACO)
b. Accumulator Unit (Koomey Unit)
c. Full Opening Safety Valve (FOSV)
d. Blowout Preventer (BOP)

21. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Double ram BOP.
b. Blind shear ram.
c. Fixed Pipe ram
d. Blind ram.

22. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Full Opening Safety valve (FOSV)
b. I-BOP
c. Mud Cross.
d. BOP stack.

108
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
23. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Fixed pipe ram.
b. Blind ram.
c. Blind / shear ram.
d. Variable bore ram.

24. What does BOP stands for?

a. Base of preventer.
b. Blowout Pressure.
c. Base of pressure.
d. Blowout preventer.

25. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Double Ram.
b. Diverter.
c. Annular Preventer.
d. Blind/Shear Ram.

26. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Remote choke panel (SWACO)
b. Accumulator Unit (Koomey Unit)
c. Choke Manifold.
d. Blowout Preventer (BOP)

27. What’s the function of diverter system?

a. To shut in the well.
b. To drill the hole.
c. To support casing.
d. To divert the kick from the rig.

28. What’s the function of Blowout preventer (BOP)?

a. To secure the well.
b. To drill the hole.
c. To support casing.
d. To divert the kick from the rig.

109
 29. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Remote choke panel (SWACO).
b. Mud Gas Separator.
c. Accumulator Unit (Koomey Unit).
d. BOP Stack.

30. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. I-BOP.
b. Drilling Spool (Mud cross).
c. BOP Stack.
d. Full Opening Safety Valve (FOSV).

31. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Remote choke panel (SWACO).
b. Accumulator Unit (Koomey Unit).
c. Full Opening Safety Valve (FOSV).
d. Blowout Preventer (BOP).

32. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Remote choke panel (SWACO).
b. Accumulator (Koomey Unit).
c. Full Opening Safety Valve (FOSV).
d. Blowout Preventer (BOP).

33. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. BOP Stack.
b. Diverter.
c. Accumulator Unit (Koomey unit).
d. Choke manifold.

110
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

111
 5.6 HANDLING EQUIPMENT & TOOLS

Equipment used to move, make and break connection, suspend tubular on the rig.

These include the following:

1. Elevator Links 2. Elevator

3. Drill pipe slips 4. Drill collar and casing slips

5. Safety Clamp 6. Chain tong

7. Rig tong 8. Iron Roughneck

10. Drill pipe Spinner 11. Kelly Spinner

11. Tugger/Winch 12. Bit Breaker

112
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.6.1 Elevator links
Equipment attached onto the Traveling Block in order to suspend the Elevators.

Figure 101 Elevator links

5.6.2 Elevator
Clamps that grip a stand of casing, tubing, drillpipe or drill collars so that the stand or joint
can be raised from or lowered into the hole opening of the rotary table.

Figure 102 Elevators

113
 5.6.3 Drill pipe slips
A wedge shape piece of metal with teeth or other gripping elements that are used to
prevent pipe from slipping down into hole or to hold the pipe in place.

Figure 103 Drill pipe slips

5.6.4 Drill collar & Casing slips

A wedge shape piece of metal with teeth or other gripping elements that are used to
prevent pipe from slipping down into hole or to hold the pipe in place.

Figure 104 Drill collar and casing slips

114
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.6.5 Safety Clamp
The are used on tubulars above the slips to prevent dropping the string should the slips fail
to hold.

Figure 105 Drill collar safety clamp

5.6.6 Chain tong

a pipe wrench used for turning large pipes; an adjustable chain circles the pipe with its ends
connected to the head whose teeth engage the pipe.

Figure 106 Chain tong and usage on rig floor

115
 5.6.7 Rig Tong
Large-capacity, self-locking wrenches used to grip drill string components and apply torque.
As with opposing pipe wrenches for a plumber, the tongs must be used in opposing pairs.

As a matter of efficiency, one set of tongs is essentially tied off with a cable or chain to the
derrick, and the other is actively pulled with mechanical catheads.

The breakout tongs are the active tongs during breakout (or loosening) operations. The
makeup tongs are active during makeup (or tightening) operations.

Figure 107 Rig tong and Make-up connection operations

116
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.6.8 Iron Roughneck
A pneumatically operated machine that replaces the functions performed by the Kelly
Spinner, Drillpipe Spinner and Tongs.

Figure 108 Iron roughneck

5.6.9 Drill pipe Spinner

A pneumatically operated device usually suspended on the rig floor it used to make fast
connections and spin off of drill pipes.

Figure 109 Drill pipe spinner

117
 5.6.10 Kelly Spinner
A pneumatically operated device mounted on top of the kelly that when actuated causes
the kelly to spin.

Figure 110 Kelly spinner

5.6.11 Tugger/Winch
A pneumatically operated drum with wire rope spooled onto it to move or lift heavy objects
on the rig floor.

Figure 111 Air winch

118
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.6.12 Bit breaker
A device that is placed on top of the rotary table to enable the bit to made up to drill string.

Figure 112 Bit breaker

119
 5.6.1 Hammer
A tool with a heavy metal head mounted at right angles at the end of a handle, used for jobs such as
breaking things and driving in nails.

Figure 113 Hammer

5.6.2 Hammer wrench

A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in applying torque to
turn objects—usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.

Figure 114 Hammer wrench

5.6.3 Pipe wrench

A pipe wrench is any of several types of wrench that are designed to turn threaded pipe and
pipe fittings for assembly (tightening) or disassembly (loosening).

Figure 115 Pipe wrench

120
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.6.4 Exercise
1. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Elevator
b. Iron roughneck
c. Drillpipe spinner
d. Bit breaker

2. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Elevator links
b. Iron roughneck
c. Slips
d. Bit breaker

3. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Rig tong
b. Chain tong
c. Slips
d. Elevator

4. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Bit breaker
b. Tugger/winch
c. Elevator
d. Power tong

5. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Bit breaker
b. Chain tong
c. Tugger/winch
d. Power tong

121
 6. What’s the name of this equipment?
a. Chain tong
b. Bit breaker
c. Elevator
d. Tugger/winch

7. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Bit breaker
b. Chain tong
c. Rig tong
d. Tugger/winch

8. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Bit breaker
b. Safety clamp
c. Elevator
d. Tugger/winch

9. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Bit breaker
b. Elevator
c. Tugger/winch
d. Casing slips

10. What’s the name of this equipment?

a. Bit breaker
b. Elevator
c. Tugger/winch
d. Casing slips

122
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5.7 SUMMARY

Rotary drilling is a complicated process that involves in five major rig systems. These systems are rig power
system, hoisting system, circulating system, rotating system and well control system. Each one of these systems
has a number of components. The rig personnel is expected to be familiar not only, with the rotary drilling
process but also, should be able to identify the five major rig systems, their components, as well as their
functions.

123
 6. EXERCISE SET-1
1. Which one of the following systems is used to take the cuttings out of the hole?
a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Rotating system
d) Hoisting system

2. Which one of the following systems is used to prevent the well blow out?
a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

3. Shale Shaker belongs to which one of the following rig systems?

a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

4. Rotary table belongs to which one of the following rig systems?

a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

5. Crown block belongs to which one of the following rig systems?

a) Power System
b) Hoisting System
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

6. Choke manifold belongs to which one of the following rig systems?

a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

7. Fast line belongs to which one of the following rig systems?

a) Power System
b) Hoisting System
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

124
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
8. Diesel Engines belongs to which one of the following rig systems?
a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

9. MGS belongs to which one of the following rig systems?

a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

10. Master bushing belongs to which one of the following rig systems?
a) Power System
b) Circulating system
c) Well control system
d) Rotating system

11. Identify the equipment?

a) Power tong
b) Kelly
c) Master bushing
d) Kelly bushing

12. Identify the equipment?

a) Swivel
b) Mast
c) Master bushing
d) Kelly bushing

13. Identify the equipment?

a) Drilling console
b) Cement pump
c) Drawworks
d) MGS

125
 14. Identify the equipment?

a) Well Head
b) X-mass tree
c) Cement head
d) BOP

15. Identify the equipment?

a) BOP control panel

b) Drilling console
c) Remote choke panel
d) BOP

16. Identify the equipment?

a) Cement Pump
b) Generator
c) Accumulator
d) Mud Pump

17. Identify the equipment?

a) Cement Pump
b) Accumulator
c) Generator
d) Mud Pump

18. The ___________ is in charge of the drilling fluid on the rig and in the hole.

a) Electrician
b) Mechanic
c) Mud Engineer
d) Rigman

19. The ___________assists the rest of the rig crew to ensure the drilling rig is operating properly and
efficiently.
a) Rigman
b) Assistant Driller
c) Driller
d) Senior Driller

126
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

20. It is the job of the ___________to perform maintenance that is required in the SCR room.

a) Tool pusher
b) Driller
c) Electrician
d) Rigman

21. The mud engineer is in charge of the ___________ on the rig.

a) Drilling fluid
b) Maintenance
c) Drill-crew
d) Motors

22. The ___________ is the entry level position on the rig crew.

a) Foreman
b) Toolpusher
c) Driller
d) Rigman

23. The ___________ directs the work performed by the drill crew.

a) Mechanic
b) Assistant driller
c) Rigman
d) Toolpusher

24. Identify the rig type.

a) Drill ship
b) Submersible rig
c) Jack-up
d) Land rig

127
 25. Identify the rig type.

a) Drill ship
b) Submersible rig
c) Jack-up
d) Land rig

26. Identify the rig type.

a) Drill ship
b) Submersible rig
c) Land rig
d) Jack-up

27. Identify the rig type.

a) Drill ship
b) Submersible rig
c) Land rig
d) Jack-up

28. The SCR room is a ___________ area that can only be entered by authorized personnel
a) mud tank
b) high pressure
c) non-hazardous
d) high voltage

29. The ___________ is used to prevent high pressure from escaping from the well.
a) ROP
b) VFD
c) SCR
d) BOP

128
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
30. The drilling rig is based around a ___________ that is positioned over the well location.
a) substructure
b) pit
c) pipe rack
d) mud tank

31. The ___________ supports the crown and hoisting equipment.

a) SCR room
b) mud tank
c) derrick
d) catwalk

32. The ___________ is where drill-pipe comes from the pipe ramp onto the rig floor.
a) crown block
b) V-Door
c) drawworks
d) catwalk

33. The ___________ system pumps mud into the hole as it is drilled.
a) hoisting
b) circulating
c) rotating
d) power

34. The ___________ is inserted into the rotary table and transfers rotation to the kelly bushing.
a) master bushing
b) tong
c) traveling block
d) swivel

35. Rotating the ___________is what raises and lowers the traveling block.
a) rotary table
b) drawworks
c) swivel
d) bit

129
130
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

7. GENERAL & RIG MATHEMATICS

7.1 GENERAL MATHEMATICS
7.1.1 ADDITION
This is concerned with putting things together. The symbol we use is +

for example 7 + 3 = 10.

Example

Buying a round of drinks consisting of three glasses of wine and two gin and tonics

means that you have bought five drinks in total.

(The sum of 3 + 2 is 5 or 5 is the sum of 3 + 2).

3+2=5

131
132
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
7.1.1 SUBTRACTION

This is concerned with taking things away.

The symbol we use is -, for example 3 – 1 = 2.

133
134
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

135
 7.1.2 MULTIPLICATION

This is a quick way of adding equal numbers. The symbol we use is x.

136
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

137
 7.1.3 DIVISION

138
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
Basic mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division will have to follow a
certain calculation order. The order of mathematical operations is as following:

1. Inside the innermost parenthesis has to be calculated first,

2. Exponential operation has to be calculated next,
3. Multiplication and Division
4. Addition and Subtraction has to be done last.

Please have a look at the following three examples

7.1.4 APPLICATIONS

7.1.4.1 Parenthesis
230 + 0.052 x 10 x (4000 + 500) = 2570

Here is how:
(4000 + 500) = 4500
0.052 x 10 x 4500 = 2340
230 + 2340 = 2570

7.1.4.2 Exponential
π x 8.52 = 227

Here is how:
8.52 = 72.25
3.14 x 72.5 = 228

7.1.4.3 Multiplication
6
7 x 2 + – 5 =11
3

Here is how:
7 x 2 = 14
6
=2
3

14 + 2 – 5 = 11

139
 7.1.5 EXERCISE

1. Calculate manually;

a. 145 + 2,035

b. 5,763 + 12 + 300

c. 389,917 + 188,709 + 45,101 + 7

d. 23 + 196

e. 448 + 21

f. 119,987 + 219,998 + 503,945 + 754,730

2. Calculate using your calculator;

a. 145 + 2,035

b. 5,763 + 12 + 300

c. 389,917 + 188,709 + 45,101 + 7

d. 23 + 196

e. 448 + 21

f. 119,987 + 219,998 + 503,945 + 754,730

3. Calculate manually;

a. 47 - 12

b. 78 - 45

c. 5,000 - 441

d. 8,001 – 4,098

e. 117,097 – 98,320

4. Calculate using your calculator;

a. 47 - 12

b. 78 - 45

c. 5,000 - 441

d. 8,001 – 4,098

e. 117,097 – 98,320

140
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
5. Now calculate manually;

a. 9 x 9

b. 4 x 9

c. 3 x 2 x 4

d. 6 x 7

e. 8 x 2

6. Now confirm using your calculator;

a. 9 x 9

b. 4 x 9

c. 3 x 2 x 4

d. 6 x 7

e. 8 x 2

7. In the sack room are 5 pallets each holding 80 sacks of mud chemicals.
a. How many sacks are there in total?
……………………………………………………………………………….. sacks

b. If 3 roustabouts add 8 sacks each to the drilling mud, how many

have they added in total?
……………………………………………………………………………….. sacks

c. How many sacks are left in the sack room?

……………………………………………………………………………….. sacks

d. We estimate the requirement for these chemicals to be 10 sacks per

day. How many full days will the sacks last?
……………………………………………………………………………….. sacks

e. How many sacks will be left over?

……………………………………………………………………………….. sacks

141
 8. Simplify the mathematical expression given below and circle the correct answer.

a) 4895
b) 6095
c) 38476145
d) 5538

9. Simplify the mathematical expression given below and circle the correct answer.

a) 562
b) 42
c) 178.89
d) 531

10. Simplify the mathematical expression given below and circle the correct answer.

a) 62
b) 84
c) 58
d) 64

11. How many gallons is 200 bbls?

Hint: 1 bbl = 42 Gallons.
a) 4.76 gallons
b) 4200 gallons
c) 8400 gallons
d) 0.21 gallons

142
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
7.2 BASIC RIG MATHEMATICS
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Throughout the world, two systems of measurement dominate: the English system and the metric
system.

Value English Metric (SI)

Length Foot (ft) Meter (m)

Weight Pound (lb) Gram (gm)

Capacity Gallon (g) Liter (l)

In the English system, for example, 1 foot equals 12 inches, 1 yard equals 3 feet or 36 inches, and 1 mile
equals 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards.

In the metric system, for example, 1 meter equals 10 decimeters, 100 centimeters, or 1,000 millimeters.
A kilometer equals 1,000 meters.

The metric system, unlike the English system, uses a base of 10°; thus, it is easy to convert from one unit
to another. To convert from one unit to another in the English system, you must memorize or look up the
values.

In the late 1970s, the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures described and adopted
the System International (SI) d'Unites. Conference participants based the SI system on the metric system and
designed it as an international standard of measurement.

