Varna – varnas are the four main classes the Hindu society is divided into.

One of hymn of the Ṛg

Veda tells of a giant cosmic being or person (puruṣa) who is sacrificed by the gods. From his
head/mouth emerged the Brahmin from his arms the rājanya, from his thighs, the vaiśya, and from his
feet the śūdra. selections of body parts insinuate a hierarchy among the classes, placing the Brahmins
or priestly varna at the top and the śūdra or servant varna at the bottom. The rājanya, or ruling class, is
later on mostly referred to as the kṣatriya. The word varna means “colour,” leading some scholars to
speculate that the original division of the classes was related to a distinction based on skin
complexion. he upper three varṇas, namely the Brahmin, kṣatriya, and vaiśya, are known as dvija or
“twice-born,” and enjoy privileges not available to the fourth and lowest class, the śūdra.

Vedas – Vedas are a set of sacred oral scriptures and a collection of Hymns in praise of various
deities. Composed in Sanskrit. There are four vedas

1. Rgveda
2. Yajurveda
3. Samaveda
4. Atharvaveda

Indus valley - Some four and a half millennia ago (c. 2500 BCE) a vast civilization flourished in the
northwest of the Indian sub- continent. It developed on the floodplains of the Indus River valley.
Harappa is one of the largest cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, and thus also called Harappan
Civilization. Mohenjo-Daro was another city discovered and these discoveries at Mohenjodaro and
Harappa made the world aware that a great urban culture once flourished on the Indian subcontinent.
There is evidence of the Indus Valley Tradition stretching from the Himalayas and upper Afghanistan
to its north, as far as modern day Mumbai (Bombay) to its south, along with a substantial coastal
network in the state of Gujarat. Settlements also stretch over a thousand miles from modern-day Delhi
in the east, westward to the border of Iran. The Indus valley tradition began as early as 6000 BCE.

Asrama - Hermitage; a stage in life. Shifting orientation of lifestyle. The four stages of life,
prescribed primarily for male members of the twice-born varṇas, were

1. Bhramacarya - boy’s entry into the first stage of life, namely that of his formal Vedic
education. This is known as the śiṣya
2. Grahasta – second stage in life begins with marriage. It is connected withs sexuality
and reproduction
3. Vanaprastha – the third stage of life is entering a period of retirement. It means taking
up residence in the forest.
4. Samnyasa – this is the final stage of life. They are expected to bid their spouses and
family goodbye. And wander the world in pursuit of the highest goal which is moksa.

Atman - The individual self (ātman) is often used as a synonym for Brahman, with which it is
identified. Brahman is identified as intrinsically connected to the innermost being of all things in
existence, including our “selves”. The word “brahman” originally referred to a hallowed power within
the sacred utterances (mantra) of the Vedic rishi, but by the time of the Upaniṣads was used to signify
ultimate reality itself. Brahman can represent the underlying essence of the material world. Brahman
is mostly unseen, hidden to the senses, and even to rational thought.

Agni - God of fire.

Of the various deities to whom hymns are addressed in the Ṛg Veda Saṃhitā, Agni (Fire) and Indra
(God of Storms and Lightning) each receive about 200 hymns, suggesting their high status among the
gods of the Āryan pantheon. Agni knows the thoughts of all people and is a witness to all
important actions, hence the use of fire in many important Hindu ceremonies such as
marriages.

Purusartha – goals of action (aims of life) The four goals recognized as attractive to human beings,
and which were deemed worthy of pursuit were:

1. Dharma
2. Artha
3. Kama
4. Moksa

Mantra - Mantras are utterances believed to derive from the single source, the Absolute Brahman.
Every Vedic sound and verse is a mantra, an instrument through which Brahman sacrificially
differentiates itself. A mantra is primarily a mental vibration, a thought, intuitively perceived by
rishis. Therefore in Vedic philosophy, through mantra the world is made manifest and reabsorbed.
Thus mantras play a central role in virtually all features of Hindu ritual activity. They may be used to
invoke the presence of a specific deity, to worship that deity, and finally to dismiss it. And they may
also be used in yogic sacrificial rituals.