7.2.1 LENGTH CALCULATIONS

7.2.1.1 English system for measurements:
Length:
1 mile = 1760-yard 1 yard = 3 feet

1 foot = 12 inches the inch is divided up to 32 divisions.

Weight:
1 pound = 16 ounces

Capacity:
1 barrel = 5.614 cubic feet 1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallon

1 barrel = 42 gallon

143
 7.2.1.2 SI system for measurements:
Length:

1 kilometer = 1000 meter

1 meter = 10 decimeter

1 decimeter = 10 centimeter

1 centimeter = 10 millimeter

Weight:

1 kilogram = 1000 gram

Capacity:

1 cubic meter = 1000 liter

7.2.1.3 Conversion between SI units & English units:

Length:
1 meter = 3.281 feet

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

Weight:
1 pound = 453.5924 gram

Capacity:
1 gallon = 3.785412 liter

144
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
7.2.1.4 Rig tape
Rig tape is a special measuring tape used in rigs to measure lengths. The difference between the
ordinary measuring tape and the rig tape is that the foot in the ordinary measuring tape is divided
into 12 inches, but the foot in the rig tape is divided into 10 divisions.

Yard Vs Meter
One Meter

One Yard

Figure 116 Rig tape

145
 Inch Vs Centimeter

One Inch

Figure 117 Differences between normal measuring and rig tape measuring

146
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
7.2.2 AREA CALCULATIONS
7.2.2.1 Square:

Area of Square = L  L = L2

7.2.2.2 Rectangle:

Area of Rectangle = L W

7.2.2.3 Triangle:

1
Area of Triangle =  B  H
2

147
 7.2.2.4 Trapezoid:

Area of Trapezoid =
(B1 + B2 )  H
2
7.2.2.5 Circle

Area of Circle =  R 2
2
22  D 
=  
7 2
22 2
= D
74
= 0.7854 D 2

148
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
7.2.2.6 Annular area & cross section area

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝐷) − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑑)

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.7854𝐷2 − 0.7854𝑑 2

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.7854 ∗ (𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.7854 ∗ (𝑂𝐷2 − 𝐼𝐷2 )

149
 7.2.3 VOLUME CALCULATIONS
7.2.3.1 Volume of cuboids (Mud tanks):

Any cuboids shaped mud tank must have:

Length (L) ‫طول‬

Width (W) ‫عرض‬

Height (H) ‫إرتفاع‬

Volume of mud tanks = L x W x H Cu. Ft.

Example:

A mud tank with the following dimensions:

Length = 25 feet.

Width = 10 feet.

Height = 8 feet.

150
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
Calculate the volume (capacity) of that tank in cu.ft, bbls, bbl/ft & bbl/in.

Answer:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑊 ∗ 𝐻 = 25 ∗ 10 ∗ 8 = 2000 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡

To calculate the tank volume in bbls we must divide by the conversion factor.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡 2000

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 = = = 356.2 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠
5.614 5.614
This means that if that mud tank is completely full it will contain 356.2 barrels, so to calculate the capacity
of one-foot height of that tank we must divide the full capacity of the tank by its height.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑙. 356.2

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 = = = 44.53 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
𝐻 8
This means that every one foot height of that mud tank contains 44.53 barrels, so to calculate the capacity
of one inch height of that tank we must divide the capacity of one foot height of the tank by 12.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑙./𝑓𝑡 44.53

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 = = = 3.71 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑖𝑛.
12 12
This means that every one inch height of that mud tank contains 3.71 barrels.

151
 7.2.3.2 Volume of cylinders:

If we have a cylinder having a diameter (D) measured in inches, and

height (H) measured in feet.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝐷 2
= 0.7854 ∗ ( ) ∗ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 … 𝐶𝑢. 𝑓𝑡.
12
To calculate the volume of the cylinder in barrels we should divide
by 5.614.

0.7854 𝐷2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = ∗ 𝐷2 ∗ 𝐻 = ∗ 𝐻 … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠.
12 ∗ 12 ∗ 5.614 1029.4

To calculate the volume of the cylinder in barrels per one foot height we should divide by the height of the
cylinder.

𝐷2 𝐻
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = ∗ … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4 𝐻
𝐷2
= … … … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4

The cylinder volume calculations are used to calculate the capacity of the well when the drill string isn't in
the well and the internal capacity of drill pipes, drill collars & casing.

152
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

𝐷2 𝐼𝐷2
𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑓𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑓𝑡
1029.4 1029.4

Example

1- Calculate the capacity of 5” pipe having I.D 4.276 inches.

𝐼𝐷 2
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑓𝑡
1029.4
4.2762 𝑏𝑏𝑙 𝑏𝑏𝑙
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 0.01776
1029.4 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡

2- Calculate the capacity of 36” hole.

𝐷2
𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑓𝑡
1029.4
362 𝑏𝑏𝑙
𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 1.259 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑓𝑡.=
1029.4 𝑓𝑡

153
 7.2.3.3 Annular capacity

The annular capacity of the Well is the capacity of the well when the drill string
is in the well, i.e. it is the capacity between the well wall and the outer diameter
of the drill string.

𝐷2 𝑑2
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑦 = − … … … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4 1029.4
𝐷2 − 𝑑2
= … … … … … . . … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4

Example

Calculate the annular volume of the following:

12.755" I.D CSG, 6 ¼" D/C = ……………………………………………… bbl/ft

Solution
12.7552 − 6.252
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑦 = … … … … … . . … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.12009 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.

154
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
7.2.3.4 Metal displacement

We need to calculate the amount of steel in one foot length of any joint (drill pipes,
drill collars, casing) to determine the amount of mud needed to be pumped into the
hole while POOH or amount of mud that will return to the trip tank while RIH to
monitor the well condition.

𝑂. 𝐷2 − 𝐼. 𝐷 2
𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = … … … … … . . … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4

Example

Calculate the metal displacement of an 11” O.D x 3” I.D drill collar weighing 299 lb/ft.

Solution:

112 − 32
𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = … … … … … . . … . . 𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑠/𝑓𝑡.
1029.4
= 0.1088 bbl./ft.

155
 7.2.4 EXERCISES

1- Calculate the value of these expressions and select your answers:

a- 10  0.052  4.44  0.00192 = a- 0.00443

b- 0.08480

c- 0.06840

d- 0.00848

b- 10  0.052  4.44  0.00192  3.819  0.192 = a- 0.59822

b- 0.00104

c- 0.00220

d- 0.00604

c- 10  0.052  4.44  0.00192 + 3.819  0.192 = a- 0.07841

b- 0.72886

c- 0.73768

d- 0.00476

d- 38.19  0.00192 − 4.44  0.00192 = a- 5.9822

b- 0.1044

c- 0.05982

d- 0.0648

e- 10  0.0542  4.44  0.00192  (38.19  0.00192 − 4.44  0.00192) = a- 0.0853

b- 0.07130

c- 0.06037

d- 0.06840

f- 10  0.052  4.44  0.00192+38.19  0.00192−4.44  0.00192= a- 0.00443

b- 0.06841
c- 0.06923
d- 0.07775

156
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
g- 10  0.052  6.44  0.0185 a- 1.82214
= b- 0.90834
2.006  0.034 c- 0.03088
d- 0.6195

h-
(12.25 2
− 6.75 2 )
 1000 =
a- 101.515

b- 29.386
1029.4
c- 5.3429

d- 139.21

i- a- 344615
80 2
3500  2 = b- 66.27
c- 4307.70
65 d- 5301.77
j- 10  0.052  (4.64  5.614 + 9.08  5.614) a- 40.08
= b- 0.125
38.19  7.48 − 4.44  7.48 + 9.08  7.48 c- 320.368
d- 0.240

2- One foot is:

a- 12 meters

b- 0.6 meters

c- 0.3 meters

d- 3.28 meters

3- Twenty-five hundred feet (2500 ft) are:

a- 761.96 meters

b- 8202.5 meters

c- 833.33 meters

d- 1000 meters

157
 4- Five thousand five hundred and ninety two meters (5592 m) are:

a- 1704.36 feet

b- 18,347.35 feet

c- 466 feet

d- 2200.78 feet

5- Eleven hundred meters (1100 m) are:

a- 335.26 ft

b- 43,309.2 ft

c- 3300 ft

d- 3609.1 ft

6- 36 3/4 inches are:

a- 1 meters

b- 120.56 meters

c- 0.93 meters

d- 3.06 meters

7- 97.97 inches are:

a- 2.49 meters

b- 89.58 meters

c- 2.72 meters

d- 321.44 meters

8- 1745.49 feet are:

a- 5726.95 meters

b- 532 meters

c- 48.48 meters

d- 44.34 meters

158
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
9- 18 5/8 inches are:

a- 61.11 meters

b- 733.27 meters

c- 1.55 ft

d- 0.64 meters

10- 0.54 meter is:

a- 36 inches

b- 21.26 inches

c- 1.77 inches

d- 19.44 inches

11- 76 feet 11 inches are:

a- 23.44 meters

b- 252.36 meters

c- 930 inches

d- 0.51 meters

12- Calculate the area of 18 5/8 inches circle.

a- 346.89 sq.in

b- 346.89 inches

c- 272.45 sq.in

d- 110.42 sq.in

159
 13- Calculate the area of 5” d/p.

a- 25 in

b- 25 sq.in

c- 31.83 sq.in

d- 19.64 sq.in

14- Calculate the circle area of the following:

a- 6 1/2” =………………………………………………………………………… sq.in

b- 8 1/2” =………………………………………………………………………… sq.in

c- 12 1/4” =………………………………………………………………………… sq.in

d- 26” =………………………………………………………………………… sq.in

15- Calculate the cross-sectional area of 5” d/p, 4.276” I.D.

a- 6.72 sq.in

b- 6.72 inches

c- 5.27 sq.in

d- 2.13 sq.in

16- Calculate the cross-sectional area of 10” D/C, 3” I.D.

a- 71.47 sq.in

b- 71.47 in

c- 91 sq.in

d- 91 inches

17- Calculate the annular area between:

a- 8 1/2", 5" =…………………………………………………………………… sq.in

b- 12 ¼", 8 ¼"=…………………………………………………………………… sq.in

c- 17 ½", 9 ½"=…………………………………………………………………… sq.in

160
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

18- Calculate the cross section area of:

a- 5" O.D, 4.2761" I.D =…………………………………………………… sq.in

b- 13 3/8" O.D, 12.755" I.D =…………………………………………………… sq.in

c- 18 5/8" O.D, 17.755" I.D =…………………………………………………… sq.in

19- Calculate the volume (capacity) of a tank 40 ft long, 7 ft high and 7 ft wide.

a- 280 cu.ft

b- 1960 bbls

c- 300 bbls

d- 1960 cu.ft

20- The volume of a tank 5.8 ft long, 5.8 ft wide and 8 ft high is:

a- 48 barrels

b- 269 barrels

c- 46.4 cu.ft

d- 100 barrels

21- If you have a trip tank, with 48 barrels capacity and 80 ft height, how many barrels per inch?

a- 1.45 bbl/in

b- 1.04 bbl/in

c- 0.5 bbl/in

d- 2.8 bbl/in

161
 22- Calculate the volume of the following tanks:

a- Length = 42 ft
cu.ft
Width
Height = 6.8 ft
bbl
= 8 ft
bbl/ft

bbl/in

b- Length = 35 ft
cu.ft
Width = 8 ft
Height = 10 ft
bbl

bbl/ft

bbl/in

c- Length = 38 ft
cu.ft
Width = 10 ft
Height = 7 ft
bbl

bbl/ft

bbl/in

23- Calculate the capacity of 5” pipe having I.D 4.276 inches.

a- 0.00742 bbl/ft

b- 0.0226 bbl/ft

c- 0.018 bbl/ft

d- 0.01776 bbl/ft

24- Calculate the capacity of 36” hole.

a- 1.296 bbl/ft

b- 1.259 bbl/ft

c- 0.1296 bbl/ft

d- 0.1258 bbl/ft

162
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
25- Find the capacity of 3” I.D drill collar.

a- 0.009 bbl/ft

b- 0.0087 bbl/ft

c- 0.02 bbl/ft

d- 0.004 bbl/ft

26- If the I.D of 5" d/p is 4.276", how many barrels would 10,000 feet hold?

a- 74 bbl

b- 178 bbl

c- 250 bbl

d- 183 bbl

27- Calculate the internal capacity of the following:

a- 2 13/16" I.D of D/C 8 1/4" O.D = ……………………………………… bbl/ft

b- 4.2761" I.D of D/P 5" O.D = ……………………………………… bbl/ft

c- 8.755" I.D of casing 9 5/8" O.D = ……………………………………… bbl/ft

d- 12.415" I.D of casing 13 3/8" O.D = ……………………………………… bbl/ft

28- Find the capacity between 8 ½” hole and 5” drill pipe.

a- 0.0459 bbl/ft

b- 0.072 bbl/ft

c- 0.025 bbl/ft

d- 0.047 bbl/ft

163
 29- Calculate the annular volume of the following:

a- 26" hole, 9 ½" O.D D/C = …………………………………………….… bbl/ft

b- 17 ½" hole, 9 ½" O.D D/C = ……………………………………………… bbl/ft

c- 12.755" I.D CSG, 6 ¼" D/C = ……………………………………………… bbl/ft

d- 8.681" I.D CSG, 5" D/P = ………………………………………………… bbl/ft

30- Calculate the metal displacement of an 11” O.D x 3” I.D drill collar weighing 299 lb/ft.
a- 0.2 bbl/ft

b- 0.109 bbl/ft

c- 0.112 bbl/ft

d- 0.03 bbl/ft

31- Calculate the metal displacement of the following:

a- 13 3/8" O.D CSG, 12.755" I.D =…………………………………………… bbl/ft

b- 9 ½" O.D D/C, 2 13/16" I.D =…………………………………………… bbl/ft

c- 3 ½" O.D D/P, 2.754" I.D =…………………………………………… bbl/ft

d- 8 ½" O.D D/C, 162 lb/ft =…………………………………………… bbl/ft

e- 9 ¼" O.D D/C, 220 lb/ft =…………………………………………… bbl/ft

f- 5" O.D D/P, 22.5 lb/ft =…………………………………………… bbl/ft

164
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

165
 8. DRILL BITS
Rotary drilling bits are usually classified according to their designs as either fixed cutter

or roller cone bits.

All fixed cutter bits have blades that are integral with the bodies of the bits and rotate as a unit with
the drill string.

Roller cone bits have two or more cones containing the cutting elements, which rotate about the
axis of the cone as the bit is rotated at the bottom of the hole.

8.1 Fixed Cutter Bits

This type of bit includes Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) Bits and Diamond Bits.

An advantage of fixed cutter bits over roller cone bits is that they do not have any rolling

parts which require strong and clean bearing surfaces. This is especially important in

small hole sizes, where space is not available for designing strength into both the bit

cutter elements and the bearings needed for a rolling cutter.

166
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
8.1.1 Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bits (PDC)

Figure 118 Typical PDC Bit

To manufacture a PDC cutter, a special furnace heats carbon to a very high temperature

and, under great pressure, forms many tiny diamond crystals ("poly" means "many").

The manufacturer then mixes these diamond crystals with a metal powder called the catalyst

metal, and puts the mixture into a can. A layer of tungsten carbide powder mixed with diamond is
added, and finally a polycrystalline wafer is put on the top.

The tiny diamond crystals in a PDC face have a random orient, thus making the PDC very

strong, sharp, and wear-resistant. It is self-sharpening because when a layer of crystals wears away,
another layer with its many sharp edges is exposed.

The main disadvantage of PDCs is

1- They are less stable at high temperatures than are natural diamonds.

2- As the PDC contacts the rock during drilling and heats up, the catalyst metal expands at a
different rate than that of the diamond.

Eventually, when the temperature reaches about 1,350°F (750°C), the PDC cracks. This temperature
is not difficult to reach in drilling and is much lower than the temperature at which a natural
diamond disintegrates (2,350°F or 1,270°C).

167
 8.1.2 Natural Diamond Bits
Diamond is the hardest mineral known to human with a
value of 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness.

Diamond also possesses the highest thermal conductivity,

allowing it to dissipate heat very quickly. This is a desirable
property from a cutting element to prevent it from thermal
fracture due to overheating.

A diamond bit is a fixed-head bit. It has a stationary (fixed)

head that rotates as one piece with the drill string. It is also
called a shear bit because it cuts the rock by slicing it like a
knife. A diamond bit has three main parts, i.e. the cutters,
the body, and the shank.
Figure 119 Natural Diamond Bit

8.1.3 Thermally Stable Polycrystalline (TSP) Bits

The newest synthetic diamond for bits is the thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) diamond.

Its method of manufacturing is similar to that of the PDC. The difference is that the
manufacturer either leaches out the catalyst metal that in a PDC helps bond the crystals or
replaces it with a less-temperature-sensitive material.

A TSP is stable at higher temperatures than a PDC (almost as stable as natural stones)

because the crystals do not break apart because of expansion. While a PDC's diamond

layer will disintegrate at 1,350°F (750°C), the TSP can withstand up to 2,200°F (1,200°C).

The TSP, like the PDC, stays sharp as the tiny diamond crystals wear away.

Figure 120 Typical Thermally Stable Polycrystalline Bit

168
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

8.1.4 Impregnated Diamond Bits

Designers have taken advantage of the unique properties of each of the various materials

used to make bit cutters and have combined them on one bit called the hybrid bit.

The hybrid bit has a combination of natural stones, PDC cutters, TSP, and even tungsten

carbide inserts. For example, some PDC bits use natural diamonds, TSP, or tungsten

carbide inserts as the gauge cutters.

Manufacturers of hybrid bits sometimes place a diamond impregnated pad or stud (not the
same as a PDC stud cutter) on the bit for gauge protection.

To make such pads or studs, the manufacturer mixes grit-sized natural diamonds and
tungsten carbide powder and heats them under pressure to form a replaceable pad or stud
to attach to the gauge surface.

Figure 121 Typical Impregnated Diamond Bit

169
 8.2 Roller Cone Bits
A roller cone bit is so called because it has three (or sometimes two) hollow equal-sized
independently-moving cones. These metal cones have rows of cutters (steel teeth or tungsten
carbide inserts) on the external surfaces. Each cone rotates, or rolls, on its own axis, and
together all the cones rotate as the drill string rotates. Putting weight on the bit, and then
rotating it makes the cutters scrape, gouge, or crush the formation. The geometry of the cones
and the bit body depends on the Journal Angle, Cone Profile, and Offset Angle.

The bit journal is the bearing load-carrying surface. The magnitude of the journal angle affects
the size of the cone: the cone size decreases as the journal angle increases. The journal angle
also determines how much WOB the bit can sustain: The larger the angle, the greater the WOB.
However, the smaller the journal angle, the greater is the gouging and scraping actions
produced by the cones. The optimum journal angles for soft and hard-formation roller cone
bits are 33o and 36o, respectively.

8.2.1 Milled Tooth Bits

Milled tooth bits have steel teeth that the manufacturer mills or cuts out of the body of the
cone after the cone is cast. Some manufacturers forge the teeth from the cone.

Forging uses a heavy-duty press to compress the cone metal and form the teeth; no cutting
or milling is involved. Tooth length and shape depend on the hardness of the formation the
bits are designed to drill.

Long teeth are for soft formations, short teeth are for hard formations, and medium long or
medium-short teeth are for medium-soft or medium-hard formations, respectively.

In soft formations, where the tooth scrapes and gouges the formation, long teeth are
desirable because they can remove a lot of
formation. Also, long teeth tend not to break in
soft formations. In hard formations, on the other
hand, where the tooth punches into the
formation, short teeth are desirable because they
shatter the rock without breaking themselves.

A long tooth cannot absorb as much impact as a

short tooth without breaking. For medium-hard
formations, tooth lengths fall somewhere between
the longest and the shortest.

Figure 122 Milled tooth bit

170
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
8.2.2 Tungsten Carbide Insert Bits
Tungsten carbide insert bits (often called insert bits) are named for the tungsten carbide
inserts in the cones. The inserts are small solid cylinders that have rounded or softly
sharpened ends. The manufacturer presses the inserts into holes drilled in the cones.

Tungsten carbide is a gray metal powder that the manufacturer heats with a special binder
and casts in a mold to make inserts. The binder is blended with the tungsten carbide
powder and the blend is placed in a mold.

The mixture is then heated to melt the binder which holds (binds) the powder in place.
Manufacturers can also apply tungsten carbide in layers to steel teeth and other parts of a
bit that may contact the side of the wellbore.

Since tungsten carbide is much harder than steel, it withstands abrasion better and
increases the life of a bit.

Insert bits have some advantages over milled-tooth bits. Tungsten carbide wears very

little, so the inserts last longer than steel teeth. Also, the same tungsten carbide bit can

drill many different types of formations without changing the bit often.

Figure 123 Tungsten Carbide Insert bit

171
 8.3 Drill bits nozzle
The part of the bit that includes a hole or opening for drilling fluid to exit. The hole is usually small
(around 0.25 in. in diameter) and the pressure of the fluid inside the bit is usually high, leading to a high
exit velocity through the nozzles that creates a high-velocity jet below the nozzles. This high-velocity jet
of fluid cleans both the bit teeth and the bottom of the hole. The sizes of the nozzles are usually
measured in 1/32-in. increments (although some are recorded in millimeters), are always reported in
"thirty-seconds" of size (i.e., fractional denominators are not reduced), and usually range from 6/32 to
32/32.

Figure 124 Various types of bit nozzle

8.1 Drill bits gauge rig

A precisely machined test device, typically fabricated from steel or similar durable material, having a
specified internal or external diameter. The gauge ring is used to confirm the dimensional compatibility
of tools and equipment that must pass through restrictions of a certain diameter.

Figure 125 Drill bits gauge ring

172
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
8.2 Exercise

Match the following pictures with the names

I. Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bit (PDC – Bit)

II. Natural Diamond Bits

III. Thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP-Bit)

IV. Tungsten carbide insert bit (TCI-Bit)

V. Milled Tooth bit

VI. Impregnated Diamond bit

173
174
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

9. DRILLING FLUIDS
9.1 DRILLING FLUIDS OVERVIEW
Drilling fluids are often used while drilling oil and natural gas wells and on exploration drilling
rigs. Drilling fluids are also used for much simpler boreholes, such as water wells. Liquid drilling
fluid is often called drilling mud. The three main categories of drilling fluids are water‐based
muds (which can be dispersed and non‐ dispersed), non‐aqueous muds, usually called oil‐based
mud, and gaseous drilling fluid, in which a wide range of gases can be used.

The main functions of drilling fluids include providing hydrostatic pressure to prevent
formation fluids from entering into the well bore, keeping the drill bit cool and clean during
drilling, carrying out drill cuttings, and suspending the drill cuttings while drilling is paused and
when the drilling assembly is brought in and out of the hole. The drilling fluid used for a
particular job is selected to avoid formation damage and to limit corrosion.

9.2 DRILLING FLUIDS FUNCTIONS

9.2.1 Transport cuttings
• The well is drilled and cuttings are produced the must be removed from the well
• The drilling fluid is circulated down through the pipe and bit nozzles entraining the
cuttings and carrying them up the annulus to surface.
• Cuttings removal is a function of cuttings size, shape, and density; rotation of the
drill string and mud properties such as viscosity, density and annular velocity.

9.2.2 Release the cuttings at the surface

• Drilling fluid carries the rock excavated by the drill bit up to the surface.
• High concentrations of drill solids are detrimental to almost every aspect of the
drilling operation, primarily drilling efficiency and ROP.
• Drill cuttings increase the mud weight and viscosity, which in turn increases
maintenance costs and the need for dilution.

Figure 126 Shale Shakers

175
 9.2.3 Suspend cuttings when circulating is interrupted
• Must suspend drill cuttings, weight materials and additives under a wide range of
conditions.
• Drill cuttings that settle can causes bridges and fill, which can cause stuck‐pipe and
lost circulation.
• Weight material that settles is referred to as sag, this causes a wide variation in the
density of well fluid, this more frequently occurs in high angle and hot wells.

Figure 127 Sag often occur under dynamic conditions

9.2.4 Control formation pressures

• If formation pressure increases, mud density should also be increased to balance
pressure and keep the wellbore stable. The most common weighting material is
barite. Unbalanced formation pressures will cause an unexpected influx (also
known as a kick) of formation fluids in the wellbore possibly leading to a blowout
from pressured formation fluids.
• Hydrostatic pressure = density of drilling fluid × true vertical depth × acceleration of
gravity. If hydrostatic pressure is greater than or equal to formation pressure,
formation fluid will not flow into the wellbore.
• The well is considered under control when no formation fluids or gases are allowed
into the wellbore.

Figure 128 Blowout due to loss of control of formation pressure

176
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
9.2.5 Cool and lubricate the bit and drilling assembly
• Considerable friction and heat by rotational and hydraulic forces of the bit and drill
string
• Circulation of the fluid cools the drill string and bit distributing it throughout the
wellbore.
• The drilling fluid also helps to cool down the bottom hole temperature.
• Drilling fluid also lubricates the BHA further reducing frictional heat. When required
lubricating additives are put into the fluid to further mitigate the problem.

Figure 129 Heat caused by rotation and hydraulic forces at the bit

9.2.6 Maintain wellbore stability

• Borehole instability is most often identified by a sloughing formation, which causes
tight hole conditions, bridges and fill on trips.
• This means the well must be reamed and cleaned and in extreme cases re drilled
• Borehole stability is greatest when the hole maintains its original size and
cylindrical shape.
• Extremely water sensitive shales require an oil based or synthetic based fluid to
drill successfully.

177
 9.2.7 Provide Buoyancy for the Drill String
• The drilling fluid helps to support a portion of the drill string or casing string weight
through buoyancy.
• If a drill string, liner or casing string is suspended in drilling fluid, it is buoyed by a
force equal to the weight of the mud displaced, thereby reducing hook load on the
derrick.
• Using buoyancy, it is possible to run casing strings whose weight exceeds a rig’s
hook load capacity.

Figure 130 Buoyancy helps support drill string weight

9.2.8 Protect formation productivity

• Formation damage can happen as a result of solids plugging up the porosity or
permeability or through chemical or mechanical interactions with the formation.
• Return permeability tests run with different fluids on cores will help to determine
the best non-damaging fluids

9.2.9 Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit

• Special tools like MWD, LWD, and mud motors require an available pressure to
function properly
• Proper hydraulics program can increase ROP, help minimize hole enlargement, help
to clean the hole
• Hydraulic forces are limited to the available pump horsepower.
• All the pressure losses (pipe, bit, annular, tools etc) should be calculated
beforehand to ensure adequate pressure is available for tools and hole cleaning.
• Density, plastic viscosity, BHA design all affect hydraulics

178
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
9.2.10 Ensure adequate formation evaluation
• Chemical and physical mud properties and wellbore conditions after drilling affect
formation evaluation.
• Mud loggers examine cuttings for mineral composition, visual sign of hydrocarbons
and recorded mud logs of lithology, ROP, gas detection or geological parameters.
• Wireline logging measure – electrical, sonic, nuclear and magnetic resonance.
• Oil‐based mud, lubricants, asphalts will mask hydrocarbon indications.

9.3 DRILLING FLUIDS TYPES

Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day‐to‐day basis. Some wells require that different
types be used at different parts in the hole, or that some types be used in combination with
others. The various types of fluid generally fall into a few broad categories:

9.3.1 Air
Compressed air is pumped either down the bore hole's annular space or down the drill
string itself.

9.3.2 Air/water
The same as above, with water added to increase viscosity, flush the hole, provide more
cooling, and/or to control dust.

9.3.3 Air/polymer
A specially formulated chemical, most often referred to as a type of polymer, is added to
the water & air mixture to create specific conditions. A foaming agent is a good example of
a polymer.

9.3.4 Water
Water by itself is sometimes used. In offshore drilling sea water is typically used while
drilling the top section of the hole.

9.3.5 Water‐based mud (WBM)

Most basic water‐based mud systems begin with water, then clays and other chemicals are
incorporated into the water to create a homogeneous blend resembling something
between chocolate milk and a malt (depending on viscosity). The most common of these is
bentonite, frequently referred to in the oilfield as "gel".

9.3.6 Oil‐based mud (OBM)

Oil‐based mud is a mud where the base fluid is a petroleum product such as diesel fuel. Oil‐
based muds are used for many reasons, including increased lubricity, enhanced shale
inhibition, and greater cleaning abilities with less viscosity.

179
 9.3.7 Synthetic‐based fluid (SBM)
(Otherwise known as Low Toxicity Oil Based Mud or LTOBM): Synthetic‐ based fluid is a
mud where the base fluid is a synthetic oil. This is most often used on offshore rigs because
it has the properties of an oil‐based mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes are much less
than an oil‐based fluid.

On a drilling rig, mud is pumped from the mud pits through the drill string where it sprays
out of nozzles on the drill bit, cleaning and cooling the drill bit in the process. The mud then
carries the crushed or cut rock ("cuttings") up the annular space ("annulus") between the
drill string and the sides of the hole being drilled, up through the surface casing, where it
emerges back at the surface. Cuttings are then filtered out with either a shale shaker,, and
the mud returns to the mud pits.

9.4 Properties of mud

9.4.1 Drilling fluids properties and testing equipment:
9.4.1.1 Density
It is the ratio of a substance’s density divided by the density of pure water at a stated
temperature, usually 4°C.

Drilling mud density is required to calculate the hydrostatic pressure that is being
exerted by a column of drilling mud at any given depth.

Figure 131 Mud balance

180
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

9.4.1.2 Viscosity
Marsh Funnel viscosity is an indication of the overall viscosity of a drilling mud.

Figure 132 Marsh funnel viscometer

9.4.1.3 Rheology (Yield point-Gel strength)

Rheology is the study of deformation and flow, In the field, a rotational viscometer
having an industry standardized bob and sleeve is used.

Yield Point: is the ability of the mud to lift the cutting while circulation

Gel strength: is the ability of the mud to suspend the cutting while pump stopped.

Figure 133 Rotational viscometer

181
 9.4.1.4 Fluid loss
It is measured by the rate of fluid/filtrate lost from the mud in 30 minutes.

Collect the filtrate in the graduated cylinder for 30 minutes. At this time, remove the
graduated cylinder, turn off and relieve the pressure on the test sample.

Figure 134 API (room temperature) Filter press

182
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

183
 10. CASING COMPONENTS AND ACCESSORIES

A casing is a large diameter pipe that is inserted into the hole. The casing is run (lowered in the hole) as soon
as the hole has been drilled.