Srauta and grhya -

Upanisad - The term “upaniṣad” is said to derive from the classic image of a student sitting (ṣad)
down (ni) beside (upa) a spiritual mentor. The format of many of the Upaniṣads reflects this
terminology since they are framed as conversations between a disciple (śiṣya) and teacher (guru).
They are generally classified as texts of speculative philosophy. The primary concern of the
Upaniṣads is with the nature of Absolute Reality (Brahman), the true nature of the individual self
(ātman), and the relationship between Brahman and Ātman. The oldest Upaniṣads, which may have
been composed as early as the eighth century BCE, are appended to the Āraṇyakas or partially
embedded within them. There are as many as eighteen principal Upaniṣads.

Emic and etic -

Dharma - Dharma derives from the Sanskrit root dhṛ (to support or uphold) and appears to develop in
relationship to the Vedic conception of ṛta. dharma developed into a notion of the way things should
be if harmoniously aligned with ṛta. dharma both articulates the way things are and prescribes how
one should behave in relation to the cosmic order. Dharma offers individuals a guide for righteous
behavior in the midst of life’s caprices. Example : Ramayana – dharma leads ram to rescue sita and
slay ravana thus restoring cosmic balance in the favour of righteousness.

Maya – maya is a Sanskrit word meaning illusion. Sankara states that the world is maya and not real.
Māyā is the effulgence of Brahman. Maya superimposes itself on the self (atman), causing the self to
be distanced from its true nature, namely the awareness that it is Brahman. Knowledge (vidya) is the
only tool that can remove the superimposition of maya from the self. Māyā is therefore not fully real,
because its illusions are grounded in ignorance of Brahman, and these vanish with Self-realization.
But Māyā’s illusions are not fully unreal, since they have the power to cause us to feel and act, which
something that is non-existent could not do.
Karma - The word karma derives from the Sanskrit verbal root “kṛ’” and simply means “to do,” or “to
act.” Thus karma originally referred to activity of any kind. idea had developed that one’s actions
have consequences both for this lifetime and future ones. Karma thus developed into the notion of a
moral principle of causality, in which no deed is without its consequences. Good deeds are
meritorious (puṇya), while evil or sinful deeds (pāpa) have painful effects.

Sruti and smrti – The four genres of Vedic literature that are appended to each other, namely the
Saṃhitas, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upaniṣads, are collectively regarded as śruti. The term śruti,
derives from the Sanskrit verbal root “śru,” to hear. It is intended to evoke the idea that the contents of
these texts were divinely perceived (i.e., heard) or re- vealed to the ṛṣis. Thus the authorship of this
literature is purported to be some greater unseen power, channeled through the semi-divine perceivers
(ṛṣi) with whom their teachings are associated.

All other religious literature is classified as smṛti, which derives from the Sanskrit verbal root “smṛ,”
to remember. Thus smṛti is literature that is held to have been composed by human beings and passed
down as tradition through the generations.

Vedanta - As its name implies Vedānta, also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Investigation of the Latter),
reflects its concern with interpretation of the latter (anta) portions of the Vedas. Thus Vedānta focuses
on the study and understanding of the Upaniṣads. Vedānta is clearly a school of speculative
philosophy. Vedānta thinkers ground their philosophy on two other foundational texts. These are
Bādarāyaṇa’s Vedānta Sūtra and the Bhagavad Gītā.

The three schools of vedantas include :

1. Advaita vedanta (non dualism)

2. Visistadavaita Vedanta (qualified non dualism)
3. Dvaita Vedanta (dualism)

Bhagavad gita – the gita is embedded within the Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharat. It is the form of a
dialogue between the god Krishna and his friend arjuna. Through their conversation, key philosophical
and devotional ideas are expressed, such as the importance of preforming ones rightful duties
(dharma), the nature of karma, and the three paths to liberation (knowledge, devotion and karma).