Once the open hole section is drilled, the hole has to be cased and the casings should be secured in place by
cementing.

Casing is the major structural component of a well. Casing is needed to:

❖ Maintain borehole stability

❖ Prevent contamination of water aquifer
❖ Isolate water from producing formations
❖ Control well pressures during drilling, production, and workover operations

Casing provides base or connection for the installation of:

❖ Blowout preventers
❖ Wellhead equipment
❖ Production packers
❖ Production tubing

The cost of casing is a major part of the overall well cost, so selection of casing size, grade, connectors,
and setting depth is a primary engineering and economic consideration.

10.1 CASING STRINGS

There are five basic types of casing strings

❖ Conductor Casing
❖ Surface Casing
❖ Intermediate Casing
❖ Production Casing
❖ Liner

10.1.1 CONDUCTOR CASING

Conductor casing is the first string to set. The conductor isolates unconsolidated formations and fresh
water aquifer and protects against shallow gas. A well neck flange may be welded at top of the
conductor to nipple up diverter or BOP stack. When cemented, this string is typically cemented to the
surface.

10.1.2 SURFACE CASING

Surface casing is set to provide blowout protection, isolate water sands, and prevent lost circulation.
It also often provides adequate shoe strength to drill into high-pressure transition zones. In deviated
wells, the surface casing may cover the build section to prevent key seating of the formation during
deeper drilling. This string is typically cemented to the surface.

184
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
10.1.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING
Intermediate casing is set to isolate:

❖ Unstable hole sections

❖ Lost-circulation zones
❖ Low-pressure zones
❖ Production zones

It is often set in the transition zone from normal to abnormal pressure. The casing cement top must
isolate any hydrocarbon zones. Some wells require multiple intermediate strings. Some intermediate
strings may also be production strings if a liner is run beneath them.

10.1.4 PRODUCTION CASING

Production casing is used to isolate production zones and contain formation pressures in the event of
a tubing leak. It may also be exposed to:

❖ Injection pressures from fracture jobs

❖ Gas from the gas lift

A good primary cement job is very critical for this string.

10.1.5 LINER
Liner is a casing string that does not extend to the wellhead but it is hung on another casing string.
Liners are used instead of full casing strings to:

❖ Reduce cost.
❖ Not represent a tension limitation for a rig.
❖ Save rig time.

Liners can be either an intermediate or a production string. Liners are typically cemented over their
entire length

Figure 135 Casing String Terminology

185
 10.2 CASING PROPERTIES
The American Petroleum Institute (API) grade of casing denotes the steel properties of the casing. The
grade has a letter, which designates the grade, and a number, which designates the minimum yield
strength in thousands of psi. A table of API

casing grades and properties are listed below

Figure 136 Casing String API Grades

Casing properties are defined as:

❖ Yield Strength: The tensile stress required to produce a total elongation of 0.5% per unit length
❖ Collapse Strength: The maximum external pressure or force required to collapse the casing joint
❖ Burst Strength: The maximum internal pressure required to cause a casing joint to yield

Casing dimensions are specified by its outside diameter (OD) and nominal wall thickness. Normal
wellsite conventions specify casing by its OD and weight per foot. As stated earlier, one should specify
which weight one is referring to, though most often it is the nominal weight

10.3 CASING COUPLINGS & THREADS

Couplings are short pieces of casing used to connect the individual joints.They are normally made of
the same grade of steel as the casing. Through their strength can be different than the casing. The API
has specifications for four types of couplings.

❖ Short round threads and couplings (CSG)

❖ Long round threads and couplings (LCSG)
❖ Buttress threads and couplings (BCSG)
❖ Extremeline threads (XCSG)

Figure 137 Cross Section of Casing Couplings

186
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
10.4 CASING ACCESSORIES

10.4.1 FLOAT (GUIDE) SHOE

A float shoe is a short and rounded shape component with non-return value inside which is installed
at the end of the casing. The advantages of a float shoe are as follows;

❖ Prevent mud flowing back while running

casing and prevent cement from outside U-
tubing back into casing due to unbalanced
conditions while performing cementing
operation.
❖ Help running casing to the well. The round
shape of a float shoe prevents a casing string
from hanging up and guiding a string into a
wellbore. Some float shoes are made of high
strength drillable material and can be used to
reciprocate and rotate to pass any
obstructions in a wellbore.
Figure 138 Float (guide) shoe
10.4.2 FLOAT COLLAR
A float collar is also a non-return valve which normally installed one or three joints above a float shoe.
The advantages of a float collar are as listed below;

❖ Prevent mud and cement from U-tubing back into a

casing string and float casing if required. This is the
same advantage as a float shoe, and this also serves
as a backup check valve in the casing string. If the
check valve in a float shoe fails, a check valve in a
float collar still performs the same purpose.
❖ Land cement wiper plug. Some models of float
collars have non-rotating profiles. A cement plug
landed into the profile will have fewer tendencies to
rotate while drilling out. This will minimize time to
drill out cementing plug because a cement wiper
plug will not be rotated.
❖ Contain contaminated cement. The space between
a float shoe and float collar called a “shoe track” will
contain any contaminated cement when the top
plug wipes any residual mud inside the casing. This
will prevent bad cement at a casing shoe and help
operators to achieve good formation integrity test
(FIT) or leak off test (LOT) of the next well section.

Figure 139 Float collar

187
 10.4.3 DV TOOL
Stage-cementing tools, or differential valve (DV) tools, are used to cement multiple sections behind
the same casing string, or to cement a critical long section in multistage. Stage cementing may reduce
mud contamination and lessens the possibility of high filtrate loss or formation breakdown caused by
high hydrostatic pressures, which is often a cause for lost circulation.

Stage tools are installed at a specific point in the casing string as casing is being run into the hole. The
first (or bottom) cement stage is pumped through the tool to the end of the casing and up the annulus
to the calculated-fill volume (height). When this stage is completed, a shutoff or bypass plug can be
dropped or pumped in the casing to seal the stage tool. A free-falling plug or pumpdown dart is then
used to hydraulically set the stage tool and open the side ports, allowing the second cement stage
(top stage) to be displaced above the tool. A closing plug is used to close the sliding sleeve over the
side ports at the end of the second stage and serves as a check valve to keep the cement from U-
tubing above and back through the tool.

Figure 140 DV tool for stage cementing

10.4.4 CENTRALIZER/STOP COLLARS

A centralizer is a device to keep a casing string
out of the well bore wall. The advantages of
casing centralizers are listed below;

❖ Centralize casing string and minimize

contact between casing string and
wellbore
❖ Achieve proper cement around casing
string and reduce cement channeling
❖ Minimize differential sticking and drag
while running in hole.

Figure 141 Centralizers

188
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
10.5 CASING RUNNING TOOLS

10.5.1 ELEVATORS
Elevators must be securely latched onto the elevator links. The
bails must also be safely secured to the hook or top drive.
Hand injuries are the most common type of injuries to
personnel using the elevators. To avoid hand injury, do not
place your hands between the elevators and the tubular. Use
the handles on the elevators for handling them and operating
the latch. Wait until the elevators have stopped moving
before handling them.

Figure 142 Casing elevator

The elevators must be maintained in good condition and inspected before use (Figure 137). Report
any defects you notice to your supervisor.

10.5.2 POWER TONGS

Rig men use power tongs to tighten pipe connections up to final torque and break out torqued pipe
connections. Some models of power tongs require backup tongs. Others require no backup tongs
because they include a self-contained back-up device. Some models have a spinning wrench included.
Power tongs can be powered hydraulically or pneumatically.

One main advantage of power tongs over conventional ones is that you can adjust and preset the
amount of torque needed to make up a particular joint properly. This allows the tong to repeat a
required torque automatically on each tool joint.

Figure 143 Power Tong

189
 10.5.3 SPIDER SLIP
Slip action (Figure 139) is controlled by a conveniently positioned pneumatic control valve, or in the
case of the 200-ton tools, by simple manual operation.

All pneumatically controlled units operated by utilizing the rig air supply. For maximum crew safety,
the system may be manually operated if rig air pressure is temporarily lost. Further safety is insured
by a positive locking mechanism, which locks slips in the set position.

Figure 144 Spider Slip

A number of components are fitted together to make up casing strings. These components enable
casings to be cemented in place. In order to successfully cement each casing string, casing accessories
should be installed. The necessary components are listed below;

10.6 CASING MILLING/CLEANING TOOLS

10.6.1 STRING MILL OR WATERMELON MILL

Watermelon Mill was made to run in tandem with other mills

designed and dressed in such a way that it can mill up or
down. The watermelon mill is also designed to grind up casing
internally into a fine metal powder instead of metal shavings.

Figure 145 String Mill

190
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
10.6.2 SCRAPERS
Casing scraper is designed to mechanically assist in cleaning wellbore casings by scoring and removing
mud film and other restrictive material from the inner casing wall diameters.

Figure 146 Casing scraper

191
 10.1 PREPARING CASINGS

Before running the casing, the first job is to remove the casing/thread protectors, inspect the pipe for
physical damage to the tubular body and ends. Look for any damage to determine if the joint is suitable
for downhole use. Check the thread to see if they have any damages.

Drift the tubulars before cleaning the threads. The rabbit can pull dirt and other objects through the
end of the pipe.

Drifting the casing is to check that the internal diameter of the casing meets the specified tolerance.
A tool called a drift or rabbit is run through the length of the casing to check the internal diameter.
The casing must be in good condition for tools and equipment to be able to pass through it later on.

The drift is inserted at one end of the casing and a rope is used to pull it all the way through to the
other end. The rabbit will pass through the casing if there are no obstructions or damage in the casing.

Drifting tubulars (drill pipes, drill collars, tubing, and casing) is to pull a known diameter plug, or rabbit,
through them. Drifting tubulars ensures that they are free of obstacles or dents that could cause a
blockage. It also checks the minimum diameter along the length of a tubular.

The internal diameter of all pipe needs to be checked so that plugs tools, or other equipment, can pass
through them.

Drifting also helps to ensure that the pipe is free of objects or dirt that can block the bit nozzles when
drilling. Different sizes of rabbit are available, made from metal or plastic.

Figure 147 Drifts

Figure 148 Drifting Casings

192
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

193
 11. CEMENTING OPERATIONS
Cementing operations are carried out for two purposes in oil and gas well.

❖ Primary cementing
❖ Remedial cementing

The first and by far the most popular one is called the primary cementing operation. It is mainly
performed to secure casings in the hole. The second one is called remedial cementing and it is
performed to repair or modify inadequate primary cementing jobs. Remedial cementing is divided
into two categories; one is called squeeze cementing which is performed to repair an inadequate
primary cementing job, and the other is called plug back cementing and it is used for various
purposes, such as well abandonment, side tracking etc.

11.1 PRIMARY CEMENTING

Casings and liners are cemented from top to bottom using Class ‘G’ cement. The drilling engineer should
perform the following tasks to aid in the planning of a successful cementing job:

❖ Determine the static bottom hole temperature and hydrostatic pressure at the casing
depth.
❖ Estimate the bottom hole circulating temperature at the casing depth.
❖ Calculate the density of the cement slurry required that is less than the fracturing pressures
of formations above casing shoe and greater than the formations pore pressures.
❖ Provide the amount of mix water and slurry yield per sack.
❖ Decide whether the cementing job is to be performed in single stage or multiple stages.
Locate the position and type of DV tool to be used.
❖ Calculate the density of cement to be used for the second stage. • Calculate the required
cement slurry and thickening time.
❖ Consult with the lab and decide what other additives are needed to achieve the required
density, thickening time, strength retrogression, fluid loss, potential gas migration, and free
water. • Determine the composition of the mix water. Is there a need to add bactericide
(biocide)?
❖ Calculate the cement volumes for the first and second stage. Use excess volumes based on
current practices used in offset wells.
❖ Select the cement placement method (conventional or inner string).
❖ Select the type and amount of spacers ahead and behind the cement.
❖ Select mixing method (batch mixing or recirculating mixer).
❖ Specify compressive strength of cement required prior to drilling out shoe and waiting time
(WOC)required for the cement to achieve that strength.

Decide whether there is a need to perform confirmation lab tests on rig cement samples before the
cement job is performed. The rig sends two samples to the lab prior to pumping the cement. The
first sample consists of dry cement sample, mix water sample (with no additives mixed in the
water) and samples of cement additives available on the rig. The sample is sent few days before
the cementing job is performed. The second sample is sent after the additives are mixed in the mix
water and the rig is preparing for the cement job. The second sample consists of a dry cement
sample and a sample of the mix fluid (with the additives mixed in the water). The lab will conduct

194
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
tests on both samples to measure thickening time, fluid loss, free water content, density and
rheology to make sure they meet the cement properties specified in the drilling program. If the
properties do not meet the requirements in the program, the lab will modify the concentrations
and types of additives.

11.1.1 Cementing Procedure:

Include in the drilling program a short cementing procedure for each cementing stage. The procedure
should include the following:

❖ Type of cement, number of sacks, and concentrations of all additives. Amount of excess cement
used in per cent or height of cement rise above DV or liner hanger.
❖ Slurry density and yield
❖ Mix water volume per sack
❖ Thickening time
❖ Bottom hole static temperature and circulating temperature
❖ Free water and fluid loss
❖ Compressive strength in psi and waiting time (WOC).
❖ Number of hole volumes to be circulated to condition the mud.
❖ Volume, weight, and type of spacers ahead and behind the cement.
❖ Volume, type, and weight of displacing fluid.
❖ Maximum pumping pressure.
❖ Operation of the DV tool (circulation of excess cement from first stage, packer inflation, opening
of circulating ports, closing DV ports).

11.1.2 Cementing Equipment:

For every section of casing, a cementing crew arrives on location with the cement unit (Figure 144).

Figure 149 Cement Unit

The cement unit is a large mixing unit and pump. High pressure lines are installed from the cement
unit to the top of the casing cement head. The casing cement head screws into the top of the casing.
The cement unit mixes dry cement powder, water and chemicals to make a batch of cement, called
“slurry”.

195
 Figure 150 Casing Cement Heads

The cement head holds plugs that are released ahead and behind cement being pumped; bottom and
top plugs, respectively. The top plug is pumped down/ displaced with water or drilling fluid. This
prevents the cement from coming back up the casing. The plug is pumped down to the bottom of the
casing, so that the rest of the casing has no remaining cement.

Figure 151 Cement Head Plug

196
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
11.1.3 Cementing Operation:
The process in (Figure 147) shows that the cement slurry is pumped out through the shoe at the
bottom of the casing. The cement then fills the space between the casing and the formation all the
way to surface.

Figure 152 Cementing Process

After the cement hardens, it makes a seal between the casing and the rock formation. This prevents
formation fluids from entering the well. The next section of the well can then be drilled. The smaller
diameter hole is drilled through the bottom of the casing shoe.

11.2 SQUEEZE CEMENTING

Squeeze cementing is defined as the process of forcing a cement slurry, under pressure,
through holes or splits in the casing/wellbore annular space. When the slurry is forced
against a permeable formation, the solid particles filter out on the formation face as the
aqueous phase (cement filtrate) enters the formation matrix. A properly designed
squeeze job causes the resulting cement filter cake to fill the opening(s) between the
formation and the casing.
Upon curing, the cake forms a nearly impenetrable solid. In cases where the slurry is
placed into a fractured interval, the cement solids must develop a filter cake on the
fracture face and/or bridge the fracture.

A special squeeze packer is used for this operation.

Figure 153 EZ Drill® SVB Squeeze Packer

197
 11.3 PLUG BACK CEMENTING
Cement plugs and their applications are used for various reasons, including:

11.3.1 Well or zone abandonment:

❖ Seal a dry hole;
❖ Seal depleted zones;
❖ Seal non-commercial zones or wellbores;

11.3.2 Temporary well or zone abandonment. Zonal isolation or well stability:

❖ Isolate one pressure zone from another;
❖ Prevent zonal fluid communication;
❖ Stop lost circulation events;

11.3.3 Enable drilling through fracture or weak formations. Directional drilling (kick-
off plugs):
❖ Support controlled changes in well trajectory (whipstock operations);
❖ Sidetrack operators around a “fish”.

It is essential to these operations that a competent cement plug is placed the first time. Properly placing the
designed cement plug helps reduce nonproductive rig time, minimize wasted material, and mitigate the need
for additional cementing services.

Plugging oil or gas wells is a very common operation.

Figure 154 Cement Plug for side tracking

Thus, the challenge is placing a relatively small amount of cement slurry above a larger volume of wellbore
fluid. As a result, a sound engineering design that addresses the major factors affecting plug success is
necessary. Factors include the density and rheology of both the cement and the wellbore fluid as well as hole
size and hole angle including vertical, deviated and horizontal well orientations Setting a Hi-Vis pill may be
required to effectively spot the plug.

198
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

199
 12. WELL HEAD

The wellhead equipment is used as a connection base for the BOP, casing or tubing strings, and for the
production tree. A production tree controls the flow of fluids from the well after the rig has moved. The well
can also be shut in by using the production tree.

12.1 EQUIPMENT

The wellhead equipment includes:

❖ Landing base
❖ Casing hanger
❖ Casing spools
❖ Tubing spools
❖ Tubing Hanger
❖ Production tree

Landing Base
The landing base is the first connection between surface casing and any BOP equipment or wellhead
equipment. The landing base is also called a casing head. As shown in Figure 155, the top of the landing
base is a flanged connection. The bottom of the landing base is welded (it can also be threaded) on to
the surface casing. There is usually a threaded side outlet on the landing base. This threaded side
outlet is for draining the BOP after it is installed.

Figure 155 Landing base

Casing Hanger
A casing hanger (Figure 156) is a two-piece slip and seal assembly inserted into a landing base. A casing
hanger is also installed into every casing spool.

The slips suspend the casing so that the top of the casing can be cut above the slips. The seal then
installs onto the top of the slips. The seal part of the casing hanger prevents wellbore pressure from
reaching the space below the seal. It seals between the outside of the casing, and the inside profile of
the landing base or casing spool.

200
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

Figure 156 Casing Hanger

Casing Spools
A casing spool (Figure 157) is similar in design to a landing base. The casing spool has flanged
connections instead of a welded connection. It is bolted to the top of the landing base after a string of
casing has been run and cemented into the wellbore.

Figure 157 Casing spool

Tubing Spools
Tubing is run after the last casing string. The hydrocarbons flow up through the tubing to the surface
when the well is ready to produce. The tubing spool is similar in design to the casing spool. It has
lockdown screws for the tubing hanger in the upper flange, as shown in Figure 158. The tubing spool
receives and locks the tubing hanger that supports the weight of the tubing. The production tree
attaches to the top of the tubing spool. The tubing hanger has a seal that seals off against the tubing
spool and tubing. This isolates the annulus below the tubing hanger. The side outlets on the tubing
spool allow access to this annulus. The tubing hanger screws onto the tubing.

201
 Figure 158 Tubing spool

Tubing Hanger

Production Tree
The production tree (also called Christmas tree or Xmas tree) uses heavy duty valves to control the
flow of oil or gas out of the well (Figure 159). It also has an access point for equipment to service the
well [28].

Figure 159 X-mass tree or Production tree

202
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
12.2 INSTALLING A LANDING BASE ON A LANDRIG

After the surface casing has been cemented into the wellbore, the landing base is installed onto the casing. The
landing base is the first connection between the casing and the BOP. The procedure for installing a landing base
includes [29]:

❖ Cut the casing

❖ Position the landing base
❖ Weld the landing base
❖ Pressure test the weld

12.3 INSTALLING A CASING SPOOL

After the intermediate string of casing is run and cemented into the wellbore, the next step is to install a casing
spool on top of the landing base. To do this, the BOP has to be removed from the landing base. The detailed
procedure for installing a casing spool includes:

❖ Nipple down BOP

❖ Set casing hanger/slips
❖ Cut the casing
❖ Nipple up casing spool
❖ Nipple up BOP

Nipple Down BOP

Nipple down means to remove all the bolts on a flanged connection. When the bolts are removed, the
BOP is lifted with the BOP hoist to access the inside of the landing base.

Set Casing Hanger/Slips

Once the BOP is lifted, a pressure washer is used to clean the inside of the landing base around the
casing hanger profile as shown in Figure 160. Casing hangers/Slips are set and the casings are landed
as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Figure 160 Casing Hanger

Cut the Casing

Once the slips are set and the casing is suspended by the hanger in the landing base, then a welder
cut the casing that is sticking up as in Figure 161.

203
 Figure 161 Cutting Casings

Nipple Up the Casing Spool

Nipple up means making up all the bolts on a flanged connection. The casing spool attaches to the
landing base with a flanged connection. The casing spool is lowered into place by using the bolt and
chain sling and a hoist line through the rig floor. The seal areas of the casing spool and landing base
have to be cleaned thoroughly and a new seal ring installed. The bolts are tightened and the sling
removed. The casing spool is tested as followings: The casing spool has a port on the side of the flange.
The port allows the seals between the casing spool, hanger and the landing base to be pressure tested
with hydraulic oil.

Pressure Test the Casing Spool

The casing spool has a port on the side of the flange. The port allows the seals between the casing
spool, hanger and the landing base to be pressure tested with hydraulic oil.

Nipple Up the BOP

The BOP needs to be flanged to the top of the casing spool. Once the BOP has been tightened to the
casing spool, the flanged connections are pressure tested before drilling operations can begin [30].

12.4 INSTALLING BOPs

A blowout happens when high pressure fluids from the formation reach the surface. When the hole gets
deeper, there is a danger of drilling into formations that contain high pressure fluids. The blowout preventer
(BOP) is usually installed (Figure 162) after the surface section has been drilled and cased.

The BOP is a set of seals that close off the top of the hole. The seals are used to prevent high pressure fluids
from exiting the casing at surface. The seals can close around the pipe or kelly while drilling the well.

204
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

Figure 162 Installing BOP

205
 13. EXERCISE SET-II

Select the correct answer.

1. What is the name of the heavy pipes and tools that also include the drill bit?
a) DP
b) BHA
c) Casings
d) Tool Joints

2. What is the first section of the well that is drilled by the drilling rig?
a) Production Section
b) Intermediate Section
c) Cross Section
e) Surface Section

3. What is the purpose of a wellbore survey?

a) To determine how to drive to the rig site
f) To determine if the hole is deviating
b) To determine how many people on the rig
c) To determine how many rigs are available

4. Why do the crew drift casing?

a) To check casing outside diameter
g) To check casing inside diameter
b) To determine coupling sizes
c) To make sure casings fit in hole

5. The purpose of drilling a well is to extract ___________.

a) drilling fluid
b) formation water
c) formation samples
d) hydrocarbons

6. When the rig arrives at the well location, it must be ___________ before drilling can begin.
a) painted
b) rigged down
c) rigged up
d) cased

7. The ___________ is normally run in the hole before any surface casing.
a) conductor pipe
b) surface casing
c) production casing
d) intermediate casing

206
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
8. When the bit first starts to drill the ground, it is called ___________ the well.
a) swabbing
b) spudding
c) surging
d) surveying

9. A ___________ is used to measure if the hole is vertical.

a) rabbit
b) trip
c) spud
d) survey

10. A ___________ is used to check the internal diameter of the casing.

a) Rabbit (drift)
b) trip
c) spud
d) survey

11. After every hole section is drilled, ___________ is run to line the hole.
a) a survey
b) casing
c) drilling fluid
d) a rabbit

12. A ___________ is installed after casing the surface section, to prevent high pressure fluids from
exiting the casing at surface.
a) BOP
b) BHA
c) rabbit
d) TD

13. The rig is rigged down after ___________.

a) the surface section
b) spudding the well
c) the intermediate section
d) completing the well

14. Pulling the drill string out of the hole is known as ___________.
a) RIH
b) ROP
c) POH
d) BOP

15. Before the drill string is pulled out, the hole is ___________.
a) opened, and mouse hole closed
b) closed, and mouse hole opened
c) cleaned by circulation
d) opened, and rathole closed

207
 16. The kelly is stored in the ___________ during tripping operations.
a) fingerboard
b) monkeyboard
c) mouse hole
d) rathole

17. The ___________ breakout holds the top drill pipe when breaking out a connection.
a) table
b) kelly
c) slips
d) tong

18. A ___________ is used to direct mud from the drill pipe back to the tanks when breaking
connections.
a) mud bucket
b) mud pump
c) mud gun
d) fingerboard

19. When a connection is broken, the drill pipe stand is racked in the ___________.
a) fingerboard
b) elevators
c) c. rathole
d) d. mouse hole

20. To pull a stand of drill pipe out of the hole, the crew will latch the ___________ onto the top of the
drill pipe.
a) tongs
b) elevators
c) pipe spinner
d) traveling block

21. BHA components require a ___________ than the drill pipe when making up connections.
a) lower torque
b) higher torque
c) taller derrick
d) smaller derrick

22. The ___________ puts pipe into the elevators when tripping in the hole.
a) pipe spinner
b) mud can
c) air hoist
d) derrickman

23. After tripping in the hole, the ___________ must be installed to start drilling.
a) kelly
b) rig tongs
c) pipe spinner
d) elevators

208
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
24. Primary cementing is used to ___________.
a) deviate from vertical
b) fix previous cement troubles
c) secure casings in the hole
d) inject cement mixture into the formation

25. Before any cement job the hole has to be ___________.

a) cleaned of drilling fluid and made it empty
b) cleaned of cuttings by circulation
c) replaced with oil
d) enlarged

26. Squeeze cementing is used to ___________.

a) deviate from vertical
b) fix previous cement troubles
c) secure casings in the hole
d) inject cement mixture into the formation

27. In case we have a long casing strings we may use ___________.

a) Squeeze cementing
b) Remedial cementing
c) Multi stage cementing
d) Plug back cementing

28. Identify the cementing equipment below.

a) Cement head
b) Wiper plug
c) Float collar
d) Guide Shoe

209
 29. Identify the cementing equipment below.

a) Cement head
b) Wiper plug
c) Float collar
d) Guide Shoe

30. Identify the equipment below.

a) Rabbit (for drifting casings)

b) Wiper plug
c) Float collar
d) Guide Shoe

31. Identify the equipment below.

a) Elevator
b) Centralizer
c) Float collar
d) Guide Shoe

210
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
32. Identify the equipment below.

a) Elevator
b) Power tong
c) Float collar
d) Stabilizer

33. Identify the casing equipment below.

a) Float collar
b) Power tong
c) Float (guide) shoe
d) Stabilizer

34. Identify the casing equipment below.

a) Elevator
b) Centraliser
c) Float collar
d) Guide Shoe

211
 35. Identify the casing equipment below.

a) Elevator
b) Centraliser
c) Float collar
d) Casing scraper

36. Identify the casing equipment below.

a) Float collar
b) Power tong
c) Differential Valve (DV tool) or multi stage tool
d) Stabilizer

37. The ___________ is the first connection between the surface casing and any other wellhead
equipment.

a) blowout preventer
b) production tree
c) landing base
d) tubing hanger

38. A ___________ is bolted to the top of the landing base after the casing has been run and cemented.
a) casing spool
b) lockdown screw
c) back pressure valve
d) tubing hanger

212
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
39. The ___________ uses heavy duty valves to control the flow of oil or gas out of the well.
a) casing spool
b) tubing hanger
c) landing base
d) production tree (X-mass tree)

40. The casing needs to be ___________ before the landing base can be installed.
a) removed
b) cut
c) painted
d) filled

41. The ___________ must be removed from the landing base before the casing spool can be installed.
a) welds
b) casing
c) BOP
d) flange

213
 14. DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

14.1 DEFINITION

Directional drilling can generally be defined as the science of directing a wellbore along a predetermined
trajectory to intersect a designated subsurface target.

14.2 APPLICATIONS

14.2.1 Multiple wells from offshore structures

The most common application of directional drilling techniques is in offshore drilling. Many oil and gas
deposits are situated well beyond the reach of land-based rigs. Drilling a large number of vertical wells
from individual platforms is both impractical and uneconomical. The obvious approach for a large
oilfield is to install a fixed platform on the seabed, from which many directional boreholes can be
drilled. The bottom hole locations of these wells are carefully spaced for optimum recovery.

In conventional development, wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been constructed and
installed. This can mean a delay of several years before production begins. Such delay scan be
considerably reduced by predrilling some of the wells through a subsea template while the platform
is being constructed. These wells are directionally drilled from a semisubmersible rig and tied back to
the platform once it has been installed.

Figure 163 Multiple wells from offshore structures

14.2.2 Relief Wells

Directional techniques are used to drill relief wells in order to “kill” blowouts Relief wells are deviated
to pass as close as possible to the uncontrolled well. Heavy mud is pumped into the reservoir to
overcome the pressure and bring the wild well under control.

Figure 164 Relief Well

214
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
14.2.3 Controlling Vertical Wells
Directional techniques are used to “straighten crooked holes”. When deviation occurs in a well which
is supposed to be vertical, various techniques can be used to bring the well back to vertical. This was
one of the earliest applications of directional drilling.

Figure 165 Controlling Vertical Wells

14.2.4 Sidetracking
Sidetracking out of an existing wellbore is another application of directional drilling. This is done to
bypass an obstruction (“fish”) in the original wellbore, to explore the extent of a producing zone in a
certain sector of a field, or to sidetrack a dry hole to a more promising target Wells are also sidetracked
to access more reservoir by drilling a horizontal hole section from the existing well bore.

Figure 166 Side Tracking

14.2.5 Sidetracking Into Multiple Sands From A Single Wellbore

A very profitable application of directional drilling pertains to the intersection of multiple sands from
a single wellbore.

Figure 167 Accessing multiple sands with side track laterals from a main wellbore

215
 14.2.6 Inaccessible locations
Directional wells are often drilled because the surface location directly above the reservoir is
inaccessible, either because of natural or man-made obstacles

Figure 168 Drilling directional wells beneath natural surface obstructions

14.2.7 Fault Drilling

Directional wells are also drilled to avoid drilling a vertical well through a steeply inclined fault plane
which could slip and shear the casing.

Figure 169 Fault Drilling

14.2.8 Salt Dome Drilling

Directional drilling programs are sometimes used to overcome the problems of drilling near salt
domes. Instead of drilling through the salt, the well is drilled at one side of the dome and is then
deviated around and underneath the overhanging cap.

Figure 170 Salt Dome Drilling

216
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
14.2.9 Shoreline Drilling
In the case where a reservoir lies offshore but quite close to land, the most economical way to exploit
the reservoir may be to drill directional wells from a land rig on the coast.

Figure 171 Shore Drilling

These are only some of the many applications of directional drilling. Although it is not a new concept,
one type of directional drilling, horizontal drilling, is the fastest growing branch of drilling, with major
advances occurring in tools and techniques. As with directional drilling, there are numerous specific
applications for horizontal drilling.

14.3 EQUIPMENT

14.3.1 Downhole Motors

The downhole motors turn the bit without needing to turn the entire drill string. However not rotating
the entire drill string has certain disadvantages (hole cleaning, differential sticking). The technology,
called rotary steerable systems (RSS) is superior to the old system as it allows steering while rotating
the entire drill string.

Figure 172 Downhole Motor (Schlumberger Power Pack)

217
 14.3.2 Stabilizers
Stabilized BHA can be designed to build, hold or drop inclination.

Figure 173 Stabilized BHA for directional drilling

14.3.3 Bend Sub

The direction where the bends are pointing is called toolface direction (TF). The bent sub is used on
top of a straight mud motor or straight turbine to initiate deviation.

Figure 174 Bent Sub to initiate directional drilling

14.3.4 Whipstock
Whipstock is also used to start deviation in a vertical hole or to side track from the well just
in case if pipe is left in the hole.

Figure 175 Whipstock to initiate directional drilling

218
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

14.4 SURVEYING
The direction and angle of the drilled hole have to be measured by proper tools. This process is called
surveying. The tools used for this purpose are called the survey tools.

Figure 176 TOTCO inclinometer (The device to measure the hole inclination)

14.4.1 MWD
The evaluation of physical properties, usually including pressure, temperature and wellbore
trajectory in three-dimensional space, while extending a wellbore. MWD is now standard
practice in offshore directional wells, where the tool cost is offset by rig time and wellbore
stability considerations if other tools are used. The measurements are made downhole,
stored in solid-state memory for some time and later transmitted to the surface. Data
transmission methods vary from company to company, but usually involve digitally
encoding data and transmitting to the surface as pressure pulses in the mud system. These
pressures may be positive, negative or continuous sine waves. Some MWD tools have the
ability to store the measurements for later retrieval with wireline or when the tool is
tripped out of the hole if the data transmission link fails. MWD tools that measure
formation parameters (resistivity, porosity, sonic velocity, gamma ray) are referred to as
logging-while-drilling (LWD) tools. LWD tools use similar data storage and transmission
systems, with some having more solid-state memory to provide higher resolution logs after
the tool is tripped out than is possible with the relatively low bandwidth, mud-pulse data
transmission system

219
 14.4.2 LWD
Logging While Drilling is a fairly recent technology in directional drilling and formation evaluation. It
allows simultaneous surveying while drilling.

LWD has following benefits:

❖ It allows to determine formation tops

❖ It also allows to drill tjhru the productive sections of the reservoir

There are many tools available depending on what you want to measure, such as: resistivity surveying,
porosity surveying, etc.

Figure 177 LWD with GR and Resistivity Sondes

220
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

221
 15. SLICKLINE AND WIRELINE

In the oil and gas industry, the term wireline usually refers to a cabling technology used by operators of oil and
gas wells to lower equipment or measurement devices into the well for the purposes of well intervention,
reservoir evaluation, and pipe recovery.

Tools inserted into the well for both workover and logging efforts, wirelines and slicklines are very similar
devices. While a slickline is a thin cable introduced into a well to deliver and retrieve tools downhole, a wireline
is an electrical cable used to lower tools into and transmit data about the conditions of the wellbore called
wireline logs. Usually consisting of braided cables, wirelines are used to perform wireline logging, as well.

15.1 SLICKLINE

Used to place and recover wellbore equipment, such as plugs, gauges and valves, slicklines are single-strand
non-electric cables lowered into oil and gas wells from the surface. Slicklines can also be used to adjust valves
and sleeves located downhole, as well as repair tubing within the wellbore.

Wrapped around a drum on the back of a truck, the slickline is raised and lowered in the well by reeling in and
out the wire hydraulically.

On the other hand, wirelines are electric cables that transmit data about the well. Consisting of single strands
or multi-strands, the wireline is used for both well intervention and formation evaluation operations. In other
words, wirelines are useful in gathering data about the well in logging activities, as well as in workover jobs
that require data transmittal.

Figure 178 Slick line Truck

222
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
15.2 WIRELINE LOGGING

Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a detailed record (a well log) of the
geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log may be based either on visual inspection of samples
brought to the surface (geological logs) or on physical measurements made by instruments lowered into the
hole (geophysical logs). Some types of geophysical well logs can be done during any phase of a well's history:
drilling, completing, producing, or abandoning. Well logging is performed in boreholes drilled for the oil and
gas, groundwater, mineral and geothermal exploration, as well as part of environmental and geotechnical
studies..

A sample log track and logging tools of various kinds are given below

Figure 179 Logging Truck

15.3 WELL LOGGING METHODS

The logging tool, also called a sonde, is located at the bottom of the wireline. They are brought to the site with
a dedicated company truck.

The measurements are taken by lowering the wireline to the prescribed depth and then raising it out of the
well. The measurements are taken continuously on the way up, in an effort to sustain tension on the line.

❖ Spontaneous potential
❖ Gamma Ray
❖ Resistivity
❖ Density
❖ Sonic
❖ Caliper

223
 Figure 180 A Sample Log

Figure 181 Logging tools (sonde) of various type

224
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

225
 16. COILED TUBING
16.1 OVERVIEW

In the oil and gas industries, coiled tubing refers to a very long metal pipe, normally 1 to 3.25 in (25 to 83 mm)
in diameter which is supplied spooled on a large reel. It is used for interventions in oil and gas wells and
sometimes as production tubing in depleted gas wells. Coil tubing has also been used as a cheaper version of
work-over operations. Coiled tubing is often used to carry out operations similar to wire lining.

The main benefits over wireline are the ability to pump chemicals through the coil and the ability to push it into
the hole rather than relying on gravity.

The tool string at the bottom of the coil is often called the bottom hole assembly (BHA). It can range from
something as simple as a jetting nozzle, for jobs involving pumping chemicals or cement through the coil, to a
larger string of logging tools, depending on the operations.

Coil tubing can perform almost any operation for oil well operations if used correctly.

16.2 APPLICATIONS
16.2.1 Circulation
The most typical use for CT is circulation. By running coiled tubing into the bottom of the
hole and pumping in the gas, the kill fluid can be forced out to production. Circulating can
also be used to clean out light debris, which may have accumulated in the hole.

16.2.2 Pumping
In many cases, the use of coiled tubing to deploy a complex pump can greatly reduce the cost
of deployment by eliminating the number of units on site during the deploy.

Figure 182 CT Pumping and Circulation Application

226
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
16.2.3 Coiled Tubing Drilling
A relatively modern drilling technique involves using coiled tubing instead of conventional
drill pipe. This has the advantage of requiring less effort to trip in and out of the well (the coil
can simply be run in and pulled out while drill pipe must be assembled and dismantled joint
by joint while tripping in and out).

Figure 183 CT Drilling Unit

16.2.4 Logging and perforating

These tasks are by default the area of wire line. Because CT is rigid, it can be pushed into the
well from the surface. This is an advantage over wire line.

Figure 184 CT Logging and perforation

227
 16.2.5 Production
CT is often used as a production string in shallow gas wells that produce some water. The
narrow internal diameter results in a much higher velocity than would occur inside
conventional tubing or inside the casing. This higher velocity assists in lifting liquids to
surface.

Figure 185 CT Unit

228
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
16.3 MAIN PARTS OF A CT SYSTEM

The basic components of a coiled tubing unit are as follows:

1- Tubing Injector Assembly.

2- Tubing Guide Arch

3- Service Reel.

4- Power Supply / Prime Mover.

5- Control Console and Monitoring Equipment.

6- Well Control Equipment.

Figure 186 Main parts of CT System

229
 16.3.1 Tubing Injector Assembly
The injector assembly is designed to control the rate of lowering the tubing into the well
under various well conditions.

Tubing Injector
Assembly

Figure 187 Tubing Injector Assembly

16.3.2 Tubing Guide Arch

The tubing arch supports the tubing through the 90 °bending radius and guides the C.T.
from the reel into the injector chains.

Figure 188 Tubing Guide Arch

230
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
16.3.3 Service Reel
The services reel serves as the C.T. storage mechanism during transport and as the spooling
device during C.T. operations.
The rotation of the service reel is controlled by a hydraulic motor.

Figure 189 Service Reel

16.3.4 Power Supply / Prime Mover.

the prime mover packages are equipped with diesel engines and multi-stage hydraulic
pumps which are typically rated for pressures of 3,000 psig to 5,000 psig. And in addition,
the accumulator package for well control equipment.

The basic functions of the CTU power pack and control cabin is providing hydraulic power
required by the CTU (engine and hydraulic pumps)

Figure 190 Service Reel

231
 16.3.5 Control Console and Monitoring Equipment.
The control unit contains all of the necessary controls for operating a coiled tubing
unit from this location. Typically, a control unit is located behind a coiled tubing reel.

Figure 191 Control Console and Monitoring Equipment

16.4 Well Control Equipment

In order to safely operate in a live well, coiled tubing units must have pressure control
systems in place for well control.

Figure 192 Well Control

232
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
16.5 SUMMARY
Coil tubing has also been used as a cheaper version of work-over operations. It is used to
perform open hole drilling and milling operations.

Common coiled tubing steels have yield strengths ranging from 55,000 PSI to 120,000 PSI so it
can also be used to fracture the reservoir, a process where fluid is pressurised to thousands of
psi on a specific point in a well to break the rock apart and allow the flow of product.

Coil tubing can perform almost any operation for oil well operations if used correctly.

233
234
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

17. WELL COMPLETION

17.1 DEFINITION

Completion is the process of making a well ready for production (or injection). This principally involves
preparing the bottom of the hole to the required specifications, running in the production tubing and its
associated down hole tools as well as perforating and stimulating as required.

17.2 How Does Well Completion Work?

Well completion incorporates the steps taken to transform a drilled well into a producing one. These steps
include casing, cementing, perforating, gravel packing and installing a production tree.

A typical well completion includes the following subcomponents:

❑ A wellhead assembly which seals and controls well pressure and flows at the surface (valves,
spools and flanges).

❑ A casing and tubing arrangement to provide zonal isolation and allow fluids to flow from the
producing zone to the surface.

❑ A bottom-hole completion assembly which seals and provides control over the producing zone.

17.3 COMPLETION TYPES

17.3.1 Open hole

This designation refers to a range of completions where no casing or liner is cemented in place across
the production zone. In competent formations, the zone might be left entirely bare.

Open hole completions have become increasingly popular in recent years, and there are many
configurations.

17.3.2 Liner
In this case the casing is set above the primary zone. An un-cemented screen and liner assembly is
installed across the producing zone. It also makes cleanout easy. Perforating expense is also low to
non-existent. (

B).

17.3.3 Cased Hole

This involves running casing or a liner down through the production zone, and cementing it in place.
Connection between the well bore and the formation is made by perforating. Because perforation
intervals can be precisely positioned, this type of completion affords good control of fluid flow (

C).

Before running a completion assembly inside of the casings has to be scraped and cleaned out. The 9-
5/8” and 7” scrapers are used to scrape any scale, cement or dirt adhering to the casing. The polish
mill is used to polish the bore of the tie back receptacle of the 7” liner hanger. The magnet is run to
pick up any metal debris in the mud.

235
 Figure 193 Types of completions

17.4 PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

17.4.1 PRODUCTION TUBING
When selecting production tubing, the following data has to be specified:

1. The grade of steel selected for the manufacture of the tubing ,e.g. N80 , L-8o etc . Will be
dependent on a number of factors such as the strength requirements for the string and, the
possible presence of corrosive components such as CO2 or H2S.

2. The wall thickness of the tubing has to be specified based on the difference between
internal and external pressures.

3. The threaded coupling is an important part of the design specification as it defines both
the tensile strength and the hydraulic integrity of the completion string, threads commonly
selected for production tubing are EUE , VAM , VAM-TOB etc.

Figure 194 Production tubing

236
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
17.4.2 PRODUCTION PACKER
The function of the production PKR is to seal the flow in the tubing/CSG annuals, and use
for one of the following reasons:

1. To improve flow stability and production control

2. To provide the facility to select or isolate various zones during stimulation or production,
e.g. to isolate two producing zones having different fluid properties, GOR, pressure or
permeability (especially relevant for injection) or to stimulate or pressure maintenance.

Figure 195 Production Packer

237
 17.5 Horizontal well Completion
The completion that can be run through a given radius of curvature will depend on :-

❑ the radial clearance between the completion item and hole(liner size).

❑ the length and flexibility of the completion.

❑ the rating of the connection

Figure 196 Horizontal well completion

238
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
17.6 Multilateral well Completion type
A multilateral well is a well with two or more laterals (horizontal, vertical, or deviated) drilled
from a main mother well.
This allows one well to produce from several reservoirs. Multilateral wells are suitable for
complex geology where drilling more new wells to penetrate to those reservoirs is not
economical. Lateral sections may be used to produce from a separated section in depleted,
faulted, layered and heavy oil reservoirs.

Figure 197 Multilateral well completion types

239
 17.7 SUMMARY

Oil and Gas well drilling from spud to TD involves in a number of common operations. As some of
these operations are being performed by drilling contractors, some others are being performed by
different service companies. There is a logical sequence for these operations.

The rig personnel are expected to:

❖ be familiar with common drilling operations;
❖ be familiar with all the preparation procedures for the upcoming operation;
❖ know the sequence of the operations and understand the need for them and
❖ know what tools and equipment are being used to perform them.

240
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

241
 18. DRILLING INDUSTRY PERSONNEL AND CAREER PROGRESSION
The drilling rig is a large machine with many processes that must work together correctly to successfully drill
the well. Each member of the rig crew performs an important function to ensure that the rig is working correctly
and that the well is drilled efficiently. The rig requires specialized people to help manage and operate the
various systems found on the rig. Key personnel on the rig include:

18.1 OPERATOR COMPANY JOB PROFILE

18.1.1 Rig Foreman (Company man)

Description
❖ The rig foreman is in charge of the rig with a great understanding of the drilling process and
provides the rig with the drilling program.
Job duties
❖ Responsible for the well and all operations on the location.
❖ Will organize the casing, equipment and other services to support the drilling operations.
❖ Makes decisions based on his experience, training and office support.
❖ Gives instructions to the drill crew on drilling the well. If there is a problem with the well, he gives
instructions to fix the problem.
18.1.2 Assistant Rig Foreman (if available)
Description
❖ The assistant rig foreman is usually less experienced than the rig foreman. He is a rig foreman in
training.
Job duties
❖ He has the same responsibilities as the rig foreman, but he usually works on the night-shift.

18.2 DRILLING CONTRACTOR JOB PROFILES

18.2.1 Roustabout
Description:
❖ Perform general labor and maintenance on the rig site
Job duties:
❖ Clean, scrape and paint the deck, equipment and work areas
❖ Offload supplies from trucks and move them to storage areas
❖ Mix and condition the drilling mud
❖ Walk continually and stand for several hours in a day regardless of weather conditions
❖ Handle tools with sharp edges and supplies that may contain hazardous materials

18.2.2 Floorman/Roughneck
Description
❖ Work on the rig floor to execute duties required for the drilling operation being carried out
Job duties
❖ Handle tubular and drill tools using drill floor equipment
❖ Assist the well operator in rigging up and rigging down
❖ Pull/lay down rods, tubing, casing, and other functions
❖ Clean and maintain the drilling equipment and clean the drilling area on the rig floor
❖ Work the derrick if/when needed
❖ Set up, maintain, disassemble and transport equipment
❖ Move and transfer pipes and drill stems

242
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
18.2.3 Derrickman
Description
❖ Work above the rig floor, guiding tubing, instruments and tools in and out of the well
Job duties
❖ Load and unload boats and trucks safely
❖ Perform routine maintenance on rig floor and handle tubular goods
❖ Operate and maintain solids control equipment
❖ Perform maintenance and fluid repairs on mud pumps
❖ Perform pump house operation and assist in repairing and maintaining it
❖ Under supervision, perform minor electrical work, heavy carpentry, metal cutting, pipe fitting and
machine maintenance
❖ Service BOP
❖ Work the derrick

18.2.4 Assistant Driller

Description
❖ Support the driller’s duties when necessary
Job duties
❖ Monitor the repair of high pressure pumps and associated valves
❖ Inspect safety equipment related to the derrick and mixing drilling fluids and chemicals
❖ Monitor mud properties and perform calculations, and recognize warning signs of kicks
❖ Understand BOP equipments in nippling them up and down
❖ Perform as a driller when required and inform driller on needed operating supplies

18.2.5 Driller
Description
❖ Responsible for operations during the drilling process
Job duties
❖ Supervise the repair of pressure pump associated with valve aligned mud systems
❖ Inspect all safety equipment
❖ Monitor mud properties and perform calculations to recognize warning signs of kicks
❖ Identify priorities of work, direct and coordinate crew members and storage of hand and power
tools

18.2.6 Tool pusher

Description
❖ Managing the entire rig crew and all mechanical operational systems
Job duties
❖ Assist in operation and maintenance of rotatory oil well
❖ Perform managerial functions common to the segment level
❖ Provides leadership, plan and coordinate overall logistics for rig operations
❖ Arrange representative of necessary service organization to be available to perform jobs
❖ Follow accident report procedures

243
 18.2.7 Mud Engineer
Description
❖ The mud engineer is in charge of the drilling fluid on the rig and in the hole.
Job duties
❖ Coordinates with the rig foreman to plan a recipe of mud to drill the well.
❖ Orders all the chemicals required for the mud.
❖ Directs the rig man or derrick man to which chemicals to mix into the mud system.
❖ Regularly tests the mud to determine whether additional chemicals are needed to be added.

18.2.8 Barge Engineer (offshore rigs)

Description
❖ Responsible for all mechanical and operational systems
Job duties
❖ Direct mechanics and electricians to operate and maintain systems
❖ Maintain and operate jacking system (where applicable)
❖ Assist rig move master during rig moves
❖ Perform load calculations, and supervise loading and offloading of materials
❖ Maintain equipment inventory
❖ Supervise deck crew performing all operations

18.2.9 Rig Mechanic

Description
❖ Daily inspection and maintenance to any mechanical equipment on board
Job duties
❖ Assess condition of mechanical components, maintain records and schedule preventative
maintenance.
❖ Diagnose and supervise repairs.
❖ Conduct safety and housekeeping checks.
❖ Advise tool pusher and crew members on proper care of equipment
❖ Closely supervise training activities and evaluate performance
❖ Initiate spare parts and third-party repair requests

18.2.10 Mechanic helper

Description
❖ Assist mechanic duties and conduct maintenance as necessary
Requirements upon entry
❖ 2 years of training and experience in mechanical field
❖ High school diploma
Job duties
❖ Shadow the mechanic for maintenance inspection and making daily reports
❖ Perform the general maintenance and overhaul of equipment as needed for repair or in
accordance with preventative maintenance
❖ Assist the Mechanic with the maintenance, repairs and installation of all rig associated mechanical
equipment
Job competencies
❖ Ability to work under supervision of and understand how to repair diesel and gasoline engines
❖ Proficient knowledge in how purchase orders and storage of equipment and supplies are done
❖ Proficiency in performing equipment inspection, maintenance and tests
❖ Ability to understand drawing or sketches on equipment needing repairs

244
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
18.2.11 Rig Electrician
Description
❖ Daily inspection and maintenance to any electrical equipment on board
Job duties
❖ Teach, train and supervise electrical maintenance staff
❖ Liaise with Rig foreman, tool pusher, barge captain, mechanic and drill crew
❖ Perform inspections, preventative maintenance and troubleshooting repairs
❖ Complete on-site work permits and pre- and post-job checks
❖ Order material and supplies
❖ Complete all required reporting and distribution

18.2.12 Electrician Helper

Description
❖ Assist electrician duties and conduct maintenance as necessary
Job duties
❖ Shadow the electrician for maintenance inspection and making daily reports
❖ Ensure that all electrical systems and related equipment are maintained, serviced, tested, and
installed in accordance with the applicable rules and regulations
❖ Assist the Electrician with the installation, maintenance and repairs of all rig associated electrical
equipment

18.2.13 Crane operator

Description
❖ Operate crane activities supporting the rig setup, drilling and rig down operations
Job duties
❖ Perform daily crane inspection and maintenance
❖ Operate crane including unloading and loading within safe working limits
❖ Attend to all housekeeping functions assigned to crane
❖ Assist in on the job training of other operators
❖ Provide and log lift plan for critical, Tandem, or pick and carry lifts

18.2.14 Rig Welder

Description
❖ Support maintenance activities requiring welding
Job duties
❖ Join or cut metals in beams, girders, vessels, piping and other metal components
❖ Select type and size of pipe, and other equipment according to specifications
❖ Operate manual and semiautomatic welding equipment to trouble shoot, repair and manufacture
equipment
❖ Install, assemble, fabricate, maintain and repair mechanical piping systems
❖ Ability to know which welding process is best used on various pipes and metal sheets and other
raw material

245
 18.2.15 Safety Advisor
Description
❖ Responsible for execution and compliance of all drilling safety standards
Job duties
❖ Plan and facilitate weekly HSE meetings
❖ Communicate all safety alerts with crew members
❖ Ensure all incidents are reported in a timely manner
❖ Coordinate on-site inspections to audit work conditions
❖ Mitigate hazardous conditions as required

18.3 SERVICE COMPANY JOB PROFILES

These people visit drilling rigs from time to time to perform a specific task or operation. They are not the
permeant members of the rig. They leave the rig upon successfully completing their assigned tasks.
18.3.1 Wireline Junior Operator
Description
❖ Assist and help operators with all wireline operations and equipment
Job duties
❖ Rig up and down all wireline equipment under supervision
❖ Redress, clean and maintain all various wireline related tools and equipment
❖ Assist driving trucks and cranes on loading and unloading wireline unit
❖ Assist in the wireline lab/workshop
❖ Assist in the repair and maintenance of equipment
❖ Assist in assembly and preparation of equipment for installation and service
❖ Assist in the running of a job and in the clean-up, repair, and preparation for the next job

18.3.2 Wireline Operator

Description
❖ Rig-up and rig-down wireline logging equipment on work locations for the purpose of recording
information wellbore condition and reservoir formation
Requirements upon entry
❖ High school diploma
❖ Relevant years of experience
❖ Requires entry level drilling education
Job duties
❖ Assemble different wireline tool strings and perforation guns
❖ Preparation and calibration of wireline unit and reel
❖ Run wireline tools
❖ Provide on-site training to junior operators
❖ Maintain, clean and perform preventative maintenance on equipment

246
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
18.3.3 Slickline Junior Operator
Description
❖ Assist and help operators with all phases of slickline operations and equipment
Job duties
❖ Preparation and maintenance of slickline unit and reel
❖ Rig up and down all slickline equipment under supervision
❖ Redress, clean and maintain all various equipment and tools
❖ Assist with pre-job service equipment preparation (assembly, test, mobilization
❖ Assists with post-job demobilization, clean up and repair of service equipment and products.

18.3.4 Slickline Operator

Description
❖ Assists the Service Supervisor during all phases of providing slickline services
Job duties
❖ Assemble different slickline tool strings
❖ Run the slickline unit tripping in/out the well
❖ Provide on-site training to junior operators
❖ Repair/redress well pressure control equipment in preparation for the next job
❖ Assist with process documentation

18.3.5 Coil Tubing Junior Operator

Description
❖ Assist and help with all coil tubing operations and equipment
Job duties
❖ Prepare and maintain coil tubing unit, pump etc.
❖ Rig up and down all coil tubing equipment under supervision
❖ Assist driving trucks and cranes
❖ Perform pre/post job coil tubing equipment inspections
❖ Perform and complete preventative maintenance procedures
❖ Maintain support equipment (i.e., pumps, flowback lines etc.)

18.3.6 Coil Tubing Operator

Description
❖ Assemble different coil tubing tool strings
Job duties
❖ Assemble and prepare equipment for installation and service
❖ Maintain general housekeeping, and perform pre/post job coiled tubing equipment inspections
❖ Responsible for safe crane and rigging operations
❖ Operate High Pressure fluid pump and coil tubing support equipment (flow back package)
❖ Perform hydrostatic testing on Blow Out Prevention Equipment (BOPE) and reels
❖ Mentor and train junior operators

247
 18.3.7 Stimulation Junior Operator
Description
❖ Assist and help operators with all stimulation operations and equipment
Job duties
❖ Rig up and down all stimulation equipment under supervision
❖ Assist driving trucks and cranes
❖ Assist in monitoring fluid production and recording all different tank levels
❖ Perform pre/post job equipment inspections
❖ Perform and complete preventative maintenance procedures
❖ Maintain support equipment

18.3.8 Stimulation Operator

Description
❖ Responsible for fracture acid fluids quality during the delivery of services
Job duties
❖ Prepare and maintain all equipment and pumps
❖ Manage and monitor fluid production, recording all different tank levels
❖ Provide on-site training to junior operators
❖ Complete all required paperwork (Pre-job/Post-job Trip Tickets, load tickets, etc.)

18.3.9 Cementing Junior Operator

Description
❖ Assist cementing operator during rigging up and down of cementing service equipment
Job duties
❖ Rig up and down all cementing equipment under supervision
❖ Assist in the proper performance of pre-trip and post-trip vehicle inspections and associated
paperwork/reports

18.3.10 Cementing Operator

Description
❖ Operate cement pump and mixing equipment, maintain equipment and machine operations
Job duties
❖ Rig up and down cementing service equipment on work locations to include spotting of cement
storage vessels, pre-mixing of spacer fluids, identifying additives to be mixed on the-fly, rigging-
up appropriate data monitoring equipment, planning emergency backup equipment and
contingencies
❖ Handle cement bulk and other chemicals
❖ Train operator assistants in cement pumping and mixed equipment, blenders, pumps, data
systems, and storage systems

248
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
18.3.11 Casing/Tubular Junior Operator
Description
❖ Assist and help operators with all casing and tubular operations and equipment
Job duties
❖ Rig up and down all handling and power equipment
❖ Assist in monitoring and maintaining all equipment
❖ Assist in completing and maintaining logs and job reports during operations
❖ Assist in carrying out stabber duties (including pipe alignment stabbing, signaling Driller, and
operating handling tools)

18.3.12 Casing/Tubular Operator

Description
❖ Operate casing/tubular handling power equipment
Job duties
❖ Operate handling tubing running tools and power equipment
❖ Monitor and maintain all equipment
❖ Supervise crews and junior operators
❖ Complete and maintain logs and job reports during operations
❖ Carry out stabber duties (including pipe alignment stabbing, signaling Driller, and operating
handling tools)

18.3.13 Liner Hanger Junior Operator

Description
❖ Assist with running different liner hangers with various sizes
Job duties
❖ Assist in monitoring and maintaining tools on rig-site
❖ Assist with ensuring supplied equipment is compatible with all other equipment used for the job
❖ Assist with completing all paper work prior to or upon job completion

18.3.14 Liner Hanger Operator

Description
❖ Run different liner hangers with various sizes
Job duties
❖ Monitor and maintain liner hanger tools on rig-site
❖ Ensure supplied equipment is compatible with all other equipment used for the job
❖ Provide front-line support with customer
❖ Complete all paper work accurately prior to or upon job completion
❖ Conduct on the job training for junior operators

249
 18.3.15 Well Testing Junior Operator
Description
❖ Under supervision; maintain and oversee all Well Testing equipment during the rig up to ensure
the equipment is working properly and safely
Requirements upon entry
❖ High school diploma
❖ Requires ongoing drilling activity specific training
Job duties
❖ Assist during the rig up and rig down of well testing service line equipment
❖ Assist during well testing operations
❖ Assist in installation of unit or system to be tested

18.3.16 Well Testing Operator

Description
❖ Assemble and set up well testing equipment and service unit
Job duties
❖ Unload and assemble the equipment to be used, set up the service unit, and initiate the rig up
❖ Perform routing readings of equipment during rigging
❖ Provide training of well testing equipment to junior operators

18.3.17 Completion Tools Junior Operator

Description
❖ Assist operator in assembling, preparing, and operating down-hole completion tools
Job duties
❖ Assist with pre-job product, service equipment preparation, and mobilization
❖ Assist with product installation at the well site
❖ Assist with post-job demobilization, clean up, and repair

18.3.18 Completion Tools Operator

Description
❖ Assemble, prepare and operate tools down-hole completion
Job duties
❖ Install product at the well site
❖ Work on post-job demobilization, clean-up, and repair
❖ Complete all well site and post-job paperwork

250
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
18.3.19 Mud Logging Operator
Description
❖ Execute and retrieve mud sampling
Job duties
❖ Perform the collection of cutting samples
❖ Wash and screen samples
❖ Assist in core recovery and packaging as required
❖ Assist in performing regular and frequent calibration checks of instruments
❖ Assist in routine maintenance of sensors and other equipment
❖ Assist with rig-up procedures

18.3.20 Workshop Assistant Technician-Mechanic

Description
❖ Assist mechanic duties and conduct maintenance as necessary
Job duties
❖ Shadow the mechanic for maintenance inspection and making daily reports
❖ Perform the general maintenance and overhaul of service line equipment as needed for repair
❖ Assist the Mechanic with maintenance, repairs, and installation of all service line associated
mechanical equipment

18.3.21 Workshop Assistant Technician- Electrician

Description
❖ Assist electrician duties and conduct maintenance as necessary
Job duties
❖ Shadow the Electrician for maintenance inspection and making daily reports
❖ Ensure that all electrical systems related to service line equipment are maintained, serviced,
tested, and installed in accordance with the applicable rules and regulations
❖ Assist the Electrician with the installation, maintenance, and repairs of all service line associated
electrical equipment

251
 18.4 RIG ORGANISATION CHART

Rig Foreman Mud Engineer

Toolpusher Electrician

Mechanic
Senior Driller

Assistant Driller

Roustabout Pusher Derrickman

Rigman Rigman Rigman

Roustabout Roustabout Roustabout Roustabout

Figure 198 Rig Crew Reporting Structure

The reporting structure for the day shift on a rig is illustrated in the organization chart above. The night shift
will have the same personnel, but normally supervised by an assistant rig foreman.

18.5 SUMMARY

Drilling of an oil and gas well is a complicated task that requires a good number of personnel from the operator
company, to the drilling contractor and other 3rd party service companies. There are a number of job titles and
job descriptions commonly being used. It is very important that rig personnel know the duties and
responsibilities under these titles. Presented by the organization chart, the rig personnel have a reporting
structure that allows creating an effective working environment as well as slick coordination amongst them.

252
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

253
 19. COMMUNICATION SKILLS

There are specific things to do that can improve your communication skills. However please note that
communicating effectively is a teachable skill, therefore following a few of the tips outlined below, will enable
you to hone up on your communication skills.

19.1 LISTEN, LISTEN, AND LISTEN.

People want to know that they are being heard. Really listen to what the other person is saying, instead
of formulating your response. Ask for clarification to avoid misunderstandings. At that moment, the
person speaking to you should be the most important person in your life. Another important point is
to have one conversation at a time. This means that if you are speaking to someone on the phone, do
not respond to an email, or send a text at the same time. The other person will know that she doesn’t
have your undivided attention.

19.2 WHO YOU ARE TALKING TO MATTERS.

Use proper language at work and avoid slang language.

19.3 BODY LANGUAGE MATTERS.

This is important for face-to-face meetings and video conferencing. Make sure that you appear
accessible, so have open body language. This means that you should not cross your arms. And keep
eye contact so that the other person knows that you are paying attention.

19.4 ASK QUESTIONS

If you are not sure that you understood, don’t be shy of asking questions.

19.5 BE BRIEF, YET SPECIFIC.

For written and verbal communication, practice being brief yet specific and clear, that you provide
enough information for the other person to understand what you are trying to say. And if you are
responding to an email, make sure that you read the entire email before crafting your response. With
enough practice, you will learn not to ramble, or give way too much information.

19.6 WRITE THINGS DOWN.

Take notes while you are talking to another person or when you are in a meeting, and do not rely on
your memory. Send a follow-up email to make sure that you understand what was being said during
the conversation.

19.7 SOMETIMES IT’S BETTER TO PICK UP THE PHONE.

If you find that you have a lot to say, instead of sending an email, call the person instead. Email is
great, but sometimes it is easier to communicate what you have to say verbally.

254
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
19.8 THINK BEFORE YOU SPEAK.

Always pause before you speak, not saying the first thing that comes to mind. Take a moment and pay
close attention to what you say and how you say it. This one habit will allow you to avoid
embarrassments.

19.9 TREAT EVERYONE EQUALLY.

Do not talk down to anyone, treating everyone with respect. Treat others as your equal.

19.10 MAINTAIN A POSITIVE ATTITUDE AND SMILE.

Even when you are speaking on the phone, smile because your positive attitude will shine through and
the other person will know it. When you smile often and exude a positive attitude, people will respond
positively to you.

19.11 SUMMARIZE

Summarize what you understood. Make sure that you have got the right message.

255
256
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

20. UNIT CONVERSIONS

257
 21. GLOSSARY OF DRILLING REPORT ABBREVIATIONS

The following letter abbreviations are commonly found in drilling reports.

ABD, ABND Abandoned

BFPH Barrels of fluid per hour

BHA Bottomhole assembly: includes the bit, stabilizers, drill collars, and other tools
used below the drillpipe

BHP Bottomhole pressure; usually measured with a pressure bomb on wireline

BLD Bailed; refers to the practice of removing debris from the hole with a
cylindrical container on wireline

BO Barrels of oil

BOP Blowout preventer(s)

BOPD Barrels of oil per day

BPH Barrels per hour

BPD, B/D Barrels per day

BPV Backpressure valve; a valve that allows fluid to flow through it in only one
direction and therefore will maintain pressure (backpressure) on the
downstream side

BU Bottoms up; when circulation has displaced the mud from the bottom of the
hole to the surface

BW Barrels of water

BWPD Barrels of water per day

BWPH Barrels of water per hour

CBL Cement bond log; an acoustic device for determining the condition of the
bond between cement and hole, and cement and casing.

CFG Cubic feet of gas

CFGPD Cubic feet of gas per day

CHK Choke; a restriction in a flowline or system, usually referring to a production

choke during a test or to the choke in the well control system

CIRC Circulate

CMT Cement

CNL Compensated neutron log; a radioactivity log for measuring porosity

COMP Completed

258
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
CP Casing pressure; pressure on the annulus between tubing and casing: this is
measured at the surface

CRD Cored

CSG Casing

DC Drill collar

DF Drill floor or derrick floor

DIL Dual induction laterolog; an electrical log for measuring resistivity

DP Drillpipe

DRLG Drilling

DST Drillstem test

FDC Compensated formation density log; a log that uses radioactivity to measure
porosity

FP Flowing pressure; usually refers to flowing tubing pressure

FTP Flowing tubing pressure; pressure measured at the Christmas tree, while the
well is flowing

GCM Gas cut mud; mud containing quantities of gas from subsurface formations

GIH Go in hole or going in hole; usually relating to the drillstring, a casing string,or
a wireline device that is being lowered into the hole

GL Ground level

GOR Gas-oil ratio; ratio of gas to oil production during a test (SCF/bbl or m3/m3)

GR Gamma ray log; a radioactivity log indicating lithology

HGR Hanger; a piece of equipment used for hanging casing or tubing at the surface

IES Induction electrical survey log; an electrical log for measuring resistivity

IP Initial production; usually describing an initial production test

ISF Induction spherically focused log; an elec trical log for measuring resistivity

JTS Joints; as in joints of drillpipe or tubing

KB Kelly bushing

KBE Kelly bushing elevation

KO Kicked off; deviated

KOP Kick-off point; the depth at which a directional hole is deviated from vertical

L/D Lay down; as in "lay down drillpipe," meaning that the equipment is placed
horizontally on a pipe rack

L/S Long string; relating to the longest of two or more strings of tubing in a well
with a multiple completion; the longest string of casing

259
 LCM Lost circulation material; material added to the drilling mud to correct lost
circulation by plugging off fractures in the rock

LOC Location; wellsite

LSE Lease; refers to the property on which the well is being drilled

M/U Make up; to assemble parts to form a complete unit; to screw together; to
mix or blend

MCF Thousand cubic feet of gas

MIR Moving in rig

MIRT Moving in rotary tools (see MIR)

MOR Moving out rig

MW Mud weight; the density of the drilling fluid, usually given in pounds per gallon

N/D Nipple down; the reverse of nipple up (N/U)

N/U Nipple up; to bolt together valves or fittings, as in "nipple up BOP stack"

OCM Oil cut mud; mud containing quantities of oil from subsurface formations

OH Openhole: interval of hole without casing

P/U Pick up; as in "pick up drillpipe," meaning that the pipe is picked up and
assembled from a horizontal position, rather than having been stacked
vertically

P&A Plug and abandon; to plug the well with cement and remove surface
equipment

PBTD Plug back total depth: the depth of a well after it has been drilled and then
partially plugged back to a shallower depth

PERF Perforate

PKR Packer: the anchoring and sealing device that blocks off the annular space
between tubing and casing

PL Pipeline

POOH Pull out of hole; retrieve drillstring, tubing string, or wireline equipment from
the hole

POP Putting on pump: installing a pumping unit on a well

RDRT Rigging down rotary tools

REC Recover: usually pertains to an item lost or left in the hole

RFT Repeat formation tester; electric wireline device for taking samples of
formation fluids and pressures from multiple points in the hole

RIH Running in hole or ran in hole, see GlH

RMG Reaming: enlarging an under gauged drilled hole a previously drilled hole

260
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
RTTS Retrievable test treat squeeze packer: a retrievable packer designed for use in
performing operations in the hole, but not usually left in the well as part of
the permanent completion equipment

R/U Rig up; assemble and prepare for action; relates to the drilling rig itself or any
other equipment

S/S Short string; relating to the shortest of two or more strings of tubing in a well
with a multiple completion

SD, SS Sandstone

SDO Shut down waiting on orders: waiting for instructions from management
before proceeding with any activity

SG Show of gas: gas in mud or cuttings

SI Shut in

SIBHP Shut in bottomhole pressure: bottomhole pressure measured after the well
has been shut in for a significant period of time, usually 24 to 48 hrs or more

SICP Shut-in casing pressure: casing pressure measured when the well is shut in

SIDPP Shut-in drillpipe pressure; drillpipe pressure measured at the surface with well
shut in, usually referred to during kick-killing procedures

SIP Shut-in pressure: any shut-in rather than flowing pressure

SITP Shut-in tubing pressure

SLM Steel line measurement; measured with a steel measuring tape

SP Self potential log: an electrical log for indicating lithology

SPD Spudded; began drilling first part of hole

SQ, SQU Squeeze: as in "cement squeeze," where casing is selectively perforated and
cement pumped into the perforations

STDS Stands: as in "stands of pipe," meaning two or three joint sections stacked in
the derrick

SUR, SURV Survey: usually refers to a magnetic survey done to determine position of hole
relative to the surface location

SW Saltwater

SWBD Swabbed: refers to the suction of fluids into the well, purposefully or
inadvertently

SX Sacks; as in sacks of cement; one sack of cement produces about 1.2 ft3 (.034
m3) of cement when mixed with water

TBG Tubing

TD Total depth

TIH Trip in hole: to lower into the hole, same as "go in hole"

TOOH Trip out of hole: opposite of TIH

261
 TOF Top of fish: relating to the depth of the uppermost part of a section of pipe
lost in the hole

TP Tubing pressure

VIS Viscosity: usually refers to mud viscosity and is reported in units of "seconds";
obtained from a Marsh funnel test

W/C Water cushion: water placed in drillpipe during a DST to lessen pressure
differential between formation and drillpipe

WC Wildcat: well drilled in totally unexplored territory

WL, WIL Wireline

WLM Wireline measurement; as opposed to a tubing or drillpipe measurement of

hole depth

WO/O Waiting on orders: waiting for instructions from management

WOC Waiting on cement: time spent waiting for cement to set

WOW Waiting on weather: time spent waiting for weather conditions to permit
operations to continue

262
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

263
 22. EXERCISE SET-III

1. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

d) Relief wells
e) Controlling vertical wells
f) Side tracking
g) Multiple wells from offshore structures

2. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

a) Relief wells
b) Controlling vertical wells
c) Side tracking
d) Multiple wells from offshore structures

3. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

264
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

d) Relief wells
e) Controlling vertical wells
f) Side tracking
g) Multiple wells from offshore structures

4. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

e) Relief wells
f) Controlling vertical wells
g) Multiple wells from offshore structures
h) Side tracking

5. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

e) Relief wells
f) Controlling vertical wells
g) Sidetracking into multiple sands from a single wellbore
h) Multiple wells from offshore structures

6. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

265
 e) Inaccessible locations
f) Relief wells
g) Controlling vertical wells
h) Multiple wells from offshore structures

7. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

e) Relief wells
f) Salt Dome drilling
g) Controlling vertical wells
h) Multiple wells from offshore structures

8. The directional drilling application in the figure below is which one of the followings?

e) Controlling vertical wells

f) Multiple wells from offshore structures
g) Salt dome drilling
h) Shoreline drilling

266
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

9. The equipment in the below figure is used in directional drilling and it is called……

a) Positive Displacement Motor

b) Stabilized BHA
c) Whipstock
d) Downhole motor

10. The equipment in the below figure is used in directional drilling and it is called ___________.

a) Bent Sub
b) Stabilized BHA
c) Whipstock
d) Downhole motor

267
 11. The equipment in the below figure is used in directional drilling and it is called ___________.

a) Positive Displacement Motor

b) Stabilized BHA
c) Whipstock
d) Downhole motor

12. The equipment in the below figure is used in directional drilling and it is called ___________.

a) Bent Sub
b) Stabilized BHA
c) Whipstock
d) Downhole motor

13. ___________ can generally be defined as the science of drilling a wellbore along a determined path
h) Cementing
i) Directional Drilling
j) Surveying
k) Completion

14. The process of inclination and azimuth measurement of a drilled hole is called ___________.
a) Cementing
b) Directional Drilling
c) Surveying
d) Completion

15. The term ___________ usually refers to a cabling technology used by operators of oil and gas
wells to lower equipment or measurement devices.
a) Deadline
b) Wireline
c) Fastline
d) Drilling line

268
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS
16. Which one of the followings cannot be performed by CT?
a) Rigging up
b) Circulation
c) Pumping
d) Production

17. The tool called ___________ is normally located at the bottom of the wireline logging.
a) bit
b) casing shoe
c) landing base
d) sonde

18. Which one of the followings is not considered as one of the well completion types?
a) open hole
b) BOP
c) liner
d) cased hole

19. Inside diameter of the (9 5/8’’ 40 lb/ft K55) casing is 8.835 ‘’. What is the inside volume of a 200 ft
casing section?
Hint: (d2/1029) *length.
a) 20,20
b) 15,17
c) 17,15
d) 77,51

20. ___________ is the abbreviation used in oilfield terminology for casings.

a) MW
b) CSG
c) POOH
d) GIH

21. ___________ is the abbreviation used in oilfield terminology for wait on cement.
a) VIS
b) RIH
c) WOC
d) GIH

22. When you ___________ often and show a positive attitude, people will respond positively to you.
a) insert
b) smile
c) laugh
d) cry

23. A slickline is a thin cable introduced into a well to deliver and retrieve tools downhole
a) True
b) False

269
 24. A wireline logs is an electrical cable used to lower tools into and transmit data about the conditions
of the wellbore
a) True
b) False

25. Spontaneous Potential, Gamma Ray, Resistivity, Density, Sonic and Calliper are the ___________.

a) Completion types
b) Logging tool types
c) Directional drilling tool types
d) Cementing equipment types

26. In the oil and gas industries, coiled tubing refers to a very long metal pipe, normally 1 to 3.25 in (25
to 83 mm) in diameter which is supplied spooled on a large reel
a) True
b) False

27. The main benefits of coiled tubing over wireline are the ability to pump chemicals through the coil
a) True
b) False

28. Circulation, Pumping, Drilling, Logging, Perforating and Production are some of the operation we can
perform with ___________.
a) Well Logging equipment
b) Coiled Tubing
c) Rig hoisting system
d) Cementing equipment

29. The equipment in the below figure is called ___________.

a) CT unit
b) Cement truck
c) Logging truck
d) Mud Pump

270
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS

30. The completion type A in the below figure is called a/an ___________.

a) Open hole completion

b) Cased hole completion
c) Liner completion
d) Multiple completion

31. The completion type B in the above figure is called a/an ___________.
a) Open hole completion
b) Cased hole completion
c) Liner completion
d) Multiple completion

32. The completion type C in the below figure is called a/an ___________.
a) Open hole completion
b) Cased hole completion
c) Liner completion
d) Multiple completion

271
 References

[1] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 46
[2] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 46
[3] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 13
[4] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 38-42
[5] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 24
[6] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 25-27
[7] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 28-30
[8] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 23
[9] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 13-17
[10] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 5
[11] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 8-9
[12] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 10-12
[13] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 13
[14] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 14
[15] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 16
[16] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 2.1, page 19
[17] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 18-22
[18] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 31-32
[19] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.1, page 33-37
[20] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 2-4
[21] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 7
[22] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 8-10
[23] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 13
[24] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 18
[25] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 19
[26] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 22
[27] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 1.2, page 23-24
[28] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 5.4, page 2-7
[29] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 5.4, page 10
[30] Introduction to Drilling Operations, Saudi Aramco, 2014, Module 5.4, page 19-21
[31] Rig Induction and Well Engineering Manual IPM – IDPT Course, page 84

272
1
2
FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING & WORKOVER OPERATIONS